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Navayana Buddhism of Ambedkar and His Followers  Virginia Hancock

This article begins with an overview of Buddhism from two perspectives, that of Ambedkar himself, based on his “Buddhist gospel” The Buddha and His Dhamma, and that of practioners in , based available academic scholarship. In the case of Ambedkar’s understanding of Buddhism, I will focus mostly on the changes he made to more traditional presentations of Buddhism. In the case of Maharashtran practitioners, I will attempt to draw some broad conclusions about their relationship to this relatively new . The centrality of the figure of Ambedkar in Navayana Buddhism, as well as Navayana Buddhist’s lack of conformity with Ambedkar’s understanding of Buddhist principles as articulated in The Buddha and His Dhamma, will guide me in my conclusions about the ways outside observers might want to move forward in the study of this relatively new religion.

mbedkar wrote The Buddha entirely of suffering then there is and His Dhamma with the no incentive for change. Aintent of creating a single  The doctrines of no-, , text for new Buddhists to read and are incongruous. It is and follow. His introduction outlines illogical to believe that there can be four ways in which previous karma and rebirth without a soul. understandings of Buddhist doctrine  The ’s purpose has not are lacking: been presented clearly. Is he  The Buddha could not have had supposed to be a “perfect man” his first great realization simply or a “social servant”? because he encountered an old As these rather sweeping man, a sick man, and a dying man. It is unreasonable and therefore critiques of Buddhism suggest, false to assume that the Buddha Ambedkar was comfortable in the did not have previous knowledge role of consciously restructuring his of something so common. chosen religion to meet the needs of  The “make the the community he spoke for.1 gospel of the Buddha a gospel of Several scholars have remarked pessimism.” If life is composed upon and analyzed this aspect of

No.145 17 Navayana poverty. The world is full of suffering Buddhism. For (In Ambedkar’s ) and how to remove this suffering example, Adele Buddha’s renunciation from the world is the only purpose Fiske and is motivated more by of Dhamma. Nothing else is Dhamma. Christoph political exigencies rather The recognition of the existence of Emmrich than a desire find the suffering and to show the way to undertook a ultimate truth and he remove suffering is the foundation detailed analysis and basis of his Dhamma…A becomes a figure religion which fails to recognise this of Ambedkar’s use of the traditional not unlike a minority Buddhists texts in in writing The is no religion at all…The Buddha politician in Buddha and His Dhamma.2 Fiske then told them that according to his and Emmrich examined Ambedkar’s contemporary India. Dhamma if every person followed (1) the Path of Purity; (2) the Path of references in the original version of Righteousness; and (3) the Path of The Buddha and His Dhamma and have encountered). In this way the virtue, it would bring about the end describe patterns of alteration from Buddha’s renunciation is motivated of all suffering.”4 the presentation of Buddhism in the more by political exigencies rather Ambedkar makes several Pali canon that they characterize as than a desire to find the ultimate truth, obvious changes to early Buddhist omission, change in emphasis and and he becomes a figure not unlike a minority politician in contemporary doctrine. The first Noble Truth that changed meaning through India. The discussion of water rights life is suffering becomes the “second interpolation or interpretation.3 was also a familiar topic after the postulate,” and the most important Following are examples of the Mahad . These changes, characteristic of Buddhism becomes type of changes Ambedkar made to though unorthodox, create a its concern for human relationships. traditional presentations of the character for the Buddha that might The second Noble Truth, that Buddha’s teachings and the way in be easily understood by oppressed suffering arises from mental craving, which these changes might support communities, specifically . is also described in social terms as Dalit activism. The Four Noble Truths “sorrow, misery and poverty.” In Ambedkar’s first major Ambedkar interprets the Four turn he refers to the third Noble Truth reinterpretation involves the Noble truths similarly. His regarding the cessation of suffering Buddha’s reununciation of worldly description of the first sermon at Deer as the “removal of suffering.” life. Whereas traditional biographies Park follows: Christopher Queen’s detailed of the Buddha emphasize the “The centre of his Dhamma is analysis of Ambedkar’s presentation empathy the young prince felt when man and the relation of man to man of the Four Noble Truths reveals still he first encountered human in his life on earth. This [the Buddha] more ways in which they have been sufferring, Ambedkar highlights the said was his first postulate. His altered to create a message of social strength of the Buddha’s social second postulate was that men are activism. Queen notes that as the conscience during a conflict over Buddha’s teachings continue it water rights. According to living in sorrow, in misery and Ambedkar, the Buddha advocated a