Resources in the Protected Areas and Proposed Corridors of ,

Abhaya Prasad Das1, Ram Bahadur Bhujel2, Dorje Lama3, 1University of North Bengal, Darjeeling, India, 2Kalimpong College, , India, 3St. Joseph’s College, Darjeeling, India, [email protected]

The proposed corridors in Darjeeling are rich in flora, many of which are threatened. Substantial numbers of are endemic to the region.

Introduction Among the nine botanical provinces in the Indian sub-continent, the eastern Himalayas are unique globally because of the diversity of and animals found there, and this has drawn the attention of many plant and animal scientists from different corners of the world (Das 1995). The Himalayan region, influenced by various climatic factors, soil characteristics, diversified landforms, and altitudinal variations has a rich and diverse forest structure and an abundant composition of species.

The district of Darjeeling is one of the most pleasant and beautiful places in India. It has a blend of nature, culture, wildlife, and adventure. Covering an area of 3,255 sq.km, the district

Section 2: Biodiversity Conservation 57 is located between 26°31’ and 27°13’ N and 87°59’ and 88°53’ E. The district has three subdivisions: Kalimpong is the largest (1,057 sq.km) followed by Darjeeling (936 sq.km) and (425 sq.km). The district shares its boundaries with to the west, to the north, and to the east. The climate is extremely variable with a nearly tropical climate prevailing in the foothills and regions and subalpine conditions in the areas above 3,000m. The annual rainfall is around 3,000 mm. A wide range of vegetation structures with extremely rich plant and animal diversity has developed due to the extreme climatic, edaphic, and physiographic variations. Dash (1947), Champion and Seth (1968), Bhujel (1996), and Rai and Das (2002) have variously classified the vegetation of Darjeeling. Table 1: Estimated number of The ‘plants of Darjeeling’ have attracted many vascular flora in Darjeeling botanists and explorers in the last three Estimated number Taxa centuries. The estimated vascular flora for of species is 2,912 (Table 1). Plants of Angiosperms (dicots) 1,900 diverse forms, such as , shrubs, climbers, Angiosperms (monocots) 750 lianas, annual and perennial herbs, geophytes, Gymnosperms 12 epiphytes, parasites, and saprophytes, are evenly distributed. Das (1986) and Bhujel and Pteridophytes 250 Das (2002) estimated a considerable proportion of endemism for this region. The region is equally rich in non-timber forest products (NTFP), and the local inhabitants, especially the forest-village dwellers, use numerous plants in their daily lives. These include edibles, fodder plants, plants for house building, medicinal and aromatic plants, ornamentals, poisonous, and religious plants.

There are five protected areas in the district and they are important repositories of the rich biodiversity of the region (Table 2). The Government of has been managing above 10% of the total geographical area of the district of Darjeeling as protected areas. These protected areas, however, are scattered as ‘islands’ of conservation without the connectivity needed for the long-term survival of species. In 2003, the International Centre for Integrated Mountain Development (ICIMOD) introduced a landscape approach to conservation focusing

Table 2: Protected areas and their important species in Darjeeling

Area Division Important species Name (sq.km) red panda, leopard cat, serow, clouded leopard, Himalayan thar, Himalayan black Singhalila National Park Darjeeling 79 bear, tragopan, monal pheasants, spiny babbler goral, serow, Himalayan black bear, Senchel Wildlife Sanctuary Darjeeling 39 pangolin, barking deer serow, Himalayan black bear, gaur, Mahananda Wildlife Sanctuary Kurseong 127 elephant elephant, red panda, goral, serow, Neora Valley National Park Kalimpong 88 Himalayan thar, tiger, spotted leopard, clouded leopard, leopard cat Jorepokhari Salamander Sanctuary Darjeeling 0.04 salamander

58 Biodiversity Conservation in the Kangchenjunga Landscape on developing connectivity and transboundary cooperation (Sharma and Chettri 2005). Consultations with experts, conservation authorities, and civil society took place. Research showed that there is an urgent need to establish forested pathways or conservation corridors between the different protected areas in this rich pocket of biodiversity in the eastern Himalayas (Sharma and Chettri 2003). Following the consultations and recommendations for research, small-scale research projects on different aspects of biodiversity conservation were commissioned involving partners and institutions. This paper discusses the research carried out in the three potential conservation corridors identified through the consultation and research coordinated by ICIMOD.

Protected Areas in Darjeeling Darjeeling district is divided into three administrative forest divisions: the Kurseong, Kalimpong, and Darjeeling hill divisions, which together have above 22% of the area under forests. There are five protected areas – two national parks and three sanctuaries. The biodiversity elements of these protected areas are presented in the following sections.

