Irina Nicoleta Cimalla Algan/Gan Sensors for Direct Monitoring Of

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Irina Nicoleta Cimalla Algan/Gan Sensors for Direct Monitoring Of Irina Nicoleta Cimalla AlGaN/GaN sensors for direct monitoring of fluids and bioreactions AlGaN/GaN sensors for direct monitoring of fluids and bioreactions Irina Nicoleta Cimalla Universitätsverlag Ilmenau 2011 Impressum Bibliografische Information der Deutschen Nationalbibliothek Die Deutsche Nationalbibliothek verzeichnet diese Publikation in der Deutschen Nationalbibliografie; detaillierte bibliografische Angaben sind im Internet über http://dnb.d-nb.de abrufbar. Diese Arbeit hat der Fakultät für Elektrotechnik und Informationstechnik der Technischen Universität Ilmenau als Dissertation vorgelegen. Tag der Einreichung: 23. November 2009 1. Gutachter: PD Dr. rer. nat. habil. Andreas Schober (Technische Universität Ilmenau) 2. Gutachter: Univ.-Prof. Dr. rer. nat. habil. Oliver Ambacher (Fraunhofer Institut für Angewandte Festkörperphysik Freiburg) 3. Gutachter: PD Dr.-Ing. habil. Frank Schwierz (Technische Universität Ilmenau) Tag der Verteidigung: 15. Juli 2010 Technische Universität Ilmenau/Universitätsbibliothek Universitätsverlag Ilmenau Postfach 10 05 65 98684 Ilmenau www.tu-ilmenau.de/universitaetsverlag Herstellung und Auslieferung Verlagshaus Monsenstein und Vannerdat OHG Am Hawerkamp 31 48155 Münster www.mv-verlag.de ISBN 978-3-86360-003-7 (Druckausgabe) URN urn:nbn:de:gbv:ilm1-2010000519 Titelfoto: photocase.com | AlexFlint „Unde dragoste nu e, nimic nu e” „Wo Liebe nicht ist, ist gar nichts“ Marin Preda: „Cel mai iubit dintre pamanteni“ 5 6 Abstract In this thesis, AlGaN/GaN heterostructures, which have shown to be reliable pH sensors, have been characterized and further developed for the in situ monitoring of cell reactions. For this reason, NG108-15 nerve cells were cultivated on sensor surfaces and their response on different neuroinhibitors was clearly monitored. First, a measurement setup for extracellular recording was designed in connection with an improved chip design and sensor technology. To select optimal sensors for the cell-transistor coupling, heterostructures grown by PIMBE and MOCVD were characterized with respect to electronic transport properties and their performance as pH sensor in well defined pH buffer solutions. Generally, a good proliferation of different cell lines was observed on AlGaN and GaN surfaces without using any kind of thin films of organic material for improving of the cellular adhesion and biocompatibility. The impact of several technology- and sensing-relevant treatments on the surface properties of AlGaN/GaN sensors was studied. For a deeper understanding of the mechanisms in cell-transistor coupling, the stability of the media for cell-transistor measurements was studied. In an open setup with contact to normal atmosphere, the monitoring of the spontaneous cell activity (“breathing”) was recorded, that is not the case for covered measurement setup due to reduced gas exchange with the environment. The sensor sensitivity to potential changes by Na+ and K+ ions and their reactions with neurotoxin were also confirmed. By titration in complex electrolytes and by cultivating NG108-15 nerve cells on the sensor surface, it was demonstrated that these sensors are able to monitor complex cell reactions. The calculations using simulation of the heterostructure as well as simplified expressions for the ion flux give strong evidence that the signal in the cell-transistor coupling experiments is primarily generated by the Na+ flux. A fairy good agreement between the experimental observations and the model could be found. In conclusion, the AlGaN/GaN-ISFETs show stable operation under physiological conditions, exhibit a very good signal resolution and are suitable for long-time monitoring of cell reactions on different stimuli. 7 Zusammenfassung In dieser Arbeit wurden AlGaN/GaN-Heterostrukturen, die ein hohes Potenzial für pH-Sensoren aufweisen, charakterisiert und weiterentwickelt für die elektronische Erfassung von Zellreaktionen. Dazu wurden NG108- 15 Nervenzellen auf den Sensoroberflächen kultiviert und deren Antwort auf Stimulierung mit verschiedenen Neuroinhibitoren aufgezeichnet. Zunächst wurde ein Messaufbau für das Erfassen extrazellularer Potenzialänderugen entworfen und das bestehende Chipdesign sowie die Herstellungstechnologie weiterentwickelt. Für die Auswahl optimaler Sensoren für die Transistor-Zell-Kopplung wurden sowohl mittels PIMBE und MOCVD gewachsene Heterostrukturen charakterisiert bezüglich ihrer elektronischen Transporteigenschaften und ihres Verhaltens als pH-Sensor. Auf AlGaN- und GaN-Oberflächen konnte eine sehr gute Kultivierung verschiedener Zelllinien erzielt werden ohne die sie sonst übliche Verwendung organischer Zwischenschichten zur Erhöhung von Adhäsion (z.B. Fibroplasten). Der Einfluss