Woodland Fish & Wildlife • 2017

Amphibians in Managed Woodlands Tools for Family Forestland Owners Authors: Lauren Grand, OSU Extension, Ken Bevis, Department of Natural Resources Edited by: Fran Cafferata Coe, Cafferata Consulting

Pacific Tree (chorus) Introduction good indicators of quality (e.g., are among the most ancient habitat diversity, habitat connectivity, water vertebrate fauna on earth. They occur on all quality). Amphibians also play a key role in continents, except Antarctica, and display a food webs and nutrient cycling as they are dazzling array of shapes, sizes and adapta- both prey (eaten by fish, mammals, birds, tions to local conditions. There are 32 species and reptiles) and predators (eating insects, of amphibians found in and Wash- snails, slugs, worms, and in some cases, ington. Many are strongly associated with small mammals). The presence of forest freshwater , such as rivers, streams, has also been positively cor- wetlands, and artificial ponds. While most related to soil building processes (Best and amphibians spend at least part of their life- Welsh 2014). cycle in water, some species are fully terres- Landowners can promote amphib- trial, spending their entire life-cycle on land ian habitat on their property to improve or in the ground, generally utilizing moist overall ecosystem health and to support areas within forests (Corkran and Thoms the species themselves, many of which 2006, Leonard et. al 1993). have declining or threatened populations. The following sections of this publica- Photo by Kelly McAllister. Amphibians are of great ecological impor- tance and can be found in all forest age tion describe habitats, which classes. Many amphibian species utilize both amphibian species are found in Oregon and Washington, common threats, and habitat Though amphibians and rep- aquatic and upland habitats throughout their recommended enhancement techniques. tiles regulate their body tem- life-cycle, therefore, they are considered perature by their surroundings Example of Amphibian Habitat and can look alike, they are distinct groups of . Reptiles have thick, dry and scaly skin, and are often found in warm, dry places though some forage near water. Am- phibians have thin, moist skin and are found in cool, moist areas. Reptiles lay their eggs on land, usually in warm, dry places. Amphibians generally lay their eggs in water or in moist habitats. , , salamanders and newts are amphibians. Reptiles include snakes, lizards and turtles. Photo by Lauren Grand.

1 Woodland Fish & Wildlife • 2017

ponds, sloughs, marshes, swamps, Northwestern bogs, fens, floodplains, riparian Large, heavy-bodied with smooth brown moist skin. Can reach nearly fringes, ditches, fire ponds, irrigation 10 inches in total length. Photo by Jessica Homyack. ponds and storm water ponds. Having a variety of wetlands on the landscape is important to maintaining amphibian diversity because some species need wetlands that are present year-round while other species rely on seasonal wetlands to avoid predators. West- slope, low elevation, seasonal wetland ponds often have the highest diversity of amphibian species because of an absence of competitive and predatory fish, and minimal numbers of other predators such as the non-native inva- sive American bullfrog. Most amphibians prefer shallow wetlands with gently sloping sides, a range of water depths, and little to no current (less than 15 cubic feet/second). Emergent and Amphibian Habitats riparian vegetation provides good habitat, Long-toed Salamander Amphibians are truly unique because they adding oxygen to the water, provides egg- not only require water or moist habitats Named for the exceptionally laying substrate / egg mass attachment for breeding, but most of them migrate to long fourth toe of the hind sites, and allows larvae to forage and seek forests and other terrestrial (upland) areas foot. Smooth brown skin cover. Some species require the emer- for the rest of the year. For example, ter- with green/yellow stripe down gent vegetation to be submerged at least restrial salamanders, such as the Ensatina the back. Approximately 6 2-3 feet deep to minimize the risk of the and Dunn’s Salamander, do not have inches in total length. Photo wetland drying out before eggs hatch and lungs, but exchange oxygen through their by Lauren Grand. juveniles disperse. Diverse native emer- skin (Corkran and Thoms 2006). Rough- gent vegetation also provides habitat for skinned newts and western toads utilize a wide array of insects for amphibians to still and open waterbodies for breeding eat. Many amphibians need sun exposure and egg laying, but spend most of the for successful reproduction. When direct year under logs, underground, and in leaf sunlight can reach over 60% of the pond’s litter foraging and hiding from potential edge the larvae grow and develop into predators. healthier adults. Sunlight, with the help of wind breaks, will encourage a warm Except for fully terrestrial amphibians, microclimate and a healthy amount of breeding habitat takes the form of either floating aquatic vegetation such as native standing water in wetlands, or the moving duck weed which cools water and increas- water found in streams. Both permanent es oxygen and food for larvae. Basking and seasonal wetlands are used for egg- sites that protrude out of the open water laying. Most terrestrial salamanders lay such as logs, rocks, floating vegetation, their eggs in decaying logs and seeps next and fallen limbs are great habitat features to streams. Key habitats for amphibians that add complexity to the wetland and are described below. benefit a variety of species. While veg- Aquatic Habitat etated buffers around wetlands are highly beneficial, too much shading can make Many Oregon and Washington frogs the pond less suitable for some amphib- and salamanders lay their eggs in still ian species. or slow-moving water. Aquatic habi- tats used include wetlands, including

