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Conserving and in the forests of New South Wales

Newell, David A; Goldingay, Ross L https://researchportal.scu.edu.au/discovery/delivery/61SCU_INST:ResearchRepository/1266904610002368?l#1367373090002368

Newell, D. A., & Goldingay, R. L. (2004). Conserving reptiles and frogs in the forests of New South Wales. In Conservation of Australia’s forest fauna (pp. 270–296). Royal Zoological Society of New South Wales. https://researchportal.scu.edu.au/discovery/fulldisplay/alma991012820501502368/61SCU_INST:Research Repository

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Please do not remove this page Conserving reptiles and frogs in the forests of New South Wales David Newell and Ross Goldingay* School of Environmental Science & Management, Southern Cross University, Lismore, 2480 NSW *Email: [email protected]

The forests of New South Wales (NSW) contain a diverse fauna of frogs and reptiles (herpetofauna) with approximately 139 occurring in forests and around 59 species that are forest-dependent. Prior to 1991, this fauna group received scant attention in research or forest management. However, legislative and policy changes in the early 1990s have largely reversed this situation. This review documents the changes in forest management that now require closer attention be given to the requirements of forest herpetofauna. We also provide an overview of research that contributes to a greater understanding of the management requirements of forest-dependent species. The introduction of the Endangered Fauna (Interim Protection) Act 1991 in NSW led to the need for comprehensive surveys of all forest vertebrate wildlife and detailed consideration of potential impacts on forest species listed as endangered by this Act. This process was replaced in 1995 by Comprehensive Regional Assessments (CRAs) in States with timber industries under the National Forest Policy Statement. Herpetofauna featured prominently in this process overall, though poorly in the south- east (Eden) region of NSW. The CRA process culminated in the identification of areas to comprise a Comprehensive, Adequate and Representative system of reserves. Workshops with fauna experts were conducted to select areas for reservation that aimed to conserve viable populations of priority species. Herpetofauna in two of four regional areas fared poorly compared to birds and mammals. In order to achieve Ecologically Sustainable Forest Management, as required under the National Forest Policy, forest management within areas remaining as production forest must establish conservation protocols that aim to minimise potential impacts on threatened species. Although such management is a substantial improvement on the situation pre-1991, its effectiveness rests with how appropriate individual protocols may be. This cannot be determined currently so we strongly urge research and monitoring to resolve this issue. Research on forest-dependent herpetofauna has been slow to respond to the challenge of providing insights to management but has gathered pace in the last six years. Only a small number of species have been targeted to any degree. It is inappropriate to assume that if species are now largely confined to protected areas that they are adequately conserved. Many forest reserves are now more likely to be subject to wildfire because of the change in forest management practices and the resources available to manage fire. An increase in the recreational use of the new reserves may also have an impact on the quality of some key if not managed appropriately. Because the ecology of herpetofauna is intimately associated with temperature profiles, many species may be vulnerable to predicted climate change. We believe there is a need for a substantial increase in research so that forest-dependent herpetofauna can be adequately conserved in NSW. ABSTRACT

Key words: Regional Forest Agreement, forest herpetofauna, ecologically sustainable forest management

Introduction Reptiles and frogs (herpetofauna) comprise close to half of these groups, confirming how little research had been Australia’s terrestrial vertebrate fauna. There are currently conducted. This situation had arisen despite many species around 1050 species recognised (Cogger 2000) and this of herpetofauna being dependent on forest habitats and figure continues to grow as new species are identified. In thus occupying habitats that are vulnerable to disturbance New South Wales, the herpetofauna constitutes a third associated with logging and wildfire. of the State’s vertebrate diversity (Lunney and Ayers During the last 20 years, forest management has undergone 1993) and 26% of the State’s threatened vertebrates a vast transition in terms of environmental monitoring and (based on current listings). However, it appears that most regulation. This is perhaps exemplified by the situation in ecological research in the last 20 years on forest fauna NSW. In the early 1980s, assessments of forestry impacts has been conducted on birds and mammals. Indeed, were focused almost exclusively on south-east NSW due to the monograph “Conservation of Australia’s Forest the intensive woodchip operation that occurred there and Fauna” (Lunney 1991) contained no chapter that dealt the conversion of broad areas of native forest to plantations specifically with the conservation of the herpetofauna. of exotic pine (Recher et al. 1980). The Environmental Three chapters in this book made passing reference to Impact Statements (EISs) for the licensing of the woodchip

Pp 270 - 296 in the Conservation of Australia’s Forest Fauna (second edition) 2004, edited by Daniel Lunney. Royal Zoological Society of New South Wales, Mosman, NSW, Australia.

Forest Fauna.indd 270 16/09/2004, 7:39 PM operations devoted little attention to forest reptiles (Lunney Forest-dependent species et al. 1991) and frogs received even less attention. This For this review, we have identified the forest and woodland pattern continued throughout the 1980s with minimal (hereafter forest) dwelling and species that occur attention on assessing forestry impacts on herpetofauna within NSW (Appendix 1). This compilation was based (Lunney and Barker 1986; Lunney et al. 1991; Webb 1991; on Cogger (2000) and Swan et al. (2004) for reptiles and Kavanagh and Webb 1998). Barker et al. (1996), Cogger (2000) and Anstis (2002) for The routine inclusion of herpetofauna in forest assessments frogs. Additional information on frog habitats was found began in 1992 as a consequence of the introduction for some species in Ehmann (1997). Given the paucity of the Endangered Fauna (Interim Protection) Act 1991 of knowledge for much of the herpetofauna in NSW, and the Timber Industry (Interim Protection) Act 1992, determining the extent of forest dependency in this group which required that EISs be prepared for most forestry is difficult. We include species that are described as being management areas and that Fauna Impact Statements found predominantly in forest habitats, or environments (FISs) also be prepared for each area. This required that we consider to be mostly restricted to forest patches surveys of all major vertebrate fauna groups and specific (e.g. ‘mountain streams’). For example, the habitat consideration of potential impacts on species listed as descriptors used for the red-crowned toadlet Pseudophryne endangered. A full list of endangered fauna species in australis include “non-perennial creeks in sandstone areas NSW was prepared in 1992 and this included reptiles and and sandstone ridges” (Cogger 2000) and “damp situations frogs (Lunney et al. 1996). Reptiles were not included on on Hawkesbury sandstones” (Barker et al. 1995). No fauna lists in NSW until the revision of the National Parks information is provided on vegetation types. Thumm and and Wildlife Act in 1974 and frogs were largely unprotected Mahony (1997) indicate that the species occurs in coastal before the Endangered Fauna (Interim Protection) Act 1991 heath, low open woodland and open forest. The species (Lunney and Ayers 1993). has been included as forest-dependent, because there are Before the last forestry EISs had been finalised in NSW, a new few data available to enable a more precise determination. process of forest assessment was begun. These assessments, Species that occur predominantly in forests but are known as Comprehensive Regional Assessments (CRAs), described as able to cope with human disturbance, such as began in 1995 and were a fundamental element of the the blue-tongue Tiliqua scincoides, are recognized as National Forest Policy (Tribe 1998; Davey et al. 2002). They forest-dwelling but not as forest-dependent. included assessment of environmental, cultural, social and We consider this as an appropriate starting point until economic values. The CRAs were the basis for the state and more detailed information becomes available. Thus, there federal governments achieving Regional Forest Agreements are 47 frog and 92 reptile species that are found in forested in designated areas. environments in NSW and 24 frog and 35 reptile species Research on Australian frogs increased substantially that are considered to be forest-dependent. during the 1990s, with the recognition that We have not considered turtles in our review, because declines were occurring on a global scale (Blaustein there is little information available on their habitat and Wake 1990) and that some species in Queensland’s requirements outside of water-body type. We include the rainforests had not been detected since the mid-1980s Australian Capital Territory (ACT) but exclude offshore (Ingram and McDonald 1993; Richards et al. 1993). This islands, such as Lord Howe Island. coincided with the inclusion of frogs on the schedule of endangered fauna in NSW. Concern about abrupt frog Environmental impact statements in declines led to an increase in research attention with the primary focus on species recognised as endangered, which the timber production areas of NSW included many species of forest-dependent frogs. Most of The most comprehensive attempt to document the the published research arising from this period focused management requirements of forest herpetofauna in on distribution patterns (e.g. Mahony 1993; Gillespie NSW occurred during the 1990s. As a consequence and Hollis 1996; Goldingay et al. 1999; Hines et al. 1999; of the enactment in NSW of the Endangered Fauna Lemckert and Morse 1999), although some focused on (Interim Protection) Act 1991, the Timber Industry (Interim basic aspects of ecology (e.g. Lemckert and Brassil 2000). Protection) Act 1992 was also enacted, and while serving to Thus, the 1980s were characterised by a minimal effort protect employment within the timber industry, required to study forest herpetofauna, while the 1990s were that detailed environmental assessments be conducted characterised by a flurry of surveys and assessments. This within designated forestry management areas. These begs the question: by how much has our understanding assessments had to provide a comprehensive inventory of the ecology and management requirements of forest of fauna within each management area and consider the herpetofauna increased since 1990. This paper provides a impacts of timber production on the fauna with some synthesis of the research and surveys conducted on forest focus given to species listed as threatened or endangered. herpetofauna during this period. We evaluate the role of Outside of these areas Fauna Impact Statements had to herpetofauna in both the forestry EIS process and the be prepared to assess the potential impacts of logging CRA process, and discuss whether herpetofauna benefited operations on fauna listed as endangered (referred to from these. Also, whether the higher profile now provided as threatened species since the replacement of the to herpetofauna has guaranteed a greater likelihood of Endangered Fauna (Interim Protection) Act 1991 with the basic ecological research. NSW Threatened Species Conservation Act 1995).

