Personal Protection

UNIT 2

Personal Protection

Chapter Title

2-1 Basic Survival Medicine 2-2 Plants for Medicine 2-3 Proper Body Temperature 2-4 Clothing 2-5 Shelters

CHAPTER 2-1

Basic Survival Medicine

Medical Encounters injuries and illnesses. Because there is no “typical” survival situation, the approach to Foremost, among the many things which self-aid must be flexible, placing emphasis on can compromise a survivor’s ability to return using what is available to treat the injury or are medical problems encountered. The most illness. Further, survivors recognize that frequent injuries are fractures, strains, medical treatment offered by people of other sprains, and dislocations, as well as burns and other types of wounds (fig. 2-1). Many cultures may be far different from our own. survivors have difficulty in treating injuries For example, in the rural areas of Vietnam, a and illness due to the lack of training and treatment made of snake meat was and is medical supplies. used to treat internal lower back pain. Such Injuries and illnesses unusual to certain treatment may be displeasing to some people; environments can reduce survival however, medical aid offered to survivors in expectancy. In cold climates, and often in an other cultures may be the best available in the open sea survival situation, exposure to given circumstance. extreme cold can produce serious tissue The procedures in this chapter must be trauma, such as frostbite, or death from viewed in the reality of a true survival hypothermia. Exposure to heat in warm situation. The results of treatment may be climates, and in certain areas on the open substandard compared with present medical seas, can produce heat cramps, heat standards. However, these procedures will exhaustion, or life-threatening heatstroke. not compromise professional medical care A review of the survival experiences which becomes available following rescue. from World War II, Korea, and Southeast Moreover, in the context of a survival Asia indicates that, while U.S. military situation, they may represent the best personnel generally knew how to administer available treatment to extend the individual's first aid to others, there was a marked survival expectancy. inability to administer self-aid. Further, only the most basic medical care had been taught Procedures to most military people. Lastly, it was repeatedly emphasized that even minor Survival medicine encompasses procedures and expedients that are: injuries or ailments, when ignored, became major problems in a survival situation. Thus,  Required and available for the prompt attention to the most minor medical preservation of health and the prevention, problem is essential in a survival episode. improvement, or treatment of injuries and Applying principles of survival medicine illnesses encountered during survival. should enable survivors to maintain health  Suitable for application by nonmedical and well-being in a hostile or nonhostile personnel in the circumstances of the environment until rescued. survival situation. Information in this chapter is a basic reference to self-aid techniques used by Survival medicine is more than first aid in Prisoners of War in captivity and techniques the conventional sense. It approaches final found in folk medicine. The information treatment in that it is not dependent upon the describes procedures which can maintain availability of technical medical assistance health in medically harsh situations. It within a reasonable period of time. includes items used to prevent and treat

35 Health Requirements The principal means of infecting food and open wounds is contact with unclean hands. Personal Hygiene Hands should be washed with soap and water, if available, after handling any In a survival situation, cleanliness is material which is likely to carry germs. This essential to prevent infection. Adequate is especially important after each visit to the personal cleanliness will not only protect toilet, when caring for the sick and injured, against disease germs that are present in the and before handling food, food utensils, or individual’s surroundings, but will also drinking water. The fingers should be kept protect the group by reducing the spread of out of the mouth and the fingernails kept these germs (fig. 2-2). closely trimmed and clean. A scratch from a Washing, particularly the face, hands, long fingernail could develop into a serious and feet, reduces the chances of infection infection. from small scratches and abrasions. A daily bath or shower with hot water and soap is Care of the Mouth and Teeth ideal. If no tub or shower is available, the body should be cleaned with a cloth and Application of the following fundamentals soapy water, paying particular attention to the of oral hygiene will prevent tooth decay and body creases (armpits, groin, etc.), face, ears, gum disease. hands, and feet. After this type of “bath,” the The mouth and teeth should be cleansed body should be rinsed thoroughly with clear thoroughly with a toothbrush at least once water to remove all traces of soap which each day. When a toothbrush is not available, could cause irritation. a “chewing stick” can be fashioned from a Soap, although an aid, is not essential to twig. The twig is washed, then chewed on keeping clean. Ashes, sand, fertile soil, and one end until it is frayed and brush like. The other expedients may be used to clean the teeth can then be brushed very thoroughly body and cooking utensils. with the stick, taking care to clean all tooth When water is in short supply, the surfaces. If necessary, a clean strip of cloth survivor should take an “air bath.” All can be wrapped around the finger and rubbed clothing should be removed and the body on the teeth to wipe away food particles simply exposed to the air. Exposure to which have collected on them. When sunshine is ideal, but even on an overcast day toothpaste is not available you can brush you or indoors, a 1-hour exposure of the naked teeth with small amounts of sand, salt, soap, body to the air will refresh the body. Care or baking soda. Then rinse your mouth with should be taken to avoid sunburn when water, salt water, or willow bark tea. Also, bathing in this manner. Exposure in the flossing you teeth with string or fiber helps shade, shelter, sleeping bag, etc., will help if oral hygiene. the weather conditions do not permit direct Food debris which has accumulated exposure. between the teeth should be removed by Hair should be kept trimmed, preferably 2 using dental floss or tootpicks. The inches or less in length, and the face should toothpicks can be fashioned from small be clean-shaven. Hair provides a surface for twigs. the attachment of parasites and the growth of Gum tissues should be stimulated by bacteria. Keeping the hair short and the face rubbing them vigorously with a clean finger clean-shaven will provide less habitat for each day. these organisms. At least once a week, the Use as much care cleaning dentures and hair should be washed with soap and water. other dental appliances, removable or fixed, When water is in short supply, the hair as when cleaning natural teeth. Dentures and should be combed or brushed thoroughly and removable bridges should be removed and covered to keep it clean. It should be cleaned with a toothbrush or “chew stick” at inspected weekly for fleas, lice, and other least once each day. The tissue under the parasites. When parasites are discovered, they dentures should be brushed or rubbed should be removed. regularly for proper stimulation. Removable

36 dental appliances should be removed at night spots or blisters. If you get a small blister, do or for a 2- to 3-hour period during the day. not open it. An intact blister is safe from If you have cavities, you can make infection. Apply a padding material around temporary fillings by placing candle wax, the blister to relieve pressure and reduce tobacco, aspirin, hot pepper, toothpaste or friction. If the blister bursts, treat it as an powder, or portions of ginger root into the open wound. Clean and dress it daily and pad cavity. Make sure you clean the cavity before around it. Leave large blisters intact. To placing a filling in the cavity. avoid having the blister burst or tear under pressure and cause a painful and open sore, Care of the Feet do the following.

Proper care of the feet is of the utmost  Obtain a sewing-type needle and a clean important in a survival situation, especially if or sterilized thread. the survivor has to travel. Serious foot trouble  Run the needle and thread through the can be prevented by observing the following blister after cleaning the blister. simple rules:  Detach the needle and leave both ends The feet should be washed, dried of the thread hanging out of the blister. thoroughly, and massaged each day. If water The thread will absorb the liquid inside. is in short supply, the feet should be “air This reduces the size of the hole and cleaned” along with the rest of the body (fig. ensures that the hole does not close up. 2-3). Toenails should be trimmed straight  Pad around the blister. across to prevent the development of ingrown toenails. Clothing and Bedding Boots should be broken in before wearing them on any mission. They should fit Clothing and bedding can have disease properly, neither so tight that they bind and germs which may be present on the skin, in cause pressure spots nor so loose that they the stool, in the urine, or in secretions of the permit the foot to slide forward and backward nose and throat. Therefore, keeping clothing when walking. Insoles should be improvised and bedding as clean as possible will to reduce any friction spots inside the shoes. decrease the chances of skin infection and Socks should be large enough to allow the decrease the possibility of parasite toes to move freely but not so loose that they infestation. Outer clothing should be washed wrinkle. Wool socks should be at least one with soap and water when it becomes soiled. size larger than cotton socks to allow for Under clothing and socks should be changed shrinkage. Socks with holes should be daily. If water is in short supply, clothing properly repaired before they are worn. should be “air cleaned.” For air cleaning, the Wearing sock with holes or socks that are clothing is shaken out of doors, then aired poorly repaired may cause blisters. Clots of and sunned for 2 hours. Clothing cleaned in wool on the inside and outside should be this manner should be worn in rotation. removed from wool socks because they may Sleeping bags should be turned inside out, cause blisters. Socks should be changed and fluffed, and aired after each use. Bed linen washed thoroughly with soap and water each should be changed at least once a week, and day. Woolen socks should be washed in cool the blankets, pillows, and mattresses should water to lessen shrinkage. In camp, freshly be aired and sunned (fig. 2-4). laundered socks should be stretched to facilitate drying by hanging in the Sun or in Rest an air current. While traveling, a damp pair of socks can be dried by placing them inside Rest is necessary for the survivor layers of clothing or hanging them on the because it not only restores physical and outside of the pack. If socks become damp, mental energy, but also promotes healing they should be exchanged for dry ones at the during an illness or after an injury. first opportunity. In the initial stage of the survival When traveling, the feet should be episode, rest is particularly important. After examined regularly to see if there are any red those tasks requiring immediate attention are

37 done, the survivor should inventory available  Bites and insects can be avoided by resources, decide upon a plan of action, and keeping the body clean, by wearing even have a meal. This “planning session” proper protective clothing, and by using will provide a rest period without the head net, improvised bed nets, and insect survivor having a feeling of “doing nothing.” repellents. If possible, regular rest periods should be  Wet clothing should be exchanged for dry planned in each day’s activities. The amount clothing as soon as possible to avoid of time allotted for rest will depend on a unnecessary body heat loss. number of factors, including the survivor's  Personal items such as canteens, pipes, physical condition, the presence of hostile towels, toothbrushes, handkerchiefs, and forces, etc., but usually, 10 minutes each hour shaving items should not be shared with is sufficient. During these rest periods, the others. survivor should change either from physical  All food scraps, cans, and garbage should activity to complete rest or from mental be removed from the camp area and activity to physical activity as the case may buried. be. The survivor must learn to become  If possible, a survivor should get 7 or 8 comfortable and to rest under less than ideal hours of sleep each night. conditions.

Rules for Avoiding Illness Medical Emergencies

In a survival situation, whether short-term Medical problems and emergencies you or long-term, the dangers of disease are may be faced with include breathing multiplied. Following simple guidelines problems, severe bleeding, and shock. regarding personal hygiene will enable the survivor to safeguard personal health and the Breathing Problems health of others. Any one of the following can cause airway  All water obtained from natural sources difficulty, resulting in stopped breathing: should be purified before consumption.  The ground in the camp area should not  Foreign matter in mouth of throat that be soiled with urine or feces. Toilets blocks the opening to the trachea. should be used, if available. When no  Face or neck injuries. toilets are available, individuals should  Inflammation and swelling of mouth and dig “cat holes” and cover their waste. throat caused by inhaling smoke, flames,  Fingers and other infected objects should and irritating vapors or by an allergic never be put into the mouth. Hands reaction. should be washed before handling any  “Kink” in the throat (caused by the neck food or drinking water, before using the bent forward so that the chin rests upon fingers in the care of the mouth and teeth, the chest) may block the passage of air. before and after caring for the sick and  Tongue blocks passage of air to the lungs injured, and after handling any material upon unconsciousness. When an likely to carry disease germs. individual is unconscious, the muscles of  After each meal, all eating utensils should the lower jaw and tongue relax as the be cleaned and disinfected in boiling neck drops forward, causing the lower water. jaw to sag and the tongue to drop back  The mouth and teeth should be cleansed and block the passage of air. thoroughly at least once each day. Most dental problems associated with long- Severe Bleeding term survival episodes can be prevented by using a toothbrush and toothpaste to Severe bleeding from any major blood remove food debris. If necessary, devices vessel in the body is extremely dangerous. for cleaning the teeth should be The loss of 1 liter of blood will produce improvised.

38 moderate symptoms of shock. The loss of 2 Tourniquet:vessels calledA device veins. used inA controlling steady bleeding,flow of liters will produce a severe state of shock that consistingdark ofred, a wide maroon, constricting or band bluish applied blood to the places the body in extreme danger. The loss limb near to the site of bleeding; and between it and of 3 liters is usually fatal. the heart. Control Bleeding

In a survival situation, you must control serious bleeding immediately because replacement fluids normally are not available and the victim can die within a matter of characterizes bleeding from a vein. You can minutes. usually control venous bleeding more Immediate steps should be taken to stop easily than arterial bleeding. the flow of blood, regardless of its source.  Capillary. The capillaries are the The method used should be comparable with extremely small vessels that connect the the type and degree of bleeding. The arteries with the veins. Capillary bleeding tourniquet, when required and properly most commonly occurs in minor cuts and used, will save life. If improperly used, it scrapes. This type of bleeding is not may cost the life of the survivor. The basic difficult to control. characteristics of a tourniquet and the methods of its use are well covered in You can control external bleeding by standard first aid texts; however, certain direct pressure, indirect (pressure points) points merit emphasis in the survival pressure, elevation, digital ligation, or situation. A tourniquet should be used only tourniquet. after every alternate method has been attempted. If unable to get to medical aid Direct Pressure. The most effective way within 2 hours, after 20 minutes, gradually to control external bleeding is by applying loosen the tourniquet. If bleeding has pressure directly over the wound. This stopped, remove the tourniquet; if bleeding pressure must not only be firm enough to stop continues, reapply and leave in place. The the bleeding, but it must also be maintained tourniquet should be applied as near the site long enough to “seal off” the damaged of the bleeding as possible, between the surface. wound and the heart, to reduce the amount of If bleeding continues after having applied tissue lost. direct pressure for 30 minutes, apply a pressure dressing. This dressing consists of a External Bleeding thick dressing of gauze or to the suitable material applied directly over the wound and External bleeding falls into the following held in place with a tightly wrapped bandage classifications (according to its source): (fig. 2-5). It should be tighter than an ordinary compression bandage but not so  Arterial. Blood vessels called arteries tight that it impairs circulation to the rest of carry blood away from the heart and the limb. Once you apply the dressing, do not through the body. A cut artery issues remove it, even when the dressing becomes bright red blood from the wound in blood soaked. distinct spurts or pulses that correspond Leave the pressure dressing in place for 1 to the rhythm of the heartbeat. Because or 2 days, after which you can remove and the blood in the arteries is under high replace it with a smaller dressing. pressure, an individual can lose a large In the long-term survival environment, volume of blood in a short period when make fresh, daily dressing changes and damage to an artery of significant size inspect for signs of infection. occurs. Therefore, arterial bleeding is the most serious type of bleeding. If not Elevation. Raising an injured limb (arm or controlled promptly, it can be fatal. leg) as high as possible above the heart’s  Venous. Venous blood is blood that is level slows blood loss by aiding the return of returning to the heart through blood blood to the heart and lowering the blood

39 pressure at the wound. However, elevation permanentGangrene: Deathdamage of tissue, to nerves usually and the other result tissues of alone will not control bleeding entirely; you atlos thes of siteblood of supply, the constriction. and bacterial invasion. must also apply direct pressure over the wound. When treating a snakebite, however, keep the limb lower than the heart.