2 Woodland Fish & Wildlife • 2017

Tiger Salamander Large, heavy-bodied with smooth brown moist skin and small protruding eyes. Can reach nearly 13 inches long in total length. Photo by Chris Loggers.

A specialized group, the tailed frogs, giant Forests are often the preferred upland drought. Forests have the potential to salamanders, and torrent salamanders, habitat for migrating amphibians because provide a moderately dense, but diverse only lay their eggs in streams or seeps. forested canopies provide an abundance understory structure of forbs, grasses, and These amphibians prefer cold turbulent of shade, moisture, and cool temperatures shrubs that create microhabitats frequent- streams that are 3 – 9 feet wide, with a that amphibians need to thrive. Forests ly used by amphibians. Amphibians take variety of pools separated by stretches are also rich in water features (including advantage of falling leaves and aerated of faster moving water (riffles) or steep forested wetlands, seeps, and streams) soils by burrowing under loose soil, deep plunging water (cascades). Streams with that amphibians use to stay moist while leaf litter, and moss for cover. They will these characteristics often are headwater moving through the landscape. also take advantage of rodent burrows streams, and may be found in areas with Adequate cover (such as down logs, slash during the heat of the day, or to hibernate steep valley walls and rocky faces. Tailed piles and leaf litter) in the upland habitat during freezing winter months. Rotting frogs, giant salamanders and torrent sala- not only provides amphibians with places wood in the form of large logs, fallen limbs, manders prefer these cold and clear water to hide and find food, but also minimizes loose bark, stumps, or woody piles provide habitats (with silt being quickly washed fluctuations in temperature and mois- moisture, shelter, movement corridors, downstream) that contain high amounts ture to which amphibians are extremely and many invertebrates for food. Large of oxygen due to the mixing of turbulent sensitive. This prevents amphibians from standing dead legacy trees provide valuable water with the air. High and brushy, over-stressing or drying out during the habitat for the Pacific tree frog and some riparian vegetation with deep litter on warm summer months and periods of salamanders such as the clouded salaman- the forest floor increases relative humid- der that are adapted to climbing. Rocks, ity and provides habitat for the insects rock piles, and talus also provide habitat that these amphibians prey upon. Ideal Rough-skinned Newt that is essential for many amphibian spe- stream habitats for these species also have Dry granular skin brown above cies such as the Del Norte and Larch Moun- streambeds with deep cobble and small and bright orange below. Skin tain salamander. All of these structures can boulder substrates and an abundance of is toxic if ingested. Can reach be used for various life activities including large wood in streams that creates pools. nearly 8 inches in total length. shelter from predators or inclement and This complex habitat allows for both Photo by Kelly McAllister extreme weather, cavities for hibernat- foraging and hiding. Giant salamanders ing, and hunting. Downed wood and rock usually forage in pools, while tailed frogs structures eventually develop small under- are found in riffles and cascades. Torrent ground cavities for salamanders to burrow salamanders usually hide in the splash in and provide shade when a disturbance zones of cascades and waterfalls, at the has opened up the canopy. edges of larger streams, or buried in the Amphibians of Oregon and rocks and logs of the seeps that flow into the stream. Torrent salamanders can be Washington found high up in stream systems, in head- Table 1 includes amphibians found in water streams, seeps and springs. the forests of Oregon and Washington. Common species are highlighted in Upland Habitat green within the table, and are illus- The majority of Oregon and Washington trated with photographs in the article, amphibians spend only a few weeks at whereas Candidate, Threatened, Endan- their breeding wetlands or streams before gered, Species of Concern or Sensitive migrating back to their upland habitats. species are denoted with a star (*).