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Environmental consultants conducted field surveys for Despite all surveys detecting >25 reptile species, few species all terrestrial vertebrate fauna for the environmental were represented by >50 individuals for an individual survey assessments. These surveys followed guidelines prepared (Table 1). This meant that few species could be assessed by staff of the State Forests of NSW (SFNSW)(York et individually for their response to logging (disturbance), al. 1991). Surveys were conducted at sites containing a despite this being a key aim of the studies. Almost all studies 500 m long transect and at sites that contained specific analysed total reptile species richness and total abundance. habitats (e.g. wetlands) that may have been favoured by Such analyses may be misleading because pooled data are particular fauna. Transect sites were stratified by forest dominated by a small number of abundant taxa (Goldingay moisture type and the presence or absence of logging. et al. 1996). Of the ten studies where the abundance of In all but one management area (Murwillumbah), the species was reported, the garden delicata transect sites were located by SFNSW while the habitat was the most abundant species in eight studies and the sites were located by the consultants. second most abundant in one study. Species in the genus Eulamprus were among the most abundant in two studies. The number of sites surveyed varied among management areas (Table 1), which varied greatly in area. Transects The frog data for most studies were insufficient to enable were surveyed for herpetofauna using active searches and data analysis (Table 1). Only two studies collected more than 50 records for a single species. Few of the threatened species a small number of pitfall traps. The duration of the active potentially available were detected and few individuals searches varied among studies and only four employed a were detected. In Murwillumbah, the pouched frog Assa repeat survey >1 week after the initial search (Table 1). darlingtoni accounted for 29 of the 34 individual site records A separate frog survey in one area involved repeat surveys of threatened frogs. In Gloucester, >200 New England tree (White 1994). Such temporal sampling may be important frogs Litoria subglandulosa were detected across sites and in to more fully survey the available fauna. Most of the Dorrigo, 83 L. subglandulosa and 144 A. darlingtoni were studies conducted target surveys of specific habitats. detected, but no analysis was conducted in either study. Table 1. Herpetofauna surveys of Forestry areas in NSW. This table includes the majority of the management areas. 1. Tenterfield (Fanning 1995), 2. Murwillumbah (CSIRO 1995); 3. Urbenville (Austeco 1994); 4. Casino (Smith et al. 1994); 5. Coffs Harbour-Urunga (Austeco 1993), 6. Dorrigo (Lim 1995), 7. Walcha/Nundle (Mt King 1995); 8. Wingham (Clancy 1992), 9. Morriset (Wellington & Wells 1995), 10. Kempsey & Wauchope (Mt King 1993); 11. Gloucester & Chichester (Ecotone 1995); 12. Queanbeyan (Goldingay et al. 1996). Season of survey: S = summer, A = autumn, Sp = spring. Specific habitat sites included wetlands and other key habitat areas targeted. na = not available; N = number of individuals; Y = yes for analyses; - = absent. Locations 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 Survey data No. sites 36 51 36 77 60 54 56 45 44 64 58 20 Season of survey S S-A Sp S-A S-A Sp-S S-A S S-A S-A Sp-S Sp-S No. visits per site 1 4 1 1 1 2 1 1 2-3 1 1 2 Time (min)/ site 180 60 150 150 150 180 100 100 150 100 150 100 Pit traps per site 10 8 4 2 4 0 5 5 2 5 5 0 Specific habitat sites >20 0 na na 29 134 19 9 40 18 130 57 Reptile data Total no. of species detected 38 44 27 41 39 50 30 29 28 30 35 28 Species with N>50 6 na 1 5 2 5 4 1 2 0 na 6 Predicted threatened spp. 5 2 5 5 4 3 4 0 4 0 2 0 No. threatened spp. 0 2 (8) 3(4) 2(4) 1(2) 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 Detected (N) Species richness analysed Y - Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Abundance analysed Y - Y Y Y Y Y Y Y - Y Y Species analysed 0 0 5 11 5 0 0 0 0 0 0 5 Frog data Total no. of species detected 17 22 17 20 21 27 16 11 10 16 19 15 Species with N>50 0 na 0 0 0 na 0 0 0 0 3 0 Predicted threatened spp. 4 8 9 11 5 7 6 4 6 6 5 2 No. threatened spp. 2(4) 4(34) 3(4) 1(1) 1(1) 5(252) 1(1) 1(1) 1(3) 3(20) 2(>200) 0 detected (N) Species richness analysed - - Y - Y Y - - Y Y - - Abundance analysed ------Species analysed 0 0 1 1 2 1 0 0 0 0 0 0

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It appears that the greatest value that these surveys have Our focus here is on the role that herpetofauna played in provided is to expand our understanding of the regional the CRA surveys and in the design of the forest reserves distribution of many species. Although a key aim of these relative to birds and mammals. For each region, a set of surveys was to provide data on the threatened species that priority taxa based on perceived conservation concern was occur within the management areas, most studies detected identified (NPWS 1998). Panels of experts were used to few of these and, when detected, they were represented by determine which species should be a priority. Surveys used a small number of site records (Table 1). This provided both standard systematic survey design as well as a targeted little if any insight to the management requirements of approach for a subset of species that may be rarely detected these threatened species. It is now apparent that in order in systematic surveys, but likely to be detected if targeted, to provide such data requires highly targeted and labour- and which may be candidates in population viability analysis. intensive autecological studies. Milledge (1993) reviewed The results of this exercise are summarised in Table 2. This the adequacy of surveys conducted for EISs completed in shows that fewer species of herpetofauna were targeted in the early 1990s. He highlighted the general inadequacy of the CRA surveys than mammals or birds. This is highlighted the surveys for herpetofauna and the failure to target key in the Eden CRA. Only three species of herpetofauna were threatened species. targeted compared to 21 mammals and 18 birds. This is Whilst it is important that studies should focus on likely to be a reflection of the poor state of knowledge of the threatened species, studies should also be conducted herpetofauna in this region and recognition of the difficulty on non-threatened species because some of these may of successfully detecting many species. become threatened or be currently deserving of listing. The percentage of targeted threatened herpetofauna For example, the angle-headed dragon Hypsilurus spinipes that was detected across regions was approximately 50% was dropped from the endangered fauna list when it was whereas mammals were approximately 50-67% but birds revised in 1992. Its apparent rarity suggests its status only 25-33%. No threatened reptiles were represented should be reviewed. No doubt many other species are in by >10 individuals, whereas frogs were represented need of status reviews and many may be threatened by as commonly as mammals and birds (Table 2). Non- factors other than logging. threatened frog and reptile targets were more likely to be represented by >50 individuals than birds but not The comprehensive regional mammals. This is probably indicative of life history traits more than anything. Overall, herpetofauna probably were assessment process not as well served as birds and mammals. However, the The federal government’s National Forest Policy sampling effort devoted to herpetofauna appears to have Statement in 1992 began a process that aimed to been of an equivalent effort to that of birds and mammals simultaneously protect forest biodiversity within a forest although fewer species were targeted. reserve system and develop an ecologically sustainable The design of the CAR reserve system was guided by a set forest products industry (Tribe 1998, Davey et al. 2002). of workshops held in 1997-99 involving fauna experts that This process was coordinated by the federal government assessed the response to disturbance of forest species for but involved state governments because they have each region in which an RFA was to be developed. This responsibility for forest management. A fundamental project sought to identify the conservation requirements element of the involvement of State governments was of forest species. A panel of experts for each region refined the conduct of Comprehensive Regional Assessments a list of priority species that would be severely affected (CRAs) of environmental, heritage, economic and by the absence of management attention/action. This social values. This process was intended to culminate included species listed by the NSW Threatened Species in Regional Forest Agreements (RFAs) that included Conservation Act 1995 and the federal Endangered Species the establishment of a Comprehensive, Adequate and Protection Act 1992, in addition to species of concern Representative (CAR) reserve system, Ecologically identified by the experts. Panels also reviewed the Sustainable Forest Management (ESFM), and a conservation protocols applied to listed species in State 20-year agreement for the supply of timber. Within Forests to assist development of ESFM. These workshops NSW, five regional areas (Eden, Southern, Sydney typically identified greater numbers of birds and mammals Basin, Lower Northeast (LNE) and Upper Northeast for consideration than herpetofauna in each region (UNE) were the subject of CRAs and led to three RFAs (Table 2). For example, the total of the herpetofauna was (UNE, LNE and Sydney Basin were amalgamated) much less than 30% of the bird and mammal total in the being signed by State and Federal governments (in Southern and Eden CRA regions. 1999, 2001, 2000, respectively). A further aspect to these workshops was to allocate a The reserve system had to satisfy certain ecological reservation priority (i.e. ranking) to each species based on criteria in order to be recognised as a CAR reserve its perceived vulnerability to threatening processes outside system. This included elements of biodiversity, old-growth reserves, the ability of protocols applied in State Forests forest and wilderness. The biodiversity criteria demanded to minimise impacts and how vulnerable a species was that reserves should be large enough to sustain viable believed to be, based on its distribution and abundance populations, particularly of rare or threatened species, (i.e. rarity). An attempt was then made to reserve areas should sample the full range of biological variation, and of preferred habitat to provide viable populations of contain areas of high species diversity and centres of each species. Those species given the top two rankings endemism (Commonwealth of Australia 1997).