becomes clear that the Path of Purity rational and peaceful resolution of (Ambedkar’s) Eightfold is the , the Path of an inter-tribe water conflict but was Path, for example, is Righteousness is the Eightfold Path, unable to gain the necessary political to remove injustice and and the Path of Virture is the Ten 5 leverage because he lacked majority inhumanity that man Paramitas, or perfections. Yet Ambedkar does not present any of vote. He then went into exile and does to man...there became a renunciant because it was these concepts in their traditional is a distinct element the only way to prevent his tribe format. The goal of the Eightfold from going to war with their of anti-Brahmanism Path, for example, is “to remove neighbors. Ambedkar omits any in Ambedkar’s injustice and inhumanity that man mention of old age, sickness, and rendering of the does to man,” rather than .6 death (the forms of suffering the Four Noble Truths. Nirvana itself is then described as: Buddha is usually understood to (1) a fundamental understanding

No.145 18 “that there was transitory, but more graphic, terms suffering in the as “sorrow”, “misery”, and Ambedkar’s Buddha tells world, and (2) a “poverty.” These largely social his disciples, “Where proactive conditions are remedied quite virtue is in danger do not knowledge of differently from the traditional avoid fighting, do not be “how to remove Buddhist understanding of suffering mealy-mouthed.” this suffering as an intricate network of mental are not hermetic ascetics and make cravings. This change also speaks who are focused on mankind of the fact that the traditional focus happy.”7 on craving might have lent itself to the attainment of Buddhism and the Caste manipulation by people in power, otherworldly states. System who could advocate renunciation These changes speak specifically instead of response to the materially emphasis on karma gives added to Dalits in a number of ways. First, based claims of the dispossessed. significance to societal changes, as there is a distinct element of anti- Third, by placing the Four Noble each life is now a unique and Brahmanism in Ambedkar’s rendering Truths, the Eightfold Path, and the unrepeatable opportunity for change of the Four Noble Truths. “Nothing Ten Perfections in a social context and growth. Whereas traditional else is Dhamma,” he states, and “a he provides religious justification for conceptions of karma and rebirth religion which fails to recognize this peoples’ social movements. Lastly, render material changes insignificant is no religion at all.” Although and perhaps most importantly, his on a cosmological scale, Ambedkar’s Ambedkar does not criticize other definition of nirvana is not only reinterpretation implies that such in this section—as he does easily understandable but also changes actually have ultimate in other chapters of the book—this theoretically attainable within a importance. In this way oppressed and other statements bear close single lifetime. peoples are vindicated in their sense resemblance to his earlier attack on Concept of Rebirth and the of social outrage and are informed . Here, Ambedkar again Role of the Monk once again of the importance of legitimizes the use of Buddhism to Ambedkar’s explanation of political or social struggle. oppose traditions that are karma and rebirth further legitimizes Ambedkar’s reinterpretation of unsatisfactory. Second, as Queen both the source and the goal of social the role of the monk provides a final notes, Ambedkar seems to believe action. He defends the concept of illustration that Buddhism takes a that the traditional presentation of rebirth but changes the concept of proactive stance towards radical suffering—which places the “blame” the soul. Each time a person is reborn change. Monks should not be on the cravings of each individual— his or her soul is divided and content merely to serve society— would alienate Buddhism from the recombined with parts of many other they are instead the active socially and politically oppressed.8 peoples’ . There is thus no participants and creators of history. Thus suffering is described in single soul that is reborn over and He writes that the ’s duties 9 over again. In this way Ambedkar are to proselytize for Buddhism and Ambedkar establishes establishes that there is no serve the laity. The bhikkhu is that there is no inheritance of traits from one lifetime commanded specifically to “fight to inheritance of traits to the next—a direct rebuttal to the spread Dhamma.”11 “We wage war, from one lifetime to the widespread views of caste. This in O disciples, therefore we are called turn negates the idea that current next—a direct rebuttal warriors.” Ambedkar’s Buddha tells social injustices are a result of past to the Gandhian view his disciples, “Where virtue is in misdeeds and assures Dalit converts danger do not avoid fighting, do not of caste. This in turn that their new framework does not be mealy-mouthed.”12 Monks are not negates the idea that contain the possibility for religiously hermetic ascetics who are focused current social injustices sanctioned hierarchy. He also on the attainment of otherworldly are a result explains that karma works only states. Rather they constitute the of past misdeeds. within one lifetime and cannot affect driving force behind a revolution in future lives.10 A this-worldly mind and body.