3 Woodland Fish & Wildlife • 2017

Table 1. Amphibians of Oregon and Washington found in forested habitats Primarily Aquatic Found in and near permanent, cold and clear Cascade torrent Rhyacotriton Cascades in Northern Oregon and streams, seeps and waterfall splash zones in older salamander* cascadae Southern Washington coniferous forests.

Coast Range and Cascade Mountains of Found in fast running, small, permanent Coastal tailed frog* Ascaphus truei Oregon and Washington streams in forests.

Columbia Northeastern and isolated portions of Southeastern Found in still water habitats and slow moving luteiventris spotted frog* Oregon and Eastern Washington streams with abundant aquatic vegetation.

Columbia torrent Rhyacotriton Coast Range of Washington and Oregon in Found in and near cold and clear streams, springs, salamander* kezeri SW Washington and NW Oregon waterfalls and seeps in older forests.

Cope’s giant Dicamptodon Mostly Washington and small portions Found in cold, fast flowing streams in coniferous salamander* copei of Northern Oregon forests with abundant downed wood.

Found along edges of permanent streams and Foothill yellow- Southern portion of Western Oregon Rana boylii rivers with exposed rocky streambeds and legged frog* (not found in Washington) off-channel waters that are slow flowing.

Olympic torrent Rhyacotriton Only found on the Olympic Peninsula Found in or very near cold, clear streams, salamander olympicus of Washington seeps or waterfalls in forested areas.

Isolated areas of Deschutes, Jackson, Josephine, Oregon Klamath, Lane, and Wasco Counties, Oregon, and Found in wet areas that provide abundant Rana pretiosa spotted frog* Whatcom, Skagit, Thurston, Skamania and Klickitat aquatic vegetation. counties, Washington Restricted to perennial streams found in Rocky Mountain Ascaphus mon- Eastern Oregon and Washington or associated with cold clear rocky tailed frog* tanus streams in mature forests.

Southern torrent Rhyacotriton Found in and near permanent, cold and clear Coast Range of Oregon excluding NW Oregon. salamander* variegatus water bodies in older coniferous forests.

Terrestrial Only

Aneides flavi- Found in moist crevices of decaying logs or Black salamander Extreme Southern Oregon punctatus stumps in coniferous forests.

California slender Batrachoseps Extreme Southwest Oregon Found in humid coastal conifer forests. salamander attenuatus

Found in forest habitats or burned areas that pro- Clouded Aneides ferreus Coast Range and Cascades of Oregon vide large decaying logs or stumps – salamander* especially Douglas-fir.

Del Norte Plethodon Found in older redwood and Douglas-fir forests, Extreme Southwest Oregon salamander* elongates commonly in talus slopes.

Dunn’s Found in rocky edges of humid forested streams Plethodon dunni Western Oregon and SW Washington salamander* and moist talus slopes.

Ensatina Ensatina Western Oregon and Western Washington Found in humid forests, forests, and shrublands. eschscholzii

Larch mountain Extremely rare. Columbia Gorge area and North Found in moist steep basalt talus slopes Plethodon larselli salamander* Cascades in Oregon and Washington. in forested areas.

Oregon slender Batrachoseps Found in moist older forests with abundant Northern Oregon Cascade Mountains salamander* wright large decaying Douglas-fir logs.

Siskiyou mountains Found in talus slopes or rocky outcroppings Plethodon stormi Isolated populations in Southern Oregon salamander* in older forest stands.

4 Woodland Fish & Wildlife • 2017

Common name Scientific name Range Habitat

Van Dyke’s Plethodon Found in humid coniferous forests often in or near Isolated populations in Western Washington salamander* vandykei the splash zone of springs, seeps, and waterfalls.

Western red-backed Plethodon Found in humid coniferous forests in talus slope Western Oregon and Western Washington salamander vehiculum and among boulders and rock outcroppings. Aquatic and Terrestrial

American bullfrog Lithobates cates- Thrives in warm ponds, lakes, marshes, sloughs, Throughout Oregon and Washington; introduced (non-native invasive) beianus irrigation ditches and streams.

Cascade Mountains of Oregon and Cascade Found in a variety of habitats including forested Cascades frog* Rana cascadae and Olympic Mountains of Washington swamps, ponds, marshes and lakes.