Pressure Points. A pressure point is a location where the main artery to the wound If you must use a tourniquet, place it lies near the surface of the skin (fig. 2-6). around the limb, between the wound and the You can use digital pressure on a pressure heart, 5 to 10 centimeters above the wound point to slow arterial bleeding until the site (fig. 2-7). Never place it directly over the application of a pressure dressing. Pressure wound or a fracture. Use a stick as a handle point control is not as effective for to tighten the tourniquet and tighten it only controlling bleeding as direct pressure enough to stop blood flow. When you have applied on the wound. It is rare when a single tightened the tourniquet, bind the free end of major compressible artery supplies a the stick to the limb to prevent unwinding. damaged vessel. After you secure the tourniquet, clean and If you cannot remember the exact location bandage the wound. A lone survivor does not of the pressure points, follow this rule: Apply remove or release an applied tourniquet. In a pressure at the end of the joint just above the buddy system, however, the buddy can injured area. On hands, feet, and head, this release the tourniquet pressure every 10 to 15 will be the wrist, ankle, and neck, minutes for 1 or 2 minutes to let blood flow respectively. WARNING to the rest of the arm or leg to prevent limb loss. Use caution when applying pressure to the neck. Too much pressure for to long may cause unconsciousness or death. Never place Shock a tourniquets around the neck. Shock (intense stress reaction) is not a disease in itself. It is a clinical condition characterized by symptoms that arise when cardiac output is not enough to fill the Maintain pressure points by placing a arteries with blood under enough pressure to round stick in the joint, bending the joint over provide an adequate blood supply to the the stick, and then keeping it tightly bent by organs and tissues. lashing. By using this method to maintain pressure, it frees your hands to work in other Circulatory Reaction areas. Shock in some degree accompanies all Digital Ligation. You can stop major injuries to the body, and frequently it is the bleeding immediately or slow it down by most serious consequence of the injury. In applying pressure with a finger or two on the essence, shock is a circulatory reaction of the bleeding end of the vein or artery. Maintain body (as a whole) to an injury (mechanical or the pressure until the bleeding stops or slows emotional). While the changes to the enough to apply a pressure bandage, circulatory system initially favor body elevation, and so forth. resistance to the injury (by ensuring adequate blood supply to vital structures), they may Tourniquet. Use a tourniquet only when progress to the point of circulatory failure and direct pressure over the bleeding point and all death. Students should be familiar with the other methods did not control the bleeding. If signs and symptoms of shock so that the you leave a tourniquet in place too long, the condition may be anticipated, recognized, and damage to the tissues can progress to dealt with effectively. However, the best gangrene, with a loss of the limb later. An survival approach is to treat all moderate and improperly applied tourniquet can also cause

40 severe injuries for shock. No harm will be  If the victim is conscious, place him on a done, and such treatment will speed recovery. level surface with the lower limbs elevated 15 to 20 centimeters. Fluids. Normally, fluids administered by  If the victim is unconscious, place him on mouth are generally prohibited in the his side or abdomen with his head turned treatment of shock following severe injury. to one side to prevent choking on vomit, Such fluids are poorly absorbed when given blood, or other fluids. by mouth, and they may interfere with later  If you are unsure of the best position, administration of anesthesia for surgery. In place the victim perfectly flat. Once the survival medicine, however, the situation is victim is in a shock position, do not move different in that the treatment being given is him. the final treatment. Survivors cannot be  Maintain body heat by insulating the denied of water for long periods just because victim from the surroundings and, in they have been injured; in fact, their recovery some instances, applying external heat. depends upon adequate hydration. Small  If wet, remove all the victim’s wet amounts of warm water, warm tea, or warm clothing as soon as possible and replace coffee given frequently early in shock are with dry clothing. helpful if the patient is conscious, can  Improvise a shelter to insulate the victim swallow and has no internal injuries. In later from the weather. shock, fluids by mouth are less effective as  Use warm liquids or foods, a prewarmed they are not absorbed from the intestines. sleeping bag, another person, warmed Burns, particularly, require large amounts of water in canteens, hot rocks wrapped in water to replace fluid lost from injured areas. clothing, or fires on either of the victim to Alcohol should never be given to a person in provide external warmth. shock or who may go into shock.  If the victim is conscious, slowly administer small doses of a warm salt or Psychogenic Shock. Psychogenic shock is sugar solution, if available. frequently noted during the period  If the victim is unconscious or has immediately following an emergency. abdominal wounds, do not give fluids by Psychogenic shock, which occurs even mouth. without injury, requires attention to limit it,  Have the victim rest for at least 24 hours. both in degree and duration. The degree of  If you are a lone survivor, lie in a hole in this post-impact shock varies widely among the ground, behind a tree, or any other individuals but its occurrence is almost place out of the weather, with your head universal. It is not uncommon, then, that lower than your feet. some psychogenic reaction with circulatory  If you are with a buddy, check your implications occurs. Resistance to this type of patient constantly. shock depends upon the individual’s personality and the amount of training previously received. Treatment consists of Pain stopping all activities (when possible), relaxing, evaluating the situation, and Control of Pain. The control of pain alone formulating a plan of action before the with disease or injury under survival survival situation begins. situations is both difficult and essential. In addition to its morale-breaking discomfort, Prevent and Treat Shock pain contributes to shock and makes the survivor more vulnerable. Ideally, pain Anticipate shock in all injured personnel. should be eliminated by the removal of the Treat all injured persons as follows, cause. However, this is not always regardless of what symptoms appear immediately possible, hence measures for the (fig. 2-8). control of pain are beneficial.

41 Position, Heat, and Cold. The part of the andImmobilization: improves To the reduce ultimate or eliminate functional motion result. body that is hurting should be put at rest, or Inof the the body survival or a part situation, by mechanical the immobilization means or by at least its activity restricted as much as muststrick bed suffice rest. for a relatively long period of possible. The position selected should be the time and permit the patient to maintain a one giving the most comfort, and be the Grating: A sound or feeling that occurs when easiest to maintain. Splints and bandages may broken bone ends rub together. be necessary to maintain the immobilization. Elevation of the injured part, with immobilization, is particularly beneficial in the throbbing type pain like the “mashed” finger. Open wounds should be cleansed, foreign bodies removed, and a clean dressing applied to protect the wound from the air and fairly high degree of mobility. Materials for chance contacts with environmental objects. splinting and bandaging are available in most Generally, the applying warmth reduces pain, survival situations, and proper techniques are for example a toothache. However, in some detailed in most first aid manuals. conditions, applying cold has the same effect, for example strains and sprains. Warmth or Fractures cold is best applied by using water due to its high specific heat, and the survivor can try There are basically two types of both to determine which is most beneficial. fractures: open and closed. With an open (or compound) fracture, the bone protrudes Pain Killers, Aspirin, APCs, and such through the skin and complicates the actual tablets are primarily intended to combat the fracture with an open wound. After setting discomforts of colds and upper respiratory the fracture, treat the wound as any other diseases, and, at best, will just take the edge open wound. off severe pain. They should be taken, The closed fracture has no open wounds. however, if available. If no aspirin is Follow the guidelines for immobilization, and available, there are some parts of vegetation set and splint the fracture. which can be used. For example, most of the The signs and symptoms of a fracture are willows have been used for their pain- pain, tenderness, discoloration, swelling relieving and fever-lowering benefits for deformity, loss of function, and grating. The hundreds of years. Wintergreen, also known reduction of fractures is normally beyond the as checkerberry, was used by some Indians scope of first aid; however, in the prolonged for body aches and pains. The leaves are survival situation, the correction of bone made into a tea. The boiled bark of the deformities is necessary to hasten healing and magnolia tree helps relieve internal pains and obtain the greatest functional result. The best fever, and has been known to stop dysentery. time for manipulation of a fracture is in the period immediately following the injury, before painful muscle spasms ensue. Traction Bone and Joint Injury is applied until overriding fragments of bone are brought into line, (check by the other You could face bone and joint injuries limb) and the limb is firmly immobilized. that include fractures, dislocations, and Frequently, it is advantageous to continue sprains. Proper immobilization of fractures, traction after reduction to ensure the proper dislocations, and sprains is even more alignment of the bones. important in survival medicine than in The dangers with a fracture are the conventional first aid. Rather than merely severing or the compression of a nerve or making the patient comfortable during blood vessel at the site of fracture. For this transport to eventual treatment, in survival reason minimum manipulation should be medicine, the initial immobilization is part of done, and only very cautiously. If you notice the ultimate treatment. Immobilization in the area below the break becoming numb, proper position hastens healing of fractures swollen, cool to the touch, or turning pale, and the victim shows signs of shock, a major

42 vessel may have been severed. You must tractionFemur: The periodically. thigh bone, which If you extends must from change the or control this internal bleeding. Treat the victim repairpelvis to the the knee. splint, maintain the traction for shock, and replace lost fluids. manually for a short time. Often you must maintain traction during the splinting and healing process. You can effectively pull smaller bones such as the arm or lower leg by hand. You can create traction by wedging a hand or foot in the V-notch of a tree and pushing against the tree with the other limb. You can then splint the break. Dislocations Very strong muscles hold a broken thigh bone (femur) in place making it difficult to Dislocations are the separations of bone maintain traction during healing. You can joints causing the bones to go out of proper make an improvised traction splint using alignment. These misalignments can be very natural material (fig. 2-9) as follows: painful and can cause an impairment of nerve or circulatory function below the area  Get two forked branches at least 5 affected. You must place these joints back centimeters in diameter. Measure one into alignment as quickly as possible. from the patient’s armpit to 20 to 30 Signs and symptoms of dislocations are centimeters past his unbroken leg. joint pain, tenderness, swelling, discoloration, Measure the other from the groin to 20 to limited range of motion, and deformity of the 30 centimeters pass the unbroken leg. joint. You treat dislocations by reduction, Ensure that both extend an equal distance immobilization, and rehabilitation. beyond the end of the leg. Reduction or “setting” is placing the bones back into their proper alignment. Reduction  Pad the two splints. Notch the ends of dislocated joints is done similar to that of without forks and lash a 20- to 30- fractures. Gentle, but firm, traction is applied centimeter cross member made from a 5- and the limb is manipulated until it “snaps” centimeter branch between them. back into place. The use of weights to pull the bones are the safest and easiest. If the  Using available material (vines, cloth survivor is alone, the problem is difficult but rawhide), tie the splint around the upper not impossible. Traction can still be applied portion of the body and down the length by using gravity. The limb is tied to the fork of the broken leg. Follow the splinting of a tree. The weight of the body is then guidelines. allowed to provide the necessary traction, with the joint being managed until the  With available material, fashion a wrap dislocation is reduced. Once performed, that will extend around the ankle, with the reduction decreases the victim’s pain and two free ends tied to the cross member. allows for normal function and circulation. Without an X-ray, you can judge proper  Place a 10- by 2.5-centimeter stick in the alignment by the look and feel of the joint middle of the free ends of the ankle wrap and by comparing it to the joint on the between the cross member and the foot. opposite side. Using the stick, twist the material to make Immobilization is nothing more than the traction easier. splinting the dislocation after reduction. You can use any material for a splint or you can  Continue twisting until the broken leg is splint a limb to the body. The basic as long or slightly longer than the guidelines for splinting are: unbroken leg.  Splint above and below the fracture site.  Lash the stick to maintain traction.  Pad splints to reduce discomfort.  Check circulation below the fracture after Note: Over time you may lose traction making each tie on the splint. because the material weakened. Check the

43 To rehabilitate the dislocation, remove the All wounds should be promptly cleansed. splints after 7 to 14 days. Gradually use the Water is the most universally available injured joint until fully healed. cleaning agent, and should be (preferably) Sprains sterile. At sea level, sterilize water, by placing it in a covered container and boiling The accidental overstretching of a tendon it for 10 minutes. Above 3,000 feet, water or ligament causes sprains. The signs and should be boiled for 1 hour (in a covered symptoms are pain, swelling, tenderness, and container) to ensure adequate sterilization. discoloration (black and blue). The water will remain sterile and can be stored indefinitely as long as it is covered. When treating sprains, think RICE: Rinse the wounds rather than scrubbing to minimize additional damage to the tissue. R - Rest injured area. Strange material should be washed from the I - Ice for 24 hours, then heat after that. wound to remove sources of continued C - Compression-wrapping and/or splinting infection. The skin next to the wounds should to help stabilize. If possible, leave the be washed thoroughly before bandaging. boot on a sprained ankle unless While soap is not essential to clean circulation is compromised. wounds, a bar of medicated soap placed in a E - Elevation of the affected area. personal survival kit and used routinely would do much to prevent the infection of other injuries. External antiseptics are best used for cleaning abrasions, scratches, and Wounds the skin areas next to lacerations. Used in deep, larger wounds, antiseptics produce Any physical injury causing a break in the further tissue damage. skin is a wound. Wounds could be open Nature also provides antiseptics which can wounds, skin diseases, frostbite, trench foot, be used for wound care. The American and burns. A delay in treatment could cause mountain ash is found from Newfoundland infection. south to North Carolina and its inner bark has antiseptic forms. The red berries contain Infection ascorbic acid and have been eaten to cure scurvy. The Sweet Gum bark is still officially Infection is a serious threat to the survivor. recognized as being an antiseptic agent. Delay in medical treatment of the survival Water from boiled Sweet Gum leaves can situation increases the chances of wound also be used as antiseptic for wounds. infection. Antibiotics may not be available in sufficient amounts in the survival situation. Antibiotics In survival medicine, one must place more emphasis on the prevention and control of Antibiotics, when available, should be infection by applying techniques used before taken for the control of infection. Consensus the advent of antibiotics. is that the drug should be of the so-called Unfortunately, survivors have little control “broad spectrum type;” that is, be effective over the amount and type of infection against any micro-organism rather than introduced at the time of injury. However, specific for just 1 or 2 types. The exact they can help control the infection by wearing amount to be included in survival kits will clean clothes. Use care to prevent additional vary with the drug and basic assumptions as infection into wounds. Wounds, regardless of to the number and types of infections to be the type or severity, should not be touched expected. Remember that antibiotics are with dirty hands or objects. One exception to dated items (shelf life about 4 years), and this rule is the necessary control of arterial including them in survival kits requires kit bleeding. Clothing should be removed from inspection and drug replacement with active wounds to avoid contamination surrounding medical stocks. skin areas. Open Wounds

44 closure of facial wounds which interfere with Open wounds are serious in a survival breathing, eating, or drinking. Wounds, left situation, not only because of tissue damage open, heal by forming an infection resistant and blood loss, but also because they may tissue (proud flesh). This tissue is easily become infected. Bacteria on the object that recognized by its moist red granular made the wound, on the individual’s skin and appearance, a good sign in any wound. clothing, or on other foreign material or dirt that touches the wound may cause infection. Dressings and Bandages. After cleansing, By taking proper care of the wound you all wounds should be covered with a clean can reduce further contamination and dressing. The dressing should be sterile; promote healing. Clean the wound as soon as however, in the survival situation, any clean possible after it occurs by: cloth will help to protect the wound from

 Removing or cutting clothing away from further infection. A proper bandage will the wound. anchor the dressing to the wound and afford  Always looking for an exit wound if a further protection. Bandages should be snug sharp object, gun shot, or projectile enough to prevent slippage, yet not too tight. caused a wound. Slight pressure will reduce discomfort in  Thoroughly cleaning the skin around the most wounds and help stop bleeding. Once in wound. place, dressings should not be changed too  Rinsing (not scrubbing) the wound with regularly unless required. External soiling large amounts of water under pressure. does not reduce the effectiveness of a You can use fresh urine if water is not dressing, and pain and some tissue damage available. will accompany any removal. In addition, changing dressings increases the danger of The “open treatment” method is the infection. safest way to manage wounds in survival If a wound is opening up more, you can situations. Do not try to close any wound by bring the edges together with adhesive tape stitching or similar procedures. Leave the cut in the form of a “butterfly” or “dumbbell” wound open to allow the drainage of any pus (fig. 2-10). resulting from infection. In fact, it may be In a survival situation, some degree of necessary to open the wound even more to wound infection is almost impossible to avoid infection and to promote drainage. prevent. Pain, swelling, and redness around Adequate natural drainage of infected areas the wound, increased temperature, and pus in promotes healing. Generally, wicks or drains the wound or on the dressing indicate are unnecessary. On occasion, however, it infection is present. may be better to remove excess pus and insert light, loose packing to ensure continuous To treat an infected wound: drainage. A knife or other instrument used in making an incision for drainage must be  Place a warm, moist compress directly sterilized to avoid introducing other types of on the infected wound. Change the organisms. The best way to sterilize in the compress when it cools, keeping a field is with heat, dry or moist. As long as the warm compress on the wound for a wound can drain, it generally will not become total of 30 minutes. Apply the life-threating, regardless of how unpleasant it compresses three or four times daily. looks or smells.  Drain the wound. Open and gently probe the infected wound with a The term “open” does not mean that sterile instrument. dressings should not be used. Good surgery  Dress and bandage the wound. requires that although wounds are not  Drink a lot of water. “closed,” nerves, bone, and blood vessels should be covered with tissue. A notable Continue this treatment daily until all signs of exception to “open treatment” is the early infection have disappeared.

45 Debridement: To remove dirt, strange objects, If you do not have antibiotics and the damagedBoils tissue,. Apply from warm a wound compresses or a burn in to order bring wound has become severely infected, does the to preventboil to infectiona head. Thenand to open promote the healing.boil using a not heal, and ordinary debridement is impossible, consider maggot therapy, despite its hazards:

 Expose the wound to flies for one day and then cover it. sterile knife, wire, needle, or similar item.  Check daily for maggots. Thoroughly clean out the pus using soap and  Once maggots develop, keep wound water. Cover the boil site, checking it covered but check daily. periodically to ensure no further infection  Remove all maggots when they have develops. cleaned out all dead tissue and before they start on healthy tissue. Increased Fungal Infections. Keep the skin clean pain and bright red blood in the wound and dry, and expose the infected area to as indicate that the maggots have reached much sunlight as possible. Do not scratch the healthy tissue. affected area. During the Southeast Asian  Flush the wound repeatedly with sterile conflict, soldiers used antifungal powders, lye water or fresh urine to remove the soap, chlorine bleach, alcohol, vinegar, maggots. concentrated salt water, and iodine to treat  Check the wound ever four hours for fungal infections with varying degrees of several days to ensure all maggots have success. As with any “unapproved” method been removed. of treatment, use it with caution.  Bandage the wound and treat it as any the other wound. It should heal Rashes. To treat a skin rash effectively, normally. first determine what is causing it. This determination may be difficult even in the Lacerations: Lacerations (cuts) are best left best of situations. Observe the following open due to the probability of infection. rules to treat rashes: Clean thoroughly, remove foreign material, and apply a protective dressing. Frequently,  If it is moist, keep it dry. immobilization will hasten the healing of  If it is dry, keep it moist. major lacerations. On occasion, it may be  Do not scratch it. necessary to close (cover) the wound, despite the danger of infection, in order to control Use a compress of vinegar or tannic acid bleeding or increase the mobility of the made from tea or from boiling acorns or the patient. If a needle is available, thread may be bark of a hardwood tree to dry weeping procured from parachute lines, fabric, or rashes. Keep dry rashes moist by rubbing a clothing, and the wound closed by stitching. small amount of animal fat or grease on the If stitching is required, place the stitches affected area. individually, and far enough apart to permit Remember, treat rashes as open wounds drainage of underlying parts. Do not worry and clean and dress them daily. There are about the way it looks. For scalp wounds, many substances available to survivors in the hair may be used to close after the wound is wild or in captivity for use as antiseptics to cleaned. Infection is less a danger in this area treat wounds: due to the rich blood supply.  Iodine tablets. Use 5 to 15 tablets in a Skin Diseases and Ailments liter of water to produce a good rinse for wounds during healing. Although boils, fungal infections, and  Garlic. Rub it on a wound or boil it to rashes rarely develop into a serious health extract the oils and use the water to rinse problem, they cause discomfort and you the affected area. should treat them.

