DOCSLIB.ORG

A TRACK COUNT for ESTIMATING MOUNTAIN LION Felis Concolor Californica POPULATION TREND

Total Page：16

File Type：pdf, Size：1020Kb

Download full-text PDF Read full-text
A TRACK COUNT for ESTIMATING MOUNTAIN LION Felis Concolor Californica POPULATION TREND Biological Conservation 71 (1995J 251 259 ~, 1995 Elsevier Science Limited Printed in Great Britain. All rights reserved 0006-3207/95/$09.50+.00 ELSEVIER 0006-3207(94)00034-4 A TRACK COUNT FOR ESTIMATING MOUNTAIN LION Felis concolor californica POPULATION TREND K. Shawn Smallwood* & E. Lee Fitzhugh WildliJb Extension, Wildlife and Fisheries Biology, University of California, Davis, California 95616, USA (Received 15 September 1992; revised version received 4 April 1994; accepted 4 April 1994) Abstract INTRODUCTION Reliable estimates of status and population trend are Many populations of large terrestrial carnivores are critical Jor conservation of large terrestrial carnivores, declining, e.g., tiger Panthera tigris (Seal et al., 1987), but are usually lacking due to the high costs of sampling snow leopard Panthera uncia (Fox et al., 1991), wolves across large geographic areas. For detecting population Canis lupus (Schonewald-Cox & Buechner, 1991), and trends of mountain lion Fells concolor californica, we possibly mountain lions Felis concolor (Dixon, 1982). evaluated counts of track sets on 48 randomly chosen Knowing the status and population trends of these quadrats in CaliJornia. Each quadrat contained 33.8 km species will be critical for their conservation and man- of transect on dusty, dirt roads, which were chosen by agement. Attenders of the Third Mountain Lion local wildlife biologists. A count of track sets by one per- Workshop (Smith, 1989) voted overwhelmingly that son on all quadrats was more efficient than recording population census and trend should be the priority presence~absence by local survey teams. We estimated an mountain lion research, a sentiment shared by the most efficient sample size of 44 quadrats in California after complete reviewer of mountain lion literature (Ander- applying our data to a general formula for contagious son, 1983). However, standard monitoring programs distributions. This' sample size can be reduced substan- exist for only a few carnivore populations globally. The tially by choosing new transect locations based on associ- widespread distribution of mountain lions in California ations of tracks with topography and habitat. Tracks provided an opportunity for developing an indirect were most likely found on roads along lst- and 2nd-order sampling method, which can be adapted for use with streams, on mountain slopes and knolls~peaks, and in oak some other large carnivore populations. woodland and montane hardwood conifer forest. A Indirect sampling methods involve counts of tracks changing mountain lion population can be detected with or other sign for estimating population size of rare or an inexpensive, periodic track survey and self-stratifying, cryptic animals (Dice, 1941; Scattergood, 1954). They non-parametric tests. are usually less costly than direct sampling, in which Each track survey across CaliJornia can be finished in animals are found and counted (Morris, 1955; Davis & 30 days. The many mountain lions and the variety of envi- Winstead, 1980). Indirect sampling is thus more effi- ronmental conditions included at this extraordinarily large cient than direct sampling when it provides comparable spatial scale permit estimates of" (1) trends among popu- information at less cost (Eberhardt, 1978). Direct sam- lation strata in quadrats that are clustered according to pling across large areas is prevented by high cost typical number and age~sex class of track sets; (2) popu- (Fitzhugh & Gorenzel, 1986), so regional populations lation size and demography after individuals are identified of carnivores are often estimated by extrapolating esti- by their tracks, and after linear density on roads is cali- mates from direct sampling in small areas. Population brated from spatial density at intensive stud), sites; and trends are obtained by comparing extrapolated esti- (3) spatio-temporal associations with bobcat Felis rufus, mates among years. For example, the California De- black bear Ursus americanus, coyote Canis latrans, and partment of Fish and Game (CDFG) used sequential fox Vulpes vulpes and Urocyon cinereoargenteus. population estimates during the 1970s-1980s to argue that the mountain lion population increased in Califor- Keywords: California, conservation, Felis concolor, nia from about 1000 (Koford, 1978) to 5100 (CDFG habitat, population trend, road transect, track count. final environmental document on mountain lions, 1988). This 'population trend' was corroborated by anecdotal evidence, including livestock depredation records, road accidents, and sightings (Fitzhugh & Gorenzel, 1986; Mansfield, 1986). However, these *Present address: Institute for Sustainable Development, 516 estimates were derived from different investigators and Oeste Dr., Davis, CA 95616, USA. types of study. 