Singhalila National Park (SNP) With an area of 79 sq.km, Singhalila National Park lies between 22°01’ 46” and 27°13’ 15” N and between 88° 01’ 51” and 88° 07’ 54” E in the extreme northwestern part of Darjeeling district. The altitude ranges from 2,400 to 3,660m. The eastern side of the range lies in Sikkim in the north; whereas the western side is the valley of the Tamur River, one of the tributaries of the river Kosi. The Singhalila ridge rises from Maneybhanjyang to Tonglu to and Phalut in Darjeeling district and continues higher up into Singhalila National Park and thereafter in the north joins the Khangchendzonga Biosphere Reserve (KBR) in Sikkim.

With wide altitudinal variations, the vegetation of this park is diverse. Subalpine forest, fir-hemlock-oak mixed forest, oak forest and moist temperate forest, Tsuga dumosa forest, subalpine coniferous forest, and bamboo scrub are found at higher altitudes (2400m and above), while temperate evergreen broad-leaved forest predominates at lower altitudes (2400m).

The park is home to about 22 species of mammals, of which three are threatened; there are more than 250 species of birds, of which four are threatened. Some of the important wildlife include red panda (Ailurus fulgens), leopard cat (Prionailurus bengalensis), serow (Naemorhedus sumatraensis), common leopard (Panthera pardus), Himalayan thar (Hemitragus jemlahicus), Himalayan black bear (Ursus thibetanus), tragopan (Tragopan satyra), and monal pheasant (Lophophorus impejanus). Floristic exploration of the park is now in progress; preliminary assessments indicate a high proportion of endemics.

Neora Valley National Park (NVNP) This park is located between 88º 28’ and 88º 56’ E and between 26º 51’ and 27º 12’ N, covering an area of 88 sq.km and with altitudinal variation from 300 to 3,150m. The national park is bordered in the east by West Bhutan. It is divided into four beats: Rachela, Thosum,

Section 2: Biodiversity Conservation 59 West Ner, and East Ner. NVNP is the least penetrated and the least explored protected area in the region and it is believed to have the richest biodiversity. The park meets the borders of Sikkim and Bhutan at Rachela danda, the highest point at 3,150m. The Neora River, the major water source of Kalimpong town originates here. ‘Jaributti’, one of the most beautiful places in NVNP is a repository of several important medicinal plants and also an ideal spot to witness wildlife movements. The park is also home to the endangered red panda (Ailurus fulgens). The recent discovery of around 19 royal Bengal tigers (Panthera tigris) by the Tiger Census of 2002 has listed the park among the most sensitive wildlife zones in the country.

Rai and Das (2002) recorded the rich floristic diversity in the park and are summarised in this section. The lower altitudinal zone or foothills (500 to 1,700m) displays characteristic subtropical vegetation. The dominant tall species (10-30m) include Duabanga grandiflora, Michelia champaca, Terminalia alata, Gmelina arborea, Schima wallichii, Castonopsis indica, Phoebe hainesiana, Ficus subincisa, Quercus glauca, Erythrina stricta, Syzygium formosum, Phyllanthus emblica, and others. The undergrowth includes Pandanus nepalensis, Maesa indica, Garuga pinnata, and Holmskioldia sanguinea. The common herbs are Ageratum conyzoides, Oxalis corniculata, Urnea lobata, Pouzolzia sanguinea, Mimosa pudica, pulchellum, and others. Above this zone, lies a small subtemperate zone (1,700-1,900m), characterised by Ostodes paniculata, Ficus oligodon, Syzygium claviflorum, Catunregam longispina, Ehretia serrata, Morinda angustifolia, and Solanum erianthumc. The ecological zone between 1,900 and 3,150m receives comparatively more rainfall and has higher humidity than the tropical area and therefore harbours rich vegetation with wide ranging biodiversity. The 15-25m high trees form a dense, closed canopy, and include Michelia dolorosa, Magnolia campbellii, Alnus nepalensis, Rhododendron arboreum, Acer thomsonii, Juglans regia, Betula alnoides, Cotoneaster griffithii, Elaeocarpus lanceifolicus, Larix griffithiana, Juniperus pseudosabina, Abies densa, Tsuga dumosa, Taxus baccata, Pinus roxburghii, and Cryptomeria japonica. The rich biodiversity of this zone is displayed in the occurrence of natural virgin forests, dense bamboo grooves, and a colourful canopy of rhododendron trees and green valleys. In addition the forests hold a number of epiphytes, mainly orchids. The common climbers are Thunbergia lutea, Clematis nepalensis, Lonicera macrantha, Jasminum dispermum, Schiandra grandiflora, and Parthenocissus semicordata, and the rich undergrowth is comprised of Rubus paniculata, Arundinaria maling, Viburnum erubescens, Agapetes hookeri, Astilbe rivularis, Strobilanthus thomsonii, and Hedychium coccinium. Herbaceous flora are represented by Primula listeri, Swertia dulata, Galinsoga parviflora, Anaphalis contorta, Aconitum spicatum, Meconopsis nepalensis, capitata, Rumex nepalensis, and Polygonum orientale. Except in the very high altitude areas (above 3000m) the trees and shrubs are festooned with thick growths of epiphytic flora such as bryophytes, pteridophytes, and angiosperms. Heterophytic angiospermic flora such as Viscum, Loranthus, Balanophora, Ropalocnema himalaica, Aeginetia indica, and many others are also abundant.