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Table 2. Summary of the results for four CRA regions in NSW. Values for each fauna group are the number of species. N is the number of individuals of a species detected. N>10 and N>50 are arbitrary values that might be expected if a species was adequately targeted. Data are from NPWS (1998). Data were unavailable on the CRA survey for the Southern CRA. Sydney basin became part of LNE. Reserve selection shows the number of species used in the Response to Disturbance workshops for four CRA regions in NSW. The number in brackets is the number of species ranked 1 or 2 for reserve selection priority. Fauna Group UNE LNE Sydney Basin Eden Area (million ha) 3.9 5.8 2 0.8 No. survey sites 172 279 188 155 Reptiles Total target species 31 43 12 1 No. threatened 5 6 3 0 Threatened detected 3 3 2 0 Threatened: N>10 0 0 0 0 Non-threatened: N>50 2 6 1 0 Frogs Total target species 19 19 12 2 No. threatened 13 11 8 2 Threatened detected 6 5 3 0 Threatened: N>10 3 4 1 0 Non-threatened: N>50 3 3 1 0 Birds Total target species 56 69 31 18 No. threatened 33 36 29 13 Threatened detected 12 14 8 4 Threatened: N>10 7 6 5 3 Non-threatened: N>50 1 6 1 1 Mammals Total target species 52 55 32 21 No. threatened 33 33 26 16 Threatened detected 23 20 13 6 Threatened: N>10 11 13 7 5 Non-threatened: N>50 3 10 5 1 Reserve selection Southern Reptiles 25 (16) 27 (17) 8 (5) 4 (0) Frogs 21 (16) 18 (10) 7 (4) 4 (1) Birds 43 (20) 37 (12) 24 (15) 18 (3) Mammals 43 (27) 39 (23) 28 (14) 21 (5) had a greater likelihood that sufficient habitat would be Protection of herpetofauna in reserved to conserve a viable population. The results of production forests this exercise show that, in UNE and LNE, herpetofauna were ranked about as highly as birds and mammals (Table Logging operations in NSW public forests are regulated 2). In Southern and Eden regions, they fared poorly. by an Integrated Forestry Operations Approval (IFOA) granted under part 4 of the NSW Forestry & National Overall, this assessment shows that herpetofauna have Park Estate Act 1998 (FNPE Act). In order to mitigate the been treated more equitably in forest conservation impact of forestry operations on threatened species, the since the mid-1990s, although there are some instances Department of Environment and Conservation (DEC, where birds and mammals appear to have been given formerly NPWS) licence SFNSW through the terms and greater priority. It appears that the greater attention conditions of a Threatened Species Licence of the IFOA. on forest herpetofauna has had much to do with their The Threatened Species Licence outlines measures for listing on schedules of endangered and threatened the protection of herpetofauna listed under the Threatened fauna. This has meant that any conservation process Species Conservation Act 1995 that are likely to occur in that is applied generically must consider all listed fauna production forests. The Threatened Species Licence including herpetofauna.

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allows SFNSW to harm threatened species and modify also be established around all ponds and dams (as separate habitat under licence. There are currently IFOAs in place from wetlands and streams) and machinery must not for Eden, Southern region and the Upper and Lower enter the buffer. “Buffer zones” are protective areas where North East Regions, which are all associated with RFAs. specified harvesting activities may only be conducted if in Forestry operations are also licensed in western NSW; accordance with the relevant condition. Stream crossings however, there is currently no forest agreement or IFOA should use bridges where more than 10 ‘male’ threatened in place for that region. frogs are detected per hectare. This prescription is applied A guiding principle of modern forest management is within 500 m of the concentration of frogs. the notion of ecological sustainability. Managers must In the UNE and LNE, there are six threatened frogs maintain the ecological processes of forests and preserve that are considered adequately covered by the general their biological diversity, whilst obtaining the full range prescriptions of the Threatened Species Licence. This of environmental, economic and social benefits that includes two species from ‘wallum’ habitats (Crinia forests offer. Ecologically Sustainable Forest Management tinnula and Litoria olongburensis) not considered in (ESFM) is a requirement of the RFAs. Indicators have this review as forest-dependent and four species (Assa been developed in an attempt to measure success in darlingtoni, except Dorrigo, Litoria brevipalmata, L. reaching ESFM goals across the regions. Two of the subglandulosa and Pseudophyrne australis) that occur in indicators that have been developed are of key relevance forests. Four threatened reptiles are also considered to the conservation of forest herpetofauna. These are to to be adequately covered by the general conditions: develop a list of forest-dependent species and monitor the Underwoodisaurus sphyrurus, Hoplocephalus stephensii, status of forest species at risk of not maintaining viable Coeranoscincus reticulatus and Varanus rosenbergi. There populations. These indicators should provide a measure are no threatened herpetofauna in the Southern regions of the change in species richness, composition and relative of NSW that are considered adequately covered by the abundance and place emphasis on management of rare general prescriptions. and threatened taxa. For species assessed as being inadequately protected A 5-year review is intended to assess the success of by these general conditions of the licence, a series of the RFAs in implementing ESFM in each region. The species-specific conditions are required around known Threatened Species Licence conditions of IFOAs are occurrences (Table 3). For species that are particularly also subject to a 5-year review. A critical evaluation of rare or poorly known, appropriate protective measures the requirements of the Threatened Species Licence for are developed on a case-by-case basis and are referred herpetofauna is timely, because the first review is due to as site-specific conditions. Three frogs and one reptile in 2005. Here we describe the survey requirements and (Litoria castanea, L. piperata, Heleioporous australiacus prescriptions set down in the Threatened Species Licence and Hoplocephalus bungaroides) require site-specific for the herpetofauna and discuss their adequacy. prescriptions in the UNE and LNE should they occur. Five frogs in the southern region (Litoria booroolongensis, The protocols L. raniformis, L. spenceri, L. littlejohni, P. australis) and two The terms of the Threatened Species Licence outline the reptiles (H. bungaroides, V. rosenbergi) require site-specific minimum protection measures required for threatened prescriptions to be developed. species and forms the basis for DEC regulation of An integral part of the licence is the requirement for harvesting activities. A number of generic prescriptions SFNSW to conduct surveys to assess the presence are applied during harvesting operations that may be of species requiring species-specific or site-specific of benefit to reptiles and frogs. Measures include the conditions. These vary across the regions, because not all retention of rainforest, high conservation value old species occur state-wide and some species are of greater growth forest, hollow-bearing trees, ground habitat conservation concern at the edge of their range (e.g. A. features (understorey plants and logs), and exclusion darlingtoni). The potential for a species to occur within zones around rock outcrops, riparian areas and wetlands. a logging compartment is determined using information “Exclusion zones” are protective areas where specified on the geographic distribution of the species and the forestry activities are prohibited under the terms of the models developed during the CRA process. If either of licence. This includes a 10 m exclusion zone around these indicates a species is likely to occur, then surveys wetlands of less than 0.5 ha and a 20 m exclusion zone are required for that species, but SFNSW may choose around larger wetlands. All wetlands classified under to implement exclusion zones around modelled habitat SEPP 14 (NSW State Environmental Planning Policy rather than conduct surveys. No. 14) are protected from forestry operations by a 40 m exclusion zone, irrespective of size. Exclusion zones Modelled habitat are implemented on both sides of streams within harvest Modelling of a species’ distribution provides a valuable areas, ranging from 10 m for first order (i.e. point of technique for regional conservation planning and is based origin or top of catchments) to 40 m on fourth order upon locality records from prior survey and knowledge of streams and so on. environmental variables such as topography, climate and Where there are records of threatened frogs, the exclusion forest type (e.g. Ferrier et al. 2002). Extensive work on the of grazing and burning around swamps and ephemeral development of this type of biological database has been ponds is required within 2 km. A 10 m buffer zone must conducted in north-east NSW as a result of the North

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Table 3. Herpetofauna that require the implementation of species-specific conditions under the threatened species licence in the Integrated Forestry Operations Approval for the RFA regions. No reptiles have prescriptions in the southern regions. 1Also includes wetland. Region / Species Prescription Upper & Lower North East Frogs Assa darlingtoni (Dorrigo Area only); Litoria aurea1; Philoria 50 m exclusion around each record. kundagungan; Philoria loveridgei; Philoria sphagnicolus 30 m wide exclusion zone on both sides of all streams Mixophyes balbus; Mixophyes fleayi; Mixophyes iteratus within 200 m of the record Reptiles 100 m exclusion around record. If logging May – September an Hoplocephalus bitorquatus additional 200 m buffer in which hollows and stags are retained. harriettae 30 m exclusion around record. Southern Regions (includes Eden & Tumut) Frogs Pseudophryne pengilleyi 30 m exclusion zone around all bogs, soaks & seepage zones. Litoria aurea 50 m exclusion around each record and wetland. 300 m wide exclusion zone on each side of the stream; within the planning area, 30 m wide exclusion zones must Mixophyes balbus be implemented on each side of all other streams that are connected to the stream in which the species was recorded. A 500 m radius exclusion zone around a record. Harvesting Heleioporus australiacus not allowed within 2 km of record where there is water runoff within the area being harvested.