251 252 K. S. Smallwood, E. L. Fitzhugh Kutilek et al. (1983) proposed a population index transects were lost by 1992 to pavement or oiling for using presence/absence of mountain lion tracks on road timber harvest. transects surveyed by volunteers. Karanth (1987) sug- We divided California along 0.5 ° latitude and longi- gested track surveys for monitoring tiger populations in tude lines into quadrats of 50 km 2. We selected survey India. Track surveys on road transects are convenient quadrats randomly and independent of habitat, except for some large-bodied species of Felidae, because indi- from areas that were mostly urban or agricultural, viduals of these species often travel along roads and inaccessible by road, or were coast and border areas trails (Koford, 1978; Karanth, 1987). However, such where most of the quadrat was ocean or in another road travel might be influenced by roadside habitat and state. Local biologists chose road transects within other factors (Stanley & Bart, 1991; Smallwood & quadrats (Fig. 1) according to our written guidelines. Fitzhugh, 1992). These influences need to be related to Quadrats contained up to three 11-3-km road transects track counts, quantitatively. >16 airline km apart unless separated by deep canyons Our goal was to develop administrative and analytical or urban areas. We assumed such barriers would procedures for a practical mountain lion population index decrease the chance for counting track sets made by the based on counts of track sets. The initial track counts same individual on both transects. Transect location provided a foundation for future sampling that can reveal was restricted by local land use, ownership patterns, population dynamics and ecological associations of and available dirt roads that were accessible by two- mountain lion and other carnivores in California. wheel-drive cars and trucks. Two quadrats at the state border had only enough space for two transects. An east-west transect orientation was requested for low METHODS sun angles and better track visibility. Local teams, consisting of one driver and one profes- Local teams were given written instructions for data sional wildlife biologist, established transects for moun- collection and tracking methods, and tracings and tain lion tracks along dusty dirt roads during 1985. The dimensions from tracks of mountain lion, bobcat, dog teams surveyed these transects during the summers of Canis familiaris, coyote, and black bear. Local teams 1985 and 1986. Smallwood surveyed these transects recorded presence/absence of mountain lion tracks on during 1986 and 1992 (Smallwood, 1994). A few each quadrat, while travelling at 5-8 kph. Dust ratings transects were changed before the 1986 survey because (Van Dyke et al., 1986) were required at the beginning, they were gravelled, paved, or impractical. Six more middle, and end of each transect and at track locations. Local survey teams sketched one track from each track set onto a pre-printed grid, and they recorded heel pad OREGON width, widest toe width, and an odometer reading. We used each sketch to verify that a mountain lion made N the track (Smallwood & Fitzhugh, 1989). L Smallwood surveyed from a motorcycle at 10-16 kph, because the greater field of view allowed more EVADA speed (Fitzhugh & Gorenzel, 1985). He recorded the number of track sets on each transect, including their locations, indicated directions of travel, and aspect of the road. A 'track set' was a contiguous series of pug- marks, presumably made by the same animal. Tracks were traced from each track set onto acetate (Panwar, 1979; Fitzhugh & Gorenzel, 1985). All this information was also recorded during 1992 for black bear, coyote, dog, bobcat, and fox (we did not distinguish between red fox and grey fox). These data were used for assess- Ji ing whether the mountain lion survey could be extended to other carnivore species. Smallwood also I ,;-- ; ,I.. mapped habitats and topography every 0.8 km or when PACIFIC -7 - . \ either variable changed. Habitat and topography were OCEAN ~ 52 . • , ' . tested for association with the mountain lion track sets found during 1986 and 1992, and with track sets of the other species found during 1992. "x ',-. :, We measured association with the following formula (Smallwood & Fitzhugh, 1992; Smallwood, 1993): MEXICO rx OBSERVED Fig. 1. Locations of quadrats and transects used in the 1986 My,x- y,y, X EXPECTED ' California mountain lion track surveys (transects are not to scale). The 1992 transect locations were shown in Smallwood (1994). Zx Mountain lion track count 253 where y, is the number of 0.16 km road segments Table 1. Potential costs for the California mountain lion track where a species' track set occurred with the Xth topog- survey raphy or habitat, or with tracks of the Xth species. The Costs base on Options: observed and expected numbers of transect segments 1986 surveys where tracks were found were rearranged for a A2 test, 1" 2 h 3' and their ratio measured the occurrence of tracks with the Xth associate as a multiple of that to be expected Person-days by chance. Coordination and preparation 14 5 14 Data analysis 5 5 5 We estimated a 1985 sample size of 55 quadrats with Tracking 44 30 88 the binomial equation, guessing we would find tracks on 50% of the quadrats. In 1986 we lowered our sam- Total person-days 63 40 107 ple size to 50 quadrats because there were too few sur- Dollar costs ($) vey teams available.