 Salt water. Use 2 to 3 tablespoons per considerable Amputated: The body surgical fluids removal and of salts.a part of Direct the liter of water to kill bacteria. initial body or treatment a limb or part toward of a limb. relieving pain and  Bee honey. Use it straight or dissolved in preventing infection. Covering the wound water. Electrolyte: A substance that when dissolved in a  Sphagnum moss. Found in boggy areas suitable liquid or when melted becomes an ionic worldwide, it is a natural source of iodine. conductor. Use as a dressing

Again, use noncommercially prepared materials with caution.

Frostbite with a clean dressing of any type reduces the This injury results from frozen tissues. pain and chance for infection. Further, such Light frostbite involves only the skin that protection enhances the mobility of the takes on a dull, whitish look. Deep frostbite patient and the capability for performing extends to a depth below the skin. The tissues other vital survival functions. In burns about become solid and immovable. Your feet, the face and neck ensure the victim has an hands, and exposed facial areas are open airway. If necessary, an emergency particularly vulnerable to frostbite. incision into the larynx should be done before When with others, prevent frostbite by the survivor develops extreme difficulties. using the buddy system. Check your buddy’s Burns of the face and hands are particularly face often and make sure that he checks serious in a survival situation as they interfere yours. If you are alone, periodically cover with the capability of survivors to meet their your nose and lower part of your face with own needs. Soaking certain barks (willow, your mittens. oak, maple) in water soothes and protects Do not try to thaw the affected areas by burns by causing contraction of tissues when placing them close to an open flame. Gently applied. This is a function of the acid content rub them in lukewarm water. Dry the part and of the bark used. place it next to your skin to warm it at body Maintenance of body fluids and salts is temperature. necessary to recover from burns. The only way to administer fluids in a survival Trench Foot situation is by mouth; hence the survivor should drink plenty of water early before the This condition results from many hours nausea and vomiting starts. Consuming the or days of exposure to wet or damp eyes and blood (both cooked) of animals can conditions at a temperature just above help restore electrolyte levels if salt tablets freezing. The nerves and muscles sustain the are not available. main damage, but gangrene can occur. In extreme cases the flesh dies and it may NOTE: The survivor may also pack salt in become necessary to have the foot or leg personal survival kits to replace electrolytes amputated. The best prevention is to keep (1/4 teaspoon per quart of water). your feet dry. Carry extra socks with you in a waterproof packet. Dry wet socks against The following field treatment for burns your body. Wash your feet daily and put on relieves the pain somewhat, seems to help dry socks. speed healing, and offers some protection against infection: Burns  First, stop the burning process. Put out Burns, frequently encountered in aircraft the fire by removing clothing, dousing accidents and subsequent survival episodes, with water or sand, or by rolling on the pose serious problems. Burns cause severe ground. Cool the burned skin with ice or pain, increase the probability of shock and water. For burns caused by white infection, and offer an avenue for the loss of phosphorous, pick out the white

47 phosphorous with tweezers; do not douse Inspect Erythromycin: your bodyAn antibacterial at least antibiotic. once a day to with water. ensure there are no insects attached to you. If  Soak dressings or clean rags for 10 inutes you Tetracycline: find ticks A attached broad spectrum to your antibiotic. body, cover in a boiling tannic acid solution (obtained from tea, inner bark of hardwood trees, or acorns boiled in water.  Cool the dressings or clean rags and apply over burn.  Treat as an open wound.  Replace fluid loss. them with a substance, such as Vaseline,  Maintain airway. heavy oil, or tree sap, that will cut off their  Treat for shock. air supply. Without air, the tick releases its  Consider using morphine, unless the hold, and you can remove it. Take care to burns are near the face. remove the whole tick. Use tweezers if you have them. Grasp the tick where the mouth parts are attached to the skin. Do not squeeze Bites and Stings the tick’s body. These parasites can also be removed by applying heat or other irritant to Insects and related pests are hazards in a them to encourage a relaxation of their hold survival situation. They not only cause on the survivor. Wash your hands after irritations, but they are often carriers of touching the tick. Clean the tick wound daily diseases, and cause severe allergic reactions until healed. in some individuals. Bites of insects, leeches, ticks, chiggers, etc., pose several hazards. Treatment Many of these organisms transmit diseases, and the bite itself is likely to become It is impossible to list the treatment of all infected, especially if it itches and the the different types of bites and stings. Treat survivor scratches it. In many parts of the bites and stings as follows: world you will be exposed to serious, even fatal, diseases not encountered in the United  If antibiotics are available for your use, States. become familiar with them before Ticks can carry and transmit diseases, such deployment and use them. as Rocky Mountain spotted fever common in  Predeployment immunizations can many parts of the United States. Ticks also prevent most of the common diseases transmit the Lyme disease. carried by mosquitoes and some carried Mosquitoes may carry malaria, dengue, by flies. and many other diseases.  The common fly-borne diseases are Flies can spread disease from contact with usually treatable with penicillin or infectious sources. They are causes of erythromycin. sleeping sickness, typhoid, cholera, and  Most tick-, flea-, louse-, and mite-borne dysentery. diseases are treatable with tetracycline. Fleas can transmit plague.  Most antibiotics come in 250 milligram Lice can transmit typhus and relapsing (mg) or 500 mg tablets. If you cannot fever. remember the exact dose rate to treat a disease, 2 tablets, 4 times a day for 10 to The best way to avoid the complications of 14 days will usually kill any bacteria. insect bites and stings is to keep immunizations (including booster shots) up- Bee and Wasp Stings to-date, avoid insect-infested areas, use netting and insect repellent, and wear all If stung by a bee, immediately remove the clothing properly. stinger and venom sac, if attached, by If you get bitten or stung, do not scratch scraping with a fingernail or a knife blade. the bite or sting, it might become infected. Do not squeeze or grasp the stinger or venom sac, as squeezing will force more venom into

48 the wound. Wash the sting site thoroughly heal Regress: but A persists retreat or for backward weeks movement or months. in In with soap and water to lessen the chance of a addition condition, to signs the orulcer, symptoms. there is often a systemic secondary infection. reaction CPR: Cardiopulmonary that is serious resuscitation,and may lead a basicto death. If you know or suspect that you are emergency procedure for life support, consisting allergic to insect stings, always carry an of artificial respiration and manual external insect sting kit with you. cardiac massage. Relieve the itching and discomfort caused by insect bites by applying: Necrosis: Tissue death that occurs in groups of cells in response to disease or injury.

 Cold compresses. Ulcer: A crater like lesion of the skin or mucous  A cooling paste of mud and ashes. membrane resulting from necrosis.  Sap from dandelions.  Coconut meat.  Crushed cloves of garlic.  Onion.

Spider Bites and Scorpion Stings Reactions (fever, chills, joint pain, vomiting, and a generalized rash) occur The black widow spider is identified by a chiefly in children or weak and tired persons. red hourglass on its abdomen. Only the Tarantulas are large, hairy spiders found female bites, and it has a neurotoxic venom. mainly in the tropics. Most do not inject The initial pain is not severe, but severe local venom, but some South American species do. pain rapidly develops. The pain gradually They have large fangs. If bitten, pain and spreads over the entire body and settles in the bleeding are certain, and infection is likely. abdomen and legs. Abdominal cramps and Treat a tarantula bite as for any open wound, progressive nausea, vomiting, and a rash may and try to prevent infection. If symptoms of occur. Weakness, tremors, sweating, and poisoning appear, treat as for the bite of the salivation may occur. Anaphylactic reactions black widow spider. can occur. Symptoms begin to regress after Scorpions are all poisonous to a greater or several hours and are usually gone in a few lesser degree. There are two different days. Treat for shock. Be ready to perform reactions, depending on the species: CPR. Clean and dress the bite area to reduce the risk of infection. An antivenin is  Severe local reaction only, with pain and available. swelling around the area of the sting. The funnelweb spider is a large brown or Possible prickly sensation around the gray spider found in Australia. The mouth and a thick-feeling tongue. symptoms and the treatment for its bite are as  Severe systemic reaction, with little or no for the black widow spider. visible local reaction. Local pain may be The brown house spider or brown recluse present. Systemic reaction includes spider is a small, light brown spider identified respiratory difficulties, thick-feeling tongue, by a dark brown violin on its back. There is body spasms, drooling, gastric distention, no pain, or so little pain, that usually a victim double vision, blindness, involuntary rapid is not aware of the bite. Within a few hours a movement of the eyeballs, involuntary painful red area with a blotch blue center urination and defecation, and heart failure. appears. Necrosis does not occur in all bites, Death is rare, occurring mainly in children but usually in 3 to 4 days, a star-shaped, firm and adults with high blood pressure or area of deep purple discoloration appears at illnesses. the bite site. The area turns dark and dries up in a week or two. The margins separate and Treat scorpion stings as you would a black the scab falls off, leaving an open ulcer. widow bite. Secondary infection and regional swollen lymph glands usually become visible at this Snakebites stage. The outstanding characteristic of the brown recluse bite is an ulcer that does not

49 The chance of a snakebite in a survival If you determine that a poisonous snake bit situation is rather small, if you are familiar an individual, take the following steps: with the various types of snakes and their habitats. However, it could happen and you  Reassure the victim and keep him still. should know how to treat a snakebite. Deaths  Set up for shock and force fluids or give from snakebites are rare. More than one-half  an intravenous (IV). of the snakebite victims have little or no  Remove watches, rings, bracelets, or other poisoning, and only about one-quarter develop constricting items. serious systemic poisoning. However, the  Clean the bite area. chance of a snakebite in a survival situation  Maintain an airway (especially if bitten can affect morale, and failure to take near the face or neck) and be prepared to preventive measures or failure to treat a administer mouth-to-mouth resuscitation or snakebite properly can result in needless CPR. tragedy.  Use a constricting band between the wound The primary concern in the treatment of and the heart. snakebite is to limit the amount of eventual  Immobilize the site. tissue destruction around the bite area.  Remove the poison as soon as possibly A bite wound, regardless of the type of using a mechanical suction device or by animal that inflicted it, can become infected squeezing. from bacteria in the animal’s mouth. With nonpoisonous as well as poisonous Do not: snakebites, this local infection is responsible  Give the victim alcoholic beverages or for a large part of the damage that results. tobacco products. Snake venoms not only contain poisons  Give morphine or other central nervous that attack the victim’s central nervous system (CNS) depressors. system and blood circulation, but also  Make any deep cuts at the bite site. digestive enzymes to aid in digesting their Cutting opens capillaries that in turn open prey. These poisons can cause a very large a direct route into the blood stream for area of tissue death, leaving a large open venom and infection. wound. This condition could lead to the need for eventual amputation if not treated. Note: If medical treatment is over one hour Shock and panic in a person bitten by a away, make an incision (no longer than 6 snake can also affect the person’s recovery. millimeters and no deeper than 3 millimeters) Excitement, hysteria, and panic can speed up over each puncture, cutting just deep enough the circulation, causing the body to absorb to enlarge the fang opening, but only through the toxin quickly. Signs of shock occur the first or second layer of skin. Place a within the first 30 minutes after the bite. suction cup over the bite so that you have a Before you start treating a snakebite, good vacuum seal. Suction the bite site 3 to 4 determine whether the snake was poisonous times. Use mouth suction only as a last resort or nonpoisonous. Bites from a nonpoisonous and only if you do not have open sores in snake will show rows of teeth. Bites from a your mouth. Spit the envenomed blood out poisonous snake may have rows of teeth and rinse your mouth with water. This showing, but will have one or more method will draw out 25 to 30 percent of the distinctive puncture marks caused by fang venom. penetration. Symptoms of a poisonous bite may be spontaneous bleeding from the nose  Put your hands on your face or rub your and anus, blood in the urine, pain at the site eyes, as venom may be on your hands. of the bite, and swelling at the site of the bite Venom may cause blindness. within a few minutes or up to 2 hours later.  Break open the large blisters that form Breathing difficulty, paralysis, weakness, around the bite site. twitching, and numbness are also signs of neurotoxic venoms. These signs usually appear 1.5 to 2 hours after the bite.

50 After caring for the victim as described patient should lie on the back and avoid any Pleural Cavity: The cavity within the thorax that above, take the following actions to minimize motions contains the thatlungs. increase intra-abdominal local effects: pressure which might cause more intestine to come out. Keep the survivor in an immobile  If infection appears, keep the wound open state or move on a litter. “Nature” will and clean. eventually take care of the problem; either  Use heat after 24 to 48 hours to help prevent the spread of local infection. Heat also helps to draw out an infection.  Keep the wound covered with a dry, sterile dressing. through death, or walling-off of the damaged  Have the victim drink large amounts of area. fluids until the infection is gone. Chest Injuries

Vital Injuries Injuries of the chest are common, painful and disabling. Severe bruises of the chest or fractures of the ribs require that the chest be Head Injuries immobilized to prevent large painful movements of the chest wall. The bandage is Injuries to the head pose additional applied while the patient deeply exhales. In problems related to brain damage as well as the survival situation, it may be necessary for interfering with breathing and eating. survivors to wrap their own chest. This is Bleeding is more heavy flowing in the face more difficult but can be done by attaching and head area, but infections have more one end of the long bandage (parachute difficulty in taking hold. This makes it material) to a tree or other fixed object, somewhat safer to close such wounds earlier holding the other end in the hand, and slowly to maintain function. An emergency incision rolling the body toward the tree, keeping into the larynx to open the airway may be enough counterpressure on the bandage to necessary if breathing becomes difficult due ensure a tight fit. to difficulty of the upper airways. In the event of unconsciousness, watch the patient closely Sucking Chest Wounds and keep him or her still. Even in the face of mild or near shock, keep the head level or These wounds are easily recognized by the even slightly elevated if there is reason to sucking noise and appearance of foam or expect brain damage. Do not give fluids or bubbles in the wound. These wounds must be morphine to unconscious persons. closed immediately before serious respiratory and circulatory complications occur. Ideally, Abdominal Wounds the patient should attempt to exhale while holding the mouth and nose closed as the Wounds of the abdomen are particularly wound is closed. This deflates the lungs and serious in the survival situation. Such reduces the air trapped in the pleural cavity. wounds, without immediate and adequate Frequently, a taped, airtight dressing is all surgery, have an extremely high mortality that is needed, but sometimes it is necessary rate and render patients totally unable to care to put in a stitch or two to make sure the for themselves. If intestines are not coming wound is closed. out through the wound, a secure bandage should be applied to keep this from Eye Injuries occurring. If intestines are coming out, do not replace it due to the almost certain threat of Eye injuries are quite serious in a survival fatal peritonitis. Cover the intestine with a situation due to pain and interference with large dressing and keep the dressing wet with other survival functions. The techniques for any fluid that is fit to drink, or urine. The removing foreign bodies and for treating snow blindness are covered in standard first

51 aid manuals. More serious eye injuries Note: By this time the victim is in severe involving disruption of the contents of the shock. Cool the victim as rapidly as possible. orbit may require that the lids of the affected Cool him by dipping him in a cool stream. If eye be taped closed or covered to prevent one is not available, douse the victim with infection. urine, water, or at the very least, apply cool wet compresses to all the joints, especially Thorns and Splinters the neck, armpits, and crotch. Be sure to wet the victim’s head. Heat loss through the scalp Thorns and splinters are frequently is great. Administer IVs and provide drinking encountered in survival situations. Reduce fluids. You may fan the individual. their danger by wearing gloves and proper footgear. Their prompt removal is quite Expect, during cooling: important to prevent infection. Wounds made by these agents are quite deep compared to  Vomiting. their width which increases chances of  Diarrhea. infection by those organisms (such as  Struggling. tetanus) which grow best in the absence of  Shivering. oxygen. Removal of splinters is aided by the  Shouting. availability of a sharp instrument (needle or  Prolonged unconsciousness. knife), needle nose pliers, or tweezers. Take  Rebound heatstroke within 48 hours. care to get all of the foreign body out;  Cardic arrest; be ready to perform CPR. sometimes it is best to open the wound enough to properly cleanse it and to allow air Note: Treat dehydration with lightly salted to enter the wound. When cleaned, treat as water. any other wound. Hypothermia

