Senseof Place

"Senseofplace" offers resource managers a wayto identify and respond tothe emotional An Elusive Concept andspiritual bonds people form with certain spaces.Weexamine reasons forthe increasing interestinthe concept and offer four broad That Is Finding a Home in recommendationsforapplying sense ofplace toecosystem management. Byinitiating a EcosystemManagement discussionaboutsense ofplace, managers canbuild aworking relationship withthe relationshipwith citizensthat reflects publicthat reflects thecomplex webof unmetchallenges associated the complexweb of lifestyles,mean- lifestyles,meanings, andsocial relations withneof ecosystemthe greatmanagementand largely ings,and social relations endemic to a endemictoa place. is treatingpeople as a rightfulpart of placeor resource.Sense of placecan be ecosystems.In many ecosystem mod- theshared language that eases discus- els,despite occasional rhetoric to the sionsof salientissues and problems By Daniel R.Williams and contrary,there is still a tendencyto andthat affirms the principles under- Susan I. Stewart treatpeople as autonomous individual lyingecosystem management. agentsoutside the ecosystem, at best a Thoughthe term sense ofplace re- sourceof valuesto be incorporated mains elusive,ill defined, and contro- intodecisions, at worst agents of cata- versialas a resourcemanagement con- strophicdisturbance of an otherwise cept, it is turning up in a surprising smoothlyrunning system.Many number of academic discussions of scholarshave made suggestionsfor ecosystemmanagement (Grumbine bringingsocial concepts and variables 1992; Samsonand Knopf 1996) as intoecosystem models and assessments well as in recentecosystem assessments (Driveret al. 1996; Forceand Machlis (USDA 1996). Similarly,in popular 1997). Far fewer have demonstrated mediaand a widerange of publicpol- how day-to-dayland management icyissues, Spretnak (1997) sees a grow- mightchange when people are recog- ing interestin senseof placeand re- nizedas part of theecosystem. latedconcepts, like community,place Senseofplace is a conceptwith great attachments,symbolic meanings, and potentialfor bridging the gap between spiritualvalues. For her this suggests a the scienceof ecosystemsand their resurgenceof the reality of placethat management(Mitchell et al. 1993; haslong been denied, suppressed, and Brandenburgand Carroll 1995; devaluedby a mechanisticview of na- Schroeder1996). But ironically,sense ture. At this point, with so many of placeis sometimesseen as a barrier groupsready to jointhe sense-of-place to sensibleresource management. parade, we think it is usefulto ask Managerswho haveheard the term three questions:What is meant by usedby peopleopposed to proposed senseof placein itsvarious forms and changeswrongly conclude that sense guises?Why is it increasinglyin the of placeis an argumentfor keeping hearts of citizens and on the minds of themfrom doing their job. In fact,the landmanagers? And finally, what does conceptoffers managers a way to an- it suggestabout managing ecosystems? ticipate,identify, and respond to the bondspeople form with places. By ini- DefiningSense of Place tiating a discussionabout senseof Thereare many definitions and de- place,managers can build a working scriptionsof senseof place.As a geo-

18 May 1998 graphicterm, place commonly refers or dimensionsthat capture the multi- At Devil'sTower National Monument, to a centerof meaningand felt value: facetednature and complexity of what the NationalPark Serviceis caughtbe- "Whatbegins as undifferentiated space wewill referto hereas sense of place: tween a rock and a holy place:the site becomesplace when we endow it with ß theemotional bonds that people is sacred to Native Americans and a value"(Tuan 1977, p. 6). A seemingly formwith places (at various geographic destination of choice for rock climbers. straightforwardapproach to defining scales)over time andwith familiarity Thefeelings associated with places senseof placeis to think of it asthe with thoseplaces; havealways been a part of our rela- collectionof meanings,beliefs, sym- ß thestrongly felt values, meanings, tionshipwith the natural world but at bols,values, and feelings that individ- andsymbols that arehard to identify