Load more

Recommended publications
  • Dental and Temporomandibular Joint Pathology of the Kit Fox (Vulpes Macrotis)
    Author's Personal Copy J. Comp. Path. 2019, Vol. 167, 60e72 Available online at www.sciencedirect.com ScienceDirect www.elsevier.com/locate/jcpa DISEASE IN WILDLIFE OR EXOTIC SPECIES Dental and Temporomandibular Joint Pathology of the Kit Fox (Vulpes macrotis) N. Yanagisawa*, R. E. Wilson*, P. H. Kass† and F. J. M. Verstraete* *Department of Surgical and Radiological Sciences and † Department of Population Health and Reproduction, School of Veterinary Medicine, University of California, Davis, California, USA Summary Skull specimens from 836 kit foxes (Vulpes macrotis) were examined macroscopically according to predefined criteria; 559 specimens were included in this study. The study group consisted of 248 (44.4%) females, 267 (47.8%) males and 44 (7.9%) specimens of unknown sex; 128 (22.9%) skulls were from young adults and 431 (77.1%) were from adults. Of the 23,478 possible teeth, 21,883 teeth (93.2%) were present for examina- tion, 45 (1.9%) were absent congenitally, 405 (1.7%) were acquired losses and 1,145 (4.9%) were missing ar- tefactually. No persistent deciduous teeth were observed. Eight (0.04%) supernumerary teeth were found in seven (1.3%) specimens and 13 (0.06%) teeth from 12 (2.1%) specimens were malformed. Root number vari- ation was present in 20.3% (403/1,984) of the present maxillary and mandibular first premolar teeth. Eleven (2.0%) foxes had lesions consistent with enamel hypoplasia and 77 (13.8%) had fenestrations in the maxillary alveolar bone. Periodontitis and attrition/abrasion affected the majority of foxes (71.6% and 90.5%, respec- tively).
    [Show full text]
  • Brown Bear (Ursus Arctos) John Schoen and Scott Gende Images by John Schoen
    Brown Bear (Ursus arctos) John Schoen and Scott Gende images by John Schoen Two hundred years ago, brown (also known as grizzly) bears were abundant and widely distributed across western North America from the Mississippi River to the Pacific and from northern Mexico to the Arctic (Trevino and Jonkel 1986). Following settlement of the west, brown bear populations south of Canada declined significantly and now occupy only a fraction of their original range, where the brown bear has been listed as threatened since 1975 (Servheen 1989, 1990). Today, Alaska remains the last stronghold in North America for this adaptable, large omnivore (Miller and Schoen 1999) (Fig 1). Brown bears are indigenous to Southeastern Alaska (Southeast), and on the northern islands they occur in some of the highest-density FIG 1. Brown bears occur throughout much of southern populations on earth (Schoen and Beier 1990, Miller et coastal Alaska where they are closely associated with salmon spawning streams. Although brown bears and grizzly bears al. 1997). are the same species, northern and interior populations are The brown bear in Southeast is highly valued by commonly called grizzlies while southern coastal populations big game hunters, bear viewers, and general wildlife are referred to as brown bears. Because of the availability of abundant, high-quality food (e.g. salmon), brown bears enthusiasts. Hiking up a fish stream on the northern are generally much larger, occur at high densities, and have islands of Admiralty, Baranof, or Chichagof during late smaller home ranges than grizzly bears. summer reveals a network of deeply rutted bear trails winding through tunnels of devil’s club (Oplopanx (Klein 1965, MacDonald and Cook 1999) (Fig 2).