Great basin Spea Found in dry sagebrush, grasslands and forests Eastern Oregon and Eastern Washington spadefoot intermontana with sand soils near ponds.

Long-toed Ambystoma mac- Washington and Oregon in most regions Spend most of the year underground. Found in a salamander rodactylum of both states variety of forested habitats near wetlands.

Possibly still found in isolated portions of Found in and near various water sources with Northern Rana pipiens Eastern Oregon. Isolated areas of Grant abundant vegetation such as wet meadows, marsh- leopard frog* County, Washington es, riparian areas and moist, open forests. Northern Found in damp coniferous or deciduous Rana aurora Western Oregon and Western Washington red-legged frog* forests and forested wetlands.

Northwestern Ambystoma Moist forests or partly wooded areas. Western Washington and Western Oregon salamander gracile Primarily live underground.

Pacific Tree Found in a variety of habitats including forests. Pseudacris regilla Throughout Oregon and Washington (chorus) frog Found near water during the breeding season.

Pacific giant Dicamptodon Terrestrial adults found in cool moist coniferous Western Washington and Oregon salamander tenebrosus forests near cold and clear streams.

Taricha Forested areas. Breeds in ponds or very Rough-skinned newt Western Washington and Western Oregon granulosa slow moving water.

Ambystoma Dry habitat types characterized by ponderosa Tiger salamander Columbia Plateau Ecoregion in Washington tigrinum /Douglas-fir forests. Most areas in Oregon and Washington except the Found in a wide variety of habitats including forests. Western * boreas Willamette Valley and portions of Eastern Oregon Can be locally rare or locally abundant. and Eastern Washington

Anaxyrus wood- Along the Snake River in Washington and an isolated River valleys in sagebrush or grassland areas. Breed Woodhouse’s toad housii population along the Owyhee River in Oregon in ponds, lakes, slow streams or irrigation ditches.

Sources: Amphibians of Washington and Oregon, Leonard et. al 1993; Amphibians of Oregon, Washington and , Corkran and Thoms 2006.

Table Legend *Priority Species is a species that has a special status from the State or the Federal government: State or Federal Threatened, Endangered Sensitive, or Candidate Species. These statuses mean that the species may require special protections. Common species are highlighted in green. Many of the individual descriptions for the species shown in Table 1 may be found in the Oregon Forest Resources Institute A Guide to Priority Plant and Species in Oregon Forests , Washington State’s Living with Wildlife Program: http://wdfw.wa.gov/living/frogs.html and ODFW’s Living with Wildlife webpage: http://www.dfw.state.or.us/wildlife/living_with/frogs.asp.