an intuitive level-as somethingmany ualsor groupsassociate with a particu- or know(and hard to quantify),espe- peopleunderstood but did not talk lar locality.In somerecent ecosystem ciallyif one is an "outsider"or unfa- about or name. Awareness of sense of assessments,this collection of mean- miliarwith theplace; placehas increased in proportionto ingsand feelings is reduced to a single ß thevalued qualities of a placethat globalizationand our capacityto make attributeand viewed as just another evenan "insider"may not be con- and remake placesvirtually overnight. oneof manypotential attitudes, values, sciouslyaware of untilthey are threat- andbeliefs people might hold toward a ened or lost; of placesand emphasizes people's ten- resource(USDA 1996).The problem ß theset of placemeanings that are dencyto formstrong emotional bonds with theserudimentary definitions is activelyand continuously constructed withplaces. It isworth noting that al- they tend to diminishthe holistic, and reconstructed within individual thoughwe emphasizethe importance emotive,social, and contextual quality minds, shared cultures, and social of recognizing"local" meanings, these of theidea, robbing it of thevery rich- practices;and should not be limited to residents' nessthat is itsappeal. ß the awarenessof the cultural, his- senseof place.Many tourists and regu- Place,place attachment, and sense of torical, and spatialcontext within lar visitorshave strong attachments to placeare used by various writers to de- whichmeanings, values, and social in- places.It isnot the possessors of mean- scribe similar but not identical con- teractions are formed. ingsthat arelocal, but the m6anings cepts.Dra•ing fromthis diversity of Mostpeople who inter}ect sense-of- themselves.Similarly, "insiders" are thought(Tuan 1977; Hester 1985; placeconcerns into naturalresource is- thosewho know what a placemeans to Agnewand Duncan 1989; Shamai suesprobably have in mindsomething a group.Too oftenplanners are "out- 1991; Altman and Low 1992; Groat akinto oneof thefirst three interpreta- side"the socialcircles that assign 1995;Harvey 1996; Relph 1997), we tions.Sense of place,for mostpeople, meaningto a placeand therefore tend suggestseveral overlapping approaches refersto therich and varied meanings to discount them.

Journalof Forestry 19 Protecting a sense of socialprocesses. Both ecosystems can be invoked by diverse and conflict- andplaces are dynamic, with a past,a inggroups---local commodity haterests of place is the reason present,and a future. seekingto maintaina wayof life,envi- Senseof placeis shaped by increas- ronmentalistsembracing Leopold's behind commonly inglycomplex social, economic, and landethic, Native Americans focusing accepted urban politicalprocesses. At a local level, on thespiritual or transcendentquali- placemeanings are less stable than they tiesinherent in a place,recreation and planning tools, such oncewere, being buffeted by increas- wildernessenthusiasts voicing con- inglydistant and uncontrollable social cernsabout new or nonconforming as zoning ordinances, andeconomic forces. Meanings have uses,and heritage preservationists try- regional tourism become more individualized and ingto maintainlandscape character or boundarieshave become more perme- restorepresetdement ecological condi- marketing authorities, able.In addition,a senseof placethat tions. Such sentiments are sometimes at one time may havebeen largely dismissedasthe merely cosmetic or ro- and regulations on shapedand maintained by community manticconcerns of designers,nature architectural styles. insidersis nowincreasingly subject to lovers,and heritageenthusiasts. Yet more distantmarket and political evenwhat planners and scientists put forces. forwardas a data-drivendescription of Thelast two dimensions, emphasiz- Forexample, tourism, urban flight, a placein the formof a scientificas- hagthe social processes that create and retirementmigration, and economic sessmentis itselfanother competing transformplaces, describe aspects often developmentincreasingly challenge or senseof thatplace. overlooked in natural resource man- contesttraditional meanings of many Within forest planningdebates agement.They expand sense of place