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Concord McNair Scholars Research Journal Volume 14 (2011) Table of Contents 4 Vawn Clappes Mentor: Charles Shamro, M.S. High School Juniors: Self-Efficacy Change After a Job Search Training Workshop, Given Differing Identity Statuses 17 Kimberly Cline Mentor: Rodney L. Klein, Ph. D. The Sweet Intervention: Self-Control Relies on Glucose as a Limited Resource 39 Jessica N. Gibson Mentor: Jessica Alexander, Ph. D. The Effects of Energy Drinks in Improving Cognitive Performance 57 Ashleigh Gill Mentor: Gabriel Rieger, Ph. D. Beyond Postmodernism: Searching for the Next Literary Period 79 Cassidi D Hall Mentor: Anita Reynolds, Ed. D. Breaking the Mold of Team Teaching 91 Kaitlin Huffman Mentor: Darla Wise, Ph. D. Phylogenetic Analysis of Desmognathus fuscus to Clarify Colonization History in West Virginia 103 Chassity Kennedy Mentor: Ambryl Malkovich, Ph.D. Resistance to Reading in Literacy Courses at Concord University: How can Professors engage students to the text? 126 Arnold Kidd Mentor: Franz Frye, Ph. D. Optimization and Construction of Bulk-heterojunction Polymer–Fullerene Composite Solar Cells 136 William Lacek Mentor: Joseph Allen, Ph. D. Kinematics and Petrology of the No Name Fault System,Glenwood Canyon, Colorado 2 152 Teona Music Mentor: Tesfaye Belay, PhD Differential Effects of Norepinephrine on In Vitro Growth of Pathogenic Bacteria 166 Megan Nelson Mentor: Jessica Alexander, Ph. D. Cognitive and Mood Effects of Binaural Beats 187 Rachel Wyrick Mentor: Mr. Jack Sheffler, M.F.A. Beauty 3 High School Juniors: Self-Efficacy Change After a Job Search Training Workshop, Given Differing Identity Statuses Vawn V. Clappes Mentor: Mr. Charles Shamro McNair 2011 Research Abstract An identity status effect on occupational self-efficacy was planned to compare the outcome of a job search workshop group and a waiting control group. Further adapting Marcia’s occupational identity grouping, two groupings were formed for comparison involving a healthy status identity and an unhealthy status identity. The participants were identified as high school juniors after a preliminary study with college students found a narrow distribution of identity statuses yielding primarily an achievement orientation. Developmentally, the high school age group has been shown to be more broadly distributed by identity status. Between group comparisons were planned to involve analysis of variance using a 2 (healthy x unhealthy identity) x 2 (workshop group x waiting control group) factorial design. The actual outcome was disappointing as the return rate of classification questionnaires and outcome questionnaires was insufficient to establish any groups for comparison. Actual attendance for the workshop was 1 student. 4 Identity status The present study is interested in determining whether or not identity status predisposes high school juniors to be or not be receptive to self-efficacy changes as a consequence of job search training. Erikson identified two levels within his identity stage (achieved and diffused) as potential outcomes in the crisis adaptation process (Kumru & Thompson, 2003). Marcia extended Erikson’s work further incorporating identity into the occupational domain and defined four identity statuses that demonstrate differences in occupational decision making. The four identity statuses include achievement, moratorium, foreclosure, and diffusion. Achievement identity status emerges once a person has been faced with decisions and has committed to a course of action. Moratorium identity occurs while a person is confronting options and is involved in the decision-making process, but without commitment. Foreclosure identity status forms if a person establishes values and makes final decisions, potentially including occupational choice, resulting primarily from the influence of parental or authority figures. Identity diffusion arises when a person has not faced a need to consider options or has avoided commitment to a final choice. In the worst case, diffusion includes refusal to consider making decisions. Erikson addressed the concept of crisis resolution as means of adapting to developmental stages including the identity stage. Crisis and variation in commitment help to define Marcia’s four identity statuses. Identity status can be determined by measuring the levels of crisis and commitment that a person has experienced (Marcia, 1966). Such crises refer to a period of indecision that individuals experience when presented with opportunities or choices. Commitment involves the intention to adhere to decisions or continue particular courses of action which can apply to any aspiration, affiliation, or ideology. Job-search self-efficacy Self-efficacy is positively related to the amount of effort a person is willing to exert toward