Mahananda Wildlife Sanctuary (MWS) The most important sanctuary in North Bengal, covering an area of 127 sq.km, Mahananda Wildlife Sanctuary, is situated between 26°44’ and 26°56’ N and 88°19’ and 88°53’ E with an elevation from 200 to 1,000m. It includes nine major forest ranges; namely, Kalijhora,

60 Biodiversity Conservation in the Kangchenjunga Landscape Latpanchor, Punding, Sukuna, Gulma, Toribari, Sevoke, Seventh Mile, and Laltong. It was started as a game sanctuary in 1955 with a view to protecting gaur or Indian bison (Bos gaurus). In 1959, its status was changed to that of a wildlife sanctuary because of its rich biodiversity. The sanctuary is bounded by Teesta River in the east and Hill Cart Road leading to Darjeeling in the west. The forest area in the terai or plains is typical riverine forest with a dense growth of tall trees (more than 30m high). In terms of wildlife, gaur, sambar (Cervus unicolor), spotted deer (Axis axis), leopard (Panthera pardus), tiger (Panthera tigris), and elephant (Elephas maximus) are the important species. The Terai belt of the sanctuary is an important corridor for elephants that migrate through Nepal to Jaldapara in West Bengal and . The endangered Royal Bengal tiger (Panthera tigris) is also a resident of the sanctuary. A diverse habitat ensures a wide variety of animals such as the red jungle fowl (Gallus gallus), red breasted parakeet (Psitacula alexandri), peacock (Polyplectron bicalcaratum), minivets (Pericrocotus species), great hornbill (Buceros bicornis), and many other birds. The sanctuary is equally known for its diverse insects. Many colourful butterflies, moths, beetles, and dragonflies can be seen in abundance.

Shrubs, lianas, climbers, and epiphytes are abundant but grasses and herbaceous growth are scarce. The major deciduous species include Shorea robusta, Tectona grandis, Lagerstroemia parviflora, Terminalia alata, Albizia procera, Phyllanthus urinaria, scholaris, Litsea monopeltata, and Macaranga pustulatac. The subtropical zone (500-1,000m) contains forest affected by a seasonal climate of dry winter and wet monsoon. The forests are deciduous and semi-evergreen and the dominant species are Duabanga grandiflora, Schima wallichii, Terminalia alata, Michelia champaca, Mallotus philippensis, Phyllanthus emblica, Quercus glauca, Cinnamomum bejolghota, Phoebe lanceolata, Litsea cubeba, Pterospermum acerifolum, and many others.

Senchel Wildlife Sanctuary (SWS) Established in 1940, the Senchel Wildlife Sanctuary covers 39 sq.km of dense forests, and is one of the oldest protected areas in West Bengal. It is located between 26º56’ and 27º00’ N and 88º18’ - 88º20’ E. The altitude of the sanctuary ranges from 1,100 to 2,600m. It is also known as the oasis of Darjeeling as it is the catchment area that provides the population of Darjeeling with drinking water. The Himalayan black bear is the main animal here. In addition, there are leopards, barking deer, wild boar, and numerous species of birds.

The area is important because it is the ‘type locality’ for many species collected at different times by different researchers during the last three centuries and has an interesting floristic composition. The background vegetation is temperate broad-leaved forest with dominant species such as, Rhododendron arboreum, Rhododendron grande, Castanopsis hystrix, Ilex sikkimensis, Magnolia campbellii, Alcimandra cathcartii, Exbucklandia populnea, and Prunus cerasoides. Climbers and scramblers include Rubus paniculatus, Senecio diversifolius, Rubia manjith, Codonopsis viridis, and Edgaria darjeelingensis. The undershrubs and herbs are dominated by Aconogonum molle, Cautleya lutea, Globba hookeri, Artemisia vulgaris, Urtica dioica, and Gerardiana heterophylla. The secondary grassland on Tiger Hill is home to innumerable sun-loving herbaceous plants. Being an area with very high humidity, almost all

Section 2: Biodiversity Conservation 61 trees, including planted conifers, are covered with thick epiphytic vegetation, including Begonia gemipara, Agapetes serpens, A. hookerii, Pilea ternifolia, Chamabainia cuspidata, and Hymenodictyon flaccidum. The sanctuary is also home to numerous medicinal plants such as Swertia chirayita, S. pedicillata, Panax pseudoginseng, Hypericum uralaum, and Valleriana hardwickii.