communities.For long-timeresidents those various sentiments whether beyondits commonconception as a thisoften means that an identity based localor nonlocal in origin,new or long hard-to-defineattitude, value, or belief on agriculture,forestry, or ranchhagis established---areall legitimate,real, to include the social and historical beingchallenged by newerresidents and stronglyfelt and an important processesby which place meanings are andoutsiders' meanings and usesof sourceof political conflict. Competing constructed,negotiated, and politically surroundingnatural landscapes. As placemeanings should not be dis- contested.Understood as something theydevelop their own sense of place, missedbecause they do not conform to sociallyproduced, sense of placebe- thenewcomers may become strongly someexpert's technical sense of place. comesanalogous to conceptionsof attachedto thenatural landscape of an Ratherthey must be acknowledged, if ecosystemsas dynamicand open- areawithout being socially and histor- not embraced,for resourcemanage- ended.That is,just as ecosystems are icallyrooted in theplace or commu- ment to succeed. constitutedby bioecological processes, nity (McCool and Martin 1994). soplaces are created and take on par- Giventhe many dimensions of the The Popularity of Place ticularforms and meanings as a result concept,competing senses of a place Whyin anage of scientific manage- menthas such a seeminglynonscien- tificconcept become a popularrefrain in environmentaldisputes? Though theterm sense of place has been widely usedin geographyand architecture sincethe carly 1970s, the growing em- phasison ecosystemmanagement seemsto haveamplified the interest in theconcept. One reason for its present appealis thatit capturesthe rich vari- ety of humanrelationships to re- sources,lands, landscapes, and ecosys-

Is Mount Rushmore a monument to Americandemocracy and Manifest Destinyor a symbolof the colonization and oppressionof indigenouspeoples? In suchstrongly felt values,meanings, t and symbols,we are discoveringa way to expressour senseof this placeor that communityin languagewe canall share and understand.

20 May 1998 temsthat multiple-useutilitarianism orderto studythem leave many peo- utopiannames that have meaning only andother earlier approaches to man- ple,lay andprofessional, with a sense to thedeveloper's marketing specialist. agementfailed to include.In essence, thatthe largerwhole, the place itself, Multiplenames for singleplaces-- theshift to ecosystemmanagement has has somehow been lost. This reaction datingfrom earlier events or uses,or broughta correspondingshift away was described in the Forest Service's referringto a largeror smallerarea-- from economic definitions of human- owncritique of thefirst round of forest reflectthe many meanings they have. environmentrelationships toward planning(Larson et al. 1990).Though Decidingwhich name is mostappro- moreholistic perspectives often em- ecosystem management attempts to priatein a givencontext requires some bodiedin theterm sense of place. put silviculturaland forestmanage- thought.Not everyplace-name is ap- A sociologicalexplanation for the mentscience into a broaderspatial and propriatein everysituation, as a Forest appearanceof senseof placecan be historicalcontext, it hasnot fully ad- Servicedistrict rangerstationed in foundin globalizationand the acceler- dressed the richness of human mean- Alaska once learned. atingpace of changein society.The ingsand relationships to the land that The rangerwent to thevillage of look and layout of mostAmerican peopleexpress and want to seerepre- Kake, a Native Alaskanvillage on communitieshave undergone rapid sentedin theplanning process. Sense KuprenofIsland, to talkwith villagers changein recentdecades. Concern for of place,in contrast,can encompass abouta proposedaction with implica- senseof placehas risen in proportion bothnatural and social history. tionsfor SaginawBay. Although the to thespread of massculture and con- proposalwas a modestone with little sumptionthrough entertainment and In Day-to-Day Management potentialimpact, the meeting turned retail goliathslike Toshiba,Time Ourrecommendations forapplying intoa long,hostile event. Near the end Warner, and Wal-Mart. Think