No.145 19 Ambedkar’s Buddhism in of the range of Navayana Buddhist she documents the persistence of Practice practice. traditional Hindu concepts of karma, The Buddhism For example, Timothy Fitzgerald , and the transmigration of the one finds in daily concludes that although rural soul.18 life and practice Mahars have begun to refuse to Burra characterizes the religious can differ perform traditional duties such as practice of rural Mahars as significantly from scavenging and have given up the fundamentally Hindu with a Buddhist the principles practice of eating beef, their exterior. For example, she describes described in The recognition and practice of sub-caste how the premarriage activities of the Buddha and his hierarchy and , lack of Mahars are still Hindu (one example Dhamma.13 These intercaste marriage, and of is matching horoscopes), yet the differences vary according to Hindu and is marriage ceremony itself consists of location andsocioeconomicsituation evidence that they practice “the kind placing garlands over the bride and and range from minute of Buddhism which has not really groom as they stand in front of reinterpretations to fundamental changed anybody or anything very pictures of Ambedkar and the 14 contradictions. Polarizing concepts radically.” Buddha.19 This dichotomy between include karma, rebirth, dharma, private Hindu practice and public , , materialism, Buddhist practice marks other politics, individuality and social is a “symbol of identity as well. action. Varying social categories transformation” rather At the same time, Burra notes that include the urban, rural, educated, than a true Navayana Buddhists now participate uneducated, and in many cases, old . with great enthusiasm in Hindu and young. Thus, on the one hand “The Buddhist identity festivals and ceremonies that were 20 forms of Navayana Buddhist practice is important mainly for previously forbidden to them. This and other positive changes leave her can differ from each other quite the outside world,”...The with the conclusion that the Dalit significantly in terms of both form and inner core may remain content. This will be illustrated Buddhist movement is a “symbol of Hindu but this in no through a simple comparison identity transformation” rather than 21 between certain studies of rural way reflects a betrayal a true religious conversion. “The Buddhists and members of the of the cause.” Buddhist identity is important mainly TBMSG. On the other hand, the for the outside world,” she writes, figure of Ambedkar provides a clear Neera Burra’s study of village life “There is an attempt to emphasize and unifying link between different provides different detail. She notes one’s distinctiveness and this is Buddhist practitioners. that although 70 out of the 102 achieved by different methods. The Buddhism in Two Rural respondents to her research inner core may remain Hindu but this Villages questionnaire classified themselves in no way reflects a betrayal of the 22 Two studies of rural villages in as Buddhist, none of them had taken cause.” Thus rural Dalit Buddhist 15 Maharashtra show that differences Ambedkar’s 22 vows. She argues practice is distinguished from other between Navayana Buddhism and that this reflects both a lack of forms of Buddhism primarily by its Ambedkar’s understanding of knowledge about the vows and a continued reliance on Hindu themes 23 Buddhism can stem more from the general hesitancy to take oaths that and rituals. 16 inevitable overlap of religion and characterizes rural society. This seems to suggest that the culture than from the type of Additionally, there were statues of many radical departures from conscious religious reconstruction Hindu gods and goddesses— Ambedkar’s message are caused by that Ambedkar engaged in. One must alongside pictures of Ambedkar and a blurred distinction between Hindu not extrapolate their conclusions onto the Buddha—in every household she culture and Indian culture. Even the the rest of the Navayana Buddhist visited.17 Over half of the people she beginning of Ambedkar’s political community; however the picture interviewed said that they prayed to career was marked by ambivalence presented is useful in gaining a sense all gods, including Hindu , and about what constitutes Hinduism