East Forests Biodiversity Study (NEFBS) and the work Fauna surveys are required for particular species of the Natural Resources Audit Council (NRAC)(Brown of reptiles and frogs (see Table 4) where a logging et al. 2000). Despite being arguably the most extensive compartment contains known or potential habitat. For dataset of its kind in the world (Ferrier et al. 2002), it may the threatened frogs, riparian, non-riparian and targeted be biased away from herpetofauna, with mammals and birds surveys may be required. Any incidental records of better represented than reptiles and frogs (Hines and Brown threatened species obtained by SFNSW employees or 2000). Of the 165 species of herpetofauna estimated from contractors must be recorded. the region, models were not constructed for 40% of species Riparian surveys must be conducted for a minimum duration (20 frogs, 46 reptiles) or if a model were constructed, it was of one-person hour for every 200 ha of net survey area. An considered to be inadequate. A further 17 species (4 frogs additional 15 minutes per 50 ha above 200 ha must be spent and 13 reptiles) were known only from a small number conducting riparian frog surveys. A minimum of 10 minutes of localities and were modelled as presence only rather is required per stream, if more than one stream is surveyed. than presence v’s absence models. Despite the limitations, Call playback must be conducted three times per one hour it appears that the models developed for ‘small reptiles’ of search effort. Surveys must be conducted twice on two performed well when compared to birds (Pearce et al. 2001; separate nights, under appropriate conditions. Diurnal Ferrier et al. 2002). This may reflect the species used in surveys are required for L. piperata, L. booroolongensis, L. the evaluations. No evaluation of the adequacy of models aurea and L. castanea. developed for frogs could be found, but it appears that many were extrapolated from a small number of records. Non-riparian surveys are required for the Philoria species throughout their range and for A. darlingtoni in the Survey requirements for herpetofauna Dorrigo management area. The giant burrowing frog H. Prior to harvesting operations being undertaken, australiacus is also surveyed in non-riparian habitats in pre-logging surveys must be conducted by suitably the Southern regions. Where soaks, bogs and seepages qualified personnel, at appropriate times of the year. occur within a survey area, 30–120 minutes must be spent Surveys consist of a compartment traverse (minimum surveying these areas within each 200 ha of net survey of 4 hours per 200 ha) where at least four kilometres area. This time increases proportional to survey area. A per 200 ha is traversed through the full range of forest minimum of 10 minutes is required at each bog, soak or types and gradients, and specific fauna features such seepage and call playback should be conducted for two as nests, roosts, scats and soaks are identified. There minutes followed by a five minute listening period. Surveys are no requirements to actively search for reptiles for Philoria must be conducted in the early morning or late or frogs during the compartment traverse, however afternoon during appropriate seasons and conditions. personnel need to be familiar with the identification Spotlighting surveys are conducted for mammals and of V. rosenbergi within the southern region and examine nocturnal birds, and an emphasis is also placed on road-killed specimens should they be encountered. identifying threatened reptiles and frogs that may be

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TABLE 4: Threatened herpetofauna considered during pre-logging surveys across the RFA regions and the survey methodologies required by the threatened species licence conditions of the Integrated Forestry Operations Approvals. Note: some species are included in survey areas outside of their distributions. =riparian frog survey,  = non-riparian frog survey,  = spotlighting transects,  = targeted,  = incidental

Species UNE LNE Southern Eden Tumut Frogs Litoria booroolongensis    Litoria aurea      Litoria castanea   Litoria littlejohni   Litoria piperata   Litoria raniformis  Litoria spenceri  Assa darlingtoni 1     Heleioporus australiacus               Mixophyes balbus     Mixophyes fleayi   Mixophyes iteratus   Pseudophryne australis   Pseudophryne pengilleyi  Philoria kundagungan 2     Philoria loveridgei 2     Philoria sphagnicolus 2     Reptiles Cacophis harriettae     Hoplocephalus bungaroides      Hoplocephalus bitorquatus     Varanus rosenbergi      

1 Dorrigo Management Area only, 2riparian survey only required in wet sclerophyll habitat encountered. Spotlighting consists of a 2 km transect for Adequacy of the IFOAs for the herpetofauna each 200 ha of net logging area and an additional 500 m Milledge (1993) was damning of early attempts to per 50 ha for areas above 200 ha. These transects must mitigate logging impacts on herpetofauna, which typically be a minimum of 500 m long and should be surveyed on two separate nights. The first night must be conducted amounted to a reliance on generic prescriptions such on foot and the second night may be conducted from a as stream side buffers, or the notion that prescriptions vehicle. Vehicle spotlighting must use two observers with for high profile endangered mammals would satisfy a 100 w spotlight and vehicle speed should not exceed these other species. The development of the IFOAs has five km/hr. Vehicle spotlighting should be conducted for a brought about considerable change in the management minimum of 1-hour duration per 200 ha. Surveys should of production forests and the threatened fauna they not be conducted in cold, windy and wet conditions, and contain. The IFOAs provide a mechanism that allows may be conducted at any time of year. Targeted vehicle- logging to occur in public forests, after due consideration based spotlighting is also conducted for H. australiacus in of forest values. The degree to which they adequately the southern regions. consider forest herpetofauna is important in the context of achieving ESFM. The green and golden bell frog L. aurea and the New England bell frog L. castanea are targeted throughout Currently, the emphasis placed on the detection of their range. Target surveys for these species are conducted threatened herpetofauna during pre-logging surveys may in wetlands and dams that are > 1 ha in size. A minimum be inadequate to detect many rare taxa. Considerable of one hour for both diurnal and nocturnal surveys is emphasis is therefore placed on the modelled distributions required and search effort should be proportional to the of species. Surveys may not be required in a compartment size of the waterbody. Nocturnal searches are undertaken at all, if a reliable survey has been conducted within two on two occasions under appropriate conditions. Call kilometres of the compartment, in similar habitat, within playback must be used every 50-100 m around the the previous 10 years. A reliable survey is defined as one wetland, with calls played for two minutes followed by a that is equal to or better than the requirements set out in five-minute listening period. the Threatened Species Licence. This condition assumes

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that herpetofauna have limited mobility and are unlikely interactions, reproductive modes, and thermal ecology to move into areas where they have not been recorded are all likely to influence habitat use by reptiles through previously or that the original survey was sufficiently space and time. These aspects of reptile ecology have been intensive. Furthermore, SFNSW may request that the frequently examined in lab-based settings (e.g. Downes prescriptions be modified if there are sufficient records of and Shine 1998a, b, Downes 1999). While such studies a threatened species (e.g. 10 records in 2 years, separated provide valuable insights, their relevance to field settings by 2 km, within a 15 km radius, for threatened Mixophyes). should be tested (see Schwarzkopf and Shine 1991; This may result in impacts on threatened species Fitzgerald et al. 2003). Lab-based studies are excluded ‘hotspots’. Surveys do not allow for the temporal variation from this review and many involve topics not of direct in detection that is associated with herpetofauna. relevance to management and conservation. We include Whilst there have been considerable advances in research studies conducted in Victoria and Queensland that focused on herpetofauna, major gaps remain in our involve species that also occur in the forests of NSW. understanding of how species respond to disturbance. This analysis reveals that only 27 papers on reptiles and Therefore, there is a great deal of uncertainty associated with 21 on frogs have been published (Table 5). Most studies the reliance on prescriptions that have never been tested. on reptiles examined habitat use and forestry impacts. In There may be difficulties in determining the effectiveness of contrast, most of the studies on frogs have been concerned prescriptions for species when little information is available with distribution patterns. Only a relatively small number on their basic ecology. For example, the green-thighed frog of studies have been focused on single species and Litoria brevipalmata is a threatened forest-dependent species mostly involving the broad-headed Hoplocephalus but it is not targeted during pre-logging surveys. Little is bungaroides. This is surprising given the large number of known of its ecology and yet it is considered adequately forest-dependent species. covered by the general prescriptions. Four studies considered both reptiles and frogs, but Lemckert and Morse (1999) stated there was a clear need only Kavanagh and Webb (1998) were able to provide for detailed research that assessed the effectiveness of the adequate data on both groups. A common pattern of the conservation protocols. However, there are currently no multi-species studies has been that despite targeting a requirements for monitoring of herpetofauna after logging large number of species, sufficient data were only available operations. Monitoring of rare herpetofauna would help for a small number of species to analyse in any depth. provide information required for the key indicators of These are mostly common species that do not appear to success in achieving ESFM. The herpetofauna may be an be forest-dependent. appropriate group to monitor because habitat selection is greatly influenced by their physiological requirements Forestry impacts and disturbance is likely to alter the availability of various Despite concern about forestry impacts on forest fauna, microhabitats and microclimates. few studies have directly assessed potential impacts. It is acknowledged that the IFOAs are not intended as a Goldingay et al. (1996) reviewed those published means of protecting all individual threatened species within prior to 1995 involving reptiles. They concluded an area. The IFOAs provide the mechanism for threatened that differences in survey methods, forms of logging species habitat to be modified. The development of a assessed, age of forest regeneration and habitat types CAR protected area network was supposed to ensure the present precluded more than a broad assessment of long-term survival of the threatened forest-dependent whether logging activities have a negative or positive species of NSW. The exclusion of logging from steep impact on the most abundant species. Several species slopes and areas classified as ‘old growth’ and ‘rainforest’ (Eulamprus heatwolei, E. tympanum, Pseudemoia spenceri) has resulted in substantial areas being reserved within have been shown to increase in abundance following production forests. This may on average equate to 50% different types of logging while some other species retention rates (F. Lemckert pers. comm.). However, given (Nannoscincus maccoyi, Pseudemoia coventryi) appear to that there was less emphasis placed on herpetofauna than have a more neutral response (Goldingay et al. 1996; other taxa during the reserve selection process, the value Kavanagh and Webb 1998). One species (Lampropholis of production forests to the conservation of many species guichenoti) has shown a neutral response to some forms of rare herpetofauna should not be downplayed. Despite of logging but it may be reduced in abundance in areas some advances in consideration of herpetofauna during with a dense regrowth after intensive logging (Lunney et logging operations, it appears that considerable emphasis al. 1991; Kutt 1993; Webb 1995). These studies reveal is still placed on generic prescriptions without any detailed that an active search method may be the most efficient research into the adequacy of these measures. detection technique and that the size of the area searched (plot or transect) may influence the number of species that are ultimately considered when analysing Research involving forest-dependent data (see also Brown and Nicholls 1993). species Detailed studies on two threatened snake species have Here we review studies on forest herpetofauna (see indirectly revealed potential impacts from logging. A Appendix 1) published since 1990. We focus on field-based radio-tracking study of H. bungaroides revealed that studies that are of direct relevance to the management and spend long periods sheltering in tree hollows of conservation of forest-dependent species. Behavioural dead and living trees during the summer months (Webb