about senseof placein ecosystemmanage- of the day,a villageman approached howWal-Mart alonehas rearranged ment arenot reallynew. Most canbe the rangerand offered to tell him a theretail landscapes of America in the characterizedascommon knowledge story.The rangerdeclined, having past10 years.The social,technologi- amongexperienced managers, espe- spentthe day bearingthe brunt of cal,and economic forces of globaliza- ciallythose who are known as "good much criticismand animosityfrom tion have weakened local distinctive- people-persons."What is new is the meetingparticipants. The man per- ness,many people say, and with unifyingtheme of senseof place--the sisted,however, and told the ranger cheapertransportation and new infor- ideathat placeshave meaning to peo- that no one had ever referred to their mation technologieswe experience ple. We believethat by puttingthe bayas Saginaw Bay until thegunship moreparts of theworld through inter- human bond with nature in the fore- Saginawanchored there in the late nationaltrade, travel, and the media. ground,rather than treating it asan in- 1800sand shelled Kake, killing many Ironically,those forces of homoge- terestingbut insignificantfeature of people.Villagers, he said,call it Foul nizationhave made place more impor- thebackground for resource planning, DogBay, a referenceto thechum, or tant, not less(Harvey 1996; Mander managerscan begin to givethe rela- "fouldog," salmon run. The ranger's and Goldsmith 1996). What were tionshipbetween people and the land repeatedreference to SaginawBay had mostly taken-for-granted,subcon- the careful,systematic attention it re- setvillagers on edgeand soured the sciousmeanings of a placecome to the quiresand deserves. meeting.Knowing and using common surfaceand seem threatened by nearly 1. Knowand use the variety of local or traditionalplace-names in conjunc- everyproposed change to the local place-names.Virtually every place has a tion with formalnames and legal de- landscape.Efforts to introducenew name,whether a roadsidesign pro- scriptions,especially in communica- landuses whethertheme parks, pris- claimsit or not. Namingthings-- tionswith the public, signals that man- ons,wildlife preserves, timber harvests, Adam'stask-•is our way of organizing agersrespect the ties people have to a landexchanges, or shoppingmalls-- thoughtsabout the world around us, place. becomesymbols of externalthreats to and anyonewho knowsan areaand 2. Communicatemanagement plans the localsense of place(Appleyard talks to others about it has a name for in locallyrecognized, place-specific terms. 1979).Such plans express the sense of it. Arbitrarilychanging a place-name Usinglocal place-names has practical placedefined by an outsider--thesci- canbe as offensive as changing the ap- aswell assymbolic value. The spatial entist,government official, corporate pearanceof the landscape.The name units usedfor resourceanalysis and developer,or specialinterest group-- itselfis a powerfullink between people planningrarely follow social bound- and thusrepresent the powerof the andplace, symbolizing the history and aries(e.g., counties, townships). In- outsider over the local. meaningof the place.When a new stead,biophysical characteristics guide Another reason for the interest in owneror managerchanges a place- definitionof boundaries,resulting in senseof placeis themechanistic view name, the communitymay assume plansthat refer to managementareas of nature that dominates our techno- thatmany other changes will followin by number,rather than to placesby logicalsociety (Spretnak 1997). Treat- itswake. Housing developers invoke a name.The human-createdfeatures, the ing natureas a collectionof products mix of apprehensionand incredulity landscape,its socialhistory, scenic or commodities to be sold and isolat- from localresidents when overnight, beauty,community identity, family ing propertiesof the environmentin placesare renamed, often with exotic, heritage,and spiritual values--all are

