Salt-Affected Soils and Management in Thailand

Bull. Soc. Sea Water Sci., Jpn., 69, 319 － 325（2015） Bulletin of the Society of Sea Water Science, Japan

Special Issue: Salt Damage and Food Production of the World （Review） Salt-affected Soils and Management in Thailand

＊＊ Somsri ARUNIN and Pirach PONGWICHIAN

The total area of salt-affected soils in Thailand are 2.302 million hectares, of which the inland saline soils are 1.904 million hectares and the rest are in the coastal areas. Slightly to moderately salt-affected inlands are generally used for rice cultivation or other cash crops. Appropriate agronomic practices include selection of salt tolerant species, use of organic amendments and green manure. Management of severely salt-affected soils requires rehabilitation, leaching and drainage, mulching and change in cropping pattern. Halophytes have a role in revegetation and contribute to environmental remediation. In addition, reforestation on the recharge uplands has been recommended to lower groundwater hence, control salination in the discharge zone. Engineering and agronomic on-farm management practices for coastal salt-affected soils must be tailored to cope with the specific agro-ecosystem. More integrated research of various fields are needed.

Key Words : Salinity, Remediation, Reforestation, Halophytes, Polder

1．Introduction 2．Inland salt-affected soil and management

Salt-affected soils can be saline or sodic soils, saline soils 2.1 ‌Source and distribution of inland salt-affected are soils that contain soluble salts expressed as electrical soil

conductivity（ ECe） of the saturation soil extract, higher than The wide spread inland salt-affected soils caused by both 2 dS/m at 25 ℃ and sodic soils with SAR（ Sodium natural and anthropogenic salination processes. The saline Adsorption Ratio） higher than 13 1）. Salinity causes major soils of the northeast are scattered in the Sakon Nakhon and problems on soil and crop to farmers in remediation and Korat basins. The source of salt in this area is halite in the management practices. The inland salt-affected soils in Mahasarakham Formation, generally occurs at depths of Thailand are formed through geochemical process and about 200 m exposed at or near the surface due to the angle distributed in the northeastern part of about 1.841 million of dip of the strata or by development of salt domes 3, 4）. ha while coastal salt-affected soils originated from seawater Besides the inherent salt-bearing nature of the parent scattered along the coast of 0.425 million ha where as 0.063 materials, human interventions such as deforestation million ha are found in other region 2）. The salt-affected soils associated with agricultural development, namely reservoir are classified as slightly, moderately, severely salt-affected construction, inappropriate irrigation practices and salt- soils and potential salt source area and the management making also contribute to anthropogenic salination practices are in line with this classification. processes. Remediation of salt-affected soils depends upon the 2.2 Management of inland salt-affected soil degree of salinity and specific salination processes through Management of inland salt-affected soil depends upon the engineering and agronomic management approach which degree of salinity and the prevalent local salination includes leaching and drainage, land leveling, deep plowing, processes. In general, salt-affected soils in the northeast are surface mulching, use of organic amendments, selection of high in sodium and chloride content, sandy and low in salt tolerant species or varieties and integrated management fertility, with approximately 75 ％ under rainfed lowland rice practices. Furthermore, community participatory network is cultivation 5）. required for sustainable land management. The objectives of 2.2.1 ‌Management of slightly and moderately this paper are to clarify the actual situation of salt-affected salt-affected soils soils, review the status of management practices and analyze Slightly to moderately salt-affected soils are typically used the future research needs for remediation in Thailand. for rice cultivation. Appropriate agronomic on-farm management was found to increase rice yield which include selected salt tolerant of rice cultivar of KDML 105,