No.145 20 and what reform. However, the TBMSG strives spiritual.” This explains why “no one constitutes for total political nonpartisanship can be Buddhist without practicing Indian and many of its members view the dhamma”: meditation and action culture.24 For nirvana not in materialist terms but are two aspects of the same teaching, example he as a transcendent state of awareness. and to engage in one without the participated, Johannes Beltz’ study of the other is, according to the TBMSG, albeit TBMSG in Maharashtra provides to ignore the meaning of Buddhism. marginally, in a more information on the type of Several of the individuals Beltz temple entry Buddhism that Fitzgerald seems to interviewed also made a distinction campaign—even as he denounced be describing. He interviewed between “Dalit Buddhists” who do not practice and “real Buddhists” Brahmans and traditional Hindu several members of the TBMSG at a retreat center outside Pune, many of who do. “The Dalit movement religiosity in writings such as who described a Buddhist message results in bad social conditions for Annihilation of Caste. It should of increased spirituality. For example, untouchables,” one dhammachari therefore come as no surprise that one practitioner explained: asserts, “It is for politics. The Dalit some rural Buddhists have used their “I was born Buddhist. But in movement does not have a positive newfound self-confidence to engage reality, no one can be Buddhist approach to Buddhism…My in traditionally Hindu forms of without practicing the dhamma. To personal experience is different. I worship, as many societal roles that be Buddhist from birth is not have developed my personality. I do are available for reclamation are also possible…I took in the not call myself Dalit. I consider related to Hinduism in some way. Buddha, the dhamma, and the myself Buddhist.”29 An employee at International Linkages . I think that I am on the path the University of Pune went so far The TBMSG is the Indian branch of the Buddha. I want to become a as to state, “The leaders of the Dalit of the international Buddhist dhammamitra (a lay leader in the movement are selfish and corrupt. organization named the Friends of TBMSG). A Buddhist is more than a They are demagogues and want to the Western Buddhist Order physical man. He is spiritual…I suppress other currents of Buddhist (FWBO), founded in London by would like to become 100% thought. They waste a lot of energy, in 1967. The FWBO Buddhist.”27 time, and money…The TBMSG describes its purpose as “return[ing] Another told him: serenely runs the Buddhist to the basic principles of Buddhism “I consider myself Buddhist movement and continues the and find[ing] ways of living them out because I believe not in but in work of Dr. Ambedkar with in the context of the modern humanity. I practice Buddhism. I respect….There is no love between West.”25 The FWBO became want to positively develop my the activists.”30 involved in the Indian Buddhist personality and help Victory over Caste movement, particularly in others…Through meditation, we The disparate practices of some Maharashtra, when several members augment our state of consciousness Maharashtran Buddhists offer a of its order came to India to teach to become better men.”28 cautionary statement for those who Buddhism in the late 1970’s. The These statements embody the may be eager to equate Ambedkar’s TBMSG now has twenty centres spirituality and humanism of thinking about Buddhism directly located throughout India and runs a Buddhism as envisioned by with that of Dalit communities. network of social services Sangharakshita, the founder of the Ambedkar, Ambedkar’s Buddhism, organizations. FWBO. Meditation lies at the center and Buddhist communities are Fitzgerald goes so far as to assert of individual practice, and only merely the loci for numerous personal that Buddhists who are associated through knowing oneself does one and communal interactions that with the TBMSG represent the more enter a state where he or she truly comprise the forms of Navayana “spiritual” side of Navayana begins to help others. In addition, Buddhism. In theory, The Buddha Buddhism.26 Their interpretation of these practitioners negate a and His Dhamma would serve as the Buddhism is compatible with materialistic understanding of the philosophical, ideological, and Ambedkar’s because it emphasizes world. “A Buddhist is more than a religious template for Buddhists, and rationality, moral action, and social physical man,” one states, “He is my own experiences with Navayana

