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CDK4/6 Inhibitors in Melanoma: a Comprehensive Review

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CDK4/6 Inhibitors in Melanoma: a Comprehensive Review cells Review CDK4/6 Inhibitors in Melanoma: A Comprehensive Review Mattia Garutti 1,*, Giada Targato 2 , Silvia Buriolla 2 , Lorenza Palmero 1,2 , Alessandro Marco Minisini 2 and Fabio Puglisi 1,2 1 CRO Aviano National Cancer Institute IRCCS, 33081 Aviano, Italy; [email protected] (L.P.); [email protected] (F.P.) 2 Department of Medicine (DAME), University of Udine, 33100 Udine, Italy; [email protected] (G.T.); [email protected] (S.B.); [email protected] (A.M.M.) * Correspondence: [email protected] Abstract: Historically, metastatic melanoma was considered a highly lethal disease. However, recent advances in drug development have allowed a significative improvement in prognosis. In particular, BRAF/MEK inhibitors and anti-PD1 antibodies have completely revolutionized the management of this disease. Nonetheless, not all patients derive a benefit or a durable benefit from these therapies. To overtake this challenges, new clinically active compounds are being tested in the context of clinical trials. CDK4/6 inhibitors are drugs already available in clinical practice and preliminary evidence showed a promising activity also in melanoma. Herein we review the available literature to depict a comprehensive landscape about CDK4/6 inhibitors in melanoma. We present the molecular and genetic background that might justify the usage of these drugs, the preclinical evidence, the clinical available data, and the most promising ongoing clinical trials. Keywords: CDK4/6; CDK4; CDK6; melanoma; Palbociclib; Ribociclib; Abemaciclib Citation: Garutti, M.; Targato, G.; Buriolla, S.; Palmero, L.; Minisini, A.M.; Puglisi, F. CDK4/6 Inhibitors in Melanoma: A Comprehensive 1. Introduction Review. Cells 2021, 10, 1334. https:// doi.org/10.3390/cells10061334 Historically, metastatic melanoma was considered a highly lethal disease [1]. However, recent advances in drug development have allowed a significative improvement in the Academic Editors: Ali R. Jazirehi, prognosis of patients with melanoma. In particular, BRAF/MEK inhibitors and anti-PD1 Shikhar Mehrotra and antibodies have entirely revolutionized the management of this disease [2]. Despite their Negroiu Gabriela relevant efficacies, several unmet clinical needs still exist. For example, the response rate of anti-PD1 therapy, which is nearly 40%, is still unsatisfactory [2,3]; on the other hand, Received: 2 May 2021 BRAF/MEK inhibitors are often unable to control the disease for very long periods because Accepted: 25 May 2021 of the development of resistance [4,5]. To overtake this challenges, new clinically active Published: 28 May 2021 compounds are highly needed. CDK4 pathway is a frequently altered signaling in melanomas [6]. Considering the cur- Publisher’s Note: MDPI stays neutral rent clinical availability of CDK4/6 inhibitors, increasing interest has emerged in CDK4/6 with regard to jurisdictional claims in inhibition in melanoma. Indeed, several clinical trials are testing the efficacy of these published maps and institutional affil- compounds, especially as part of a multidrug regimen. iations. Herein we review the available literature to depict a comprehensive landscape about CDK4/6 inhibitors in melanoma. We present the molecular and genetic background that might justify using these drugs, the preclinical evidence, the clinical available data, and the most promising ongoing clinical trials. Copyright: © 2021 by the authors. Licensee MDPI, Basel, Switzerland. 2. CDK4/6 Pathway This article is an open access article The cell division cycle (CDC) is the result of the dynamic balance between pro-mitotic distributed under the terms and and pro-apoptotic/arrest signals, which interplay in a regulatory network [7,8]. conditions of the Creative Commons Cell progression through the CDC phases requires overcoming critical points, such as Attribution (CC BY) license (https:// the restriction point (R), the gatekeeper of the G1-S transition, and the cell checkpoints [9]. creativecommons.org/licenses/by/ These transitions are mainly driven by the sequential activation of distinct heterodimeric 4.0/). Cells 2021, 10, 1334. https://doi.org/10.3390/cells10061334 https://www.mdpi.com/journal/cells Cells 2021, 10, 1334 2 of 16 Cells 2021, 10, x FOR PEER REVIEW 2 of 18 complexes,[9]. These each transitions constituted are mainly by thedriven association by the sequential of a cyclin activation protein of distinct and heterodi- a cyclin-dependent meric complexes, each constituted by the association of a cyclin protein and a cyclin-de- kinasependent (CDK), kinase with (CDK), regulatory with regulatory and catalytic and catalytic functions, functions, respectively respectively [10]. [10]. EveryEvery