    [Show full text]
  • Ecology of Cougars (Puma Concolor) in North-Central Montana
    Ecology of Cougars (Puma concolor) in north-central Montana: Distribution, resource selection, dynamics, harvest, and conservation design Chippewa Cree Tribal Wildlife Program In cooperation with World Wildlife Fund Northern Great Plains Program Bozeman, Montana Final Report April 2012 Kyran Kunkel1, Tim Vosburgh2, and Hugh Robinson3 1World Wildlife Fund; presently University of Montana, Gallatin Gateway, MT; 2Chippewa Cree Tribal Wildlife Program; presently Bureau of Land Management, Lander, WY; 3University of Montana; presently Panthera, New York, NY Space for Cougar photo Photo credit: Kyran Kunkel 1 Ecology of Cougars (Puma concolor) in north-central Montana: Distribution, resource selection, dynamics, harvest, and conservation design Kyran Kunkel, Tim Vosburgh, and Hugh Robinson Chippewa Cree Tribal Wildlife Program in cooperation with World Wildlife Fund, Final Report April 2012 Citation: Kunkel, K, T. Vosburgh, and H. Robinson. 2012. Ecology of cougars (Puma concolor) in north-central Montana. Final Report to the US Fish and Wildlife Service. World Wildlife Fund Northern Great Plains Program 202 S. Black, Ste 3 Bozeman, MT 59715 P.O. Box 7276 Bozeman, Montana 59771 (406) 582-0236 To learn more, visit www.worldwildlife.org/ngp/ ©2010 WWF. All rights reserved by the World Wildlife Fund, Inc. 2 1. Introduction opportunity. Information about cougar recolonization and ecol- Increasing attention is being directed to ecological ogy of established populations will greatly enhance restoration in North American grasslands (Forrest et understanding and management of cougars in the al. 2004), particularly with respect to species that grasslands and prairie breaks of north-central Mon- have been lost or eliminated from these systems. tana. This is especially important because cougars Some species, notably wolf (Canis lupus), bear (Ursus have been little studied in this type of landscape (Wil- spp.), and cougar are expanding in Montana through liams 1992) and very little work has been conducted reintroductions and natural recolonization.
    [Show full text]
  • History and Status of the American Black Bear in Mississippi
    History and status of the American black bear in Mississippi Stephanie L. Simek1,5, Jerrold L. Belant1, Brad W. Young2, Catherine Shropshire3, and Bruce D. Leopold4 1Carnivore Ecology Laboratory, Forest and Wildlife Research Center, Mississippi State University, Box 9690, Mississippi State, MS 39762, USA 2Mississippi Department of Wildlife, Fisheries, and Parks, 1505 Eastover Drive, Jackson, MS 39211, USA 3Mississippi Wildlife Federation, 517 Cobblestone Court, Suite 2, Madison, MS 39110, USA 4Department of Wildlife, Fisheries, and Aquaculture, Mississippi State University, Box 9690, Mississippi State, MS 39762, USA Abstract: Historically abundant throughout Mississippi, American black bears (Ursus americanus) have declined due to habitat loss and overharvest. By the early 1900s, the bear population was estimated at ,12 individuals, and Mississippi closed black bear hunting in 1932. However, habitat loss continued and by 1980 suitable habitat was estimated at 20% (20,234 km2) of historic levels (101,171 km2) with the decline continuing. Although black bear abundance is currently unknown, a recent increase in occurrence reports and documented reproduction suggests the population may be increasing. There have been 21 reported nuisance complaints since 2006, of which 7 were apiary damage. Additionally, 31 bear mortalities were reported since 1972; 80% were human caused. Government and private organizations have emphasized education on bear ecology and human–bear coexistence, while habitat restoration through land retirement programs (e.g.,
    [Show full text]
  • Ecology of the European Badger (Meles Meles) in the Western Carpathian Mountains: a Review