Environmental Injuries Defined as the body’s failure to maintain a temperature of 36ºC (97ºF). Exposure to Heat stroke, hypothermia, diarrhea, and cool or cold temperature over a short of long intestinal parasites are environmental injuries time can cause hypothermia. Dehydration and you could face. lack of food and rest condition the survivor to hypothermia. Heatstroke Unlike heatstroke, you must gradually warm the hypothermia victim. Get the victim The breakdown of the body’s heat into dry clothing. Replace lost fluids, and regulatory system (body temperature more warm him. than 40.5ºC [105ºF] causes a heatstroke. Other heat injuries, such as cramps or Diarrhea dehydration, do not always precede a heatstroke. Signs and symptoms of heatstroke A common, ailment caused by a change are: of water and food, drinking contaminated water, eating spoiled food, becoming  Swollen, beet-red face. fatigued, and using dirty dishes. You can  Reddened whites of eyes. avoid most of these causes by practicing  Victim not sweating. preventive medicine. If you get diarrhea,  Unconsciousness or delirium, which can however, and do not have antidiarrheal cause an unnatural paleness or absence medicine, one of the following treatments of color in the skin (pallor), a bluish may be effective: color to lips and nail beds (cyanosis), and cool skin.  Limit your intake of fluids for 24 hours.  Drink one cup of a strong tea solution every 2 hours until the diarrhea slows or stops. The tannic acid in the tea helps to

52 control the diarrhea. Boil the inner bark of a hardwood tree for 2 hours or more to  Salt water. Dissolve 4 tablespoons of release the tannic acid. salt in 1 liter of water and drink. Do  Make a solution of one handful of ground not repeat this treatment. chalk, charcoal, or dried bones and treated water. If you have some apple  Tobacco. Eat 1 to 1.5 cigarettes. The pomace or the rinds of citrus fruit, add an nicotine in the cigarette will kill or equal portion to the mixture to make it stun the worms long enough for your more effective. Take 2 tablespoons of the system to pass them. If the solution every 2 hours until the diarrhea infestation is severe, repeat the slows or stops. treatment in 24 to 48 hours, but no sooner. Intestinal Parasites  Kerosene. Drink 2 tablespoons of You can usually avoid infestations and kerosene but no more. If necessary, other intestinal parasites if you take you can repeat this treatment in 24 to preventive measures. For example, never go 48 hours. Be careful not to inhale the barefoot. The most effective way to prevent fumes. They may cause lung intestinal parasites it to avoid uncooked meat irritation. and raw vegetables contaminated by raw sewage or human waste used as a fertilizer.  Hot peppers. Peppers are effective However, should you become infested and only if they are a steady part of your lack proper medicine, you can use home diet. You can eat them raw or put remedies. Keep in mind that these home them in soups or rice and meat remedies work on the principle of changing dishes. They create an environment the environment of the gastrointestinal tract. that is prohibitive to parasitic The following are home remedies you could attachment. use:

54 CHAPTER 2-2

Plants for Medicine

In a survival situation you will have to use Poultice: A heated, moist, or soft mass substance, what is available. In using plants and other as meal or clay, spread on cloth and applied to natural remedies, positive identification of the warm, moisten, or stimulate a sore or inflamed plants involved is as critical as using them for part of the body. food. Proper use of these plants is equally important. Decoction: To extract the flavor by boiling.

Terms and Definitions

The following terms, and their definitions,  Diarrhea. Drink tea made from the roots are associated with medicinal plant use: of blackberries and their relatives to stop diarrhea. White oak bark and other barks  Poultice. The name given to crushed containing tannin are also effective. leaves or other plant parts, possibly However, use them with caution when heated, that you apply to a wound or sore nothing else is available because of either directly or wrapped in cloth or possible negative effects on the kidneys. paper. You can also stop diarrhea by eating white  Infusion or tisane or tea. The preparation clay or campfire ashes. Tea made from of medicinal herbs for internal or external cowberry or cranberry or hazel leaves application. You place a small quantity of works too. a herb in a container, pour hot water over it, and let it steep (covered or uncovered)  Antihemorrhagics. Make medications to before use. stop bleeding from a poultice of the  Decoction. The extract of a boiled down puffball mushroom, from plantain leaves, or simmered herb leaf or root. You add or most effectively from the leaves of the herb leaf or root to water. You bring them common yarrow or woundwort. to a sustained boil or simmer to draw their chemicals into the water. The average  Antiseptics. Use to cleanse wounds, sores, ratio is about 28 to 56 grams (1 to 2 or rashes. You can make them from the ounces) of herb to 0.5 liter of water. expressed juice or chickweed leaves or the  Expressed juice. Liquids or saps squeezed crushed leaves of dock. You can also from plant material and either applied to make antiseptics from a decoction of the wound or made into another medicine. burdock root, mallow leaves or roots, or white oak bark. All these medications are Many natural remedies work slower than for external use only. the medicines you know. Therefore, start with smaller doses and allow more time for them  Fevers. Treat a fever with a tea made from to take effect. Naturally, some will act more willow bark, an infusion of elder flowers rapidly than others. or fruit, linden flower tea, or elm bark decoction. Specific Remedies  Colds and sore throats. Treat these The following remedies are for use only in illnesses with a decoction made from a survival situation, not for routine use: either plantain leaves or willow bark. You can also use a tea made from burdock

55 roots, mallow or mullein flowers or roots, treat ringworm and athlete’s foot. Apply or mint leaves. frequently to the site, alternating with exposure to direct sunlight.  Aches, pains, and sprains. Treat with externally applied poultices of dock, Miscellaneous Uses of Plants plantain, chickweed, willow bark, garlic, or sorrel. You can also use salves made by  Make dyes from various plants to color mixing the expressed juices of these clothing or to camouflage your skin. plants in animal fat or vegetable oils. Usually, you will have to boil the plants to get the best results. Onion skins produce  Itching. Relieve the itch from insect bites, yellow, walnut hulls produce brown, and sunburn, or plant poisoning rashes by pokeberries provide a purple dye. applying a poultice of jewelweed or witch hazel leaves. The jewelweed juice will  Make fibers and cordage from plant help when applied to poison ivy rashes or fibers. Most commonly used are the stems insect stings. It works on sunburn as well from nettles and milkweeds, yucca plants, as aloe vera. and the inner bark of trees like the linden.

 Sedatives. Get help in falling asleep by  Make fish poison by dipping walnut hulls brewing a tea made from mint leaves or in a small area of water. This poison passionflower leaves. makes it impossible for the fish to breathe but doesn’t adversely affect their edibility.  Hemorrhoids. Treat them with external washes from elm bark or oak bark tea,  Make tinder for starting fires from cattail from the expressed juice of plantain fluff, cedar bark, lighter knot wood from leaves, or from a Solomon’s seal root pine trees, or hardened sap from resinous decoction. wood trees.

 Constipation. Relieve constipation by  Make insulation by fluffing up female drinking decoctions from dandelion cattail heads or milkweed down. leaves, rose hips, or walnut bark. Eating raw daylily flowers will also help.  Make insect repellents by applying the expressed juice of wild garlic or onion to  Worms or intestinal parasites. Using the skin, by placing sassafras leaves in moderation, treat with tea made from your shelter, or by burning or smudging tansy (Tanacetum vulgare) or from wild cattail seed hair fibers. carrot leaves. Plants can be your ally as long as you use  Gas and cramps. Use a tea made from them cautiously. The key to the safe use of carrot seeds as an antiflatulent; use tea plants is positive identification whether you made from mint leaves to settle the use them as food or medicine or in stomach. constructing shelters or equipment.

 Antifungal washes. Make a decoction of walnut leaves or oak bark or acorns to

57 CHAPTER 2-3

Proper Body Temperature

Body Temperature Dissipate: To lose (as heat or electricity) irre- coverably.

The body functions best when core temperatures range from 96ºF to l02ºF. Heat Transfer Preventing too much heat loss or gain should There are five ways body heat can be be a primary concern for survivors. Factors transferred. They are radiation, conduction, causing changes in body core temperature convection, evaporation, and respiration. (excluding illness) are the climatic conditions of temperature, wind, and moisture. Radiation. Radiation is the primary cause of heat loss. It is defined as the transfer of Temperature. As a general rule, exposure heat waves from the body to the environment to extreme temperatures can result in and (or) from the environment back to the considerable decreases in physical efficiency. body. For example, at a temperature of 50ºF, In the worst case, incapacitation and death 50 percent of the body’s total heat loss can can result. occur through an exposed head and neck. As the temperature drops, the situation gets Wind. Wind increases the chill effect worse. At 5ºF, the loss can be 75 percent (fig. 2-11), and causes dissipation of heat, under the same circumstances. Not only can and accelerates loss of body moisture. heat be lost from the head, but also from the other limbs of the body. The hands and feet Moisture—Precipitation, Ground Moisture, or radiate heat at a exceptional rate due to the Immersion. Water provides an extremely large number of capillaries present at the effective way to transfer heat to and from the surface of the skin. These three areas of the body. When a person is hot, the whole body body must be given particular attention during may be soaked in a stream or other body of all periods of exposure to temperature water to be cooled. On the other hand, in the extremes. winter, a hot bath can be used to warm the body. When water is around the body, it tends Conduction. Conduction is defined as the to bring the “body” to the temperature of the movement of heat from one molecule to liquid. An example is when a hand is burned another molecule within a solid object. Extreme examples of how heat is lost and and then placed in cold water to reduce the gained quickly are deep frostbite and third- heat. One way to lower body temperature is degree burns, both gained from touching the by applying water to clothing and exposing same piece of metal at opposite extremes of the clothed body to the wind. This action cold and heat. Heat is also lost from the body causes the heat to leave the body 25 times in this manner by touching objects in the cold faster than when wearing dry clothing. This with bare hands, by sitting on a cold log, or rapid heat transfer is the reason survivors by kneeling on snow to build a shelter. must always guard against getting wet in cold environments. Consider the result of a body These are practices which survivors totally soaked in water at a temperature of should avoid since they can lead to 50ºF and determine how long a person could overchilling the body. survive (figs. 2-12 and 2-13). Especially dangerous is the handling of liquid fuel at low temperatures. Unlike water which freezes at 32ºF, fuel exposed to the

58 outside temperatures will reach the same The wind created by the jeep helps to temperature as the air. The temperature of the accelerate evaporation and causes the water in fuel may be 10ºF to 30ºF below zero or the bag to be cooled. The body also uses this colder. Spilling the fluid on exposed skin will method to regulate core temperature when it cause instant frostbite, not only from the perspires and air circulates around the body. conduction of heat by the cold fluid, but by The evaporation method works any time the the further cooling effects of rapid body perspires regardless of the climate. For evaporation of the liquid as it hits the skin. this reason, it is essential that people wear fabrics that “breathe” in cold climates. If Convection. Heat movement by means of water vapor cannot evaporate through the air or wind to or from an object or body is clothing, it will condense, freeze, and reduce known as convection. The human body is the insulation value of the clothing and cause always warming a thin layer of air next to the the body temperature to go down. skin by radiation and conduction. The temperature of this layer of air is nearly equal Respiration. The respiration of air in the to that of the skin. The body stays warm when lungs is also a way of transferring heat. It this layer of warm air remains close to the works on the combined processes of body. However, when this warm layer of air convection, evaporation, and radiation. When is removed by convection, the body cools breathing, the air inhaled is rarely the same down. A major function of clothing is to keep temperature as the lungs. Consequently, heat the warm layer of air close to the body; is either inhaled or expelled with each breath. however, by removing or disturbing this A person's breath can be seen in the cold as warm air layer, wind can reduce body heat is lost to the outside. Because this temperature. Therefore, wind can provide method is so efficient at transferring heat, beneficial cooling in dry, hot conditions, or be warm, moist oxygen is used to treat a hazard in cold, wet conditions. hypothermia patients in a clinical environment. Understanding how heat is Evaporation. Evaporation is a process by transferred and the methods by which that which liquid changes into vapor, and during transfer can be controlled can help survivors this process, heat within the liquid escapes to keep the body's core temperature in the 96ºF the environment. An example of this process to l02ºF range. (fig. 2-14). is how a “desert water bag” works on the front of a jeep while driving in the hot desert.

60 CHAPTER 2-4

Clothing

Everytime people go outside they probably a significant effect on protection. Potential neglect to think about one of the most survivors must be aware of both the important survival-oriented assets—clothing. environmental conditions and the Clothing is often taken for granted; people effectiveness of these different materials in tend to neglect those things which should be order to select the best type of clothing for a the most familiar to them. Clothing is an particular region. important asset to survivors and is the most Clothing materials include many natural immediate form of shelter. Clothing is and synthetic fibers. As material is woven important in staying alive, especially if food, together, a “dead air” space is created water, shelter, and fire are limited or between the material fibers. When two or unobtainable. This is especially true in the three layers of material are worn, a layer of first stages of an emergency situation because air is trapped between each layer of material survivors must work to satisfy other needs. If creating another layer of “dead air” or survivors are not properly clothed, they may insulation. The ability of these different fibers not survive long enough to build a fire or to hold “dead air” is responsible for differing shelter, to find food, or to be rescued. insulation values.

Protection Natural Materials

People have worn clothing for protection Natural materials include fur, leather, and since they first put on animal skins, feathers, cloth made from plant and animal fibers. or other coverings. In most parts of the world, Fur and leather are made into some of the people need clothing for protection from warmest and most durable clothing. Fur is harsh climates. In snow or ice climates, used mainly for coats and coat linings. people wear clothing made of fur, wool, or Leather has to be treated to make it soft and closely woven fabrics. They also wear warm flexible and to prevent it from rotting. footwear. Wool is somewhat different because it In dry climates, people wear clothing made contains natural lanolin oils. The long, red of lightweight materials, such as cotton or underwear of miners and settlers was made of linen, which have an open weave. These wool, and for good reason. Wool is durable materials absorb perspiration and allow air to and water resistant, and even when soaked it circulate around the body. People in dry can keep you warm. climates sometimes wear white or light- Wool clothing is ideal in cold weather, and colored clothes to reflect the sun's rays. They a wool shirt or sweater will ward off the chill may also wear sandals, which are cooler and of summer evenings, too. Wool makes more comfortable than shoes. To protect the excellent blankets, hiking socks, hats, and head and neck, people wear hats as sunshades. mittens. If wool irritates your skin, you may Clothing also provides protection from be able to wear wool blends or substitutes physical injuries caused by vegetation, terrain such as polypropylene. features, and animal life which may cause Cotton is cool, comfortable, and sturdy, but bites, stings, and cuts. unlike wool it will not keep you warm when it is wet. Of course, in hot weather that may be Clothing Materials an advantage. Underwear and liner socks often are made of cotton, as are caps, shirts, Clothing is made from a variety of and bandannas. materials such as nylon, wool, cotton, Cotton is a common plant fiber widely synthetics, etc. The type of material used has used to manufacture clothing. It absorbs

61 moisture quickly and, with heat radiated from ventilation (for example, wearing the garment the body, will allow the moisture to pass away partially unzipped). from the body. It does not offer much insulation when wet. It's used as an inner layer against the skin and as an outer layer Layering System with insulation (for example, wool, Dacron pile, synthetic batting) sandwiched between. For the most comfort in the outdoors use The cotton protects the insulation and, the layering system. Choose loose-fitting therefore, provides warmth. clothing that will meet the most extreme weather you expect to encounter, and be sure Synthetic Materials you can put it on and take it off a layer at a time. For example, on a chilly autumn day Clothing manufacturers are using more and you might leave home wearing a long-sleeve more of these materials. Many synthetic shirt, long pants, a wool shirt, a sweater, materials are stronger, more shrink-resistant, mittens, and a stocking hat. As you walk, and less expensive than natural materials. exercise will cause your body to generate Most synthetic fibers are derived from more heat than it needs. Peel off the sweater petroleum in the form of long fibers which and stuff it into your pack. If you’re still too consist of different lengths, diameters, and warm, unbutton the wool shirt or slip off the strengths, and sometimes have hollow cores. mittens and hat. These fibers, woven into materials such as When you reach your designation and are nylon, Dacron, and polyester, make very no longer exerting yourself, stay warm by strong long-lasting clothing, tarps, tents, etc. reversing the procedure, pulling on just Some fibers are spun into a batting type enough layers of clothing to stay comfortable. material with air space between the fibers, After the sun goes down, you may want to providing excellent insulation used inside add an insulted parka and wool trousers or clothing. long underwear. Synthetic fibers are generally lighter in You can also use the layering system to weight than most natural materials and have keep cool in the summer by stripping down to much the same insulating qualities. They shorts, a T-shirt, and a brimmed cap. Despite work well when partially wet and dry out the heat, always carry long pants and a long- easily; however, they generally do not sleeve shirt for protection against sunburn, compress as well as down. bugs, and brush. Versatility in your clothing is the key to a Blends successful layering system. Several shirts, a sweater, and a jacket will allow you to adjust Many fabrics are blends of natural and your clothes in many more ways than will a synthetic fibers. For example, fabrics could be single heavy coat. a mixture of cotton and polyester or wool and nylon. For example, a blend of synthetics and Types of Insulation cotton makes shirts and shorts that are neat in appearance, yet tough enough for any Natural. Down is the soft plumage found wilderness adventure. A mixture of synthetics between the skin and the contour feathers of and wool goes into long-wearing socks, birds. Ducks and geese are good sources for shrink-resistant shirts, and warm jackets. down. If used as insulation in clothing, Nylon covered with rubber is durable and remember that down will absorb moisture waterproof but is also heavy. There are other (either precipitation or perspiration) quite coverings on nylon which are waterproof but readily. Because of the light weight and somewhat lighter and less durable. However, compressibility of down, it has wide most coated nylon has one drawback—it will application in cold-weather clothing and not allow for the evaporation of perspiration. equipment. It is one of the warmest natural Therefore, individuals may have to change the materials available when kept clean and dry. design of the garment to permit adequate It provides excellent protection in cold