Journalof Forestry When natural resource an abstractset of resourceswith many been citizen involvement in land and potentialuses. Instead, people tend to resourcedecisions, but the successof scientists and planners focustheir concerns on the fate of spe- recentgrassroots political action has cificplaces. The dangerof thinking given many individuals,especially prepare a science- andplanning in abstractterms is the thosewho speakas local residents based assessment of possibilitythat these place-specific fea- concerned about their local commu- tureswill beoverlooked. For example, nity,new power and legitimacy. a forest, their plan is whenclearcutting isproposed and ob- 4. Payclose attention to places that itself a sense of that jectionsare raised, there is almostal- havespecial but dif•rent meanings to waysreference to whatthe clearcutis di•rent groups.Local politics is never place--a sense no next to, where it can be seenfrom, or morecomplex than when more than why that particularstand is not like onegroup claims to be representing less valid than the any otherstand in the forest.All of localinterests. People become attached theseare social, place-specific charac- to particularplaces for a varietyof rea- meanings ascribed to teristicsthat might not be evident from sons,including scenic beauty, spiritual the same forest by biophysicalmaps. For this reason, it is meaning,and personalor socialhis- imperativethat managers write plans tory. Peopleand groupscan be at- residents and tourists. and conveymanagement ideas in tachedto the sameplace but for dif- termsof not onlywhat could be done, ferentreasons. Overlapping meanings but where. createspecial challenges, even for strippedaway to simplifybiophysical 3. Understandthe politics of places. managerswho are sensitiveto place analysis.At somepoint, managers need The adage"all politics is local"is an- meanings. to put thesehuman features back into otherway of sayingthat what is per- The recentcontroversy over Devil's theirplans to makethem recognizable, sonal, local, and immediate to people TowerNational Monument is a good familiar, and real. iswhat they care about, act on, and ex- exampleof a publicsite with incom- Computermapping offers man- pectothers to act on. The extentto patiblemeanings to differentgroups. agersa new,powerful way to show whichpolicies and actions are contro- There is no inherent conflict between plansin a place-specificformat. With versialvaries from place to place.If a the Native Americans who treasure computers,maps can be constructed in placeis especiallyscenic or spiritually promontoriesfor theirsacred signifi- layers,or setsof spatiallyspecific infor- significantor wasthe site of an event cance in oral tradition and the rock mation.Any combinationof theselay- thathas deep meaning to thecommu- climberswho love challenging climb- erscan be displayed,including a layer nity,any proposed change or manage- ing routes--untilboth groupsfind that representsplace meanings. Fea- mentaction will beclosely scrutinized. theirvalues in thesame place. turessuch as special places, spiritual To knowthe politicsof an issue,one Suchconflicts are not alwayscen- meanings,traditional gathering areas, mustknow the politics of theplace. teredon useversus symbolism. Mount and communities of interest have been In the environmentalism of the Rushmorehas rich symbolic meaning mapped.Even the human-builtand 1990s,there is a growingtendency for for both Native Americans,who seeit human-usedfeatures found on any peopleto claimownership of anyissue asa symbolof colonizationand op- roadmap help show the social context thataffects them, whether or not leg- pression,and those who revere it asa withinwhich land management is oc- islatures,corporations, courts, or gov- shrineto theAmerican experiment in curring.There are certainly resource ernmentagencies would traditionally constitutionaldemocracy. Conflicts managementareas where a map of havegiven them power to influence overplace meanings highlight the fu- human influencewould be nearly outcomes(Williams and Methany tility of tryingto formulateresource blank;but that, too, tells us something 1995).The often-expressedsentiment plansarmed only with theutilization- aboutthe land and the relationship "not in my backyard"simply reem- maximizingprinciples of resourcesub- peoplehave with it. Mapsare funda- phasizesthe centrality of placein pol- stitutionand allocative efficiency. mentallysocial and human. If people itics.The