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Table 5. Topics covered by research papers published since 1990 on forest-dependent reptiles and frogs in NSW. Research topics Reptiles Frogs Forestry impacts Lunney et al. 1991 Goldingay et al. 1996 Kutt 1993 Kavanagh & Webb 1998 Webb 1995 Lemckert 1999 Goldingay et al. 1996 Lemckert & Morse 1999 Kavanagh & Webb 1998 Lemckert 2000 Webb & Shine 1997a Webb & Shine 1997b Brown 2001 Fitzgerald et al. 2002a Fitzgerald et al. 2002b Habitat use/preference Manning & Ehmann 1991 Gillespie & Hollis 1996 Brown & Nicholls 1993 Parris & McCarthy 1999 Webb & Shine 1998 Lemckert & Brassil 2000 Klingenbock et al. 2000 Hazell et al. 2001 Kearney & Predavec 2000 Parris 2001 Taylor & Fox 2001 Lemckert & Slatyer 2002 Kearney 2002 Langkilde et al. 2003 Pringle et al. 2003 Habitat fragmentation Lindenmayer et al. 2001 MacNally & Brown 2001 Shine et al. 2002 Fischer et al. 2003 Distribution patterns Goldingay 1998 Mahony 1993 Lemckert 1998 Ehmann 1997 Shine et al. 1998 Lemckert 1998 Goldingay & Newell 2000 Gillespie & Hines 1999 Goldingay et al. 1999 Hines et al. 1999 Hunter & Gillespie 1999 Thumm & Mahony 1999 Gillespie 2001 Parris 2001

and Shine 1997a, b). This species is potentially exposed could be considered when identifying areas for protection to forestry impacts because it occurs in many areas subject from logging. In contrast, Kavanagh and Webb (1998) to logging. Webb and Shine (1997a, b) identified a need showed that several frog species (Pseudophryne bibronii, to conduct targeted surveys within State Forest estate if Limnodynastes dumerilii, Crinia signifera) had either a the species was to be conserved. Research by Fitzgerald et neutral response or increased in logged areas. None al. (2002a, b) confirmed the apparent dependence of the of these species appears to be forest-dependent. The related Stephen’s banded snake H. stephensii on hollow- threatened species H. australiacus was detected in low bearing trees for shelter. This species is widespread in numbers 1-year after logging, though not detected in an coastal production forests north of Sydney and potentially unlogged reference area. None was detected in any area 8 vulnerable to habitat disturbance. years post-logging. Studies that have attempted to consider impacts on frogs Lemckert (1999) provided the only detailed assessment of have been particularly hampered by low detection rates. the impacts of logging on frogs. Elevation and longitude Goldingay et al. (1996) were unable to detect sufficient influenced the overall species richness at sites. He individuals within strip-transects to consider in an suggested that disturbance through logging activities analysis. They demonstrated the importance of surveys may advantage several species and that three ‘forest- that also targeted wetland habitats so that these sites dependent’ species (Adelotus brevis, Mixophyes iteratus

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and M. fasciolatus) showed a negative response to logging. Habitat preference Adelotus brevis was excluded from our definition of a forest- The study of habitat preferences may be conducted at dependent species because of its occasional occurrence in several spatial scales including landscape, broad (macro) disturbed habitats. Lemckert and Morse (1999) conducted habitat type and microhabitat type. Many of the studies have detailed surveys of frogs in the Dorrigo area of northern focused on the microhabitat level, rather than documenting NSW. They essentially documented distribution patterns whether a given species prefers forest to non-forest habitats. (see below) but recognised the need for detailed research Most studies reviewed above in forestry impacts also provide on individual species to determine their management data on habitat preference (Table 5). These studies have requirements. Lemckert (2000) presented observations of demonstrated that species prefer different habitats and the sensitivity of the hip-pocket frog A. darlingtoni to fire in that this can influence their rate of detection (Lunney et al. forestry areas around Dorrigo. He noted that fire regimes 1991; Brown and Nicholls 1993; Webb 1995; Goldingay et used by cattle graziers to increase fodder and suppress wild al. 1996). Such differences will also influence the response fires affect populations of this frog, particularly in years of to logging because habitats will be affected in different ways below average rainfall. by logging and some habitat elements (e.g. logs) may show Lemckert and Brassil (2000) conducted a study of the an increase in abundance. Furthermore, increased light movement patterns of the giant barred frog Mixophyes penetration may advantage sun-basking reptile species. In iteratus to assess the adequacy of logging exclusion zones cold climates, the thermal constraints placed on reptiles may within 30 m of rivers and creeks where this species result in substantial overlap in habitat preferences that may occurred. They concluded that such buffers should be intensify competition between taxa (Langkilde et al. 2003). effective because frogs were observed to restrict their Manning and Ehmann (1991) investigated habitat use movements within a 20 m zone of the stream. Further by the southern angle-headed dragon Hypsilurus spinipes data are required to assess the adequacy of buffer zones, using spool and line tracking. They concluded that H. given the high proportion of stream breeding frogs that is spinipes prefers closed vegetation close to forest edges and currently considered to be threatened. that this species may rely on specific growth/regrowth Our understanding of logging impacts on frogs is stages in forest type. Klingenbock et al. (2000) provided rudimentary for two reasons. Firstly, activity levels of limited data that suggests the land mullet Egernia major may be advantaged to some degree by anthropogenic frogs are greatly influenced by wet weather during warm disturbance. Radio-tracked utilised large fallen temperatures. Consequently, we rely on calling males to logs close to clearings but rarely crossed clearings such detect many species. Secondly, the reliance on detecting as roads. Disturbance to ground strata has been shown calling males provides information on abundance at to have an adverse impact on both the abundance and breeding sites (waterbodies) that may be only one of species richness of reptiles, suggesting the importance of several habitats used by each species throughout their life. structural complexity of these strata (Brown 2001). Taylor It appears the most effective solution to this is to conduct and Fox (2001) found significant differences amongst studies that target particular species. Such an approach by lizard communities in coastal forests with differing fire Lemckert and co-workers (Lemckert 1999; Lemckert and and mining histories. Brassil 2000; Lemckert and Slatyer 2002) has provided important information on several threatened species. Studies of the marbled gecko Christinus marmoratus in Lemckert and Morse (1999) highlight the importance central Victoria (Kearney and Predavec 2000; Kearney of survey intensity in compiling species inventories and 2002) suggest that this species is highly saxicolous and recommend research and monitoring to address the may not be truly forest-dependent. Although vegetation effectiveness of conservation protocols within production at this study site was sparse, it appears to have influenced forests for frogs. retreat site selection through the degree of shading provided to rocks. Geckos selected retreat sites in deep Many further studies are required to increase our shade during summer (Kearney and Predavec 2000) and understanding of the impacts of habitat disturbance foraged in trees and other vegetation (Kearney 2002). associated with logging and the responses of forest- The broad-headed snake H. bungaroides is arguably the dependent herpetofauna. It appears that some species most intensively studied forest-dependent reptile in NSW. increase in abundance (or detection rates increase) after Detailed radio-tracking has revealed seasonal patterns logging, presumably because it creates greater foraging in its use of different retreat sites such as crevices, substrates (fallen logs) and basking opportunities that loose rocks and tree hollows (Webb and Shine 1997a, are important to ectotherms. However, the long-term b, 1998a). Other studies have revealed its sensitivity to consequences of these apparent population fluctuations on-going habitat disturbance (Goldingay 1998; Goldingay remain poorly known and many species that have specific and Newell 2000). More recently, Pringle et al. (2003) habitat preferences may be disadvantaged. Moreover, it have documented the highly patchy distribution of is apparent that detailed studies on individual species thermally preferred habitats for broad-headed snakes and are required to provide important data that can be used suggest that local increases in canopy density may lead to understand the management requirements of species. to a decline in the suitability of habitat which may have The standardised survey approach has typically failed to consequences for population stability. They argue that fire provide sufficient data on the species that are of greatest exclusion practices may lead to a broad-scale decline in concern in timber production areas. the availability of highly preferred habitats. Conversely,