66 environments; however, if the down gets wet Metabolic: The complex of chemical and physical it tends to get lumpy and loses its insulating processes involved in the maintenance of life. value. Cattail plants have a worldwide wind conditions, and the physical makeup of distribution, with the exception of the forested the individual must be considered. regions of the far north. The cattail is a The body's rate of burning or metabolizing marshland plant found along lakes, ponds, food to produce heat varies among and the backwaters of rivers. The fuzz on the individuals. Therefore, some may need more tops of the stalks forms dead-air spaces and insulation than others even though food intake makes a good down-like insulation when is equal, and consequently the required CLo placed between two pieces of material. value must be increased. Physical activity also Leaves from deciduous trees (those that causes an increase in the metabolic rate and lose their leaves each autumn) also make the rate of blood circulation through the body. good insulation. To create dead-air space, When a person is physically active, less leaves should be placed between two layers of clothing or insulation is needed than when material. standing still or sitting. The effect of the Grasses, mosses, and other natural wind, as shown on the wind-chill chart, must materials can also be used as insulation when be considered (Chapter 2-3, fig. 2-11). When placed between two pieces of material. the combination of temperature and wind drops the chill factor to minus l00ºF or lower, Synthetic. Synthetic filaments such as the prescribed CLo for protecting the body polyesters and acrylics absorb very little may be inapplicable (over a long period of water and dry quickly. Spun synthetic time) without relief from the wind. For filament is lighter than an equal thickness of example, when the temperature is minus 60ºF, wool and unlike down does not collapse when the wind is blowing 60 to 70 miles per hour, wet. It is also an excellent replacement for and the resultant chill factor exceeds minus down in clothing. 150ºF, clothing alone is inadequate to sustain The nylon material in a parachute life. Shelter is essential. insulates well if used in the layer system The physical build of a person also affects because of the dead-air space. Survivors must the amount of heat and cold that can be use caution when using the parachute in cold endured. For example, a very thin person will climates. Nylon may become “cold soaked;” not be able to endure as low a temperature as that is, the nylon will take on the temperature one who has a layer of fat below the skin. of the surrounding air. People have been Conversely, heavy people will not be able to known to receive frostbite when placing cold endure extreme heat as effectively as thinner nylon against bare skin. people. In the Air Force clothing inventory, there Insulation Measurement are many items which fulfill the need for insulating the body. They are made of the The next area to be considered is how well different fibers previously mentioned, and these fibers insulate from the heat or cold. when worn in layers, provide varying degrees The most scientific way to consider the of insulative CLo value. The following insulating value of these fibers is to use an average zone temperature chart is a guide in established criterion. The commonly accepted determining the best combination of clothing measurement used is a comfort level of to wear. clothing, called a “CLo” factor. The CLo factor is defined as the amount of Temperature Range CLo Required insulation which maintains normal skin 86 to 68ºF 1 - Lightweight temperature when the outside ambient air 68 to 50ºF 2 - Intermediate Weight temperature is 70ºF with a light breeze. 50 to 32ºF 3 - Intermediate Weight However, the CLo factor alone is not 32 to 14ºF 3.5 - Heavyweight sufficient to determine the amount of clothing 14 to -4ºF 4.0 - Heavyweight required. Such variables as metabolic rate, -4 to -40ºF 4.0 - Heavyweight

67 The amount of CLo value per layer of Clean. Dirt and other materials inside fabric is determined by the loft (distance fabrics will cause the insulation to be between the inner and outer surfaces) and the ineffective, wear down and cut the fibers amount of dead air held within the fabric. which make up the fabric, and cause holes. Some examples of the CLo factors and some Washing clothing in the field may be items of clothing are: impractical; therefore, survivors should concentrate on using proper techniques to Layers: 1—Aramid underwear 0.6 CLo prevent soiling clothing. (1 layer) 2—Aramid underwear1.5 CLo Overheating. Clothing best serves the (2 layers) purpose of preserving body heat when worn 3—Quilted liners 1.9 CLo in layers as follows: absorbent material next 4—Nomex coveralls .6 CLo to the body, insulating layers, and outer 5—Winter coveralls 1.2 CLo garments to protect against wind and rain. 6—Nomex jacket 1.9 CLo Because of the rapid change in temperature, wind, and physical activity, garments should This total amount of insulation should keep allow you to get into and get out of quickly the average person warm at a low and easily. Ventilation is essential when temperature. When comparing items one and working because enclosing the body in an two in the above example, it shows when airtight layer system results in perspiration doubling the layer of underwear, the CLo which wets clothing, thus reducing its value more than doubles. This is true not only insulating qualities. on the number one item but between all layers of any clothing system. Therefore, one gains Loose. Garments should be loose fitting to added protection by using several very thin avoid reducing blood circulation and layers of insulation rather than two thick restricting body movement. Additionally, the layers. The air held between these thin layers increases the insulation value. garment should overhang the waist, wrists, The use of many thin layers also provides ankles, and neck to reduce body heat loss. (through removal of desired number of layers) the ability to closely regulate the amount of Dry. Keep clothing dry since a small heat retained inside the clothing. The ability amount of moisture in the insulation fibers to regulate body temperature helps to alleviate will cause heat losses up to 25 times faster the problem of overheating and sweating, and than dry clothing. Internally produced preserves the effectiveness of the insulation. moisture is as damaging as is externally The principle of using many thin layers of dampened clothing. The outer layer should clothing can also be applied to the "sleeping protect the inner layers from moisture as well system" (sleeping bag, liner, and bed). This as from abrasion of fibers; for example, wool system uses many layers of synthetic material, rubbing on logs or rocks, etc. The outer shell one inside the other, to form the amount of keeps dirt and other contaminants out of the dead air needed to keep warm. To improve clothing. Clothing can be dried in many ways. this system, a survivor should wear clean and Fires are often used; however, take care to dry clothing in layers (the layer system) in avoid burning the items. The “bare hand” test cold climates. While discussing the layer is very effective. Place one hand near the fire system, it is important to define the in the approximate place the wet items will be “COLDER” principle. This acronym is used and count to three slowly. If this can be done to aid in remembering how to use and take without feeling excessive heat, it should be care of clothing. safe to dry items there. Never leave any item unattended while it is drying. Leather boots, C—Keep clothing Clean. gloves, and mitten shells require extreme care O—Avoid Overheating. to prevent shrinkage, stiffening, and cracking. L—Wear clothing Loose and in Layers. The best way to dry boots is upright beside D—Keep clothing Dry. the fire (not upside down on sticks because E—Examine clothing for defects or wear. the moisture does not escape the boot) or R-Keep clothing Repaired. simply walk them dry in the milder climates.

68 The sun and wind can be used to dry clothing and tucking the loose ends around your pack with little supervision except for checking frame, or you can buy or sew a cover occasionally on the incoming weather and especially contoured to fit your pack. making sure the article is secure. Freeze- drying is used in subzero temperatures with great success. Survivors let water freeze on or Clothing Wear in Snow inside the item and then shake, bend, or beat it to cause the ice particles to fall free from the and Ice Areas material. Tightly woven materials work better with this method than do open fibers. The survivor should:  Avoid restricting the circulation. Clothing Examine. All clothing items should be should not be worn so tight that it restricts inspected regularly for signs of damage or the flow of blood which distributes the soil. body heat and helps prevent frostbite. When wearing more than one pair of Repair. Eskimos set an excellent example socks or gloves, ensure that each in the delicate care they provide for their succeeding pair is large enough to fit clothing. When damage is detected, comfortably over the other. Don't wear immediately repair it. three or four pairs of socks in a shoe fitted The neck, head, hands, armpits, groin, for only one or two pairs. Release any and feet lose more heat than other parts of the restriction caused by twisted clothing or a body and require greater protection. Work tight parachute harness. with infrared film shows tremendous heat loss  Keep the head and ears covered. Survivors in those areas when not properly clothed. will lose as much as 50 percent of their Survivors in a cold environment are in a real total body heat from an unprotected head emergency situation without proper clothing. at 50ºF.  When exerting the body, prevent Rain Gear perspiration by opening clothing at the neck and wrists and loosening it at the No matter how clear the skies as you pack waist. If the body is still warm, comfort for a journey, prepare for nasty weather. That can be obtained by taking off outer layers means always taking along a poncho or of clothing, one layer at a time. When raincoat, a pack cover, and perhaps rain pants work stops, the individual should put the and gaiters. Choose rainwear that fits loosely clothing on again to prevent chilling. enough to give you freedom of movement and  If boots are big enough, use dry grass, to allow perspiration to evaporate without moss, or other material for added condensing on the inside of the fabric. insulation around the feet. Footgear can be Ponchos provide wet-weather security for improvised by wrapping parachute cloth both survivors and their gear. In emergencies, or other fabric lined with dry grass or ponchos can serve as temporary shelters. moss for insulation. They can, however, blow around in a strong wind, and thus may not give full protection in Felt booties and mukluks with the proper severe storms. socks and insoles are best for dry, cold Backpacker rainsuits are almost invincible. weather. Rubber-bottomed boot shoepacs Many feature hoods and large cargo pockets. with leather tops are best for wet weather. Rainpants and rain chaps will protect your Mukluks should not be worn in wet weather. legs from wind, rain, and heavy dew, while The vapor-barrier rubber boots can be worn gaiters will keep pebbles, water, mud, and under both conditions and are best at snow out of your boots and away from you extremely low temperatures. The air release socks. valve should be closed at ground level. These Although most packs can repel rain for a valves are designed to release pressure when time, make sure your gear stays dry by taking airborne. Air should not be blown into the along a pack cover. You can make a simple valves as the moisture could decrease one by cutting a slit in a plastic garbage bag insulation.

69 Clothing should be kept as dry as possible. The hood is designed to funnel the Snow must be brushed from clothing before radiant heat rising from the rest of the body entering a shelter or going near a fire. The and to recycle it to keep the neck, head, and survivors should beat the frost out of face warm. (fig. 2-17). The individual's ability garments before warming them and dry them to tolerate cold should dictate the size of the on a rack near a fire. Socks should be dried front opening of the hood. The "tunnel” of a thoroughly. parka hood is usually lined with fur of some One or two pairs of wool gloves and/or kind to act as a protecting device for the face. mittens should be worn inside a waterproof This same fur also helps to protect the hood shell (fig. 2-15). If survivors have to expose from the moisture expelled during breathing. their hands, they should warm them inside The closed tunnel holds heat close to the face their clothing. longer; the open one allows the heat to escape To help prevent sun or snow blindness, a more freely. As the frost settles on the hair of survivor should wear sun or snow goggles or the fur, it should be shaken from time to time improvise a shield with a small horizontal slit to keep it free of ice buildup. opening (fig. 2-16). Sleeping systems (sleeping bag, liner, and In strong wind or extreme cold, as a last bed) are the transition “clothing” used resort, a survivor should wrap up in parachute between normal daytime activities and sleep material, if available, and get into some type (fig. 2-18). of shelter or behind a windbreak. Extreme The insulating material in the sleeping bag care should be taken with hard materials, such may be synthetic or it may be down and as synthetics, as they may become cold feathers. (Feathers and down lining require soaked and require more time to warm. extra protection from moisture). However, the At night, survivors should arrange dry covering is nylon. Survivors must realize that spare clothing loosely around and under the sleeping bags are compressed when packed shoulders and hips to help keep the body and must be fluffed before use to restore warm. Wet clothes should never be worn into insulation value. Clean and dry socks, the sleeping bag. The moisture destroys the mittens, and other clothing can be used to insulation value of the bag. provide additional insulation. If survivors fall into water, they should roll in dry snow to blot up moisture, brush off the snow, and roll again until most of the water is Footwear absorbed. They should not remove footwear until they are in a shelter or beside a fire. Footgear is critical in a survival situation All clothing made of wool offers good because walking is the only means of protection when used as an inner layer. When mobility. Therefore, care of footgear is wool is used next to the face and neck, essential both before and during a survival survivors should be cautioned that moisture situation. Recommendations for care are: from the breath will condense on the surface and cause the insulating value to decrease.  Ensure footgear is properly "broken-in" The use of a wool scarf wrapped around the  before wearing. mouth and nose is an excellent way to prevent  “Treat” footgear to ensure water-repellence cold injury, but it needs to be de-iced on a (follow manufacturer's recommendations). regular basis to prevent freezing flesh  Keep leather boots as dry as possible. adjacent to it. An extra shell is generally worn over the warming layers to protect them and to act as a windbreak. Mukluks have been around for thousands Other headgear includes the pile cap and of years and have proven their worth in hood. These items are most effective when extremely cold weather. The Air Force used with a covering for the face in extreme mukluks are made of cotton duck with rubber- cold. The pile cap is extremely warm where it cleated soles and heels (fig. 2-19). They have is insulated, but it offers little protection for slide fasteners from instep to collar, laces at the face and back of the neck. instep and collar, and are 18 inches high. They are used by flying and ground personnel

70 operating under dry, cold conditions in good, you’ve probably got a pair that’s right temperatures below + 15ºF Survivors should for you. change liners daily when possible.

Leather Boots Breaking in Leather Boots

When you’re hiking, your feet and ankles Like new baseball gloves, new leather take a tremendous pounding. Quality hiking boots usually are stiff. They must be broken boots will give them the support and in before you wear them on an extended protection they need to withstand the jarring journey or you’re in for a lot of blisters. of each step. The best leather boots are made First, treat your boots with the dressing of top-grain leather, which breathes, allowing recommended by the manufacturer. Rub it moisture from your feet to escape. A thoroughly into the leather with a rag or your minimum of seams keeps wetness from hand. This will protect the boots and help penetrating. Lug soles provide the most them repel water. You may also want to guard traction, though smoother soles are usually the boot seams against moisture and abrasion by applying a commercial seam sealer. adequate, frequently lighter, and often less Wear the boots around the house and on damaging to trails. Since a pound of weight short walks until they have loosened. on your feet is equal to 5 pounds on your Gradually extend the length of the walks on back, stick with boots that weigh no more which you wear them, and soon they’ll feel than 3 to 5 pounds a pair for trail wear. like a natural part of your feet. Mountaineering boots are heavier and more rigid, and appropriate only for the specialized Caring for Boots needs of climbers. No matter what kind of boots you have, Selecting Footwear clean them after every outing. When boots are muddy, use a stiff brush to remove the mud, When you go into a store to try on boots, then apply more dressing to the leather. If wear the socks in which you plan to wear on they become wet, dry them at room your journey. Unlace a boot, slip in your foot, temperature. Never expose them to more heat and kick your toes forward. If the boot is the than you can tolerate on the back of your right length, you should be able to slide two hand. Synthetics may melt, and leather can fingers between your heel and the back of the become hardened and cracked. Take care of boot. your boots and they’ll give you years of good Next, kick your heel back into the heel service. pocket, and with the boot snugly laced, walk around the shop, go up and down some stairs, Making Your Own Footwear and do a few deep knee bends. You want to be sure your heel isn’t sliding up and down Moose Hock Shoe. The hock skin of a inside the boot, and that the widest part of moose or caribou will provide a suitable pair of shoes (fig. 2-20). Cut skin around leg at A your foot isn’t swimming around or being and B. Separate from the leg and pull it over squeezed. After you’ve tried out one pair, run the hoof. Shape and sew up small end C. Slit the same tests on several other models, taking skin from A to B; bore holes on each side of plenty of time to get a real feel for the fit. cut for lacing; turn inside out, and lace with Inspect each boot for quality workmanship. rawhide, suspension line, or other suitable Before you buy, make sure the store will material. allow you to bring the boots back, undamaged, if they don’t fit. That way you Grass Insoles. Used extensively by northern can take them home and wear them for natives to construct inner soles. Grass is a several days inside the house. If they still feel good insulator and will collect moisture from the feet. The survivor should use the