    Wildl. Biol. Pract., 2016 Aug 12(3): 36-50 doi:10.2461/wbp.2016.eb.4 REVIEW Ecology of the European Badger (Meles meles) in the Western Carpathian Mountains: A Review R.W. Mysłajek1,*, S. Nowak2, A. Rożen3, K. Kurek2, M. Figura2 & B. Jędrzejewska4 1 Institute of Genetics and Biotechnology, Faculty of Biology, University of Warsaw, Pawińskiego 5a, 02-106 Warszawa, Poland. 2 Association for Nature “Wolf”, Twardorzeczka 229, 34-324 Lipowa, Poland. 3 Institute of Environmental Sciences, Jagiellonian University, Gronostajowa 7, 30-387 Kraków, Poland. 4 Mammal Research Institute, Polish Academy of Sciences, Waszkiewicza 1c, 17-230 Białowieża, Poland. * Corresponding author email: [email protected]. Keywords Abstract Altitudinal Gradient; This article summarizes the results of studies on the ecology of the European Diet Composition; badger (Meles meles) conducted in the Western Carpathians (S Poland) Meles meles; from 2002 to 2010. Badgers inhabiting the Carpathians use excavated setts Mustelidae; (53%), caves and rock crevices (43%), and burrows under human-made Sett Utilization; constructions (4%) as permanent shelters. Excavated setts are located up Spatial Organization. to 640 m a.s.l., but shelters in caves and crevices can be found as high as 1,050 m a.s.l. Badger setts are mostly located on slopes with southern, eastern or western exposure. Within their territories, ranging from 3.35 to 8.45 km2 (MCP100%), badgers may possess 1-12 setts. Family groups are small (mean = 2.3 badgers), population density is low (2.2 badgers/10 km2), as is reproduction (0.57 young/year/10 km2). Hunting by humans is the main mortality factor (0.37 badger/year/10 km2).
    [Show full text]
  • Periodic Status Review for the Steller Sea Lion
    STATE OF WASHINGTON January 2015 Periodic Status Review for the Steller Sea Lion Gary J. Wiles The Washington Department of Fish and Wildlife maintains a list of endangered, threatened, and sensitive species (Washington Administrative Codes 232-12-014 and 232-12-011, Appendix E). In 1990, the Washington Wildlife Commission adopted listing procedures developed by a group of citizens, interest groups, and state and federal agencies (Washington Administrative Code 232-12-297, Appendix A). The procedures include how species listings will be initiated, criteria for listing and delisting, a requirement for public review, the development of recovery or management plans, and the periodic review of listed species. The Washington Department of Fish and Wildlife is directed to conduct reviews of each endangered, threatened, or sensitive wildlife species at least every five years after the date of its listing. The reviews are designed to include an update of the species status report to determine whether the status of the species warrants its current listing status or deserves reclassification. The agency notifies the general public and specific parties who have expressed their interest to the Department of the periodic status review at least one year prior to the five-year period so that they may submit new scientific data to be included in the review. The agency notifies the public of its recommendation at least 30 days prior to presenting the findings to the Fish and Wildlife Commission. In addition, if the agency determines that new information suggests that the classification of a species should be changed from its present state, the agency prepares documents to determine the environmental consequences of adopting the recommendations pursuant to requirements of the State Environmental Policy Act.
    [Show full text]
  • SPECIES REPORT Sierra Nevada Red Fox (Vulpes Vulpes Necator)
    SPECIES REPORT Sierra Nevada Red Fox (Vulpes vulpes necator) U.S. FISH AND WILDLIFE SERVICE August 14, 2015 Table of Contents INTRODUCTION .......................................................................................................................... 4 ACRONYMS AND SUBSTITUTIONS USED ............................................................................. 4 SPECIES AND SUBSPECIES DESCRIPTION ............................................................................ 5 TAXONOMY AND GENETICS ................................................................................................... 6 Taxonomic History and Relationship to Other Fox Subspecies ........................................... 6 Genetics ...................................................................................................................................... 7 RANGE AND DISTRIBUTION .................................................................................................... 8 Historical Range ........................................................................................................................ 8 Map 1: SNRF Historical Range in California .................................................................... 9 Current Distribution ............................................................................................................... 10 Map 2: SNRF Sighting Areas............................................................................................. 12 Table 1: SNRF Sighting Areas ..........................................................................................