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many areas where this species occurs are now subject to MacNally and Brown (2001) assessed patterns of occurrence wildfire on a frequent basis (e.g. once every 8-10 years), of reptiles in fragments compared to equivalent-sized which may be devastating for snakes sheltering in tree reference areas of box-ironbark forests in Victoria. They hollows during summer when these fires occur. Despite the concluded that the reptile fauna of the sites was depauperate detailed information available on the broad-headed snake, but that there were significant differences in species richness forest managers have made little attempt to develop this between fragments and continuous forest. Lindenmayer information into specific conservation protocols. et al. (2001) surveyed reptiles in woodland remnants by Recent radio-tracking of Stephen’s banded snake providing artificial shelters (corrugated iron, fence posts, (Fitzgerald et al. 2002a, b, 2003) has revealed the use of tiles). Carlia tetradactyla and Hemiergis decresiensis were the live and dead hollow-bearing trees. Snakes were highly most widespread species but only the former was sufficiently selective of tree attributes compared to a random selection abundant for data analysis. The abundance of exposed of available trees, and two tree species (E. pilularis, S. rocks and the number of dead trees significantly influenced glomulifera) were highly preferred. its presence. Fischer et al. (2003) developed habitat models for C. tetradactyla and concluded that the species responded Studies of habitat preference by frogs have been driven to landscape-scale and microhabitat variables including by the need to understand why many frog species have canopy cover, ground layer attributes and the abundance declined. Parris and McCarthy (1999) examined the of spiders. Fitzgerald et al. (2002a) inferred that Stephen’s influence of habitat attributes on frog assemblages in south- banded snake is sensitive to habitat fragmentation. They east Queensland, including species that also occur in forests stated that recent records of this species were only derived in NSW. They found that catchment volume was a primary from large forested areas which, they believed, suggested determinant of species richness, while the composition of that it required large areas to maintain a viable population, the frog assemblages was significantly correlated with stream as a consequence of its large home-range size. size and the composition of the understorey vegetation. Parris (2001) found that catchment volume and the Studies of the response of forest-dependent frogs to presence of palms were significant predictors of the presence recent habitat fragmentation have not been conducted. of the cascade tree frog L. pearsoniana. Hazell et al. (2001) Our limited understanding of the dispersal ability of most frogs makes it difficult to predict their sensitivity found that frog species richness on farm dams in south-east to fragmentation. For species that are less mobile and NSW was significantly influenced by the area of native restricted to specialist habitats, molecular genetics offers vegetation cover within a 1-km radius, as well as several an important tool in understanding longer-term responses variables associated with the dams. The presence of one to fragmentation. For example, recent studies of the forest species, Litoria peronii, was significantly influenced by sphagnum frogs Philoria spp., have not only revealed two the area of native vegetation cover, indicating the potential ‘cryptic’ species (Knowles et al. in press) but may provide importance of non-breeding habitat. valuable insight into the history of rainforest connectivity Lemckert and Brassil (2000) tracked giant barred frogs (see also McGuigan et al. 1998). All species in the Mixophyes iteratus. Little information was provided on the genus are restricted to wet forests and have allopatric use of habitat at night (the time when frogs are active), but distributions. Similarly, studies of the Litoria citropa they documented the importance of the riparian zone with species group (Donnellan et al. 1999) have helped resolve all frogs remaining within 20 m of streams. During the day, confusion over species and provide insight into frogs used the habitat surrounding streams, either sheltering gene flow between populations. This type of information under leaf litter or sitting alert in dense vegetation. could be applied to understanding the impacts of habitat Gillespie and Hollis (1996) documented the importance fragmentation on frogs and highlights the need for a of stream-side rock substrates for the endangered spotted sound taxonomic framework to underpin conservation of tree frog L. spenceri. They reported a negative association forest herpetofauna (see also Donnellan et al. 1993.) of the abundance of the frog with sites with human disturbance. Lemckert and Slatyer (2002) radio-tracked Distribution patterns green-thighed frogs Litoria brevipalmata. They found that Few studies have been published that examine the frogs remained close to their breeding ponds within five distribution patterns of forest reptiles. Swan et al. (2004) nights after breeding events, and sheltered in leaf litter or provide the most recent synopsis of reptile species’ dense vegetation during the day. distributions in NSW based on museum specimens. Much of the work undertaken during the forestry EISs and the Habitat fragmentation CRA process provide valuable information on distribution Few studies have considered the response of herpetofauna patterns of forest herpetofauna. Unfortunately, few of to habitat fragmentation (Table 5). This is despite the these surveys (e.g. Goldingay et al. 1996; Lemckert 1998) key role that edge effects play in fragmented habitats have been published beyond the grey literature. and the apparent responses of many species to edges. Two studies have examined influences on the distribution Reduced canopy cover and the subsequent increase in of the broad-headed snake. Shine et al. (1998) conducted solar radiation along edges may substantially alter the surveys at 23 sites throughout the range of the species. distribution of specific thermal environments. This may They found that the abundance of the broad-headed be particularly true for oviparous (egg laying) reptiles snake was influenced by the abundance of their primary whose distributions are constrained by specific nesting prey, the velvet gecko Oeudura lesueurii, which in turn was requirements (e.g. Shine et al. 2002). influenced by the availability of suitable rock shelter sites.

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Goldingay (1998) examined the distribution of the snake at Thumm and Mahony (1999) examined the distribution 26 sites within a single protected area (Royal National Park) of Pseudophryne australis across its range. They confirmed and found that its distribution was influenced by proximity that this species has a close affinity with sandstone habitats to roads and walking tracks, which is a surrogate for habitat of the Sydney Basin and suggest that its breeding biology disturbance. Goldingay and Newell (2000) conducted may further restrict its range to the upper part of slopes, a small-scale habitat experiment that confirmed that just below ridge-tops. Much of this habitat has been, and proximity to roads and tracks was strongly associated with continues to be, impacted upon by urban development. on-going disturbance. Parris (2001) assessed the distribution of the cascade Lemckert (1998) conducted surveys of herpetofauna on tree frog L. pearsoniana across 65 sites. She detected the the south-west slopes of NSW. Despite targeting eight species in all major areas of its historic range, and found it threatened species, only one (Pseudophryne corroboree) was was more abundant and more likely to occur along large detected during the surveys. Although most species were streams compared to small streams. detected in low abundance, the data collected provide an Gillespie and Hines (1999) provided an overview of the important baseline for future reference. Systematic survey status of individual riverine frogs, including several that are data are important in the development and refinement forest-dependent. They advocate strategic monitoring in of predictive models of species’ distribution (Ferrier and order to ascertain population trends and acknowledge that Watson 1997, Brown et al. 2000, Pearce et al. 2001) and the ecology of many species remains unknown. Hines et al. predictive models form the basis of future survey effort (1999) provided an overview of the distribution and status within production forests. of subtropical frogs, many of which are forest-dependent. The recognition that many frog species have declined has Again, knowledge of the ecology and population dynamics led to a number of studies where the distribution patterns of these frogs was poor and was seen as an impediment to have been examined. This has been driven by the need to the development of conservation strategies. Goldingay et establish a baseline so that any further changes in distribution al. (1999) provided baseline data on five species of forest- and abundance can be fully documented. Mahony (1993) dependent frogs, including two threatened species, in north- provided an account of changes in the status of species in east NSW. They found no difference in the elevational a forest area on the central coast of NSW over a 15-year distribution of several widespread species but noted that M. period. This study documented the decline of M. balbus and iteratus was confined to low elevation sites while M. fleayi M. iteratus in the study area. Daly et al. (2002) conducted was mostly confined to high elevation sites. These data will targeted surveys for M. balbus on the south coast of NSW be useful in providing a longer-term evaluation of the status and detected it at only 2 of 14 historic localities, confirming of these frogs and have identified locations for more detailed that this frog has declined in the southern part of its range. research to be undertaken (Newell in prep.). The species accounts contained within Ehmann (1997) provide a summary of ecological information and many new Future directions locality records for the threatened frogs of NSW. Surveys of We have witnessed dramatic changes concerning the historic localities for threatened frogs failed to yield records conservation and management of forest herpetofauna in from 25% of these sites, suggesting that declines have NSW during the last 15 years. From a situation where the occurred for many forest species. Notes on new localities herpetofauna was largely ignored in forest management, and of threatened frogs provide valuable information on species’ only a small number of workers actively conducted research distribution (e.g. Ehmann 1997; Murphy and Turbill 1999) on this fauna group, we have moved to a situation where and increase the robustness of predictive models for rare they have received renewed attention, with many workers taxa when models are derived from presence only data now conducting research on their ecology. While the (Hines and Brown 2000). herpetofauna was supposed to be given as much attention as Gillespie and Hollis (1996) assessed the distribution and the mammals and birds during the forestry EIS process, and abundance of the spotted tree frog Litoria spenceri. They the RFA process, available evidence suggests they played a implicated several forms of human disturbance with a significant though subordinate role. Milledge (1993) stated that early in the forestry EIS process there was a perception contraction in the distribution of this species. Hunter and that herpetofauna were less at risk from forestry activities Gillespie (1999) examined the distribution of this species and this led to complacency in effort devoted to surveys and in NSW, providing a new locality for the species. They impact mitigation. He identified changes to the threatened also provided distributional data on three other forest- fauna lists imposed by the Endangered Fauna (Interim dependent stream breeding frogs. They confirmed the Protection) Act 1991 and the requirements of the forestry EIS apparent rarity of the Booroolong frog L. booroolongensis with process as producing a heightened awareness of the need to this species being absent from 2 of 3 historic localities. The consider herpetofauna in issues of forest management. overall abundance of species was low and they implicated modification to stream flows and the introduction of fish One factor that has hampered research and monitoring in as possible factors affecting distribution and abundance. the past has been a poor understanding of the distribution Gillespie and Hero (1999) reviewed the potential impacts of species. The detailed EIS, CRA and NEFBS surveys of fish introductions on frog assemblages and concluded conducted in the mid-1990s have provided a foundation that fish play a major role in determining the distribution of distributional data, though many species are poorly and abundance of many forest-dependent species. More represented. These data have been used to generate recently, Gillespie (2001) has also implicated introduced predictive models of distribution (see Pearce et al. 2001) trout in the decline of L. spenceri. but they also provide an inventory of sites where more