5 Woodland Fish & Wildlife • 2017

Threats to Amphibians on • Reduced availability of food and re- Ensatina Salamander Managed Forests sources Tail appears ‘pinched’ at Globally, amphibian populations are in • Reduced availability of water and cover the base and skin is reddish, decline, with natural population fluctua- • Reduced ability to move from one habi- orangish, brown or tan. tions overwhelmed by human influences, tat to another Reaches about 4.5 inches in including in Washington and Oregon Ultimately, these impacts can lower popu- (Houlahan et al. 2000, Green 2003). While total length. lations and species diversity. Landscapes amphibians may be resilient to some are fragmented when large areas are con- individual threats, when threats are com- verted without planning for wildlife move- pounded, effects to amphibian populations ment. Roads can be impassable barriers can be devastating. Threats to amphib- to some species, and further fragment the ians found in Oregon and Washington are landscape. These effects make pool-breed- discussed below. ing amphibians, such as Western toads or Habitat Loss red-legged frogs, especially vulnerable be- Habitat loss and fragmentation are the cause habitats become isolated from each greatest threats to amphibian popula- other and they may not be able to disperse tions (Cushman 2006). Most amphibians or be killed in the process, thus reducing Photo by Kelly McAllister. need an aquatic breeding site with nearby reproductive success and sometimes lead- ing to local extirpation. upland and aquatic non-breeding sites, as Effects of habitat degradation may well as a suitable habitat in-between to al- Habitat Degradation include: low access. Additionally, yearly movement Amphibian habitats in altered landscapes between their aquatic and upland habitats • Increased surface temperature may suffer significant degradation from increases exposure to pathogens, chemi- • Increase in sedimentation human influences. Land management cals, and predation. can change local hydrology, increasing • Decreased oxygen availability Effects of habitat loss and fragmentation runoff and sedimentation to streams and • Increase in invasive species include: wetlands. Exaggerated flooding can strand • Compacted soils eggs and tadpoles on shores. Compacted • Reduced soil moisture Northern Red-legged Frog soils reduce burrowing capacity and moisture retention. Invasive plants spread • Reduced prey availability Medium-sized frog with a easily and can quickly overtake wetlands, Chemicals slender body and an eye mask. often outcompeting native plants and Females are larger than males. reducing plant diversity both in the water Chemicals such as herbicides and Total length is usually between and on land. Forest management activities fertilizers may be found in freshwater 2.5 – 4 inches. may also unintentionally degrade amphib- habitats where most amphibians spend ian habitat. Disturbances, especially those at least part of their life cycle. Amphib- that are conducted adjacent to streams or ian populations are particularly sensi- wetlands, can degrade habitat by reduc- tive to environmental contaminants ing productivity and oxygen availability. because their porous skin and eggs Soil compaction can limit the ability of readily absorb pathogens and chemicals native vegetation to grow and thrive, and directly into their body. Numerous stud- can spread or encourage invasive species ies suggest that fertilizers, pesticides and growth. Loss of canopy cover reduces herbicides are harmful to amphibians shade, hiding cover, and relative humidity. in a variety of ways. It is important to This inhibits insect populations and am- use only herbicides approved for aquatic phibians’ ability to stay moist, thus causing use when working near streams and many amphibians to retreat underground other waterways and to always follow or to cold seeps or springs. Forest manage- the forest practice rules for buffers near ment may also degrade amphibian habitat waterways. High levels of contaminants may affect amphibian health by reducing Photo by Noelle Nordstrom. by removing down logs and canopy that provided shade, shelter and leaf litter. survival, disrupting growth and survival

6 Woodland Fish & Wildlife • 2017

Although invasive predators can have and rock piles or talus slopes. American Bullfrog direct and indirect impacts to amphib- • Retain snags and large trees during Bullfrogs are an invasive ians, they may also be able to survive harvest activities. amphibian found throughout conditions that native species cannot, • Retain down wood and fallen limbs low elevations in Washington and are therefore able to spread to areas both in stream and riparian areas. and Oregon. Bullfrogs are that have degraded habitat conditions aggressive predators of other that native amphibians no longer find • Retain native deciduous species that amphibians and fish, and can suitable. provide leaf litter and food for inverte- brates that amphibians prey upon. outcompete native amphib- Invasive predators such as bullfrogs and ians for resources necessary non-native fish are limited to deeper, • Retain patches of forest (leave trees), for survival. Bullfrog harvest is year-round water supplies. Native especially around seeps and wetlands, encouraged and controlling species of amphibians benefit from in even-aged harvest blocks. their population is important the protection of shallower, seasonal Habitat Creation and for native amphibian and fish wetlands. Unfortunately, many shallow, Enhancement populations. seasonal wetlands are most at risk to loss from development and disturbance The practices you may implement to en- due to their size and ephemeral nature. hance or create amphibian habitat will Protection and enhancement of such depend upon the species of amphibians sites can greatly benefit native amphib- that could potentially be present near ian populations. your forestland. However, a variety of amphibians will benefit from the ap- Management Practices plication of one or more of the following enhancement activities: Amphibians are resilient and wondrous forest wildlife species that woodland • Create log surrogates and habitat piles. owners can help and encourage through • Leave slash piles post-harvest. thoughtful management practices. The • Place downed wood or fallen limbs in following sections describe practices areas where it is lacking, especially be- that woodland owners can implement to tween wetland and/or stream habitats help amphibians. to facilitate amphibian dispersal. Protection: • Limit scarification practices and en- Amphibian populations benefit the most courage a dense leaf/forest litter. Photo by Jenny Cafferata from the protection of existing upland • Create rock piles. and aquatic habitats that provide the • Increase direct sunlight and encour- natural complexity to meet life history age native emergent vegetation within behaviors (especially in larvae), increas- needs. These may include: ing susceptibility to pathogens and para- and surrounding existing wetlands. sites, and causing deformities (Marco et • Follow forest practice rules in Oregon • Install basking sites which are usually al. 1999; Alford & Richards 1999). and Washington for stream-side and logs or boulders that allow amphibians wetland buffers. access to sunlight. Invasive predators • Stream and wetland buffers: • Provide vegetative buffers of native A variety of species have been intro- • Limit soil and ground disturbance trees and shrubs surrounding wetlands. duced to Oregon and Washington directly adjacent to streams and wet- waterways and wetlands that prey upon • Create seasonal wetlands or small fish- lands and where possible in forested free ponds outside of wetted streams. amphibians. These include the Ameri- areas between aquatic features. can bullfrog and warm-water fish such Note creation of wetlands could require as largemouth bass. (Jennings and • Consider increasing buffers and/or permits. More information at: WDFW Hayes 1985). Some of these species, providing suitable habitat between Living with Wildlife or OSU Extension including carp, affect amphibian popu- wetlands and uplands. Woodland Ponds: A Field Guide. lations indirectly, by out-competing • Avoid disturbance to and provide a veg- them for resources, degrading habitats etated buffer around wetlands, ponds, and limiting dispersal and movement. streams, downed wood, rock outcrops