environmentaljustice move- The relativescarcity of natural are included in our consideration of mentis a primeexample of thegrow- places,and the feelingthat theyget howbest to managethe land, their im- ingpower of placemeanings in Amer- morescarce every year, adds to the in- print on the land needsto be repre- icanpolitics. Low-income and minor- tensityof debatessurrounding their sentedon maps. ity residents,tired of bearinga dispro- managementand use.Some of the An emphasison place-specificportionate share of pollution and sameurgency seen in thequest to pro- thinkingis perhapsmost important other environmental costs,have suc- tectendangered species is manifested when communicatingwith others ceededin changingthe government'sin debatesover managing special, rare about managementplans (Dean rulesfor siting a noxiousfacility (Har- places.Both stem from a fearof irrev- 1994). Many peoplewho careabout vey 1996). The changeseffectively ocableloss. In planningand manage- the future of the forest do not feel givethe powerto definetheir spaces ment,rare places are sometimes infor- comfortabletreating the ecosystem as backto residents.There hasalways mally flaggedfor specialattention,

May 1998 justas the Endangered Species Act re- supportsense-of-place considerations. andNatural Resources 8:381-98. quiresidentification and inventory of Becausesense of placeis not the sole DDa,•,D.J. 1994. Computerized toolsfor participatory na- tionalforest planning. Journal ofForestry 92(2):3740. threatenedand endangered species. A provinceof anyone group, interest, or DRIVER,B.L., C.J.MANNING, and G.L. PETERSON. more formaleffort to identifyand philosophy,it does not necessarily give 1996.Toward better integration ofthe social and bio- monitor rare places,in particular thosewho dislike a proposedchange physicalcomponents ofecosystems management. In new powerto stopit (althoughthe Naturalresource management: Thehuman dimension, thosehighly valued by several groups, ed.A. Ewert,109-27. Boulder,CO: WestviewPress. would be useful. powerof languagecannot be denied). FORCE,J.E., and G. M•CHLIS.1997. The human eco- Environmental activists who advocate systempart II: Socialindicators in ecosystem man- The Context of Resources changingthe appearance of a placeto agement.Society and Natural Resources 10:347-67. Senseof placeand ecosystem man- restoreecosystem health may do just as GROAT,L.,ed. 1995. Giving places meaning: Readings in environmentalpsychology.SanDiego: Academic Press. agementhave much in commonas re- muchto violatepeople's sense of place GRUMBINE,R.E. 1992. Ghost bears: Exploring thebiodi- sponsesto the historicallydominant asthe timber company that clearcuts a versitycrisis. Washington, DC: Island Press. utilitarianismthat has guided resource favoritevista. Nor is the conceptal- HARVEY,D. 1996. Justice, nature and the geography ofd• managementsince Pinchot'stime. waysused to preventchange: historic j•rence.London: Blackwell. HESTER,R. 1985. Subconscious landscapes ofthe heart. Bothconcepts recognize that society restorationoften involvesmaking Places2(3):10-22. valuesnatural resources in waysnot changesfor thesake of enhancingor LARSON,G., A. HOLDEN,D. KAPALDO,J. LEASURE, J. easilyor necessarilycaptured by the re-creatinga sense of place. MASON,H. SALWASSER,S.YONTS-SHEPARD, andW.E. commodityand production metaphors Senseof placeis not a newland use SH^NDS.1990. Synthesis ofthe critique ofland man- of "use"and "yield." Both try to local- or a setof rightsbut a wayof express- agementplanning.PolicyAnalysis Staff Publication FS-453.Washington, DC: USDA Forest Service. izeand contextualize knowledge. Both inga relationshipbetween people and MANDER,J., andE. GOLDSMITH,eds. 1996. The case pay attentionto historyand geo- a place.The problemisn't to consider againstthe global economy: Andj•r a turntoward the graphicscale. everyindividual's particular sense of local.San Francisco: Sierra Club Books. Recognizingthe processesand place,but ratherto recognizethat in McCOoL,S.E, and S.R. M•a•TIN. 1994. Community at- tachmentand attitudes toward tourism development. meaningsthat constitutesense of planningprocesses and management JournalofTravel Research 22(3):29-34. place,however, adds a significant