Jorepokhari Salamander Sanctuary Jorepokhari Salamander Sanctuary was established in 1985 on an area of 0.04 sq.km. The main objective was to protect a threatened salamander (Tylototriton verrucosus). The sanctuary is surrounded by some intact patches of oak and temperate broad-leaved forest and is home to numerous mammals, birds, and reptiles.

Conservation corridors and their floristic diversity Three potential conservation corridors, namely a) SNP to SWS, b) SWS to MWS and c) MWS to NVNP in Darjeeling were identified through participatory research with the local people and formal botanical research. A comprehensive floristic survey was carried out in these corridors during 2005. The complete list of recorded species in provided in the Annex. The survey revealed that these areas are rich in floral diversity and contain as many as 707 species belonging to 145 families. Among the total number of species, more than 50% were recorded in the first corridor, 80% in the second, and 90% in the third (Table 3). Many species were common to all three corridors but some corridors had specific species. The most dominant families were Rosaceae, Poaceae, and Asteraceae followed by Lauraceae and . Among the species, 28.6% were trees followed by annual herbs; the smallest group were the geophytic climbers (0.3%) (Table 4). Similarly, 32.8% of the species were found to be common to the area, 26.3% less common, and 20.4% abundant (Table 5). Interestingly, about 18% of the species were rare and threatened, among which quite a few of them are found only in the corridors (Table 3), and more than 16% were endemic to the region.

Table 3: Number of species in the corridors All three Variables Corridor 1 Corridor 2 Corridor 3 corridors Total recorded species 707 350 (50%) 567 (80%) 646 (90%) Species only recorded in one corridor - 46 7 32 Endemic species 115 57 82 96

Conservation Issues and Challenges The increasing human population and the resultant establishment of new human settlements in different parts of the district are the main threats to the flora and wildlife. Many forested paths linking the protected areas have been encroached upon and fragmented because of construction work, cultivation, extensive grazing associated with an increased number of cattle, collection of fuelwood and timber, removal of humus from the forest floor, an increased number of vehicles and rising pollution, spread of pollutants even deep inside the forests, and disturbance and

62 Biodiversity Conservation in the Kangchenjunga Landscape damage to the forest in the name of ecotourism. Table 4: Life form type of recorded Modification of the forest structure by felling plant species and subsequent planting of exotic species and Life form/habit No. % introduction of innumerable exotic species and Tree 202 28.6 their release are matters of utmost concern in Annual herb 133 18.8 terms of the conservation of flora and vegetation. Shrub 105 14.9 Perennial herb 81 11.5 In most of the terai and in certain foothill zones, Shrubby climber 50 7.1 the plantation of selected species such as Epiphyte 43 6.1 Tectona grandis, Ailanthus integrifolia, Shorea Geophytic herb 31 4.4 robusta, Lagerstroemia parviflora, and Liana 17 2.4 Terminalia alata were promoted in the past. Annual climber 16 2.3 This practice created a niche favourable for the Undershrub 14 2.0 growth of tolerant species such as Emperata Perennial climber 6 0.8 cylindrica, Arundo donax, and Eragrostis. The situation is slightly different in the temperate Suffructescent shrub 4 0.6 zone, where coniferous forests have been Geophytic climber 2 0.3 developed artificially over wide areas making Root parasite 2 0.3 the habitat unsuitable for survival of the majority Saprophyte 1 0.1

Table 5: Status of plants recorded in the corridors

All corridors Corridor 1 Corridor 2 Corridor 3 No. % No. No. No. Common 232 32.8 123 211 221 Less common 186 26.3 92 138 169 Abundant 144 20.4 76 136 141 Rare 125 17.7 50 66 100 Endangered 20 2.8 9 16 15 of local species of plants and animals. In many cases, the construction of motorable roads and recreational spots inside the forest has raised concerns for conservation. Most of the terai and some parts of the foothills are important corridors for elephant migration. People have used most of the migratory corridors and the vicinity areas for tea plantation, construction of roads, and railway tracks, and this has deprived big animals of their natural migratory routes. In such circumstances, their entry to human settlements with subsequent damage to houses and agricultural fields and attacks on villagers further exacerbates human-wildlife conflict.

Overall conservation of the Kangchenjunga landscape requires the establishment of conservation corridors between the five protected areas in Darjeeling. These could play a significant role in providing contiguous habitats for many important plants and animals. The disturbed and fragmented areas along the lines of the proposed corridors must, however, be restored.