7 Woodland Fish & Wildlife • 2017

Frog Puddle

Creating Log Surrogates In areas where little or no down wood is present, replacement habitat for amphibians can be created by laying smaller diam- eter logs in linear piles, thus cre- ating a concentration of coarse woody habitat. This material will break down in place to create duff, and will provide hiding cover. Layers of finer material on top will also provide habitat for birds and small mammals.

Photo by Ken Bevis.

• Utilize techniques to leave some forest canopy, where possible. This may include thinning, shelterwood harvests and se- lective harvesting practices. Maintaining the forest canopy will minimize tempera- ture increases and humidity decreases. Pacific Tree (chorus) Frog. • When harvesting, provide/place down Morph brown wood in created open areas to offset loss of tree canopy, lessening changes Conspicuous dark mask and in microclimate conditions. long slender legs and rounded toe pads. Skin may be green, • Limit soil compaction by utilizing low impact logging machinery, such as brown, reddish bronze or pale cable logging. Where possible, leave gray. Adults reach up to 2 areas of undisturbed soil within har- inches in length. vest units. Cable logging in the winter months is thought to decrease the mortality of hibernating amphibians. Photo by Ken Bevis. • Minimize alteration of understory vegetation (leaf litter, loose bark, down wood and other woody material). Common Best • Leave/plant native deciduous species Management Practices that amphibians rely on for food. There are several Best Management • Control invasive plant species and Practices that can be implemented on re-seed/re-plant with native plant forestlands to help support and protect species. amphibians during forest management, • Limit or eliminate use of pesticides including: and herbicides, especially near water- • Conduct smaller (<10 acres) harvests ways. Follow all label requirements of Photo by Lauren Grand. (MacNeil and Williams 2014). herbicides.

8 Woodland Fish & Wildlife • 2017

Forks Log Habitat Area Western Toad

Photo by Ken Bevis. Photo by Ken Bevis.

Summary potentially improper use of herbicides. Cascades Frog Amphibians are good indicators of The best thing forest landowners can overall ecosystem and forest health, do for amphibians is keep their land in due to their role in the ecosystem, life forests. Landowners can utilize numer- history requirements, and sensitivity to ous methods to benefit amphibians, environmental changes. Many amphib- including habitat protections and en- ians are also threatened, endangered or hancements and best management and sensitive species, and are experiencing timing practices. These methods can declining populations across the globe. both offset and minimize impacts to Amphibians are being threatened by amphibians from forest management, habitat loss and degradation, degraded and help create a healthy ecosystem for water quality, invasive predators, and amphibians and other species alike. Photo by Ken Bevis.