No.145 21 Buddhists in conversion experience can be An Exemplary Prophet New Delhi powerful because the ideological Lynch’s interest lies in would suggest victory over caste is expressed in investigating why and how that this is concrete actions on the part of the Ambedkar, a Mahar, was so fully indeed convert. accepted and integrated into Jatav possible. As D. At the same time, however, the culture. To this end, he provides C. Ahir states, shift away from the Hindu caste several comparisons between Jatav “The Buddha system is highly nuanced. As myths of origin and a new “myth of and His Burra’s study shows, the Mahar origin” that was presented by Dhamma is a true guide for all the rejection of caste does not always Ambedkar. He views Ambedkar as a Buddhists. It is the best basis for entail rejection of Hindusim. When Weberian “exemplary prophet” who propagating the Dhamma, at least in the rural Buddhist she studied align has now become the “chief hero” of India”.31 There are plausible models themselves with Buddhism they the myth that he himself created.33 that would explain how a narrative Lynch seems to imply that the entire text such as The Buddha and His Mahar rejection of “Neo-Buddhist myth” is Dhamma could become the “just caste does not always encapsulated by Ambedkar’s governance” for society that explanation of the origins of the entail rejection of Ambedkar holds a good religion caste system and the way in which should be.32 However, the above Hindusim... they adopt Dalits ended up at its bottom. This review of scholarship suggests that a new social and would not hold true for other The Buddha and His Dhamma does psychological paradigm Buddhist communities such as the not occupy a central place in all that is characterized TBMSG, however. Navayana Buddhists’ lives. foremost by the victory of Alternatively, what if the figure Given the differences in equality over caste; only of Ambedkar is the defining element of Navayana Buddhism? Even such Navayana Buddhist practice, how secondary is the victory of are we to understand the religion as differing communities as the rural a whole? The element of Navayana Buddhist practice over Buddhists examined and the TBMSG Buddhism that seeks to separate Hindu practice. share their veneration for him. A itself from Hinduism provides one public debate between Gopal , link between an uninformed adopt a new social and a Buddhist and professor at the adoption of Buddhism and an psychological paradigm that can University of Pune, and almost instantaneous increase in often be characterized foremost by Dhammacari Lokamitra, a member of self-esteem and perception of self- the victory of equality over caste; the TBMSG, supports this worth. Even if converts do not only secondary is the victory of hypothesis. Though these men remember each of Ambedkar’s Buddhist practice over Hindu articulated very different opinions twenty-two vows, for example, they practice. about the relative weight of the are bound to remember the central As another possibility, Owen “spiritual” versus the “political” theme of rejection of Hinduism. Lynch has applied an academic aspects of Buddhism, they both Thus many Dalit Buddhists understanding of myth to the returned to Ambedkar for understand what Buddhism is not development of Navayana justification of their arguments. before they focus on what it is. The Buddhism. He uses it to explain the Lokamitra wrote, “I am afraid the way that Ambedkar became a cultural project Gopal Guru is talking about hero and icon of Buddhism for the Even if converts did not is not that of Ambedkar but of those Jatavs in Agra, a group that has who have attempted to use remember...many Dalit significant linguistic and cultural Ambedkar’s conversion to Buddhism Buddhists understand differences from the Mahars. He to serve their own political ends”.34 what Buddhism is not suggests that there is a “Neo- Guru offered the following rejoinder: before they focus on Buddhist” myth that provides “Lokamitra and his TBMSG are free what it is. motivation and strategy for the to sell their package of spiritual community it serves. Buddhism and synthesise it with