＊ Land Development Department, Pahonyothin road, Chatuchak, Bangkok 10900, Thailand 319 320 日本海水学会誌第 69 巻第 5 号（2015） transplanting of older seedlings of thirty to thirty-five days, Table 1 shows a guide-line to relative salt tolerances of closer spacing of 15×20 cm, with an increased number of vegetables, flowers, field crops and trees at different salinity seedlings（ 6-8 seedlings/hill） and application of organic levels. Salinity adversely influences plant growth, leading to amendments such as green manure, farmyard manure or significant reductions in yields due to impeded water uptake, compost to increase soil fertility and improve soil physical imbalance of plant nutrients and accumulation of toxic properties 6）. Numerous studies showed high potential of ions 16-18）. The degree of damage shown as leaf burn, growth Sesbania as green manure for salt-affected soils in rainfed reduction, yield loss and low survival percentage depends lowland rice cropping systems. Sesbania rostrata L., a stem- not only on salinity and species or variety but also on growth nodulating legume, is recommended due to its salt tolerance stage, soil conditions, cultural practices and other in the range of 4-12 dS/m, flooding tolerance and high environmental factors. nitrogen fixation 7, 8）. Rice yields responded to S. rostrata in 2.2.2 Management of severely salt-affected soils saline soils in the northeast. Besides, S. rostrata inoculated Severely salt-affected soils though typically considered as with rhizobium ORS571 gave higher biomass and nitrogen waste land, can be rehabilitated, although this requires high accumulation compared to other Sesbania spp.（ Fig. 1）. All investment and changes in cropping patterns. Revegetation Sesbania spp. Can be used as green manure for both by planting halophytes is an effective strategy for soil transplanted and direct seeded rice systems in moderate remediation, ecological and environmental improvement; saline soil 9-15）. some halophytes can also be used as forage crops. Use of organic amendments in combination with Sporobolus virginicus（ both coarse and smooth type）, reshaping the paddy field was another effective method to Spartina patens and Distichlis spicata could survive in increase rice yield in salt affected land. Furthermore, land severely salt-affected soils of 42 dS/m 20）. The main leveling with planting salt tolerant trees e.g. Acacia mechanism of their tolerant ability are osmotic adjustment ampliceps on the ridge was successfully remediated the in plant, elucidation of salt by root, water storage in tissues, moderately salt affected soils. salt avoidance, ion accumulation and sequestration or Other salt tolerant crops such as asparagus, tomato, excretion of salt via glands in plant leaves or stem 21-23）. garlic, chive, cantaloupe, broccoli, Chinese kale（ Table 1） For salt-tolerant trees, Acacia ampliceps, Casuarina glauca can be grown combined with on-farm management practices and Melaleuca acaciodes grew successfully well in the which are the application of organic matter such as manure, severely salt-affected soils. While some native species compost, green manure, rice husk, mulching to retain soil namely Azadirachta indica, Cassia siamea, Tamarindus moisture and prevent the accumulation of salt on the surface indica and Pithecellobium dulce could also tolerate at high with drip irrigation system. salinity level 24）.

Fig. 1 Biomass and N-accumulation of Sesbania spp. affected on rice yields compared with chemical fertilizer in saline soils S. ARUNIN, P. PONGWICHIAN：Salt-affected Soils and Management in Thailand 321