Section 2: Biodiversity Conservation 63 Bibliography Bhujel, R.B.; Das, A.P. (2002) ‘Endemic Status of the Dicotyledonous Flora of Darjeeling District’. In Das, A.P. (ed) Perspective of Plant Biodiversity, pp 740-745. Dehradun: Bhimsen Singh and Mahendra Pal Singh Bhujel, R.B. (1996) Studies on the Dicotyledonous Flora of Darjeeling District. Ph.D. Thesis. Darjeeling: University of North Bengal Champion, G.H.; Seth, S.K. (1968) A Revised Survey of Forest Types of India. New Delhi: government of India Das, A.P. (1986) On the Floristic and Palynological Surveys of Darjeeling and Adjoining Places, Volumes 1 and 2. Ph.D. Thesis. Calcutta: University of Calcutta Das, A.P. (1995) ‘Diversity of Angiospermic Flora of Darjeeling Hills’. In Pandey, A.K. (ed) and Biodiversity, pp 118-127. New Delhi: CBS Publishers and Distributors Dash, A.J. (ed) (1947) Bengal District Gazetteers: Darjeeling. Calcutta: Government of West Bengal Rai, P.C.; Das. A.P. (2002) ‘Analysis of the Flora of Neora Valley National Park in Darjeeling District of West Bengal, India.’ In Das, A.P. (ed) Perspective of Plant Biodiversity, pp 135-150. Dehradun: Bhishen Singh Mahendra Pal Singh Sharma, E.; Chettri, N. (2003) Corridor Development for Biodiversity Landscape Conservation. Facilitating Conservation and Sustainable Use of Biological Diversity. Extended Abstract of Poster Presentation on Protected Areas and Technology Transfer and Cooperation at the Ninth Meeting of Subsidiary Body on Scientific, Technical and Technological Advice, CBD Technical Series 9, pp 23-24. Montreal (Canada): Council on Biological Diversity Sharma, E.; Chettri, N. (2005) ICIMOD’s Transboundary Biodiversity Management Initiative in the Hindu Kush-Himalayas. In Mountain Research and Development, 25(3): 280-283

64 Biodiversity Conservation in the Kangchenjunga Landscape Annex 1: Checklist of Plant Species

Plant species recorded from the three corridors In Darjeeling

Corridors Availability Endemic Plants Families where Habita status Status present Abrus pulchellus Leguminosae II, III SC Less common Abies densa Pinaceae I, IIITree Abundant Endemic Acacia gageana Mimosaceae II, III Tree Less common Acacia lugata Mimosaceae III Tree Common Acacia pennata Mimosaceae II, III Tree Abundant Acer campbellii Aceraceae I, II, III Tree Rare Acer caudatum Aceraceae I Tree Rare Acer hookeri Aceraceae I, II, III Tree Less common Endemic Acer pectinatum Aceraceae I Tree Rare Endemic Acer sterculiaceum Aceraceae I, III Tree Rare Endemic Acer thomsonii Aceraceae II, III Tree Common Acmella calva Asteraceae I, II, III PH Abundant Aconitum bisma Ranunculaceae I, III PH Rare Aconitum heterophyllum Ranunculaceae I PH Rare Aconitum spicatum Ranunculaceae I, III PH Rare Aconogonum campanulatum Polygonaceae I US Common Aconogonum molle Polygonaceae I, II, III Shrub Abundant Acorus calamus Acoraceae II, IIIGH Common Acrocarpus fraxinifolius Leguminosae II, III Tree Less common Actinidia strigosa Actinidiaceae I, II, III SC Common Endemic Actinodaphne sikkimensis Lauraceae II, IIITree Common Endemic Adiantum oblunatum Adiantaceae I, II, III AH Abundant Aeginetia indica Orobanchaceae I, II, III RP Rare Aerides multiflora II, III Epiphyte Common Aeschynanthes acuminatum Gesneriaceae II, III Epiphyte Common Aeschynanthes bracteatus Gesneriaceae I, II, III Epiphyte Less common Aeschynanthes gracilis Gesneriaceae I, III Epiphyte Rare Endemic Aeschynanthes sikkimensis Gesneriaceae II, III Epiphyte Less common Endemic Agapetes hookeri Ericaceae I, III Epiphyte Less common Endemic Agapetes serpens Ericaceae I, II, III Epiphyte Common Ageratum conyzoides Asteraceae I, II, III AH Abundant Ageratum houstonianum Asteraceae II, IIIAH Abundant Aglaia spectabilis Meliaceae II, III Tree Less common Endemic Ailanthus excelsa Simaroubaceae II, III Tree Common Ailanthus grandis Simaroubaceae II, III Tree Common Endemic Ainslea latifolia Asteraceae I, II, III AH Common Ajuga macrosperma var. Lamiaceae I, II AH Endangered Endemic breviflora Alangium alpinum Alangiaceae II, III Tree Less common Endemic Albizia chinensis Mimosaceae II, III Tree Common Albizia gamblei Mimosaceae II, III Tree Rare Albizia lebbeck Mimosaceae II, III Tree Common Albizia lucidor Mimosaceae II, III Tree Less common Albizia procera Mimosaceae II, III Tree Less common Alcimandra cathcartii Magnoliaceae II, III Tree Less common Alectra arvensis Scrophulariaceae I, II, III RP Less common