No.145 22 anything but were two entire panels composed of Ambedkar’s doctoral dissertation at not with academics prepared to speak of their Columbia as religious texts? Likely Ambedkar’s research on the subject “Dalits and not. Nor do I propose to delineate Buddhism. Buddhism.” “Navayana”, “Dalit”, here between those texts that should Because it does or “Ambedkarite” Buddhism be included in a Navayana Buddhist not allow such (depending on who is speaking) is canon and those that should not. synthesis.”35 also actively discussed by the Rather this should be understood as Both judged the worldwide “engaged Buddhist” an idea to generate discussion and a other’s community. The intellectual helpful approach to the study of reasoning as flawed specifically on discourse surrounding Ambedkar’s Ambedkar’s Navayana Buddhism. I the grounds that it represents a understanding of Buddhism and believe, however, that Buddhist misinterpretation of Ambedkar’s those who follow in his footsteps practitioners will ultimately be the message. As Guru acknowledged, he has now grown to the point where it final arbiters in this matter. was bothered not so much by the is able to have a fruitful dialogue Second, where are the studies of TBMSG’s false Buddhist doctrine as even within itself.38 urban, often professional, Navayana he is by the fact that it has been In turn, at this point it may be Buddhists and the corresponding associated with Ambedkar. useful for outside observers of surge in online Navayana Buddhist Ambedkar’s figure fills in the Navayana Buddhism to begin to communities? In New Delhi, for gaps that are left by the explanations consider not only what Navayana example, I came to know several of origin and anti-Brahmanism. He is Buddhism is but also how and why Buddhists whose meditation the inspiration, motivation, and we should examine it. practice and highly informed justification for the Dalit Buddhist First, a discussion of Navayana understanding of Ambedkar and movement. His life illustrates the or canon must include Buddhism bears little resemblance to possibilities of the future, and since all of Ambedkar’s writing, not just the conversions described in some his death those possibilities have The Buddha and His Dhamma, as a studies of rural Buddhists. There is become the center of much of starting point. As the above a need for scholarship of these contemporary Navayana Buddhism. examples highlight, Ambedkar’s life thriving Navayana Buddhist Ambedkar is in this view both is usually viewed as the embodiment, communities among those who do founder and standard-bearer of rather than the vehicle, of the research in Marathi and Hindi. There contemporary Navayana Buddhism. Buddha’s teachings. In theory, are also online forums for Navayana Evaluation and Conclusions Ambedkar’s significance leads to the Buddhists and websites on Dalit In 1956 Dr. B. R. Ambedkar led logical conclusion that, just as most rights that would provide valuable over 50,000 Dalits in a mass Buddhists’ veneration of Ambedkar material for those doing work in conversion to Buddhism. This act is not limited to the events English.40 was the first of many mass surrounding his conversion, so too Third, an attempt to describe conversions of low cast Hindus to the texts which are understood as Navayana Buddhism through appeal Buddhism. Today estimates range contributing to Navayana Buddhism to the “essential” elements of from between three million and ten should not be limited to The Buddha Buddhism that may exist in early texts million Buddhists in India, most of and His Dhamma. In practice, many must be considered carefully. Surely whom are Dalit.36 Buddhists already impart religious there are continuities between For years there was little significance to Ambedkar’s other traditional understandings of scholarly material on Buddhism and political and sociological works. This Buddhism and Ambedkar’s the Ambedkarite movement, save a is readily apparent in D.C. Ahir’s reinterpretation, but whether or not few examples such as the pioneering commentary on the Round Table these constitute some “essential” work of the American historian Conference, for example, which views Buddhism to be passed down from Eleanor Zelliot.37 Contrast this with Ambedkar’s comments as the movement to movement is unclear. a recent conference on Indic embodiments of the principle of Furthermore, stressing this aspect of Religions in New Delhi held by the Right Speech.39 Ambedkar’s writing when analyzing International Association of the Clearly this inclusive approach it in the context of other Buddhist History of Religions, where there may have its limits. Are we to view traditions may be overly limiting. This