Table 1 Relative salt tolerances of plants at different salinity levels 19） Salinity level（ Electrical conductivity of saturated soil extract, dS/m） Slightly salt-affected Moderately salt-affected Severely salt-affected soils soils soils Slightly Moderately Very highly 2-4 4-8 8-12 12-16 ＞ 16 Vegetables Yard long bean Garden pea Chinese spinach Asparagus （Vigna unguiculata var. （Pisum sativum）（Amaranthus lividus L.）（Asparagus officinalis L.） sesquipedalis） Onion（ Allium cepa） Chinese radish Chinese Kale Chinese Cabbage Sweet corn （Raphanus sativus）（Brassica alboglabra）（Brassica pekinensis）（Zea mays accharata） Tomato Holy basil Celery Grape（ Vitis vinifera）（Solanum lycopersicum）（Ocimum sanctum）（Aqium graveolens） Lettuce （ Lactuca sativa） Cowpea Water convolvulus Black Pepper Cabbage （Vigna unguiculata）（Ipomoea aquatic Forsk. Var. （Piper nigrum）（Brassica oleracea Climbing wattle reptan） Cucumber var. capitata）（Senegalia pennata）（Cucumis sativus） Potato Melon （Solanum tuberosum）（Cucumis melo） Watermelon （Citrullus lanatus） Cantaloupe （Cucumis melo var. cantalupensis） Pineapple （Ananas comosus） Coriander （Coriandrum sativum） Flowers Gerbera Rose（ Rosa hybrid） Everlasting Purslane （Gerbera jamesonii）（Gomphrena globosa）（Portulaca oleracea） Bougainvillea West Indian Jasmine （Bougainvillea hybrid）（Ixora chinensis Lamk. Ixora spp.） Portulaca （Portulaca grandiflora） Field crops and forage Mung been Rice（ Oryza sativa） Joinvetch Cotton Indian Saltwort （Vigna radiate） Cowslip Creeper （Achesynomene aspera L.）（Gossypium hirsutum L.）（Suaeda maritime） Soybean （Sesbania speciosa） Salt-tolerant rice Burmuda grass Carunda （Glycine max） Hemp Fesbania （Oryza sativa）（Cynodon dactylon）（Carissa carandas L.） Peanut （Sesbania aculeate） Safflower Napier grass Atriplex （Arachis spp.） Sunflower （Carthamus tinctorius）（Pennisetum purpureum） Dixie Kidney bean （Helianthus annuus） Sesbania rostrata Torpedo grass （Sporrobolus virginicus）（Phasecolus vulgaris） Sorghum Sweet Potato （Panicum repenns L.） Smyrna Snab bean （Sorghum bicolor）（Ipomoea batatas） Nut grass （S. virginicus）（Phaseolus vulgaris） Corn（ Zea mays） Guinea grass （Cyperus rotundus L.） Georgia Black seeded race Cassava （Panicum maximum） Century Plant （Spartina patens）（Vigna sinensis）（Manihot esculenta）（Agave sisalana L.） Seabrook Faba bean Cowpea （Distichlis spicata）（Vicia faba）（ Vigna unguiculata） Sesame Jack bean （Sesamum indicum）（Canavalia ensiformis） Trees and fruit trees Avocado Pomegranate Black wattle Sapodilla Acacia ampliceps （Persea americana）（Punica granatum）（Acacia auriculiformis）（Manilkara zapota） Casuarina glauca Banana Oil palm Cassod tree Jujube Melaleuca acaciodes （Musa sapientum L.）（Elaeis guineensis Jacq.）（Senna siamea）（Zizyphus mauritiana Lam） Tall-Stilt Mangrove Lychee Rose apple Guava Guava（ Psidium guajava）（Rhizophora apiculata）（Litchi chinensis）（Syzygium jambos）（Psidium guajava） Tamarind Red Mangrove Lime Agasta Eucalyptus globulus Labill. （Tamarindus indica）（Rhizophora mucronata）（Citrus aurantifolia）（Sesbania grandiflora） Eucalyptus camaldulensis Cassia siamea Swamp tree Orange Manila Tamarind Coconut（ Cocos nucifera）（Melaleuca quinquenervia）（Citrus reticulate）（Pithecellobium dulce） Date Palm Mangrove Mango （Phoenix dactylifera L.）（Avicennia alba）（Mangifera indica） She oak （Casuarina equisetifolia） Neem tree （Azadirachta indica） 322 日本海水学会誌第 69 巻第 5 号（2015）

Leaching and drainage in combination with agronomic Before reforestation After reforestation Rainfall

300 0.00 EC practices are efficiently reclaiming the severely salt-affected 1.40 WL

) EC -1.00 soils. The study in the polder system with drainage canals 1.20 22550 dS/ m (

C -2.00 and perimeter embankments was carried out to control both E 1.00 200 ) ( m

e l ( mm ) -3.00 surface ground water and subsequently minimize salinity e v 0.80 l

n f a ll 150 a t er a i R hazard within the system. Following revegetation, the area W 0.60 -4.00 within the polder system can be used to cultivate salt 100 0.40 -5.00 tolerant cash crops such as asparagus, tomato, cantaloupe 50 0.20 -6.00 or Chinese kale. Furthermore, open and sub-surface 0.00 0 -7.00 7 7 6 6 96 96 95 96 95 - - 9 - 97 - 9 - 96 n - 9 drainage take important role in leaching and draining salt n - 9 ov - ov - Ju l J a J a M a r M a r S ep - S ep - N N M a y M a y from soils 25）. Another study on salt leaching and drainage system in severely saline soils in Mahasarakham Province Fig. 2a Groundwater level（ WL） and electrical conductivity （ECw） measured from piezometers in the recharge area showed that sub-surface drainage eliminated salt more effectively compared to that of the open drains. Moreover, Rainfall Before reforestation After reforestation EC 8.00 300 0.00 Na＋ concentration in the leachate from the open drain was 300 WL