Section 2: Biodiversity Conservation 65 Corridors Availability Endemic Plants Families where Habita status Status present Alocasia fallax II, III GH Less common Alnus nepalensis Betulaceae I, II, III Tree Abundant Alpinia calcarata Zingiberaceae II, III PH Less common Alstonia nerifolia II, III Tree Rare Endemic Alstonia scholaris Apocynaceae II, III Tree Abundant Amaranthus spinosus Amaranthaceae II, III AH Abundant Amaranthus viridis Amaranthaceae II, III AH Abundant Ampelocissus barbata Vitaceae II, III SC Less common Ampelocissus sikkimensis Vitaceae I, II, III SC Common Endemic Anaphalis busua Asteraceae I, II, III AH Common Anaphalis contorta Asteraceae I, II, III PH Abundant Anaphalis margaritacea Asteraceae I, II, III AH Abundant Anaphalis triplinervis Asteraceae I, II, III PH Abundant Anemone obtusiloba Ranunculaceae I PH Less common Angiopteris evencta Angiopteridaceae I, II, III Shrub Endangered Anisomeles indica Lamiaceae II, IIIAH Common Euphorbiaceae II, III Tree Less common Aphanamixis polystachya Meliaceae II, III Tree Less common Aporosa octandra Euphorbiaceae II, III Rare Aralia cachemerica Araliaceae I, III Shrub Less common Aralia foliolosa Araliaceae I, II, III Shrub Less common Endemic Ardisia macrocarpa Myrsinaceae II, III Shrub Less common Ardisia solanacea Myrsinaceae II, III Shrub Common Argyreia roxburghii Convolvulaceae II, III SC Abundant Endemic concinum Araceae I, II, III GH Common Arisaema costatum Araceae I, II, III GH Common Endemic Arisaema flavum Araceae III GH Rare Arisaema griffithii Araceae I GH Less common Arisaema speciosum Araceae I, II GH Less common Arisaema tortuosum Araceae II, IIIGH Common Aristolochia griffithii Aristolochiaceae I, III SC Less common Endemic Aristolochia platanifolia Aristolochiaceae II, III SC Endangered Endemic Aristolochia saccata Aristolochiaceae II, III SC Endangered Artemisia vulgaris Asteraceae I, III PH Abundant Arthromeris sp Polypodiaceae I PH Less common Artocarpus chama Moraceae II, III Tree Less common Artocarpus lacucha Moraceae II, IIITree Common Arundina graminifdolia Orchidaceae II, III Shrub Endangered Arundinaria aristata Poaceae II, III Shrub Less common Arundinaria maling Poaceae I, II, III Shrub Common Asplenium sp. Aspleniaceae I, II, III PH Common Astilbe rivularis Saxifragaceae I, II, III US Common Asystasia macrocarpa I, II, III US Less common Endemic Bauhinia scandens Leguminosae II, III Liana Rare Bauhinia vahlii Leguminosae II, III Liana Abundant Bauhinia variegata Leguminosae II, III Tree Common Bauhinia wallichii Leguminosae II, III Liana Endangered Endemic Beaumontia grandiflora Apocynaceae II, III Liana Rare Endemic Begonia dioica Begoniaceae II, III PH Less common Endemic Begonia gemmipara Begoniaceae I, II, III Epiphyte Rare Endemic