    [Show full text]
  • 1 POLAR BEAR (Ursus Maritimus): Chukchi/Bering Seas Stock STOCK
    Revised: 01/01/2010 POLAR BEAR (Ursus maritimus): Chukchi/Bering Seas Stock STOCK DEFINITION AND GEOGRAPHIC RANGE Polar bears are circumpolar in their distribution in the northern hemisphere. They occur in several largely discrete stocks or populations (Harington 1968). Polar bear movements are extensive and individual activity areas are enormous (Garner et al. 1990, Amstrup et al. 2000). The parameters used by Dizon et al. (1992) to classify stocks based on the phylogeographic approach were considered in the determination of stock separation in Alaska. Several polar bear stocks are known to be shared between countries (Amstrup et al. 1986, Amstrup and DeMaster 1988). Lentfer hypothesized that in Alaska two stocks exist, the Southern Beaufort Sea (SBS) and the Chukchi/Bering seas (CBS), based upon: (a) variations in levels of heavy metal contaminants of organ tissues (Lentfer 1976, Figure 1. Map of the Southern Beaufort Sea and the Chukchi/ Lentfer and Galster 1987); (b) morphological Bering seas polar bear stocks. characteristics (Manning 1971, Lentfer 1974, Wilson 1976); (c) physical oceanographic features which segregate the Chukchi Sea and Bering Sea stock from the Beaufort Sea stock (Lentfer 1974); and (d) movement information collected from mark and recapture studies of adult female bears (Lentfer 1974, 1983) (Figure 1). Information on contaminants (Woshner et al. 2001, Evans 2004a, Evans 2004b, Kannan et al. 2005, Smithwick et al. 2005, Verreault et al. 2005, Muir et al. 2006, Smithwick et al. 2006, Kannan et al. 2007, Rush et al. 2008) and movement data using satellite collars (Amstrup et al. 2004, Amstrup et al. 2005) continue to support the presence of these two stocks.
    [Show full text]
  • Notes on the Biology of the Tibetan Fox (Vulpes Ferrilata)
    Harris et al. Biology of Tibetan fox Canid News Copyright © 2008 by the IUCN/SSC Canid Specialist Group. ISSN 1478-2677 The following is the established format for referencing this article: Harris et al. 2008. Notes on the biology of the Tibetan fox. Canid News 11.1 [online] URL: http://www.canids.org/canidnews/11/ Biology_of_Tibetan_fox.pdf. Research Report Notes on the biology of the Tibetan fox Richard B. Harris1*, Wang Zhenghuan2, Zhou Jiake1, and Liu Qunxiu2 1 Department of Ecosystem and Conservation Sciences, College of Forestry and Conservation, Univer- sity of Montana, Missoula, Montana, USA. 2 School of Life Science, East China Normal University, Shanghai, People’s Republic of China. * Correspondence author. Email: [email protected] Keywords: body size; brown bear; China; mating; Ursus arctos; Vulpes ferrilata; whelping Abstract Introduction We report on three aspects of the biology of Until recently, biological data on the Tibetan Tibetan foxes Vulpes ferrilata for which existing fox was gained mostly from anecdotal reports, literature is either absent or misleading. Our observations of their sign, or hunting records two field studies in western China each in- (e.g. Gong and Hu 2003; Schaller and Gisnberg volved capture (and subsequent radio- 2004; Wang et al. 2003, 2004, 2007). Because marking) of foxes, allowing us to refine exist- Tibetan foxes live in remote, mountainous en- ing information on body size and mass. Ti- vironments and are rarely observed in the betan foxes we captured were somewhat lar- wild, some aspects of their biology have been ger and heavier than the current literature difficult to document.