) 7.00 250 -0.20 dS/ m lower than that of the subsurface by the use of polymaleic ( w w

C 6.00 anhydride（ PMA） but its effect lasted only 30 days 26）. E 200 -0.40 ) m

5.00 (

e l mm ) ( e v

The research results of agronomic and engineering l

n f a ll 4.00 150 -0.60 a t er a i R practices have been applied to the farmer’s fields in the W 3.00 provinces of Nakhon Ratchasima and Khon Kaen, resulting 100 -0.80 2.00 in increased rice yields and reduced soil electrical 50 -1.00 1.00 conductivity of the topsoil. However, due to high investment 0.00 0 -1.20 6 7 6 7 95 96 95 96 9 96 96 9 97 - - - - - r r y y n - 9 n - 9 a a a requirement, this system is generally only feasible as a a ep - ep - ov - ov - Ju l J a J a M M S S N N M M large-scale through government initiatives. Groundwater level（ WL） and electrical conductivity 2.2.3 ‌Management of the potential salt source area Fig. 2b （ECw） measured from piezometers in the discharge area through reforestation for salinity control Deforestation in the northeastern part of Thailand has exacerbated salinity problem. A rising water table has using sap flux density（ SFD） and measurements of heat resulted in increased available water for aquifer recharge, pulse velocity（ HPV） that annual water use of Eucalyptus whilst local groundwater flows from cleared uplands to plantation amounted to 1,230 and 270 mm/year in saline lowlands increase salinity along the flow path 27）. It is moderately and severely saline soils, respectively 33）. The now recognized that reforestation in the potential salt source same study found that Azadirachta indica, E. camaldulensis area has effectively reduced total discharge to the lowlands, and A. ampliceps were able to tolerate moderately to thus lowered the water table 6, 28）. severely salt-affected soils, showing good performance and A reforestation of landscape salinity project was conducted high survival percentage, particularly A. ampliceps. The in the potential salt source recharge area in Nakhon electrical conductivity（ EC） of the soil under the crop Ratchasima province. Electromagnetic induction terrain canopy was lower than that of the soil outside the canopy. conductivity meter（ EM） was used to identify and map the Interplanting with salt tolerant grasses further decreased recharge/discharge areas 29-31）. It was found that salt accumulation in the root zone of the trees 24）. It is groundwater levels were low in the recharge area ranging recommended that Azadirachta indica and E. camaldulensis from 4.81 to 5.87 m below the soil surface, while the could survive and thrive in the recharge area while Acacia discharge area, the groundwater level were high ranging ampliceps showed good performance in discharge area of from 0.48 to 1.04 m. The salinity of groundwater measured very severely salt affected soils（ Table 1）. through many sets of piezometers at different depths Furthermore, it has been recommended that combination corresponded to those measured by the EM in the recharge management of reforestation and pumping ground water for and discharge areas ranged from 0.6 - 1.3 dS/m and 5.80 - agricultural use in the recharge area efficiently and 7.35 dS/m, respectively 32（） Figs. 2a and 2b）. The lower practically prevent further salination in the low land or groundwater levels are attributed to the high consumptive discharge area. Thus the area of heavily salt affected soil water use of trees, which was supported by another finding has been reclaimed and subsequently showed better S. ARUNIN, P. PONGWICHIAN：Salt-affected Soils and Management in Thailand 323