66 Biodiversity Conservation in the Kangchenjunga Landscape Corridors Availability Endemic Plants Families where Habita status Status present Begonia picta Begoniaceae II, III AH/ PH Common Begonia sikkimensis Begoniaceae II PH Rare Endemic Beilschmiedia clarkei Lauraceae II, IIITree Rare Endemic Beilschmiedia roxburghiana Lauraceae II, IIITree Rare Endemic Berberis aristata Berberidaceae I, III Shrub Less common Berberis insignis Berberidaceae I, II Shrub Less common Endemic Berberis umbellata Berberidaceae I Shrub Less common Betula alnoides Betulaceae I, II, III Tree Less common Betula cylindrostachya Betulaceae II, III Tree Less common Betula utilis Betulaceae I, III Tree Rare Bidens pilose Asteraceae I, II, III AH Abundant Biophytum sensitivum Oxalidaceae I, II, III AH Common Bischofia javanica Euphorbiaceae II, III Tree Common Bistorta amplexicaule Polygonaceae I, III AH Less common Boehmeria glomerulifera Urticaceae I, III Shrub Common Boehmeria penduliflora Urticaceae II, III Shrub Less common Boehravia diffusa Nyctaginaceae II, III PH Abundant Boeninghousenia albiflora Rutaceae I, II, III US Rare Bombax ceiba Bombacaceae II, III Tree Abundant Borreria alata Rubiaceae II, IIIAH Abundant Borreria ocimoides Rubiaceae II, IIIAH Abundant Botrychium sp Ophioglossaceae I GH Endangered Brassaiopsis mitis Araliaceae II, III Shrub Less common Endemic Brassiaopsis alpina Araliaceae I Shrub Rare Brassiaopsis hainla Araliaceae I, II, III Tree Common Bridelia retusa Euphorbiaceae II, III Tree Common Bridelia sikkimensis Euphorbiaceae II, III Shrub Less common Bridelia stipularis Euphorbiaceae III Tree Less common Bulbophyllum affine Orchidaceae II, III Epiphyte Less common Bulbophyllum reptans Orchidaceae II, III Epiphyte Less common Burmannia coelestis Burmanniaceae II, III AH Endangered Butea buteiformis Leguminosae II, III SS Rare Endemic Calamus acanthospathus II, IIISC Rare Calamus erectus var. Arecaceae II, III SC Less common Schizosanthus Calamus erectus Arecaceae II, III SC Common Calamus inermus Arecaceae III SC Rare Calamus leptocalyx Arecaceae II, III SC Rare Callicarpa aborea Verbenaceae II, III Tree Abundant Camellia kissi Theaceae II, IIITree Rare Capsella bursa-pastoris Brassicaceae I, II, III AH Abundant Cardamine hirsuta Brassicaceae I, II, III AH Abundant Cardamine impatiens Brassicaceae I, III AH Less common Carex filicinus Cyperaceae I, II, III PH Abundant Carex baccans Cyperaceae I, II, III PH Less common Carex cruciata Cyperaceae I, II, III PH Less common glomerata Flacourtiaceae II, III Shrub Common Casearia graveolens Flacourtiaceae II, III Tree Abundant Cassia alata Leguminosae II, III Shrub Abundant Cassia sophera Leguminosae II, III AH Abundant Cassia tora Leguminosae II, III AH Abundant

Section 2: Biodiversity Conservation 67 Corridors Availability Endemic Plants Families where Habita status Status present Castanopsis hystrix Fagaceae I, II, III Tree Common Castanopsis indica Fagaceae II, III Tree Common Castanopsis lanceifolia Fagaceae III Tree Rare Endemic Castanopsis tribuloides Fagaceae I, II, III Tree Common Catunaregam longispina Rubiaceae III Shrub Rare Cautleya cathcartii Zingiberaceae I, II, III Epiphyte Rare Cautleya lutea Zingiberaceae I, II, III Epiphyte Abundant Cautleya spicata Zingiberaceae I, II, III GH Rare Cephalostachyum latifolium Poaceae II, IIIShrub Cestrum aurantiacum Solanaceae I, II, III Shrub Abundant Cestrum elegans Solanaceae I, II, III Shrub Common Chamabainia cuspidata Urticaceae I, II, III PH Abundant Cheilanthus farinosa Pteridaceae II, III PH Common Chirita macrophylla Gesneriaceae I, II, III PH Less common Chirita uticifolia Gesneriaceae II, III PH Common Chisocheton cumingianus Meliaceae II, III Tree Less common Endemic Chukrasia tabularis Meliaceae II, IIITree Common Cinnamomum bejolghota Lauraceae I, II, III Tree Common Cinnamomum glaucescens Lauraceae I, III Tree Less common Endemic Cinnamomum Lauraceae II, III Tree Rare impressinervium Cinnamomum tamala Lauraceae II, III Tree Common Endemic Cissampelos pareira Menispermaceae II, III SC Common Citrus medica Rutaceae II, III Shrub Rare Clematis buchananiana Ranunculaceae I, II, III SC Common Clematis connata Ranunculaceae I, III SC Rare Clematis montana Ranunculaceae I, III SC Rare Clematis nepalensis Ranunculaceae II, III SC Rare Clematis similaciflia Ranunculaceae I, II, III SC Rare Clerodendrum indicum Verbenaceae II, III Shrub Abundant Clerodendrum japonicum Verbenaceae II, III SS Abundant Clerodendrum serratum Verbenaceae II, III SS Common Clerodendrum viscosum Verbenaceae II, III SS Abundant Clinopodium umbrossum Lamiaceae I, II, III AH Abundant Coccinia grandis Cucurbitaceae II, III PC Abundant Codonopsis affinis Campanulaceae I AC Less common Endemic Codonopsis viridis Campanulaceae I, II, III AC Common Colocasia affinis Araceae I, II, III GH Abundant Combretum decandrum Combretaceae II, III Liana Abundant Commelina bengalensis Commelinaceae II, III AH Common Commelina paludosa Commelinaceae I, II, III PH Common Commelina suffruticosa Commelinaceae II, III PH Common Commelina nudiflora Commelinaceae II, III PH Common Corydalis meifolia Fumariaceae I AH Rare Costus speciosus Costaceae II, III GH Abundant Cotoneaster frigidu Rosaceae I Shrub Common Cotoneaster griffithii Rosaceae I, III Shrub Common Cotoneaster microphyllus Rosaceae I, III Shrub Common Crawfurdia speciosa Gentianaceae I, II, III AC Common Cremanthodium nepalense Orchidaceae I GH Less common