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detailed studies can be conducted on select species. The Thus, the onus is on this department to adequately consider challenge now is to replicate such studies across sites forest herpetofauna in managing National Parks and also and species. Site replication is of importance because managing its own activities. For example, there is evidence management requirements of species may be site-specific that visitor activities within reserves are continuing to and a species may respond differently at the edge of its threaten the broad-headed snake and that an increase in the range or in marginal habitat. frequency of wildfires may result in high mortality of these Currently, it is difficult to ascertain the exact number of snakes which shelter in tree hollows during the summer species of forest-dependent herpetofauna. More research months. There is an obligation now to more fully understand is required to improve our understanding of which species the management requirements of threatened herpetofauna are forest-dependent. The paucity of data has required within reserves and properly manage for them. Moreover, that we define forest-dependent species as those that make the Threatened Species Conservation Act 1995 required that predominant use of forest or woodland habitats, but this species listed as endangered or vulnerable in 1995 should may have excluded some species that are truly dependent have recovery plans prepared in 3 and 5 years, respectively. on forest habitats because they make occasional use of The broad-headed snake has been listed as endangered in disturbed habitats. A further consideration is that many NSW since 1974 and currently does not even have a draft species require status reviews to consider whether they recovery plan. This is surprising given its highly endangered should be added to the list of threatened fauna in NSW. The status, and since we believe this species to now be among the inadequacy of the current list of threatened herpetofauna has most studied species of herpetofauna in NSW. likely contributed to the low number of target species during There is other evidence that visitor activities in National some of the CRA surveys (e.g. Eden). This translated to a Parks may threaten the habitat of herpetofauna. The low focus during the reserve selection phase. There may still construction and maintenance of roads in protected areas be a perception that birds and mammals provide adequate may have adverse consequences (edge effects, mortality, umbrellas for herpetofauna but it may be that the influence dispersal) and may also provide access for introduction of feral of thermal properties on habitat selection and the need for predators, weeds, disease and ignition of fires by arsonists. specific habitats for breeding preclude this from happening. Moreover, the increased responsibility for conducting hazard Many further studies are needed to assess this view. Of the reduction burning will also require that the impacts of this forest-dependent species identified in this review, 11% of on herpetofauna be properly investigated. reptiles and 62% of frogs are listed as threatened under the Community perceptions of the herpetofauna will be Threatened Species Conservation Act. important in the conservation of herpetofauna. Support Of the 19 forest-dependent species of herpetofauna listed from the community for conservation efforts is required under the Threatened Species Conservation Act (15 frogs because it is likely that many areas of private land are and 4 reptiles), details of the ecology of just 4 of these important in the conservation of herpetofauna and species have been published in any detail since 1990. modification of visitor behaviour on public lands may also The use of radio-telemetry has greatly enhanced our be required. Raising the profile of herpetofauna has been understanding of the behavioural ecology of these species particularly difficult for venomous snakes. and is likely to be of great help in studying many additional Global climate change is likely to have dire impacts on species. Researchers need to be more deliberate in the the herpetofauna of NSW. This may be particularly true selection of species studied. Two of the most frequently for rare species with restricted distributions. Research and surveyed species in NSW are the grass skink Lampropholis monitoring will hopefully provide greater insight as to the guichenoti and the garden skink L. delicata, but these are consequences of climate change. It is apparent that a also probably the most widespread species in NSW. One considerable body of research (see Shea 1993) and survey might question the value of further surveys that provide data remain unpublished. Collecting detailed ecological data on these species but ignore more deserving ones. information is labour intensive and therefore expensive. Greater responsibility for the conservation of forest We urge researchers to carry their studies through to herpetofauna now rests with the Department of publication because it is mostly at that stage that it Environment and Conservation (formerly NPWS), given will have its greatest impact on the management and the dramatic increase in the area of forest reserves in NSW. conservation of these important elements of biodiversity.

Acknowledgements The comments of two anonymous referees greatly improved of Environment and Conservation and Adam Fawcett and this paper from an earlier version. Dan Lunney and Frank Frank Lemckert from State Forests are thanked for their Lemckert are thanked for their helpful discussions and assistance with deciphering licence conditions, individual comments. Kate Dallimore and Jill Smith from the Department species models, and for their constructive comments.

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Appendix 1a. The list of forest-dwelling frogs and their status in NSW (Family: Myobatrachidae). This table lists the broad habitat types described in the literature for each species and may solely describe breeding habitat. A determination is made about whether a species is forest-dependent (D) based on its predominant occurrence in forest and woodland habitats. Species that are known to occur in disturbed habitats including suburban gardens are not considered forest-dependent. Rainforest includes ‘Antarctic Beech’, ‘montane rainforest’; Forest includes: ‘montane forest’ ‘wet forest’, ‘sclerophyll forest’, ‘wet sclerophyll forest’ and ‘dry sclerophyll forest’; Stream includes ‘mountain stream’ and ‘creek’; Swamps includes ‘swamp’, ‘pond’, ‘dam’, ‘pool’, ‘coastal lagoon’, ‘waterholes’ and ‘melaleuca swamp’; Open country includes ‘farmland’ and ‘grassland’; Soaks includes ‘mossy bog’ and ‘bog’. Status is listing under the NSW TSC Act EP=Endangered Population, V= Vulnerable, E= Endangered. Sourced from √ = Cogger (2000);  = Barker et al. (1995);  = Ehmann (1997); ∗= Anstis (2002); A = all references. Absence of notation indicates that no descriptor was provided. APPENDIX 1 APPENDIX

Family: Myobatrachidae Status Dependent Rainforest Forest Woodland Heathlands Streams Swamps open country Soaks Sandstone areas Adelotus brevis EP √ √ ∗ ∗ ∗ √ Assa darlingtoni V D A Heleioporus australiacus V D    √∗  ∗ A Lechriodus fletcheri D √ ∗ √ ∗ √∗ ∗ Limnodynastes dumerilii √∗ ∗ √∗ √∗ √∗ Limnodynastes ornatus √ √ √  ∗ Limnodynastes terraereginae √∗ √∗ ∗ Mixophyes balbus E D A √ ∗ ∗ Mixophyes fasciolatus D √ √ ∗ ∗ Mixophyes fleayi E D A √∗ ∗ Mixophyes iteratus E D A √ ∗ ∗ Paracrinia haswelli √ ∗ √∗ √ √∗ Philoria 1 kundagungan V D A √ √ ∗ Philoria loveridgei V D A √  ∗ Philoria sphagnicola 2 V D A √ ∗ ∗ Pseudophryne australis V D    √∗ ∗ A Pseudophryne bibronii √ ∗  ∗ √  ∗ √ ∗ √∗ Pseudophryne coriacea D √∗ √ √  ∗ Pseudophryne corroboree E √   √ A Pseudophryne dendyi √ √ √ √∗ Pseudophryne pengilleyi 3 V √ ∗ √ √∗ Uperoleia fusca √ ∗ ∗ ∗ √∗ Uperoleia laevigata ∗ ∗ ∗ √∗ Uperoleia martini √ ∗ ∗ √ ∗ √ ∗ Uperoleia rugosa √ √ ∗ Uperoleia tyleri √∗  √∗ ∗  ∗ 1Kyarranus in Barker et al. (1995) 2sphagnicolus in Barker et al. (1995) and Anstis (2002) 3 Not recognised by Barker et al. (1995)

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Appendix 1b. The list of forest-dwelling frogs and their status in NSW (Family: Hylidae). This table lists the broad habitat types described in the literature for each species and may solely describe breeding habitat. A determination is made about whether a species is forest-dependent (D) based on its predominant occurrence in forest and woodland habitats. Species that are known to occur in disturbed habitats including suburban gardens are not considered forest-dependent. Rainforest includes ‘Antarctic Beech’, ‘montane rainforest’; Forest includes: ‘montane forest’ ‘wet forest’, ‘sclerophyll forest’, ‘wet sclerophyll forest’ and ‘dry sclerophyll forest’; Stream includes ‘mountain stream’ and ‘creek’; Swamps includes ‘swamp’, ‘pond’, ‘dam’, ‘pool’, ‘coastal lagoon’, ‘waterholes’ and ‘melaleuca swamp’; Open country includes ‘grasslands’. Status is listing under the NSW TSC Act EP=Endangered Population, V= Vulnerable, E=Endangered. Sourced from √ = Cogger (2000);  = Barker et al. (1995);  = Ehmann (1997); ∗= Anstis (2002); A = all references. Absence of notation indicates that no descriptor was provided. APPENDIX 1 APPENDIX

Family: Hylidae Status Dependent Rainforest Forest Woodland Heathlands Streams Swamps open country Sandstone areas Litoria booroolongensis E D √ ∗ Litoria brevipalmata V D  A  √∗ Litoria chloris D  ∗  ∗  Litoria citropa D √ ∗ √  ∗ ∗ Litoria dentata D √ √∗ √ ∗ Litoria ewingii √∗ ∗  √ ∗ Litoria gracilenta √   ∗ ∗ Litoria jervisiensis √ ∗ √∗ √∗ Litoria latopalmata √ ∗ √∗  ∗ √∗ Litoria lesueuri D √∗ √∗ √∗  ∗ Litoria littlejohni V D A √ ∗ √ ∗  ∗ ∗ Litoria nasuta √∗ √∗ ∗ ∗ Litoria pearsoniana D  ∗ ∗ √ ∗ √ Litoria peronii ∗ ∗ √ √ ∗ Litoria phyllochroa D ∗ √ ∗ √ Litoria piperata V D √ √ Litoria revelata √ ∗ ∗ √ ∗ Litoria spenceri E D  √∗ Litoria subglandulosa V D ∗  ∗  ∗ Litoria tyleri ∗ √ √∗ Litoria verreauxii √∗ ∗ ∗ √∗ √

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Appendix 1c. Forest-dwelling reptiles of NSW, status, habitats and forest dependency. This table lists the broad habitat types described in the literature for each species. A determination is made about whether a species is forest-dependent (D) based on its predominant occurrence in forest and woodland habitats. ? indicates uncertainty in determination. Woodland includes cypress, alpine, open and riverine woodland. Savannah woodland (sw) was not considered as forest for our purposes. Heathland includes alpine meadows and montane heath. Species that are known to occur in disturbed habitats (dist), including areas of human habitation, are not considered forest-dependent. Sourced from √ =Cogger 2000;  = Swan et al. 2004. If an author is not indicated then no description was provided. Other includes descriptors from either source; rk=rock outcrops (saxicolous), wc=watercourses, sd=sandunes; sw=savannah woodlands, gr=grasslands, ar=arid zone, dist.=disturbed habitats. Status is listing under the TSC Act, V= Vulnerable, E=Endangered. APPENDIX 1 APPENDIX

Reptiles Status Rainforest Sclerophyll Wet forest Dry open forest Woodland Heathlands Other Forest- dependent geckos Christinus marmoratus √ √ rk D Diplodactylus1 williamsi √ √ sw Gehyra dubia √ √ dist Oedura lesueurii   rk Oedura monilis √ √ sw Oedura rhombifer  √ dist Oedura robusta √ √ dist, rk Oedura tryoni √  rk, sw Phyllurus platurus √ √ √ rk Saltuarius swaini √ √ rk D Saltuarius wyberba √ rk D legless lizards Delma plebeia √ √ sw Delma tincta √ ar dragons Amphibolurus muricatus √ √ Amphibolurus nobbi √ √ √ sd Diporiphora australis √ sd Hypsilurus spinipes √ √ D Pogona barbata   dist Tympanocryptis2 diemensis √  √ goannas Varanus varius      Varanus rosenbergi V √ √ √ √ 1Strophurus in Swan et al. 2004 2Rankinia in Swan et al. 2004