decisionmaking,the toolsmanagers MITCHELL,M.Y., J.E. FORCE, M.S. C•mOLL, and W.J. humanrole in makingand using the useto representthe qualities of a place MCLAUGHLIN.1993. Forest places of the heart: In- landscapewithout reducing humans to often limit what is considered. But corporatingspecial places into public management. JournalofForestry 91(4):32-37. onespecies among many. Negotiating givennatural resource managers' pen- R•LPH,E. 1997.Sense ofplace. In 7•ngeographic ideas a sharedsense of placethat incorpo- chantfor analyticaltools and technical thatchanged theworl• ed S. Hanson, 205-26. New ratesboth natural and social history al- analyses,there is a dangerin thinking Brunswick,NJ:Rutgers University Press. lowsmanagers opportunity to find ofsense of placeas simply another vail- SAMSON,EB., and E L. K•O?F.1996. Putting "ecosys- tem"into natural resource management. Journal of commonground without pigeonhol- ableor resourcedescriptor to round Soiland Water Conservation July-August:288-92. ing peopleinto utilitarian,environ- out ecosystems assessments. SCHROEDER,H.W.1996. Ecology ofthe heart: Under- mentalist,or romanticpreservationist Understandingsense of placere- standinghow people experience natural environments. positions.That is, it maybe possible to minds us that natural resourcesexist in InNatural resource management: Thehuman dimension, build a level of consensusaround sense ed.A. Ewert,13-27. Boulder, CO: Westview Press. a socialand political world. Virtually Sl•vlaI,S. 1991.Sense ofplace: An empirical measure- of placebecause it readilyleads to a anyresource or land-useplanning ef- ment.Geoj•rum 22:347-58. discussionof desiredfuture conditions fort is reallya publicexercise in de- SPRETNAK,C. 1997. The resurgence ofthe real: Body na- of a resourcein bothecological and scribing,contesting, and negotiating tureand place in a hypermodernworld. New York: Ad- human terms. competingsenses of placeand ulti- dison-Wesley. TUAN,Y.-E 1977. Space and place: The perspective ofex- The termitself is neutral,though matelyworking out a sharedfuture perience.Minneapolis: University ofMinnesota Press. the venues in which it is used are often senseof place.That, in essence,is the UNITED STATES DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE highlycharged evidence of thepower centralobjective of naturalresource (USDA).1996. Status ofthe Interior Columbia Basin: of the ideasit expresses.Concerns planning,and it maybe the only gen- Summaryofscientific findings. General Technical Re- port385. Portland, OR: USDA Forest Service, Pa- aboutsense of placeshould signal to uinelyintegrative approach to manag- cificNorthwest Research Station. managersthat the socialcosts associ- ing ecosystems. Wlkt•MS,B.A., andA.R. M•T•At•. 1995. Democrm> dia- atedwith a proposedcourse of action logue,and environmental dirputes: Thecontested languages maybe high.What the managercan Literature Cited ofsodal•gulation.NewHaven, CT: Yale University Press. andshould do in responsemay be lim- AGNEW,J.A., and J.S. DUNCAN. 1989. The power of itedby existing institutional structures place:Bringing together geographical andsociological or rules, but the sentiments and imaffnations.Boston: Unwin Hyman. Daniel R. •lliams (e-mail:d-willil @ A•TMA•,I., andS.M. Low,eds. 1992. Place attachment. processesof sense of placecannot be Humanbehavior andenvironment:Advances intheory uiuc.edu) is associate proj•ssor, Depart- avoidedsimply because existing plan- andresearch, vol. 12. New York:Plenum Press. mentof LeisureStudies, University of ning toolsand ruleshave tended to APPLEYAIm,D. 1979. The environment asa social symbol: Illinois, 1206 South Fourth Street, favortechnical analyses. Societal inter- Withina theoryof environmental action and percep- Champaign61820; Susan L Stewartis tion.American PlanningAssociation Journal53:143-53. estin senseof placemay, in thelong B•NDENBURG,A.M., andM.S. C/mROLL.1995. Your researchsocial scientist, USDA Forest run,inspire reforms of resourceplan- place,or mine:The effect of place creation on envi- Service,North CentralForest Experi- ninglaws and procedures that better ronmentalvalues and landscape meanings. Society ment Station, Evanston,Illinois.

Journalof Forestry 23