No.145 23 is not to deny this light, Ambedkar’s project might identity as Dalit and the past and the importance be understood as a project of human present connotations that are of showing that development through religious associated with this. Although thus Ambedkar’s conversion. far the body of writing that examines interpretation Focusing for a moment on the Ambedkar and Navayana Buddhism is, in many subject of religion and development, has been a positive development ways,two additional suggestions can be with respect to Navayana Buddhism, legitimate from made. First, those who wish to study perhaps now is a good time to the standpoint development in India might take the remind ourselves that we must be of the Buddha’s teachings. Such a impact of Navayana Buddhism into careful not to intellectualize project is a necessary part of account. Has conversion had a Navayana Buddhism to the extent religious dialogue and significant material impact on that we lose sight of the fact that it is reinterpretation. However, one must practitioners’ lives and if so, how? fundamentally a religion by and for not lose sight of the “essential” Given the fact that Ambedkar’s view the politically and socially Navayana when determining its of religious conversion is integrally oppressed. relationship to “essential” tied to his goals of social This paper was presented at the First Buddhism. In this sense it would be Conference on Religions in the Indic a shame if we fail to capitalize on its We must be careful not Civilisation organised in Delhi by most salient characteristic: a to intellectualize CSDS and IAHR from December confident and rational departure Navayana Buddhism to 18-21, 2003 from inherited patterns of thought. the extent that we lose Finally,the study of Navayana Endnotes Buddhism needs to be as sight of the fact that is 1 See Christopher Queen, “Dr. fundamentally a religion Ambedkar and the Hermeneutics of interdisciplinary as possible. Why Buddhist Liberation,” in Engaged limit the study of Navayana by and for the politically Buddhism: Buddhist Liberation Buddhism to certain disciplines and socially oppressed. Movements in Asia, Ed. Christopher when Ambedkar himself was S. Queen and Sallie B. (State University of New York Press 1996), unencumbered by the traditional empowerment for Dalits, it seems like 45 for a useful analysis of Ambedkar boundaries between political, a missed opportunity not to consider as a modern or postmodern man. personal, and spiritual this religious movement within the 2 See Adele Fiske and Christoph empowerment? The modern greater scheme of Indian Emmrich, “The use of Buddhist Buddhist movement in India may be development. This may be true Scriptures in B. R. Ambedkar’s The Buddha and His Dhamma”, in as fundamentally related to despite the oft-prevailing view of Surendra Jondhale and Johannes Beltz, economics and development as it is religion as an anathema to eds., Reconstructing the World: B. R. to politics and religion. Take, for progressive societal transformation. Ambedkar and Buddhism in India example, Amartya Sen’s well-known Second, the context in which (Oxford University Press 2004). See also Queen 48, and Richard Taylor, Development as Freedom. Seen in Navayana Buddhist practice takes “The Ambedkarite Buddhists,” in place must not be forgotten by Ambedkar and the Neo-Buddhist One must not lose sight outside observers. The picture of Movement, Ed. T.S. Wilkinson and M. human development for Dalits in M. Thomas (Christian Literature of the “essential” Society 1972), 148. India is stark. Although I would Navayana when 3 Fiske and Emmrich, 10. determining its relationship hesitate before projecting bleak contours on the lives of all Navayana 4 B. R. Ambedkar, “The Buddha and His to “essential” Buddhism. Dhamma,” in Dr. Babasaheb Buddhist communities, it does seem Its most salient Ambedkar Writings and Speeches, Vol. safe to assert that this is at least the XXI, Comp. Vasant Moon (Education characteristic is a general context in which they live, Department of Maharashtra 1992), confident and rational and that even if many Navayana at 121-122. departure from inherited Buddhists who are Dalits have 5 Queen, 56. patterns of thought. gained upward social mobility they 6 See Queen, at 57. are still aware of their distinct 7 Ibid.