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Reptiles Status Rainforest Sclerophyll Wet forest Dry open forest Woodland Heathlands Other Forest- dependent skinks Anomalopus leuckartii √ √ dist Anomalopus mackayi √ √ gr Anomalopus swansoni √ √

APPENDIX 1 APPENDIX Anomalopus verreauxii √ √ √ √ dist Bassiana3 duperreyi √ √ Bassiana4 platynota √ √ √ gr Calyptotis ruficauda √ √ √ D Calyptotis scutirostrum   D Carlia tetradactyla √ √ D Carlia vivax √ √ D Coeranoscincus reticulatus V √ √ D Cryptoblepharus carnabyi √ √ dist Cryptoblepharus virgatus √ √ √ √ dist eurydice 5 √ √ √  Ctenotus ingrami √ gr Ctenotus robustus √ √ √ √ sd Ctenotus taeniolatus √ √ √ √ Cyclodomorphus michaeli   √ √ gr Egernia frerei  √ √ D Egernia major √ √  D Egernia mcpheei √ √ D Egernia modesta √  D Egernia striolata   D Egernia whitii √ √ √ Eulamprus heatwolei  √ √  wc Eulamprus kosciuskoi √ √  wc Eulamprus martini √ √  √ D Eulamprus murrayi √ √ D Eulamprus tenuis √ √ √  D Eulamprus tryoni √ √ D Eulamprus tympanum wc ? Hemiergis decresiensis √ √  D Hemisphaeriodon6 gerrardii √ √ D Lampropholis amicula √  √ Lampropholis caligula √  √ gr Lampropholis delicata √ √ √ √ √ dist, gr Lampropholis guichenoti √ √ √ √ dist

3 Acritoscincus in Swan et al. 2004 4 Acritoscincus platynotum in Swan et al. 2004 5 Ctenotus taeniolatus in Swan et al. 2004 6 Cyclodomorphus in Swan et al. 2004

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Reptiles Status Rainforest forest Sclerophyll Wet Dry open forest Woodland Heathlands Other Forest Dependent skinks (cont.) Lerista bougainvillii √ √ √ Lygisaurus7 foliorum √ √ √ D APPENDIX 1 APPENDIX Menetia greyii √ √ gr Morethia boulengeri √ √ ar Nannoscincus maccoyi √ √ D Ophioscincus truncatus √ √ √ √ Pseudemoia coventryi8 √ √ D Pseudemoia entrecasteauxii √ √  gr Pseudemoia spenceri √ √ rk D Pseudemoia zia9 √ D Saiphos equalis √ √ dist challengeri √ √ D Saproscincus mustelinus √ √ √ dist Saproscincus oriarus √ √ √ √ dist Saproscincus rosei √ √ D Saproscincus spectabilis √ √ D Tiliqua nigrolutea √ √ √ √ gr Tiliqua scincoides √ √ √ gr, dist snakes Typhlopidae Ramphotyphlops nigrescens    D Ramphotyphlops proximus   ar Boidae 10 Liasis11 maculosa √  √ sw Morelia spilota √ √ √ √ dist Colubridae Boiga irregularis √ √ √ √ √ Dendrelaphis punctulata √ √ √ √ Tropidonophus mairii wc ? Elapidae Acanthophis antarcticus    Cacophis harriettae V   Cacophis krefftii   D Cacophis squamulosus √ √  D Hoplocephalus bitorquatus V √ √ √ D Hoplocephalus bungaroides E   rk D Hoplocephalus stephensii V √ √ D Rhinoplocephalus nigrescens √ √ √ √ Tropidechis carinatus √ √ wc D 7 Carlia in Swan et al. 2004, 8 Niveoscincus coventryi in Swan et al. 2004, 9 Harrisoniascincus zia in Swan et al.2004, 10 Pythonidae in Swan et al. 2004, 11 Antaresia in Swan et al. 2004.

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The Golden-Crowned Snake Cacophis squamulosus. A secretive inhabitant of moist forest, this nocturnal snake feeds primarily on small skinks. It appears to be relatively common in many areas of coastal forest in NSW, unlike the closely related White-Crowned Snake (C. harriettae), which is considered to be rare and is only found in the north- east of the state. Photo: D. Newell. APPENDIX 2 APPENDIX

The Broad-headed Snake Hoplocephalus bungaroides. Unlike most of the forest- dependent herpetofauna of NSW, the ecology of this species is well documented. This small nocturnal elapid relies upon exfoliated sandstone rock during winter, where it feeds upon the velvet gecko (Oedura lesueurii). During summer, it shelters in tree hollows or deep within rock crevices. This species has one of the smallest distributions of any Australian snake, being restricted to the Sydney basin. Urbanisation, removal/disturbance of sandstone, poaching and wildfires are all known threats. Despite it long being recognised as a species at risk of extinction, no recovery plan has been developed for this species. Photo: D. Newell.

The Southern Angle-headed Dragon Hypsilurus spinipes. Occupies forest edges in wet coastal forest north of the NSW central coast into south- east Qld. It can be found perching on small trees and vines in areas where light penetrates into the forest. Gravid females are often found basking on roads, where they are susceptible to traffic movements and predation. Photo: D. Newell.

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The Bleating Tree Frog Litoria dentata. Occurs commonly in coastal forests of NSW and southern Qld where it breeds in permanent and temporary water bodies. Its loud characteristic call can be deafening when large numbers of males chorus. Although considered forest-dependent in this review, it is also known to occur in disturbed habitats. Photo: D. Newell. APPENDIX 2 APPENDIX

The Red-Eyed Tree Frog Litoria chloris. A forest-dependent species that occurs along the coast and ranges north of Sydney. Breeding occurs after spring and summer rains in temporary or semi-permanent water bodies and streams. Descends from high in the forest canopy on warm wet nights, often in a single leap. Photo: D. Newell.

The Cascade Tree Frog Litoria pearsoniana, appears to be widespread and common along rainforest streams in north-east NSW and south-east Qld, despite some concern of declines in abundance during the 1980s. Breeding occurs in spring – summer with males calling from streamside vegetation. Photo: D. Newell.

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The Dainty Tree Frog Litoria gracilenta. A forest dwelling frog that is common along the east coast of Australia, north of Sydney. Breeding occurs after heavy summer rains in temporary and semi- permanent water bodies. Commonly translocated in produce, giving rise to the common name ‘banana box frog’. Photo: D. Newell. APPENDIX 2 APPENDIX

The Stony Creek Frog Litoria lesueuri. A common species from the forests of eastern Australia. Unlike other stream breeding, forest-dependent frogs, there is little evidence of decline in this species. This may be in part due to its ability to breed in water bodies other than streams and its ability to persist in modified habitats. This suggests that this species may not be truly forest-dependent. Photo: D. Newell.

Peron’s Tree Frog Litoria peronii. A common frog that is widespread in NSW. Peron’s tree frog is associated with a wide variety of habitats including disturbed areas. Breeding occurs during spring-summer beside permanent water bodies such as dams and occasionally pools within streams. Photo: D. Newell.

The New England Tree Frog Litoria subglandulosa. Occurs in wet forest along the ranges from Barrington Tops in northern NSW to south-east Qld. Breeding occurs in streamside pools during spring-summer. Considered to be a , this forest- dependent frog occurs in many production forests in the north of the state. Photo: D. Newell.

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The Giant Barred Frog Mixophyes iteratus. The largest of all the Australian frogs (130 mm), this species is associated with streams in wet forest along the east coast of NSW and south-east Qld. Thought to have formerly occurred on the south coast of NSW, the species has not been detected south of the Watagan Mountains in recent times. Males call during spring and summer from the leaf litter next to streams. During amplexus, eggs are flicked onto APPENDIX 2 APPENDIX undercut banks, usually above pools within the stream. The eggs adhere to the bank and emerging tadpoles are thought to fall into the water. Capable of large movements, but considered to remain close to streams. Photo: D. Newell.

The Stuttering Frog Mixophyes balbus. A large (80 mm), ground-dwelling, forest-dependent frog from the eastern slopes and ranges of NSW. Once found in eastern Victoria, recent surveys have failed to detect this frog at historic locations in the southern parts of its range. It can be highly cryptic and small populations may remain undetected. This species is associated with flowing streams in wet forest where it breeds in shallow riffles within the stream and shelters within leaf litter. Likely threats include disease, forestry practices, fire, reduction in water quality, sedimentation, fish predation, climate change, trampling and grazing. Photo: D. Newell.

Fleay’s Frog Mixophyes fleayi. A large (90 mm), highly endangered, forest- dependent frog, known from only a small number of localities in northern NSW and south-east Qld. Similar in many respects to the closely related Stuttering Frog. Despite most known populations occurring within World Heritage areas, this species appears to have declined in recent years. Possible threats include disease, decreased water quality, climate change, fish predation, weed invasion and control, and habitat modification due to human visitation. A cryptic frog that may easily go undetected. Photo: D. Newell.

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The Leaf-Tailed Gecko Saltuarius swaini. Found foraging at night on the ground or on tree trunks in the north-east of the state. Very little is known about the ecology of this spectacular gecko. It appears to be highly arboreal, descending to the ground during summer, perhaps to breed. This individual is from the Border Ranges in north-east NSW. Photo: D. Newell. APPENDIX 2 APPENDIX

Lesueur’s Velvet Gecko Oedura lesueurii. A common species usually associated with rock outcrops. This gecko is an important prey item for the Broad- headed snake. Although found in forests, this species is not considered to be forest-dependent. Photo: D. Newell.

The Lace Monitor Varanus varius. A common species that occurs in a wide variety of forest habitats. Often seen scavenging on dead along roadsides or around areas of human occupation, such as camping areas. A predator of nesting birds and small mammals, the Lace Monitor will invariably climb a tree when disturbed and remain on the opposite side to the observer. Photo: D. Newell.

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