Additional Resources Oregon Forest Resources Institute (OFRI): www.oregonforests.org Know Your Forest: www.knowyourforest.org Other Woodland Fish and Wildlife Documents found on http://woodlandfishandwildlife.com/ OSU extension: http://extension.oregonstate.edu/ WSU extension: http://extension.wsu.edu/ WDFW Priority Habitats and Species: http://wdfw.wa.gov/mapping/phs/ ODFW’s The Oregon Conservation Strategy: http://www.oregonconservationstrategy.org/ Northwest Partners in Amphibian and Reptile Conservation (PARC): http://www.nwparc.org/

9 Woodland Fish & Wildlife • 2017

Western Red-backed Salamander Elevation, Land-Use Change, and Invasive Species. Conservation Biology, 25(3), 556-566. Leonard, William P., Herbert A. Brown, Lawrence L.C. Jones, Kelly R. McAllister, and Robert M. Storm. 1993. Amphib- ians of Washington and Oregon. Seattle Audubon Society, First Edition. Seattle, Washington. 168 pp. Marco, A., Quilchano, C., & Blaustein, A. R. (1999). Sensitivity to nitrate and ni- trite in pond-breeding amphibians from Photo by Kelly McAllister. the , USA. Environmen- tal Toxicology and Chemistry, 18(12), Sources Lone Pine Publishing, Edmondton, 2836-2839. Alford, R.A.& Richards, Alberta Canada. 176 pp. MacNeil, Jami E. and Rod N. Williams. S.J.(1999). Global amphibian declines: Cushman, S. A. (2006). Effects of habitat 2014. Effects of Timber Harvests and Silvi- a problem in applied ecology. Ann. Rev. loss and fragmentation on amphibians: a cultural edges on Terrestrial Salamanders. Ecol. Syst., 30, 133–165. review and prospectus. Biological conser- PLoS ONE 9(12): e114683. Doi:10.1371/ journal.pone.0114683. Accessed from Best, M. L., and H. H. Welsh, Jr. 2014. vation, 128(2), 231-240. http://journals.plos.org/plosone/ The trophic role of a forest salamander: Green, D. M. (2003). The ecology of extinc- article?id=10.1371/journal.pone.0114683. impacts on invertebrates, leaf litter tion: population fluctuation and decline retention, and the humification process. in amphibians. Biological conserva- Ecosphere 5(2):16. https://www.fs.fed. tion, 111(3), 331-343. us/psw/publications/welsh/psw_2014_ Houlahan, J. E., Findlay, C. S., Schmidt, Pacific Giant Salamander welsh001_best.pdf B. R., Meyer, A. H., & Kuzmin, S. L. Blaustein, A. R., Hoffman, P. D., Hokit, (2000). Quantitative evidence for global D. G., Kiesecker, J. M., Walls, S. C., & amphibian population declines. Hays, J. B. (1994). UV repair and resist- Nature, 404(6779), 752. ance to solar UV-B in amphibian eggs: Jennings, M., & Hayes, M. (1985). a link to population declines?. Proceed- Pre-1900 Overharvest of Red- ings of the National Academy of Sci- Legged Frogs (Rana aurora draytonii): The ences, 91(5), 1791-1795. Inducement for Bullfrog (Rana catesbei- Blaustein, A.R. & Kiesecker, ana) Introduction. Herpetologica, 41(1), J.M. (2002). Complexity in conservation: 94-103. Retrieved from http://www.jstor. lessons from the global decline of amphib- org/stable/3892134 ian populations. Ecol. Lett., 5, 597–608. Johnson, P. T., McKENZIE, V. J., Peterson, Photo by Michael Ahr. Corkran, Charlotte and Chris Thoms. A. C., Kerby, J. L., Brown, J., Blaustein, A. 2006. Amphibians of Oregon, Washington R., & Jackson, T. (2011). Regional Decline and British Columbia – 2nd Edition. of an Iconic Amphibian Associated with

Wetlands. Photo by Lauren Grand. Photo by Noelle Nordstrom.

10 Woodland Fish & Wildlife • 2017

About the Comments or other Woodland Fish and Wildlife Group communications may be directed to: The Woodland Fish and Wildlife Group is a consortium Woodland Fish and Wildlife Group of public agencies, universities, and private organizations c/o Executive Director which collaborates to produce educational publications Western Forestry and Conservation Association about fish and wildlife species, and habitat management, for 4033 SW Canyon Road use by family forest owners in the Pacific Northwest. Portland, OR 97221 Currently available publications can be viewed and down- (503) 226- 4562 loaded, free of charge, at the organization’s website: [email protected] www.woodlandfishandwildlife.com Woodland Fish and Wildlife publications are not copyrighted The Woodland Fish and Wildlife Group gratefully acknowl- and may be reproduced with appropriate credit to the edge funding support provided by USDA Forest Service, organization and the author(s). Pacific Northwest Region, State and Private Forestry.

Project Partners

11