No.145 24 8 Queen, 59. (Princeton University Press and Political Weekly May 18, 1991, 1998), 235. 1304. 9 Ambedkar, 333. 35 Gopal Guru, “Appropriating 10 Ambedkar, 340. 25 Friends of the Western Buddhist Order, “The FWBO and the Buddhist Ambedkar”, Economic and Political 11 Ambedkar, 447. Tradition”, available at http:// Weekly, July 6-13, 1991, 1699. 12 Ibid. www.fwbo.org/tradition.html. 36 See Friends of the Western Buddhist Order, “Reviving Buddhism in India”, 13 Note that the bulk of the research for 26 Ibid., 23. available at http://www.fwbo.org/ this paper was completed between May 27 Johanez Beltz, “Spiritualiser le india.html. 2000 and May 2001. Although I think Dhamma? L’implantation Contestee the main conclusions still hold, there du Bauddha Mahasangha en 37 See Eleanor Zelliot, From may be scholarship that is not included Inde,” Asiatische Studien Etudes Untouchable to Dalit: Essays on the here and which would add additional Asiatiques 4 (1997),1055-1072. Ambedkar Movement, 3rd edition nuance to the picture portrayed. 28 Ibid., 1063. 2001, Manohar, New Delhi. I also would like to thank Professor Zelliot 14 Timothy Fitzgerald, “Buddhism in 29 Ibid., 1065. for her invaluable contributions to Maharashtra: a Tri-Partite Analysis— 30 Ibid., 1066. this article, particularly through her A Research Report,” in Dr. Ambedkar, understanding of the weaknesses and 31 D. C. Ahir, Buddhism and Ambedkar, Buddhism, and Social Change, Ed. future strengths of scholarship on (Dalit Sahitya Prakashan 1990), 110. A.K. Narain and D. C. Ahir (B. R. Navayana Buddhism. Publishing Corporation 1994), 20. 32 Charles Hallisey and Anne Hansen, for 38 See, e.g., Surendra Jondhale and 15 Neera Burra, “Buddhism, Conversion example, provide a useful framework for understanding the inner moral Johannes Beltz, Reconstructing the and Identity: A Case Study of Village World: B.R. Ambedkar and Buddhism Mahars”, in Caste: Its 20th Century transformation that result from repeated exposure to the . in India, (Oxford University Press Avatar, ed. M.N. Srinivas (Penguin They hold that narrative has the 2004) and Gail Omvedt, Buddhism in India 1997), 160. unique ability to “prefigure,” India: Challenging Brahmanism and 16 Ibid. “configure”, and eventually Caste (Sage Publications 2004). “transfigure” moral life. See Charles 17 Ibid., 161. 39 See D. C. Ahir, Buddhism and Hallisey and Anne Hansen, Ambedkar (Dalit Sahitya Prakashan 18 Ibid., 161-62. “Narrative, Sub-Ethics, and the Moral 1990). Life,” Journal of Religious Ethics 24.2 19 Ibid., 165. (Fall 1996), 323. 40 An example of an online forum is The 20 Ibid., 166. Buddhist Circle, at Yahoo! Groups. 33 Owen Lynch, “Dr. B. R. Ambedkar— Websites include www.ambedkar.org, 21 Ibid., 168. Myth and Charisma,” The www.navayana.org, and Untouchables in Contemporary India, 22 Ibid. www.ambedkar.net. I would also like to Ed. J. Michael Mahar (The University thank Mangesh Dahiwale and the other 23 Fitzgerald, 20. of Arizona Press 1972), 110. members of The Buddhist Circle who 24 See Gauri Viswanathan, Outside the 34 Dhammachari Lokamitra, were a tremendous help and inspiration Fold: Religion, Modernity and “Ambedkar and Buddhism,” Economic to me while I was living in New Delhi.

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