verschiedener Technologie- und sensorrelevanter Behandlungsschritte auf die Oberflächeneigenschaften der AlGaN/GaN-Sensoren wurde untersucht und die Medienstabilität bzw. Wechselwirkungen wurden analysiert. In einem offenen Setup mit Gasaustausch zur Umgebung wurde eine spontane Zellaktivität erfasst („Zellatmung“), die in einem abgeschlossenen Setup aufgrund des reduzierten Gasaustausches nicht auftrat. Weiterhin wurde die Empfindlichkeit des Sensors auf Potenzialänderungen durch Na+ and K+ Ionen und deren Reaktionen mit Neurotoxinen bestätigt. Durch Titration in komplexe Elektrolyte und durch Kultivierung von NG108-15 Nervenzellen auf der Sensoroberfläche wurde demonstriert, dass die Sensoren in der Lage sind, komplexe Zellreaktionen zu erfassen. Berechnungen mit Hilfe von Simulationen und vereinfachten analytischen Beschreibungen für die Ionenflüsse belegten, dass bei der Zell-Transistor-Kopplung das Sensorsignal im Wesentlichen durch die Na+-Flüsse erzeugt wird. Die experimentellen Beobachtungen und die theoretischen Modellierung zeigte dafür eine gute Übereinstimmung. Zusammenfassend wurde in dieser Arbeit gezeigt, dass AlGaN/GaN-ISFETs stabil unter physiologischen Bedingungen arbeiten, sehr gute Signalauflösung ermöglichen und für Langzeitmessungen mit lebenden Zellen geeignet sind. 8 i Table of contents Abstract....................................................................................................5 Zusammenfassung....................................................................................8 i Table of contents..................................................................................9 ii List of acronyms ..................................................................................12 iii List of symbols ....................................................................................15 1. Introduction..........................................................................................19 2. Cellular function and response.............................................................23 2.1. Cellular construction..................................................................23 2.1.1. Biomembranes.....................................................................25 2.1.2. Transmembrane proteins .....................................................27 2.2. Nerve cells and membrane potential in neurons ........................28 2.3. Neurotransmitters - acetylcholine ..............................................34 2.4. Neuroinhibitors ..........................................................................37 3. Group III Nitrides: from material to device .........................................41 3.1. Basic properties of group III nitrides .........................................41 3.1.1. Crystal structure ..................................................................42 3.1.2. Spontaneous and piezoelectric polarization.........................44 3.1.3. AlGaN/GaN heterostructure................................................46 3.2. AlGaN field effect sensors.........................................................49 3.2.1. AlGaN/GaN ion sensitive FETs ..........................................49 3.2.2. AlGaN/GaN electrolyte gate FET .......................................51 4. Fabrication and characterization of AlGaN/GaN sensors ....................57 4.1. AlGaN/GaN sensor technology .................................................57 4.1.1. PIMBE and MOCVD growth of the structures ...................57 4.1.2. Device fabrication ...............................................................59 4.1.2.1. Photolithography .......................................................60 4.1.2.2. Mesa etching .............................................................60 4.1.2.3. Ohmic contacts..........................................................61 9 4.1.2.4. Passivation.................................................................62 4.1.2.5. Encapsulation ............................................................64 4.2. Characterization of AlGaN/GaN structures................................65 4.2.1. Measurements methods .......................................................65 4.2.1.1. C-V measurements.....................................................65 4.2.1.2. Hall measurements ....................................................67 4.2.2. Characterization of MBE and MOCVD grown structures...68 5. AlGaN/GaN heterostructures as pH sensors ........................................75 5.1. Introduction to the pH value.......................................................75 5.1.1. Acids, bases and pH scale....................................................76 5.1.2. Nernst law............................................................................78 5.1.3. Buffer solutions ...................................................................80
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