CDC CDC phase phase is is specifically specifically regulated by by a cyclin/CDK a cyclin/CDK complex, complex, and the andpro- the progres- sion fromgression G1 from to S G1 phase to S isphase triggered is triggered by theby the cyclin-D-CDK4/6 cyclin-D-CDK4/6 interaction interaction (Figure (Figure 1) 1)[11]. [11]. Figure 1. Graphic representation of the most relevant pathways, and their interconnection, that regulate the p16ink4A- Figure 1. Graphiccyclin D representation-CDK4/6-RB pathway. of the The most stimulation relevant of tyrosine pathways, kinase and receptors their interconnection,on the cell membrane that by regulatemitogen stimuli the p16ink4A-cyclin ac- D-CDK4/6-RBtivates pathway. the Ras axis, The leading stimulation to the transcription of tyrosine of CCND1 kinase gene receptors with an increased on the cell expression membrane of Cyclin by-D. mitogen In parallel, stimuli the activates PI3K pathway (PI3K-Akt-mTor) regulates the downstream translation of CCND1 mRNA via mTor. In cellular cytosol, the the Ras axis, leading to the transcription of CCND1 gene with an increased expression of Cyclin-D. In parallel, the PI3K Cyclin D1 forms complexes with its binding partners, CDK4/6, and translocates to the nucleus. Here, mutually with the pathway (PI3K-Akt-mTor)downstream complex regulates CyclinE-CDK2, the downstream it hyperphosphorylates translation the RB of protein, CCND1 thus mRNAinactivating via it. mTor. Subsequently, In cellular E2F is cytosol, the Cyclin D1 formsreleased complexes and drives the with transcription its binding of the partners, genes involved CDK4/6, in the G1 and-S transition. translocates This pathway to thenucleus. is negatively Here, regulated mutually by with the some natural inhibitors, such as p16INK4A, that inhibit the assembly of the Cyclin D-CDK4/6 complex. Moreover, downstreamp16INK4A complex is CyclinE-CDK2,usually suppressed itby hyperphosphorylatesthe hypophosphorylated form the of RB RB. protein, The CDK4/6 thus mediated inactivating-hyperphosphorylation it. Subsequently, E2F is released andof drivesRB causes the its transcription inactivation and ofrelieves the genesthe RB1 involved-mediated suppression in the G1-S of p16INK4A. transition. This pathway is negatively regulated by some natural inhibitors, such as p16INK4A, that inhibit the assembly of the Cyclin D-CDK4/6 complex. Moreover, Cyclin D protein, encoded by the CCDN1 gene, is involved in several intracellular p16INK4A is usually suppressed bypathways, the hypophosphorylated both dependent and form independent of RB. The on CDK4/6, CDK4/6 su mediated-hyperphosphorylationch as promoting cellular pro- of RB causes its inactivation and relievesliferation the RB1-mediatedand modulation suppression of mitochondrial of p16INK4A. activities, DNA damage repair, and cell mi- gration [12]. CyclinDuring D protein, the CDC encodedthe levels and by the the sub CCDN1-cellular distribution gene, is involved of cyclin D in change several with intracellular pathways,an oscillatory both dependentbehavior [13], in and response independent to proliferative on and CDK4/6, mitogenic such stimuli; as following promoting cellular the binding of growth factors to their tyrosine kinase receptors (e.g., IGFR, c-kit, FGFR), proliferation and modulation of mitochondrial activities, DNA damage repair, and cell the activated RAS/RAF/MEK/ERK cascade induces the transcription of CCDN1 and con- migrationsequently [12]. the increase in cyclin D expression in the early G1 phase [9,12]. After the heter- Duringodimerization the CDC of cyclin the D levels with CDK4/6, and the the sub-cellular activated complex distribution moves to the of nucleus cyclin and, D change with an oscillatoryco-operating behavior with cyclin [13-E/CDK2,], in response induces the to hyperphosphorylation proliferative and mitogenic and the consequent stimuli; following the bindingimpairment of growth of three proteins, factors all to with their growth tyrosine suppressive kinase properties: receptors the (e.g.,tumor IGFR,suppres- c-kit, FGFR), the activated RAS/RAF/MEK/ERK cascade induces the transcription of CCDN1 and consequently the increase in cyclin D expression in the early G1 phase [9,12]. After the heterodimerization of cyclin D with CDK4/6, the activated complex moves to the nucleus and, co-operating with cyclin-E/CDK2, induces the hyperphosphorylation and the con- sequent impairment of three proteins, all with growth suppressive properties: the tumor suppressor Retinoblastoma protein (RB), the retinoblastoma-like protein 1 (p107) and the retinoblastoma-like protein 2 (p130) [14]. As a result, the E2F transcription factor dissociates from RB and can exert its activity, priming the transcription of genes required for DNA replication and promoting the progression of the cell cycle to the S phase. To avoid an
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