71 following procedure to prepare grass for use color, as it can be seen through more easily as inner soles: Grasp a sheaf of tall grass, than green or white. A heavy tape encasing a about one-half inch in diameter, with both drawstring should be attached to the bottom hands. Rotate the hands in opposite of the head net for tying snugly at the collar. directions. The grass will break up or "fluff" Hoops of wire fastened on the inside will into a soft mass. Form this fluff into oblong make the net stand out from the face and at shapes and spread it evenly throughout the the same time allow it to be packed flat. The shoes. The inner soles should be about an inch larger they are, the better the ventilation. But thick. Remove these inner soles at night and very large nets will not be as effective in make new ones the following day. wooded country where they may become snagged on brush. Hudson Bay Duffel. A triangular piece of Gloves are hot, but are a necessity where material used as a foot covering. To flies are found in swamps. Kid gloves with a improvise this foot covering, a survivor can 6-inch gauntlet closing the gap at the wrist use the following procedures: and ending with an elastic band halfway to 1. Cut two to four layers of parachute cloth the elbow are best. For fine work, kid gloves into a 30-inch square. with the fingers cut off are good. 2. Fold this square to form a triangle. Cotton/Nomex work gloves are better than no 3. Place the foot on this triangle with the protection at all, but mosquitoes will bite toes pointing at one corner. through them. Treating the gloves with insect 4. Fold the front cover up over the toes. repellent will help. Smoky clothing may also 5. Fold the side corners, one at a time, over help to keep insects away (fig. 2-24). the instep. This completes the foot wrap. A survivor should remember that (fig. 2-21). mosquitoes do not often bite through two layers of cloth; therefore, a lightweight Gaiters. Made from parachute cloth, undershirt and long underwear will help. To webbing, or canvas. Gaiters help keep sand protect ankles, blouse the bottoms of trousers and snow out of shoes and protect the legs around boots, or wear some type of leggings from bites and scratches (fig. 2-22). (gaiters). If the head net is lost or none is available, Double Socks. Cushion padding, feathers, make the best of a bad situation by wearing dry grass, or fur stuffed between layers of sunglasses with improvised screened sides, socks. Wrap parachute or aircraft fabric plugging ears lightly with cotton, and tying a around the feet and tie above the ankles. A handkerchief around the neck. Treat clothing combination of two or more types of with insect repellent at night. improvised footwear may be more desirable and more efficient than any single type (fig. 2-23). Warm-Weather Cold-Weather Clothing List Clothing List Clothing in the Summer Arctic ___Long-sleeve shirt ___Long-sleeve shirt In the summer arctic, there are clouds of ___T-shirts ___Wool Shirt ___Long pants ___Long pants(wool military mosquitoes and black flies so thick a person surplus pants are fine) can scarcely see through them. Survivors can ___Hiking shorts ___Wool sweater protect themselves by wearing proper clothing ___Sweater or warm jacket ___Long underwear to ensure no bare skin is exposed. A good preferable polyester or head net and gloves should be worn. ___Underwear polypropylene) Head nets must stand out from the face so ___Socks ___Socks (preferably wool) ___Moccasins or running ___Insulated parka or coat they won't touch the skin. Issued head nets are shoes (for wear around with hood either black or green. If one needs to be camp) ___Wool stocking cap improvised they can be sewn to the brim of ___Visored cap ___Mittens the hat or can be attached with an elastic band ___Bandanas ___Insulated booties or that fits around the crown. Black is the best mukluks ___Rain gear ___Bandanas

72 Clothing at Sea abandoning an aircraft) would be dangerous or could prove fatal. The suit provides In cold oceans, survivors must try to stay protection from the wind and insulation dry and keep warm. If wet, they should use a against the chill of the ocean. The result of wind screen to decrease the cooling effects of exposure in the water is illustrated in figures the wind. They should also remove, wring 2-12 and 2-13. Exposure time varies out, and replace outer garments or change into depending on the particular antiexposure dry clothing. Hats, socks, and gloves should assembly worn, the cold sensitiveness of the also be dried. If any survivors are dry, they person, and survival procedures used. should share extra clothes with those who are wet. Wet personnel should be given the most Quick-Donning Antiexposure Flying sheltered positions in the raft. Let them warm Coverall. Some antiexposure coveralls are their hands and feet against those who are dry. designed for quick donning (approximately 1 Survivors should put on any extra clothing minute) before emergency ditching. After available. If no antiexposure suits are ditching the aircraft, the coverall protects the provided, they can drape extra clothing wearer from exposure while swimming in around their shoulders and over their heads. cold water, and from exposure to wind, spray, Clothes should be loose and comfortable. and rain when adrift in a liferaft. Also, survivors should attempt to keep the The coverall is a one-size garment made floor of the raft dry. For insulation, covering from chloroprene-coated nylon cloth. It has the floor with any available material will help. Survivors should huddle together on the floor two expandable-type patch pockets, an of the raft and spread extra tarpaulin, sail, or adjustable waist belt, and attached boots with parachute material over the group. If in a 20- adjustable ankle straps. One pair of insulated, or 25-man raft, canopy sides can be lowered. adjustable wrist strap mittens, each with a Performing mild exercises to restore strap attached to a pocket, is provided. A circulation may be helpful. Survivors should hood, also attached with a strap, is in the left exercise fingers, toes, shoulders, and buttock pocket. A carrying case with instructions and muscles. Mild exercise will help keep the a snap fastener closure is furnished for body warm, stave off muscle spasms, and stowing in the aircraft. possibly prevent medical problems. Survivors To use the coverall, personnel should should warm hands under armpits and wear it over regular clothing. It is large periodically raise feet slightly and hold them enough to wear over the usual flight gear. The up for a minute or two. They should also gloves and hood are stowed in the pockets of move face muscles frequently to prevent the coverall and are normally worn after frostbite. Shivering is the body's way of boarding the liferaft. quickly generating heat and is considered The survivor should be extremely careful normal. However, persistent shivering may when donning the coverall to prevent damage lead to uncontrollable muscle spasms. They by snagging, tearing, or puncturing it on can be avoided by exercising muscles. If projecting objects. After donning the coverall, water is available, additional rations should be the waist band and boot ankle straps should given to those suffering from exposure to be adjusted to take up fullness. If possible, cold. Survivors should eat small amounts survivors should stoop while pulling the neck frequently rather than one large meal. seal to expel air trapped in the suit. When jumping into the water, they should leap feet Antiexposure Garments first with hands and arms close to sides or Assemblies. The antiexposure assemblies, brought together above the head (fig. 2-25). both quick donning and constant wear, are Note there is a constant wear exposure suit designed for personnel participating in over- designed to be worn continuously during water flights where unprotected or prolonged overwater flights where the water temperature exposure to the climatic conditions of cold air is 60º or below. and/or cold water (as a result of ditching or

73 edged grasses can cut clothing to shreds. Warm Oceans Survivors should dry clothing before nightfall. If an extra change of clothing is Protecting against the Sun and securing available, effort should be made to keep it drinking water are the most important clean and dry. problems. A survivor should keep the body covered as much as possible to avoid sunburn. A sunshade can be improvised out of any Dry Climates materials available or the canopy provided with the raft may be used. If the heat becomes In the dry climates of the world, clothing too intense, survivors may dampen clothing will be needed for protection against sunburn, with sea water to promote evaporation and heat, sand, and insects. Survivors should not cooling. The use of sunburn preventive cream discard any clothing. They should keep their or a Chapstick is advisable. Remember, the head and body covered and blouse the legs of body must be kept covered completely. pants over the tops of footwear during the Exposure to the Sun increases thirst, wastes day. Survivors should not roll up sleeves, but precious water, reduces the body's water keep them rolled down and loose at the cuff to content, and causes serious burns. Survivors stay cool. should roll down their sleeves, pull up their Survivors should keep in mind that the socks, close their collars, wear a hat or people who live in the hot dry areas of the improvised headgear, use a piece of cloth as a world usually wear heavy white flowing robes shield for the back of the neck, and wear which protect almost every inch of their sunglasses or improvise eye covers. bodies. The only areas open to the Sun are the face and the eyes. This produces an area of Tropical Climates higher humidity between the body and the clothing, which helps keep them cooler and In tropical areas, the body should be kept conserves their perspiration (fig. 2-26). The covered for prevention of insect bites, white clothing also reflects the sunlight. scratches, and sunburn. Survivors should wear a cloth neckpiece When moving through vegetation, to cover the back of the neck and protect it survivors should roll down their sleeves, wear from the Sun. A T-shirt makes an excellent gloves, and blouse the legs of their pants or neck drape, with the extra material used as tie them over their boot tops. Improvised padding under the cap. If hats are not puttees (gaiters) can be made from parachute available, survivors can make headpieces like material or any available fabric. This will those worn by the Arabs, as shown in figure protect legs from ticks and leeches. 2-26. During dust storms, they should wear a Loosely worn clothing will keep covering for the mouth and nose; parachute survivors cooler, especially when subjected to cloth will work. the direct rays of the Sun. If shoes are lost or if they wear out, Survivors should wear a head net or tie survivors can improvise footgear. One material around the head for protection example of this is the “Russian Sock.” against insects. The most active time for Parachute material can be used to improvise insects is at dawn and dusk. An insect these socks. The parachute material is cut into repellent should be used at these times. strips approximately 2 feet long and 4 inches In open country or in high grass, wide. These strips are wrapped bandage survivors should wear a neck cloth or fashion around the feet and ankles. Socks improvised head covering for protection from made in this fashion will provide comfort and sunburn and/or dust. They should also move protection for the feet. carefully through tall grass, as some sharp-

66 CHAPTER 2-5

Shelters

A shelter can protect your from the Sun, insects, wind, rain, snow, and hot or cold Shelter: Is anything that protects a survivor from temperatures. It can give you a feeling of well- the environmental hazards. being. It can help you maintain your will to survive. In some areas, your need for shelter may materials in unfavorable conditions. They take priority over your need for food and must constantly be thinking of ways to satisfy possibly even your need for water. For their needs for protection from environmental example, prolonged exposure to cold can hazards. cause excessive fatigue and weakness (exhaustion). An exhausted person may Weather develop a “passive” outlook, thereby losing the will to survive. Weather conditions are a key consideration The most common error in making a shelter when selecting a shelter site. Failure to is to make it too large. A shelter must be large consider the weather could have disastrous enough to protect you. It must also be small results. Some major weather factors which can enough to contain your body heat especially in influence the survivor's choice of shelter type cold climates. and site selection are temperature, wind, and The information in this chapter describes precipitation. how the environment influences shelter site selection and factors which survivors must Temperature. Temperatures can vary consider before constructing an adequate considerably within a given area. Setting up a shelter. The techniques and procedures for campsite in low areas such as a valley in cold constructing shelters for various types of regions can expose survivors to low night protection are also presented. temperatures and wind-chill factors. Colder temperatures are found along valley floors which are sometimes referred to as “cold air Shelter Considerations sumps.” It may be advantageous to set up campsites to take advantage of the Sun. The location and type of shelter built by Survivors could place their shelters in open survivors vary with each survival situation. areas during the colder months for added There are many things to consider when warmth and in shaded areas for protection picking a site. Survivors should consider the from the Sun during periods of hotter weather. time and energy required to establish an In some areas a compromise may have to be adequate camp, weather conditions, life forms made. For example, in many deserts the (human, plant, and animal), terrain, and time daytime temperatures can be very high while of day. Every effort should be made to use as low temperatures at night can turn water to little energy as possible and yet attain ice. Protection from both heat and cold are maximum protection from the environment. needed in these areas. Shelter type and location should be chosen to provide Time protection from the existing temperature conditions. Late afternoon is not the best time to look for a site which will meet the day's shelter Wind. Wind can be either an advantage or a requirements. If survivors wait until the last disadvantage depending upon the temperature minute, they may be forced to use poor of the area and the velocity of the wind. During the summer or on warm days,

67 survivors can take advantage of the cool Scree and Talus: An accumulation of loose stones breezes and protection the wind provides from or rocky debris lying on a slope or at the back of a insects by locating their camps on knolls or hill or cliff. spots of land. Conversely, wind can become an annoyance or even a hazard as blowing sand, dust, or snow can cause skin and eye Terrain hazards may not be as apparent as irritation and damage to clothing and weather and animal life hazards, but they can equipment. On cold days or during winter be many times more dangerous. Avalanche, months, survivors should seek shelter sites rock, dry streambeds, or mud-slide areas which are protected from the effects of wind- should be avoided. These areas can be chill and drifting snow. recognized by either a clear path or a path of secondary vegetation, such as 1- to 15-foot tall Precipitation. The many forms of vegetation or other new growth which extends precipitation (rain, sleet, hail, or snow) can from the top to the bottom of a hill or also present problems for survivors. Shelter mountain. Survivors should not choose shelter sites should be out of major drainages and sites at the bottom of steep slopes which may other low areas to provide protection from be prone to slides. Likewise, there is a danger flash floods or mud slides resulting from in camping at the bottom of steep scree or heavy rains. Snow can also be a great danger talus slopes. Additionally, rock overhang if shelters are placed in potential avalanche must be checked for safety before using it as a areas. shelter.

Life Forms Location

All life forms (plant and animal) must be When you are in a survival situation and considered when selecting the campsite and realize that shelter is a high priority, start the type of shelter that will be used. For a looking for shelter as soon as possible. As you shelter to be adequate, certain factors must be do so, remember what you will need at the considered, especially if extended survival is site. Four requisites are: expected. Insect life can cause personal discomfort, 1. It must be near water, food, fuel, and a disease, and injury. By locating shelters on signal or recovery site. knolls, ridges, or any other area that has a breeze or steady wind, survivors can reduce 2. The area must be safe, providing natural the number of flying insects in their area. protection from environmental hazards. Staying away from standing water sources will help to avoid mosquitoes, bees, wasps, 3. Materials must be available to construct and hornets. Ants can be a major problem; the shelter. some species will forcefully defend their territories with painful stings or bites, or In some cases, the “shelter” may already be release particularly unpleasant odors. present. Survivors seriously limit themselves Large and small animals can also be a if they assume shelters must be a constructed problem, especially if the camp is set up near framework having predetermined dimensions their trails or waterholes. and a cover of parachute material or a signal Dead trees that are standing, and trees with paulin. More appropriately, survivors should dead branches should be avoided. Wind may consider using sheltered places already in cause them to fall, causing injuries or death. existence in the immediate area. This does not Poisonous plants, such as poison oak or rule out shelters with a constructed framework poison ivy, must also be avoided when and parachute or other manufactured material locating a shelter. covering; it simply enlarges the scope of what can be used as a survival shelter. Terrain

68 4. The area chosen must be both large fire is to be built must have a ventilation enough and level enough for the survivor to system which will provide fresh air and allow lie down. smoke and carbon monoxide to escape. Even if a fire does not produce visible smoke (such Personal comfort is an important as heat tabs), the shelter must still be vented. fundamental for survivors to consider. A If a fire is to be placed outside the shelter, the satisfactory shelter provides physical and opening of the shelter should be placed 90 mental well-being for sound rest. Plenty of degrees to the prevailing wind. This will rest is very important if survivors are to make reduce the chances of sparks and smoke being sound decisions. Their need for rest becomes blown into the shelter if the wind should more critical as time passes and rescue or reverse direction in the morning and evening. return is delayed. Before actually constructing This frequently occurs in mountainous areas. a shelter, survivors must determine the The best fire to shelter distance is specific purpose of the shelter. The following approximately 3 feet. If an aircrew member’s factors influence the type of shelter to be built. situation, one place where it would not be wise to build a fire is near the aircraft wreckage,  Rain or other precipitation. especially if it is being used as a shelter. The  Cold. possibility of igniting spilled lubricants or  Heat. fuels is great. Survivors may decide instead to  Insects. use materials from the aircraft to add to a  Available materials nearby (manufactured shelter located a safe distance from the crash or natural). site.  Length of expected stay.  Number and physical condition of survivors. Types of Shelters

If possible, survivors should try to find a shelter which needs little work to be adequate. When looking for a shelter site, keep in Using what is already there, so that complete mind the type of shelter (protection) you need. construction of a shelter is not necessary, However, you must also consider: saves time and energy. For example, rock overhangs, caves, large cracks, fallen logs,  How much time and effort you need to root supports, or snow banks can all be build the shelter. modified to provide satisfactory shelter. Modifications may include adding snow  If the shelter will adequately protect you blocks to finish off an existing tree well from the elements (Sun, wind, rain, snow). shelter, increasing the insulation of the shelter by using vegetation or parachute material, or  If you have the tools to build it. If not, can building a reflector fire in front of a rock you make improvised tools? overhang or cave. Survivors must consider the amount of energy required to build the shelter.  If you have the type and amount of It is not really wise to spend a great deal of materials needed to build it. time and energy in constructing a shelter if nature has provided a natural shelter nearby To answer these questions, you need to which will satisfy the survivor's needs. See know how to make various types of shelters figure 2-27 for an example of naturally and what materials you need to make them. occurring shelter. The size limitations of a shelter are Immediate Action Shelters important only if there is either a lack of material on hand or if it is cold. Otherwise, the The first type of shelter that survivors may shelter should be large enough to be consider using, or the first type they may be comfortable yet not so large as to cause an forced to use, is an immediate action shelter. excessive amount of work. Any shelter, An immediate action shelter is one which can naturally occurring or otherwise, in which a be erected quickly with minimum effort; for

69 example, raft, aircraft parts, parachutes, paulin, and plastic bag. Natural formations can  Simple shade shelter; these are useful in dry also shield survivors from the elements areas. immediately, to include overhanging ledges, fallen logs, caves, and tree wells (fig. 2-28). It  Various paratepees. isn't necessary to be concerned with exact shelter dimensions. Survivors should remember  Snow shelters; includes tree-pit shelters. that if shelter is needed, use an existing shelter if at all possible. They should improvise on  All other variations of the above shelter natural shelters or construct new shelters only types; sod shelters, etc. if necessary. Regardless of type, the shelter must provide whatever protection is needed Shelters for Warm Temperature Areas and, with a little ingenuity, it should be possible for survivors to protect themselves The first step is deciding the type of shelter and do so quickly. In many instances, the required. No matter which shelter is selected, immediate action shelters may have to serve the building or improvising process should be as permanent shelters for survivors. For planned and orderly, following proven example, many aircrew members fly without procedures and techniques. The second step is parachutes, large cutting implements (axes), to select, collect, and prepare all materials and entrenching tools; therefore, multiperson needed before the actual construction; this liferafts may be the only immediate or long- includes framework, covering, bedding, or term shelter available. In this situation, insulation, and implements used to secure the multiperson liferafts must be deployed in the shelter (“dead-men,” lines, stakes, etc.). quickest manner possible to ensure maximum For shelters that use a wooden framework, advantages are attained from the following the poles or wood selected should have all the shelter principles: rough edges and stubs removed. Not only will this reduce the chances of the parachute fabric  Set up in areas which afford maximum being ripped, but it will eliminate the chances protection from precipitation and wind and of injury to survivors. use the basic shelter principle in topics On the outer side of a tree selected as discussed in the Shelter Considerations natural shelter, some or all of the branches and Location. may be left in place as they will make a good  Anchor the raft for retention during high support structure for the rest of the shelter winds. parts.  Use additional boughs, grasses, etc., for In addition to the parachute, there are other ground insulation. materials which can be used as framework coverings. Some of the following are both Improvised Shelters framework and covering all in one:

Shelters of this type should be easy to  Bark peeled off dead trees. construct and/or dismantle in a short period of  Boughs cut off trees. time. However, these shelters usually require  Bamboo, palm, grasses, and other vegetation more time to construct than an immediate cut or woven into desired patterns. action shelter. For this reason, survivors should only consider this type of shelter when The next step in the process of shelter they aren't immediately concerned with construction is site preparation. This includes getting out of the elements. Shelters of this brushing away rocks and twigs from the type include the following: sleeping area and cutting back overhanging vegetation.  The “A frame” design is adaptable to all The fourth step is to actually construct the environments as it can be easily modified; shelter, beginning with the framework. The for example, tropical para-hammock, framework is very important. It must be strong temperate area “A frame,” arctic thermal “A enough to support the weight of the covering frame,” and fighter trench.

