Catherine de' Medici: A Woman Before her Time by Sara Grace Ericsson Thesis submitted in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the Degree of Bachelor of Arts with Honours in History Acadia University April, 2014 © Copyright by Sara G. Ericsson, 2014 This thesis by Sara Grace Ericsson is accepted in its present form by the Department of History as satisfying the thesis requirements for the degree of Bachelor of Arts with Honours Approved by the Thesis Supervisor __________________________ ____________________ Dr. Leigh Whaley Date Approved by the Head of the Department __________________________ ____________________ Dr. Paul Doerr Date Approved by the Honours Committee __________________________ ____________________ Dr. Matthew Lukeman Date ii I, Sara Ericsson, grant permission to the University Librarian at Acadia University to reproduce, loan or distribute copies of my thesis in microform, paper or electronic formats on a non-profit basis. I, however, retain the copyright in my thesis. _________________________ Signature of Author __________________________ Date iii ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS Throughout this long, difficult, frustrating, but ultimately rewarding process, there are several people who have served to inspire me. To my mum, whose reassurance I depend on daily; To my aunt, whose gift was inspiring; To my sister, whose interest in a topic she knew nothing about was insatiable; To my brother, whose patience knows no bounds; To my dad, whose faith is appreciated; To my nana, whose wry sense of humour is always refreshing; To my grampie, whose quiet yet constant love I could never do without; And finally, to my supervisor Dr. Whaley, whose ongoing advice and encouragement were the main reasons I was able to complete this project. iv Table of Contents Abstract……………………...……………………………vi Introduction.............................................................................1 Chapter 1.................................................................................6 Chapter 2...............................................................................40 Chapter 3...............................................................................66 Conclusion..........................................................................100 Appendix A.........................................................................102 Appendix B.........................................................................103 Appendix C.........................................................................104 Appendix D.........................................................................105 Bibliography........................................................................106 v Abstract The historiography of Catherine de’ Medici has evolved over time. Historians such as Paul Van Dyke and Jean Héritier sought to change Catherine’s reputation as a tyrant through evidence of her capabilities as a ruler and political powerhouse. Others, such as Sir John Ernest Neale and Sir Francis Watson of the period of “great man historiography,” insisted upon prescribing to the narrative of her evilness. This thesis shall pursue the same objective as that of Van Dyke and Héritier and attempt to show that Catherine was indeed a talented politician, who crafted conciliatory policies and maintained her power through her status as Queen Mother. It shall also be shown that Catherine was not responsible for the Saint-Bartholomew’s Day Massacre, and that it was caused largely by her son Charles IX’s impulsiveness and the mobs of Paris. vi Introduction The purpose of this thesis is to present a new interpretation of the political career of Catherine de' Medici. Its principal argument is to prove that Catherine successfully established an extensive political career through the calculated manipulation of the imagery of motherhood and conciliatory policies, legislated to end the religious conflict between Catholics and Huguenots. The cessation of this conflict would, in turn, ensure the persistence of her power and authority in France. Catherine de' Medici emerges among her contemporaries as an exceptional figure in the history of French politics. Unlike Francis I, Henry II, Charles IX and Henry III, the Valois kings who ruled France during the 16th century, she never ruled in her own right. Catherine faced many challenges throughout her life, and overcame them largely as a result of personal cunning and initiative, showing a remarkable intelligence in matters of the state as she did so.1 Among her greatest achievements was her ability to portray herself as a woman of power in a country which had yet to accept this concept. Instantly branded as inferior upon her arrival in France as the betrothed of Henry,2 Catherine learned from a young age that she would decide her own 1 Paul Van Dyke, Catherine de Médicis, vol. I (New York: Charles Scribner's Sons, 1922), 69, accessed January 27th, 2014, http://babel.hathitrust.org/cgi/pt?id=mdp.39015049893566;view=1up;seq=209. 2 Robert J. Knecht, The French Renaissance Court: 1483-1589 (New Haven: Yale University Press, 2008), 250. 1 destiny, whether it was a success or a failure. As an outsider at the French royal court, Catherine waited, patiently collecting support to ensure the security of her position at court.3 It would be years before she was able to exert power independently as Queen Regent, ruling in the name of her son Charles IX. Until then, Catherine served as the consort of Henry, and would do so until his death in 1559. From this position, Catherine was able to observe the political schema of the French court and its power players. Any prospect of direct influence she carried during this period was snuffed out by figures such as Diane de Poitiers, the long-time mistress of her husband, whose presence ensured that Henry paid little to no attention to Catherine, his wife.4 After the birth of their many children, however, Henry accorded Catherine more trust and responsibilities, naming her regent during his absences beginning in 1552.5 These regencies, which provided her first opportunity to act as head-of- state, were an apprenticeship to power for Catherine. After the death of Henry, Catherine secured herself the regency of her son, the young King Charles IX. As the ruler of France, she was finally able to exert influence and sought to create safer conditions within the country for Huguenots, who had been prosecuted under Henry, and issued a number of edicts aimed at providing them with the right to worship in designated areas. Catherine placed limitations on Huguenot worship only to satisfy the Catholics and keep them from inciting conflict. These edicts were groundbreaking despite their limitations, as they marked the first 3 Jean Héritier, Charlotte Haldane, trans., Catherine de Medici (New York: St. Martin's Press, 1963), 35. 4 Hugh Ross Williamson, Catherine de' Medici (New York: The Viking Press, 1973), 38. 5 Crawford, 651. 2 occasion since the birth of the Huguenot faith that they had enjoyed any official rights in France. Presenting herself as both the widow and mother of the kings of France, Catherine used a careful combination of accepted norms and political imagery to secure her role as France's leading political figure. By forging permanent links between herself and kings, Catherine ensured that she remain the Queen Mother in the eyes of her subjects. Catherine's decision to use conciliatory policies was threefold, seeking to maintain her power and to cease religious and political conflict in France. She also used this approach because of the risk posed by political factions of the French court, whose ambitions were the main cause of conflict in France.6 Under the guise of religion,7 the Catholic and Huguenot factions embarked in a power struggle for political supremacy, fuelled by the personal ambitions of figures such as Gaspard de Coligny and the Guise family. It was only when the threat of personal ambition proved too great, as it did with Coligny,8 that Catherine abandoned her policies and resorted to force to ensure her power as Queen Mother remain strong. As a result, Catherine became embroiled in the Saint-Bartholomew's Day Massacre, as the assassination of Coligny that she had orchestrated failed,9 and, through a combination of Charles IX's impulsiveness and the religious fervour of the mob in Paris, resulted in the murder of thousands of Huguenots throughout France. It is due to the 6 Crawford, 253. 7 Janet Glenn Gray, The French Huguenots: Anatomy of Courage (Grand Rapids: Baker Book House, 1981), 101. 8 Gray, 124. 9 Van Dyke, vol ii, 83. 3 inconclusive nature of events leading up to the massacre that Catherine has been branded as a villain by historians such as Sir John E. Neale and Francis Watson, though she has never been proven guilty of any deed outside of Coligny's assassination. The era of religious discord in France are not named the ages of Francis or Henry. These years are collectively referred to as the age of Catherine, though her only time as official ruler of France was as Queen Regent from 1560 until 1563 as the regent for son Charles IX.10 The resounding influence she exerted over her children as a mother, a role she transferred successfully into politics, ensured her lasting influence and place as a leading figure in France until the outright independence of her third and final son, Henry III.11 However, the policies she was able to legislate, such as the edicts of Saint-Germain and Amboise, do not represent the full scope of her vision of a religiously and politically united