ecological development, for example the return of repens, Sporobolus virginicus（ coarse） and S. virginicus earthworms and native grasses. （smooth） 38）. Many shrimp ponds were subsequently abandoned after 3．Coastal salt-affected soils and management few years of shrimp farming due to disease or market Coastal salt-affected soils are found scattered along the failures, a study showed that with combined soil, crop and coast of the Southern and Eastern regions. These areas are water management practices, abandoned shrimp ponds subject to tidal influences and brackish or sea water could be reclaimed and used for integrated farming systems, intrusion. These soils are very young heavy clay or silty clay providing that markets were also effectively and with little profile development. They are very saline and economically secured 39）. most of them are flooded during spring tides only. Factors In the Central Plain, salt-affected soils have generally limiting plant growth include not only salinity but also developed on marine sediments 4, 40）. Rice and sugarcane potential acidity and degree of ripening of the soil 34）. cultivation are common, but yields are generally low. The rapid increase in numbers of shrimp ponds displacing Changing rice and sugarcane to higher income cash crops mangrove forests and agricultural lands has caused serious has been recommended by the government’s policy. soil deterioration and environmental problems. Land Numerous studies have indicated the feasibility of this Development Department, therefore has set high priority in recommendation through incorporating selection of salt- the research on the impacts of shrimp farming on coastal tolerant varieties, mulching, application of organic ecosystems particularly nutrients and sediment discharged amendments（ green manure, compost, farmyard manure） from shrimp ponds on soil and water quality as well as and drip irrigation to increase crop yields. Successful performance of adjacent economic crops. production of asparagus and cantaloupe using soil During 1996-1998, the field survey of lateral salt seepage amendments（ compost, husk ash, bagasse and rice husk） 41）. from shrimp ponds in a brackish coastal area（ Songkhla The use of drip irrigation with agronomic practices could Province） and in the fresh water alluvial deposits also increase yield of asparagus in saline Kampangsaen soil （Suphanburi Province） showed high salinity levels adjacent series 42）, while broccoli yields under saline conditions could to shrimp ponds and decreased from 36 to 3.9 dS/m in be increased by planting on sloping mounds, mulching and Songkhla Province, where in Suphanburi Province salinity transplanting seedlings at 25 days 43）. However, socio- dropped from 8 to 1.0 dS/m at the distance up to 800 m 35）. economic considerations such as farmer acceptance and 3.1 Management of coastal salt-affected soils market access must also be taken into account in making Management of coastal salt-affected soils needs to cope such recommendations. with the specific characteristics of the soil, crop and water The use of soil organic amendments of farmyard manure

regimes. Rice cultivation is common in these areas. Salt- for sugarcane grown on saline, infertile soils（ ECe 8.81 dS/ tolerant rice varieties were Lebmue Naang 111, RD 19, RD m） gave higher yields than those obtained from treatments 27, KDML 105 and Hom Nai Pran 6）. Beside rice cultivation, of compost and S. rostrata as green manure. Use of farmyard economic salt tolerant crops such as tomato, cabbage, sweet manure also tended to show higher cane juice quality. It was potato, corns, cantaloupe and taro were suggested with found that all soil amendments increased not only organic organic amendments and chemical fertilizer application. matter content, but also available phosphorus and potassium 44） Moreover appropriate irrigation with mulching and use of whereas soil electrical conductivity（ ECe） decreased . farmyard manure plus chemical fertilizer gave higher yield 4．Near Future Research Need of cantaloupe 36）. In addition the removal of soluble and exchangeable sodium from the root zone was necessary. Although, many studies are recognized in managing Dikes or polders were constructed to prevent high tides salinity problem and successfully cope with it. However, from inundating the lands, with sluice gates to regulate more integrated research of various fields are needed for brine and fresh water flows 37）. However, farmers have also remediation as many problems still remain unsolved. These used indigenous technologies to reclaim their lands, so are listed as follows. called, soil ridging of approximately 6-7 meter wide for 1. Integrated salinity management coupling up with cultivating coconuts or other crops. For rehabilitation of the community participatory network. waste lands and abandoned shrimp ponds or areas polluted 2. New technologies for irrigation and cropping by the effluents from shrimp farms, Spartina patens showed management; eg. reuse of desalinized water, deficit good performance higher survival percentage than Panicum irrigation regulation to maintain crop yield, suitable 324 日本海水学会誌第 69 巻第 5 号（2015）

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