    [Show full text]
  • Tribal Wildlife Grant Final Report Makah Cougar and Bobcat Research Grant: F12AP00260
    Tribal Wildlife Grant Final Report Makah Cougar and Bobcat Research Grant: F12AP00260 Prepared by: Shannon Murphie and Rob McCoy 1 INTRODUCTION Mountain lions or cougars (Puma concolor) and bobcats (Lynx rufus) are both native mammals of the family Felidae. Mountain lions are large solitary cats with the greatest range of any large wild terrestrial mammal in the Western Hemisphere (Iriarte et al. 1990). Bobcats are also solitary cats that range from southern Canada to northern Mexico, including most of the continental United States. Both species are predators and as such play a prominent role in Native American mythology and culture due to their perceived attributes such as grace, strength, eyesight, and hunting ability. Similar to other Native American Tribes, predators have played a key role in the culture and ceremonies of the Makah people. Gray wolves (Canis lupus), black bear (Ursus americanus), cougars, and bobcats all are important components of Makah culture both historically and in contemporary times. For example, black bears and gray wolves both represented important clans in Makah history. Gray wolves exhibited cooperative behavior that provided guidelines for human behavior and “Klukwalle,” or wolf ritual, was a secret society that required a 6 day initiation period (G. Arnold, personal communication). Wolf hides were also used in dance and costume regalia. Bear hides were worn by men of status (Chapman 1994) and as regalia during whale hunts (G. Ray, personal communication). Cougars and bobcats play a smaller, but still important role in Makah history and contemporary culture. During naming ceremonies a Makah name is given which best reflects an individual, often an animal such as the mountain lion is used as it represents intelligence and power.
    [Show full text]
  • American Black Bear (Ursus Americanus) Taxonomy: Family
    American Black Bear (Ursus americanus) Taxonomy: Family Ursidae. here are currently 18 recognized subspecies, including Ursus americanus cinnamomum which occurs in northern Utah. Description: The American black bear is the smallest of the North American bears. It’s coloration varies widely with locality: the most common being black with a brown muzzle, but light brown and cinnamon are common and specific subspecies are known to be a pale bluish gray or even cream colored. They can be distinguished from Usus arctos by their longer, tapered, less furry ears, a convex, rather than concave, face profile, and the lack of a large shoulder hump. Length of head and body: 1,400-2,000 mm (males) 1,200-1,600 mm (females); Length of tail: 80- 140 mm; Weight: 47-409 kg (males) 39-236 kg (females) Distribution: Ranges south from Alaska, transcontinental across Canada and continuing south through the Rocky Mountains into Northern Mexico. They are also found in the Pacific Northwest down into California, as well as populations in the Appalachians, Louisiana, and Florida. Locally common in the mountains of the Wasatch Front. Ecology and Diet: Black bears are omnivorous: their diet consists of some small mammals and insects but is comprised mostly of fruits, nuts and vegetation. If food is abundant and in a central location bears will congregate and social hierarchies form, but usually food is spread out and sparse so black bears tend to be solitary. They are active during the daytime but some have developed nocturnal habits in areas with a large human presence. Hibernation begins in the late fall but in the more southern, warmer parts of their range only pregnant females hibernate.
    [Show full text]
  • Phylogeography of the North American Red Fox: Vicariance in Pleistocene Forest Refugia
    AUBRY, K. B., STATHAM, M. J., SACKS, B. N., PERRINE, J. D. and WISELY, S. M. (2009), Phylogeography of the North American red fox: vicariance in Pleistocene forest refugia. Molecular Ecology, 18: 2668–2686. doi: 10.1111/j.1365-294X.2009.04222.x Phylogeography of the North American red fox: vicariance in Pleistocene forest refugia KEITH B. AUBRY, MARK J. STATHAM, BENJAMIN N. SACKS, JOHN D. PERRINE and SAMANTHA M. WISELY Abstract Fossil, archaeological, and morphometric data suggest that indigenous red foxes in North America were derived from vicariance in two disjunct refugia during the last glaciation: one in Beringia and one in the contiguous USA. To test this hypothesis, we conducted a phylogeographical analysis of the North American red fox within its presettlement range. We sequenced portions of the mitochondrial cytochrome b (354 bp) gene and D-loop (342 bp) from 220 historical red fox specimens. Phylogenetic analysis of the cytochrome b gene produced two clades that diverged c. 400 000 years before present (BP): a Holarctic and a Nearctic clade. D- loop analyses of the Nearctic clade indicated three distinct subclades (≥ 99% Bayesian posterior probability); two that were more recently derived (rho estimate c. 20 000 BP) and were restricted to the southwestern mountains and the eastern portion of North America, and one that was older (rho estimate c. 45 000 BP) and more widespread in North America. Populations that migrated north from the southern refugium following deglaciation were derived from the colonization of North America during or prior to the Illinoian glaciation (300 000–130 000 BP), whereas populations that migrated south from the northern refugium represent a more recent colonization event during the Wisconsin glaciation (100 000–10 000 BP).
    [Show full text]