achieving a goal. Commitment is important as it applies to self-efficacy and similarly important to identity status. According to Bandura (1982), self-efficacy in its broadest definition is a self-assessment of aptitude. This means that a tendency toward commitment to certain goals is involved in increasing self- 5 efficacy. Additionally, self-efficacy tends to be more readily developed in individuals with high confidence over control of circumstances and less easily developed among those who demonstrate little inclination toward acquiring and maintaining control of their circumstances (Bandura, 1982). Inclination toward control suggests a level of need or readiness to use experience to control choices. In order to operationalize self-efficacy, Betz (2007) reviewed research in the field of career self-efficacy, ultimately identifying four major criteria important for the measurement of self-efficacy. These four criteria include: 1) the extent of exposure to learning experiences relevant to self-efficacy, 2) choices made by subjects specifically relevant to self-efficacy, 3) the nature of experiences or performances in subjects relevant to self-efficacy, and 4) perseverance in tasks relevant to the subject area of self-efficacy. Betz recommended that learning experiences be used as content indicators for the measurement of self- efficacy, primarily when measurement includes specific types of self-efficacy. Betz applied this thinking to career decision making in counseling. Learning experience can be either direct exposure or indirect experience gained through observation and promote self-efficacy by augmenting familiarity. Familiarity progressively increases confidence, and consequently increases self-efficacy (Betz, 2007). Self-efficacy development also depends upon whether participants have actively made any choices to pursue activity in related fields. For example, a measure of job search self-efficacy should take into account whether participants have willingly conducted job searches in the past. Successful past outcomes improve self- efficacy if they promote a sense of competence. Successful job search methods promote successful job search self-efficacy. Measurement might allow individuals to self-report whether or not they consider their prior job search methods to be successful. High self-efficacy is also characterized by the willingness to persevere despite a lack of immediate or optimal results. Levels of persistence can be self-rated. It is within this context of willingness to persevere that identity could contribute to a readiness. Many high school and college-level participants may not have experienced a need for employment, and may be lacking experience and success with job searches. Regardless of experience, Betz’s four factors must be taken into account to accurately measure self-efficacy. 6 Identity Status and Self-Efficacy related Bandura developed self-efficacy theory to include the role of commitment to a choice, the tendency to allot proxy control over choice to another, and to the level of confidence related to a given choice. Achievement identity status contains both broad levels of commitment and high levels of confidence, without the influence of a proxy control. Proxy control entails dependence on external influences such as the influence that parents or authority figures exert over choice. Individuals avoid commitment in the moratorium and diffusion statuses and inability to commit may hinder development of self-efficacy. Foreclosure status differs from the other three statuses in the reliance on a proxy control for defining commitments; however, confidence is also inherent in foreclosure status. Although this confidence relies on the influence of external forces, it is a high level of confidence (Kumru & Thompson, 2003). Bandura regards a high level of confidence as strongly predictive of high self-efficacy, yet Bandura relates proxy control to low self-efficacy. Confidence demonstrated in career decision self-efficacy has been found to be higher in those individuals who attained an achievement identity compared to moratorium, foreclosure and diffusion identity statuses (Nauta & Kahn, 2007). This finding supports study of the relationship between self- efficacy and identity status. Nauta and Kahn (2007) found developmentally that greater identity uniformity toward achievement and higher career decision self-efficacy occurred between the ages of 18- 21. Heatherton (2002) also found that self-efficacy development is greatest in individuals with achievement identity status. Progression from moratorium status to achievement status may be a slower process than that reported by Nauta and Kahn (2007). In a review of studies on identity change, Cramer (1998) identified an increase in the frequency
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