70 and possible buildup of snow. It must also be Precipitation: A deposition on the Earth of hail, sturdy enough to resist strong wind gusts. mist, rain, sleet, or snow. Construct the framework in one of two ways. For natural shelters, branches may be securely placed against trees or other natural objects. For parachute shelters, poles may be body heat, radiating heat from the Earth's lashed to trees or to other poles. The support surface, and other heating sources. poles or branches can then by laid and/or If parachute material is to be used alone or attached depending on their function. in combination with natural materials, it must The pitch of the shelter is determined by be changed slightly. Survivors should remove the framework. A 60-degree pitch is best for all of the lines from the parachute and then cut shedding precipitation and providing shelter room. it to size. This will eliminate bunching and The size of the shelter is determined by the wrinkling and reduce leakage. framework. The shelter should be large If natural materials are to be used for the enough for survivors to sit up, with plenty of covering, the shingle method should be used. room to lie down and to store all personal Starting at the bottom and working toward the equipment. top of the shelter, the bottom of each piece After the basic framework has been should overlap the top of the preceding piece. completed, survivors can apply and secure the This will allow water to drain off. The framework covering. The care and techniques material should be placed on the shelter in used to apply the covering will determine the ample quantity so that survivors in the shelter effectiveness of the shelter in shedding cannot see through it. precipitation. If survivors are to use parachute material, Maintenance and Improvements they should remember that “pitch and tightness" apply to shelters designed to shed Once a shelter is constructed, it must be rain or snow. Parachute material is absorbent maintained. Additional modifications may and will not shed moisture unless it is make the shelter more effective and stretched tightly at an angle of sufficient pitch comfortable. Indian lacing (lacing the front of the shelter to the bipod) will tighten the which will encourage run-off instead of shelter. A door may help block the wind and penetration. An angle of 40 to 60 degrees is keep insects out. Other modifications may recommended for the “pitch” of the shelter. include a fire reflector, porch or work area, or The material stretched over the framework another whole addition such as an opposing should be wrinkle-free and tight. Survivors lean-to. should not touch the material when water is running over it as this will break the surface tension at that point and allow water to drip into the shelter. Two layers of parachute Construction of Specific Shelters material, 4 to 6 inches apart, will create a more effective water repellent covering. Even A-Frame during hard rain, the outer layer only lets a mist come through if it is pulled tight. The The following is one way to build an A- inner layer will then channel off any moisture frame shelter in a warm or temperate which may come through. This layering of environment using parachute material or parachute material also creates a dead-air fabric for the covering. There are as many space that covers the shelter. This is especially variations of this shelter as there are builders. beneficial in cold areas when the shelter is The procedures here will, if followed enclosed. Plenty of insulation can also be carefully, result in the completion of a safe provided by branches, aircraft parts, snow, etc. shelter that will meet survivors' needs. For an These will be discussed in more depth in the example of this and other A-frame shelters, area of cold climate shelters. A double see figure 2-29. layering of parachute material helps to trap

71 Materials:  Stakes should be slanted away from the direction of pull. When tying off with a  One 12- to 18-foot long sturdy ridge pole clove hitch, the line should pass in front of with all projections cleaned off. the stake first and then pass under itself to allow the button and line to be pulled 90  Two bipod poles, approximately 7 feet degrees to the wrinkle. long.  Indian lacing is the sewing or lacing of the  Parachute material or fabric. lower lateral band with inner core or line which is secured to the bipod poles. This  Suspension lines. will remove the remaining wrinkles and  “Buttons,” small objects placed behind further tighten the material. gathers of material to provide a secure way of affixing suspension line to the  A rain fly, bed, and other refinements can parachute material. now be added.

 Approximately 14 stakes, approximately Poncho Lean-To 10 inches long. It takes only a short time and minimal Assembling the Framework: equipment to build this lean-to. You need a sturdy, smooth, ridge pole (longer than the  Lash the two bipod poles together at eye- builder’s body) long enough to span the level height. distance between two sturdy trees. You will  Place the ridge pole, with the large end on also need support poles, stakes, suspension the ground, into the bipod formed by the lines, buttons, and fabric or parachute poles and secure with a square lash. material.  The bipod structure should be 90 degrees Before selecting the trees you will use or the to the ridge pole and the bipod poles location of your poles, check the wind should be spread out to an approximate direction. Ensure that the back of your lean-to equilateral triangle of a 60-degree pitch. A will be into the wind. piece of line can be used to measure this. Assembling the Framework: Applying the Fabric:  Lash the ridge pole (between two suitable  Tie off about 2 feet of the apex in a knot trees) about chest or shoulder high. and tuck this under the butt end of the  Lay the roof support poles on the ridge ridge pole. Use half hitches and clove pole so the roof support poles and the hitches to secure the material to the base ground are at approximately a 60-degree of the pole. angle. Lash the roof support poles to the ridge pole.  Place the center radial seam of the parachute piece (or the center of the Applying the Fabric: fabric) on the ridge pole. After pulling the material tight, use half hitches and clove  Place the middle seam of the fabric on the hitches to secure the fabric to the front of middle support pole with lower lateral the ridge pole. band along the ridge pole.  Tie-off the middle and both sides of the  Draw a line on the ground from the butt of lower lateral band approximately 8 to 10 the ridge pole to each of the bipod poles. inches from the ridge pole. Stake the fabric down, starting at the rear  Stake the middle of the rear of the shelter of the shelter and alternately staking from first, then alternate from side to side. side to side to the shelter front. Use plenty  The stakes that go up to the sides to the of stakes to ensure the parachute material front should point to the front of the is wrinkle-free. shelter.

72  Pull the lower lateral band closer to the  Draw a circle approximately 12 feet in ridge pole by Indian lacing. diameter in the shelter area and set the tripod  Add bed and other refinements (reflector so the butts of the poles are evenly spaced fire, bed logs, rain fly, etc.). See figure on the circle. Five of the remaining eight 2-30 for lean-to examples. poles should be placed so the butts are evenly spaced around the 12-foot circle and For additional protection from wind and the tops are laid in the apex of the tripod to rain, place some brush, your rucksack, or form the smallest apex possible. other equipment at the sides of the lean-to. To reduce heat loss to the ground, place Applying the Fabric: some type of insulating material, such as leaves or pine needles, inside your lean-to.  Stretch the parachute material along the tie pole. Using the suspension line attached to Note: When at rest, you lose as much as 80 the middle radial seam, tie the lower lateral percent of your body heat to the ground. band to the tie pole 6 inches from the butt end. Stretch the parachute material along the Nine-Pole Parachute Tepee middle radial seam and tie it to the tie pole using the suspension line at the apex. Lay The tepee is an excellent shelter for the tie pole onto the shelter frame with the protection from wind, rain, cold, and insects. butt along the 12-foot circle and the top in Cooking, eating, sleeping, resting, signaling, the apex formed by the other poles. The tie and washing can all be done without going pole should be placed directly opposite the outdoors. The tepee, whether 9-pole, 1-pole, proposed door. or no-pole, is the only improvised shelter that  Move the canopy material (both sides of it) provides adequate ventilation to build an from the tie pole around the framework and inside fire. With a small fire inside, the shelter tie the lower lateral band together and stake also serves as a signal at night. it at the door. The front can now be sewn or pegged closed, leaving 3 to 4 feet for a door. Materials: (A sewing “ladder” can be made by lashing steps up the front of the tepee (fig. 2-31.4).  Suspension line.  Enter the shelter and move the butts of the  Fabric or parachute material. poles outward to form a more perfect circle  Stakes. and until the fabric is relatively tight and  Although any number of poles may be smooth. used, 11 poles, smoothed off, each about  Tighten the fabric and remove remaining 20 feet long, will normally provide wrinkles. Start staking directly opposite the adequate support. door, and alternate from side to side, pulling the material down and to the front of the Assembling the Framework: shelter. Use clove hitches or similar knots to secure material to the stakes. Assume 11 poles are used. Adjust  Insert the final two poles into the loops on instructions if different numbers are used. the smoke flaps. The tepee is now finished (fig. 2-31.5).  Lay three poles on the ground with the butts  One improvement which could be made to even. Stretch the canopy along the poles. the nine-pole tepee is the installation of a The lower lateral band should be 4 to 6 liner. This will allow a draft for a fire inches from the bottoms of the poles before without making the occupants cold, since the stretching takes place. Mark one of the there may be a slight gap between the lower poles at the apex point. lateral band and the ground. A liner can be  Lash the three poles together, 5 to 10 inches affixed to the inside of the tepee by taking above the marked area. (A shear lash is the remaining 14-gore piece of material and effective for this purpose.) These poles will firmly staking the lower lateral band directly form the tripod (fig. 2-31). to the ground all the way around, leaving room for the door. The area where the liner

73 and door meet may be sewn up. The rest of standing poles. You can then place the poles the material is brought up the inside walls side by side to close the teepee’s entrance. and affixed to the poles with buttons.  Place all extra canopy underneath the tepee poles and inside to create a floor for the Three-Pole Parachute Tepee shelter.  Leave a 30- to 50-centimeter opening at the If you have a parachute and three poles and top for ventilation if you intend to have a the tactical situation allows, make a parachute fire inside the tepee. tepee. It is easy and takes very little time to make this tepee. It provides protection from One-Pole Tepee the elements and can act as a signaling device by enhancing a small amount of light from a You need a 14-gore section (normally) of fire or candle. It is large enough to hold canopy, stakes, a stout center pole, and inner several people and their equipment and to core and needle to construct this tepee. You allow sleeping, cooking, and storing firewood. cut the suspension lines except for 40- to 45- You can make this tepee using parts of or a centimeter lengths at the canopy’s lower whole personnel main or reserve parachute lateral band. canopy. If using a standard personnel parachute, you need three poles 3.5 to 4.5 Assembling the Framework: meters long and about 5 centimeters in diameter.  Select a shelter site and draw a circle about 14 feet in diameter on the ground. Assembling the Framework:  The parachute material is staked to the ground using the lines attached at the  Lay the poles on the ground and lash them lower lateral band. After deciding where together at one end. the shelter door will be located, stake the  Stand the framework up and spread the poles to form a tripod. first line (from the lower band) down  For more support, place additional poles securely. Proceed around the circle that against the tripod. Five or six additional was drawn and stake down all the lines poles work best, but do not lash them to the from the lateral band, making sure the tripod. parachute material is stretched tight before  Determine the wind direction and locate the the line is staked down. entrance 90 degrees or more from the mean  Once all the lines are staked down, loosely wind direction. attach the center pole, and through trial and error, determine the point at which the Applying the Fabric: parachute material will be pulled tight once the center pole is placed upright—  Lay out the parachute on the “backside” of securely attach the material at this point. the tripod and locate the bridle loop (nylon web loop) at the top (apex) of the canopy.  Using a suspension line (or innercore),  Place the bridle loop over the top of a free- sew the end of the material together standing pole. Then place the pole back up leaving 3 or 4 feet for a door (fig. 2-32). against the tripod so that the canopy’s apex is at the same height as the lashing on the three poles. Parachute Tepee  Wrap the canopy around one side of the tripod. The canopy should be of double No-Pole thickness, as you are wrapping an entire parachute. You need only wrap half of the For this shelter, you use the same materials, tripod, as the remainder of the canopy will except for the center pole, as for the one-pole encircle the tripod in the opposite direction. parachute tepee.  Construct the entrance by wrapping the folded edges of the canopy around two free-

74 Assembling the Framework (fig. 2-33): be a breeze which will result in fewer insects. Underbrush and dead vegetation should be  Tie a line to the top of parachute material cleared from the shelter site. Crawling insects with a previously cut suspension line. will not be able to approach survivors easily  Throw the line over a tree limb, and tie it due to lack of cover. A thick bamboo clump or to the tree trunk. matted canopy of vines for cover reflects the  Starting at the opposite side from the door, smoke from the campfire and discourages place a stake on the drawned 3.5- to 4.3- insects. This cover will also keep the meter circle. extremely heavy early morning dew off the  Tie the first line on the lower lateral band. bedding.  Continue emplacing the stakes and tying The easiest improvised shelter is made by the lines to them. draping a parachute, tarpaulin, or poncho over  After staking down the material, unfasten a rope or vine stretched between two trees. the line tied to the tree trunk, tighten the One end of the canopy should be kept higher tepee material by pulling on this line, and than the other. Insects are discouraged by few tie it securely to the tree trunk. openings in shelters and smudge fires. A hammock made from parachute material or Sod Shelter fabric will keep the survivor off the ground and discourage ants, spiders, leeches, A framework covered with sod provides a scorpions, and other pests. shelter which is warm in cold weather and one In the wet jungle, survivors need shelter that is easily made waterproof and insect- from dampness. If they stay with the aircraft, proof in the summer. The framework for a sod it should be used for shelter. They should try shelter must be strong, and it can be made of to make it mosquito proof by covering driftwood, poles, willow, etc. (Some natives openings with netting or parachute cloth. use whale bones.) Sod, with a heavy growth of A good rain shelter can be made by grass or weeds, should be used since the roots constructing an A-type framework and tend to hold the soil together. Cutting about 2 covering it with a good thickness of palm or inches of soil along with the grass is other broad leaf plants, pieces of bark, and sufficient. The size of the blocks are mats of grass (fig. 2-34). determined by the strength of the individual. Nights are cold in some mountainous A sod house is strong and fireproof. tropical areas. Survivors should try to stay out of the wind and build a fire. Reflecting the heat off a rock pile or other barrier is a good Shelters for Tropical Areas idea. Some natural materials which can be used in the shelters are green wood (dead In tropical areas, especially moist tropical wood may be too rotten), bamboo, and palm areas, the major environmental factors leaves. Vines can be used in place of influencing both site selection and shelter suspension line for thatching roofs or floors, types are: etc. Banana plant sections can be separated from the banana plant and fashioned to  Moisture and dampness. provide a mattress effect.  Rain.  Wet ground. Raised Platform Shelter  Heat.  Mud-slide areas. The raised platform shelter has many  Dead standing trees and limbs. variations. One example is four trees or  Insects. vertical poles in a rectangular pattern which is a little longer and a little wider than the Survivors should establish a campsite on a survivor, keeping in mind the survivor will knoll or high spot in an open area well back also need protection for equipment. Two long, from any swamps or marshy areas. The sturdy poles are then square lashed between ground in these areas is drier, and there may the trees or vertical poles, one on each side of the intended shelter. Cross pieces can then be

75 secured across the two horizontal poles at 6- Silt: A sedimentary material consisted of fine to 12-inch intervals. This forms the platform mineral particles intermediate in size between on which a natural mattress may be sand and clay. constructed. Parachute material can be used as an insect net and a roof can be built over the structure using A-frame building techniques. The roof should be waterproofed with  Cover with 6 to 12 inches of sand to thatching laid bottom to top in a thick shingle provide protection from wind and fashion. See figure 2-35 for examples of this moisture. and other platform shelters. These shelters can  Construct a door for the shelter (fig. 2-38). also be built using three trees in a triangular pattern. At the foot of the shelter, two poles are joined to one tree. Swamp Bed

Raised Parachute Platform Shelter. A In a marsh or swamp, or any area with variation of the platform-type shelter is the standing water or continually wet ground, the parachute platform. A quick and comfortable swamp bed (fig. 2-39) keeps you out of the bed is made by simply wrapping material water. When selecting such a site, consider the around the two "frame" poles. Another weather, wind, tides, and available materials. method is to roll poles in the material in the same manner as for an improvised stretcher To make a swamp bed: (fig. 2-36).  Look for four trees clustered in a Hammocks. Various parachute hammocks rectangle, or cut four poles (bamboo is can also be made. They are more involved ideal) and drive them firmly into the than a simple parachute wrapped framework ground so they form a rectangle. They and not quite as comfortable (fig. 2-37). You should be far enough apart and strong can make a hammock using 6 to 8 gores of enough to support your height and weight, parachute canopy and two trees about 4.5 to include equipment. meters apart.  Cut two poles that span the width of the rectangle. They, too, must be strong Hobo Shelter enough to support your weight.  Secure these two poles to the trees (or On tropical coasts and other coastal poles). Be sure they are high enough environments, if a more permanent shelter is above the ground or water to allow for desired as opposed to a simple shade shelter, tides and high water. survivors should build a “hobo” shelter. To  Cut additional poles that span rectangle’s build this shelter: length. Lay them across the two side poles, and secure them.  Dig into the lee side of a sand dune to  Cover the top of the bed frame with broad protect the shelter from the wind. Clear a leaves or grass to form a soft sleeping level area large enough to lie down in and surface. store equipment.  Build a fire pad by laying clay, silt, or  After the area has been cleared, build a mud on one corner of the swamp bed and heavy driftwood framework which will allow it to dry. support the sand.  Wall sides and top with strong material Another shelter designed to get you above (boards, driftwood, etc.) that will support and out of the water or wet ground uses the the sand; leave a door opening. same rectangular configuration as the swamp  Slope the roof to equal the slope of the bed. You very simply lay sticks and branches sand dune. Cover the entire shelter with lengthwise on the inside of the trees (or poles) parachute material to keep sand from until there is enough material to raise the sifting through small holes in the walls and sleeping surface above the water level. roof.

Shelters for Dry Climates Debris Hut

Natives of hot, dry areas make use of light- For warmth and ease of construction, this shelter is one of the best. When shelter is proof shelters with sides rolled up to take essential to survival, build this shelter. advantage of any breeze. Survivors should imitate these shade-type shelters if forced to To make a debris hut (fig. 2-40): survive in these areas. The extremes of heat and cold must be considered in hot areas, as  Build it by making a tripod with two most can become very cold during the night. short stakes and a long ridgepole or by The major problem for survivors will be placing one end of a long ridgepole on escaping the heat and sun rays. top of a sturdy base.  Secure the ridgepole (pole running the Natural Shelters length of the shelter) using the tripod method or by anchoring it to a tree at Do not overlook natural formations that about waist height.  Prop large sticks along both sides of the provide shelter. Examples are caves, rocky ridgepole to create a wedge-shaped crevices, clumps or bushes, small depressions, ribbing effect. Ensure the ribbing is wide large rocks on leeward sides of hills, large enough to accommodate your body and trees with low-hanging limbs, and fallen trees steep enough to shed moisture. with thick branches. However, when selecting  Place finer sticks and brush crosswise on a natural formation: the ribbing. These form a latticework that will keep the insulating material  Stay away from low ground such as (grass, pine needles, leaves) from falling ravines, narrow valleys, or creek beds. through the ribbing into the sleeping Low areas collect the heavy cold air at area. night and are therefore colder than the  Add light, dry, if possible, soft debris surrounding high ground. Thick, brushy, over the ribbing until the insulating material is at least 1 meter thick—the low ground also harbors more insects. thicker the better.  Check for poisonous snakes, ticks, mites,  Place a 30-centimeter layer of insulating scorpions, and stinging ants. material inside the shelter.  Look for loose rocks, dead limbs,  At the entrance, pile insulating material coconuts, or other natural growth that that you can drag to you once inside the could fall on your shelter. shelter to close the entrance or build a door. In some desert mountains, it is possible to  As a final step in constructing this find good rock shelters or cave-like protection shelter, add shingling material or under tumbled blocks of rocks which have branches on top of the debris layer to fallen from cliffs. Use care to ensure that these prevent the insulating material from blocks are in areas void of future rock falling blowing away in a storm. activity and free from animal hazards. Beach Shade Shelter Vegetation, if any exists, is usually stunted and armed with thorns. It may be possible to This shelter protects you from the sun, stay in the shade by moving around the wind, rain, and heat. It is easy to make using vegetation as the Sun moves. The hottest part natural materials. of the day may offer few shadows because the Sun is directly overhead. Parachute material To make this shelter (fig. 2-41): draped over bushes or rocks will provide some shade.

77  Find and collect driftwood or other Note: Belowground If you Shelter:have enough material, fold it in natural material to use as support beams half and form a 30-centimeter to 45- and as a digging tool. centimeter airspace between the two halves.  Select a site that is above the high water mark.  Scrape or dig out a trench running north to south so that it receives the least amount of sunlight. Make the trench long and wide enough for you to lie This airspace will reduce the temperature down comfortably. under the shelter.  Mound soil on three sides of the trench. The higher the mound, the more space A belowground shelter (fig. 2-42) can inside the shelter. reduce the midday heat as much as 16 to 22ºC  Lay support beams (driftwood or other (30 to 40ºF). Building it, however, requires natural material) that span the trench on more time and effort than for other shelters. top of the mound to form the framework Since your physical effort will make you for a roof. sweat more and increase dehydration,  Enlarge the shelter’s entrance by digging construct it before the heat of the day. out more sand in front of it.  Use natural materials such as grass or To make this shelter: leaves to form a bed inside the shelter.  Find a low spot or depression between Desert Shelters dunes or rocks. If necessary, dig a trench 45 to 60 centimeters deep and long and wide In an arid environment, consider the time, enough for you to lie in comfortably. effort, and material needed to make a shelter.  Pile the sand you take from the trench to If you have material such as a poncho, canvas, form a mound around three sides. or a parachute, use it along with such land  On the open end of the trench, dig out more features as rock outcroppings, mounds of sand so you can get in and out of your sand, or a depression between dunes or rocks shelter easily.  Cover the trench with your material. to make your shelter.  Secure the material in place using sand, rocks, or other weights. Using rock outcroppings: If you have extra material, you can further  Anchor one end of your poncho (canvas, decrease the midday temperature in the trench parachute, or other material) on the edge by securing the material 30 to 45 centimeters of the outcrop using rocks or other above the other cover. This layering of the weights. material will reduce the inside temperature 11  Extend and anchor the other end of the to 22ºC (20 to 40ºF). poncho so it provides the best possible shade. Principles of Desert Shelters

In a sandy area: Another type of belowground shade shelter is of similar construction, except all sides are  Build a mound of sand or use the side of a open to air currents and circulation. For sand dune for one side of the shelter. maximum protection, you need a minimum of  Anchor one end of the material on top of two layers of parachute or canopy material the mound using sand or other weights. (fig. 2-43). White is the best color to reflect  Extend and anchor the other end of the heat; the innermost layer should be of darker material so it provides the best possible material. shade. Materials that can be used to build desert shelters include the following:

78 Survivors should place the floor of the  Sand, though difficult to work with when shelter about 18 inches above or below the loose, may be made into pillars by using desert surface to increase the cooling effect. sandbags made from any available cloth. In warmer deserts, white material should be  Rock can be used in shelter construction. used as an outer layer. Orange or sage green  Vegetation such as sagebrush, creosote material should be used as an inner layer for bushes, juniper trees, and desert gourd protection from ultraviolet rays. In cooler vines are valuable building materials. areas, multiple layers of material should be  Canopy and suspension lines are perhaps used with sage green or orange material as the the most versatile building materials available. When used in layers, fabric outer layer to absorb heat. The sides of protects you from the Sun’s rays. shelters should be movable in order to protect survivors during cold and windy periods, and The shelter should be made of dense to allow for ventilation during hot periods. material or have numberous layers to reduce In a hot desert, shelters should be built dangerous ultraviolet rays. The color of the away from large rocks which store heat during materials used make a difference as to how the day. Survivors may need to move to the much protection is provided from ultraviolet rocky areas during the evening to take radiation. As a general rule, the order of advantage of the warmth heated rocks radiate. preference should be to use as many layers as Build desert shelters on the windward sides practical in the order of orange, green, tan, and of dunes for cooling breezes. It is best to build white. shelters during early morning, late evening, or at night. However, potential survivors should Ultraviolet Tests on Parachute recall that survivors who come down in a Canopy Material desert area during daylight hours must be immediately concerned with protection from % Ultraviolet (Short Wave 2537 Aº Sunburn Rays) the Sun and loss of water. In this case, canopy Blocked as compared to Direct Exposure material can be draped over a liferaft, vegetation, or a natural terrain feature for 1 Layer 2 Layers 3 Layers quick shelter. Orange 78.2% 96.2% 99.36% Aircraft parts and liferafts are also good Sage Green 79.5% 96.2% 98.7% improvised shade shelters. Survivors may use Tan 64.1% 84.6% 93.6% sections of the wing, tail, or fuselage to White 47.5% 61.6% 70.5% provide shade. However, the interior of the aircraft will quickly become super-heated and % Ultraviolet (Long Wave 3660 Aº) Blocked as should be avoided as a shelter. An inflatable Compared to Direct Exposure raft can be tilted against a raft paddle or natural object such as a bush or rock to 1 Layer 2 Layers 3 Layers provide relief from the Sun (fig. 2-44). Orange 63.4% 92.3% 97.8% Sage Green 60.0% 88.95% 97.8% Tan 38.9% 66.7% 82.3% Shelters for Snow and Ice Areas White 28.9% 47.8% 58.9%

The differences in arctic and arctic-like environments create the need for different shelters. Basically, there are two types of environments which may require special The roof of a desert shelter should be shelter characteristics or building principles multilayered so the resulting airspace reduces before survivors will have adequate shelter. the inside temperature of the shelter. The layers should be separated 12 to 18 inches They are: apart (fig. 2-43).

79  Barren lands which include some above survivors is needed to retain heat. All seacoasts, icecaps, sea ice areas, and areas openings except ventilation holes should be above the tree line. sealed to avoid heat loss. Leaving vent holes  Tree-line areas. open is especially important if heat producing  devices are used. Candles, sterno, or small oil Barren lands offer a limited variety of lamps produce carbon monoxide. In addition materials for shelter construction. These are to the ventilation hole through the roof, snow, small shurbs, and grasses. Ridges another may be required at the door to ensure formed by drifting or wind-packed snow may enough circulation of air. (As a general rule, be used for wind protection (survivors should unless persons can see their breath, the snow shelter is too warm and should be cooled build on the lee side). In some areas, such as down to preclude melting and dripping.) sea ice, windy conditions usually exist and Regardless of how cold it may get outside, cause the ice to shift forming pressure ridges. the temperature inside a small well- These areas of unstable ice and snow should constructed snow cave will probably not be be avoided at all times. lower than -10ºF. Body heat alone can raise Shelters which are suitable for barren-type the temperature of a snow cave 45 degrees areas include: above the outside air. A burning candle will raise the temperature 4 degrees. Burning 5 1. Molded dome. (fig. 2-45) sterno stove (small size, 2 /8 oz) will raise the 2. Snow cave. (fig. 2-46) cave temperature about 28 degrees. However, 3. Fighter trench.(fig. 2-47) since they cannot be heated many degrees 4. Igloo. (fig. 2-48) above freezing, snow shelters provide a rather 5. Para-snow house. (fig. 2-49) rugged life. Once the inside of the shelter “glazes” over with ice, this layer of ice should Note: Of these, the ones that are quick to be removed by chipping it off or a new shelter construct and require minimum effort and built since ice reduces the insulating quality of energy are the molded dome, snow cave, and a shelter. Maintain the old shelter until the fighter trench. It is important to know which new one is constructed. It will provide of these shelters is the easiest to build since protection from the wind. reducing or eliminating the effect of the wind- The aircraft should not be used as a shelter chill factor is essential to remaining alive. when temperatures are below freezing except in high wind conditions. Even then a thermal In tree-covered areas, plenty of natural shelter shelter should be constructed as soon as the building materials are normally available. conditions improve. The aircraft will not Caution is required. Shelters built near rivers provide enough insulation, and the floor will and streams may get caught in the overflow. usually become icy and dangerous.

Tree-line area shelter types include: General Construction Techniques

1. Thermal A-frame construction. (fig. 2-50). All thermal shelters use a layering system 2. Lean-to or wedge. (fig. 2-51). consisting of the frame, parachute (if 3. Double lean-to. (fig. 2-52). available), boughs or shrubs, and snow. The 4. Fan. (fig. 2-53). framework must be sturdy enough to support 5. Willow frame. (fig. 2-54). the cover and insulation. A door block should 6. Tree well. (fig. 2-55). be used to minimize heat loss. Insulation should be added on sleeping areas. Regardless of the type of shelter used, the If a barren land-type shelter is being built use of thermal principles and insulation in with snow as the only material, a long knife or arctic shelters is required. Heat glows from digging tool is a necessity. It normally takes 2 bare ground and from ice masses over water. to 3 hours of hard work to dig a snow cave, This means that shelter areas on land should and much longer for the beginner to build an be dug down to bare earth if possible (fig. 2- igloo. 56). A minimum of 8 inches of insulation

80 Survivors should dress lightly while pillow. Socks and insoles can be separated and digging and working; they can easily become aired in the shelter. Drying may be completed overheated and dampen their clothing with in the sleeping bag by stowing around the perspiration which will rapidly turn to ice. hips. This drying method should only be used If possible, all shelter types should have as a last resort. their openings 90 degrees to the prevailing Keeping the sleeping bag clean, dry, and wind. The entrance to the shelter should also fluffed will give maximum warmth. To dry be screened with snowblocks stacked in a L- the bag, it should be turned inside out, frost shape. beaten out, and warmed before the fire— Snow on the sea ice, suitable for cutting taking care that it doesn't burn. into blocks, will usually be found in the lee of To keep moisture (from breath) from pressure ridges or ice mounds. The packed wetting the sleeping bag, a moisture cloth snow is often so shallow that the snowblocks should be improvised from a piece of clothing, have to be cut out horizontally. a towel, or parachute fabric. It can then be No matter which shelter is used, survivors lightly wrapped around the head in such a way should take a digging tool into the shelter at that the breath is trapped inside the cloth. A night to cope with the great amount of snow piece of fabric dries easier than a sleeping bag. which may block the door during the night. If cold is experienced during the night, survivors should exercise by fluttering their Shelter living feet up and down or by beating the inside of the bag with their hands. Food or hot liquids Survivors should limit the number of can be helpful. shelter entrances to conserve heat. Fuel is Snow remaining in clothing will melt in a generally scarce in the arctic. To conserve warm shelter. When the clothing is again fuel, it is important to keep the shelter taken outside, the water formed will turn to ice entrance sealed as much as possible (fig. and reduce the CLo value. Brush clothes 2-57). When it is necessary to go outside the before entering the shelter. Under living shelter, activities such as gathering fuel, snow conditions where drying clothing is difficult, it or ice for melting, etc., should be done. To is easier to keep clothing from getting wet hurry matters, a trash container may be kept than having to dry it out later. inside the door, and equipment may be stored If all the snow cannot be eliminated from in the entry way. Necessities which cannot be outer clothing, survivors should remove the stored inside may be kept just outside the clothing and store it in the entry way or on the door. Any firearms (guns) the survivor may floor away from the source of heat so it have must be stored outside the shelter to remains cold. If ice should form in clothing, it prevent increasing pressure building which may be beaten out with a stick. could cause them to malfunction. In the cramped quarters of any small A standard practice in snow shelter living is emergency shelter, pots of food or drink can for people to relieve themselves indoors when be accidentally kicked over. The cooking area, possible. This practice conserves body heat. If even if it is only a sterno stove, should be the snowdrift is large enough to dig located out of the way. connecting snow caves, one may be used as a toilet room. If not, tin cans may be used for Shelter for Open Seas urinals, and snowblocks for solid wastes (fecal) matter. Personal protection from the elements is Survivors should use thick insulation under just as important on the seas as it is anywhere themselves when sleeping or resting even if else. Some rafts come equipped with insulated they have a sleeping bag. They can use a thick floors, spray shields, and canopies to protect bough bed in shingle-fashion, seat cushions, survivors from heat, cold, and water. If rafts parachute, or an inverted inflated rubber raft. are not so equipped or the equipment has been Outer clothing makes good mattress lost, survivors should try to improvise these material. A parka makes a good footbag. The items using parachute material, clothing, or shirt and inner trousers may be rolled up for a other equipment.