68 Biodiversity Conservation in the Kangchenjunga Landscape Corridors Availability Endemic Plants Families where Habita status Status present Crotalaria albida Leguminosae II, III AH Common Crotalaria mucronata Leguminosae II, III AH Common Crotolaria ferrugineanum Leguminosae II, III AH Common Croton cadautus Euphorbiaceae II, III Shrub Abundant Cryptocaria amygdalina Lauraceae I, II, III Tree Less common Endemic Cryptochilus lutea Orchidaceae III Epiphyte Rare Endemic Cryptochillus sanguinea Orchidaceae III Epiphyte Rare Cryptomeria japonica Taxodiaceae I, II, III Tree Abundant Curculigo orchioides Hypoxidaceae II, III GH Less common Curculigo recurvata Hypoxidaceae I, II, III PH Common Curcuma aromatica Zingiberaceae II, III GH Common Cyanotis barbata Commelinaceae I, II, III AH Common Cyanotis vaga Commelinaceae I, II, III AH Common Cyathea spinulosa Cyatheaceae I, III Tree Endangered Cyclea bicristata Menispermaceae II, III SC Less common Endemic Cymbidium aloifolium Orchidaceae II, III Epiphyte Common Cymbidium eriaeflorum Orchidaceae II, III Epiphyte Common Cymbopogon nardus Poaceae I, II, III PH Common Cynodon dactylon Poaceae II, III PH Abundant Cyperus compressus Cyperaceae II, III AH Abundant Dactylorhiza hatagirea Orchidaceae I PH Rare Endemic Daemonorops jenkensiana Arecaceae III SC Rare Endemic Dalbergia sissoo Leguminosae II, III Tree Abundant Dalbergia stipulacea Leguminosae II, III Liana Abundant Daphne bholua Thymeliaceae I, II, III Shrub Abundant Daphne sureil Thymeliaceae IIIShrub Rare Endemic Daphniphyllum hemalense Daphniphyllaceae I, III Tree Rare Debregeasia longifolia Urticaceae II, III Shrub Less common Dendrobium candidum Orchidaceae I, II, III Epiphyte Less common Dendrobium devonianum Orchidaceae I, II, III Epiphyte Less common Dendrobium falconeri Orchidaceae I, II, III Epiphyte Less common Dendrobium longiflorum Orchidaceae II, III Epiphyte Less common Dendrocalamus hookeri Poaceae I, II, III Shrub Less common Dendrocnide sinulata Urticaceae II, III Shrub Common Desmodium triflorum Leguminosae II, III AH Abundant Dicentra paucinervia Fumeriaceae II, III AC Rare Endemic Dicentra scandens Fumeriaceae I, II, III AC Common Dichroa febrifuga Saxifragaceae I, II, III Shrub Common Dicliptera roxburghii Acanthaceae II, III AH Common Didymocarpus albicalyx Gesneriaceae II, III AH Rare Endemic Didymocarpus podocarpus Gesneriaceae I, II, III AH Rare Endemic Digitaria ciliaris Poaceae I, II, III AH Common Dillenia indica Dilleniaceae II, III Tree Common Dillenia pentagyna Dilleniaceae II, III Tree Common Dioscorea spp. Dioscoreaceae II, III GH Less common Dioscorea spp. Dioscoreaceae II, III GH Less common Diplazium esculentum Dryopteridaceae I, II, III PH Abundant Dischidia indica Asclepiadaceae II, III AH Abundant Dobinia vulgaris Anacardiaceae I, II, III Shrub Less common Endemic Docynia indica Rosaceae I Tree Rare Endemic

Section 2: Biodiversity Conservation 69 Corridors Availability Endemic Plants Families where Habita status Status present Drosera burmannii Droseraceae II, III AH Common Drymaria cordata Caryophyllaceae I, II, III PH Abundant Drymaria villosa Caryophyllaceae I, II, III PH Abundant Dryopteris sp. Dryopteridaceae I, II, III PH Common Drypetes assamica Euphorbiaceae II, III Tree Rare Endemic Duabanga grandiflora Sonneratiaceae II, III Tree Common Duchesnea indica Rosaceae I, II, III AH Common Dumasia villosa Leguminosae I, II, III AC Common Dysoxylum excelsum Lamiaceae II, IIIAC common Endemic Edgaria darjeelingensis Cucurbitaceae I, II, III AC Abundant Edgwarthia gardneri Thymeliaceae II, III Tree Less common Ehretia serrata Ehretiaceae II, III Tree Less common Elaeocarpus lancaefolius Elaeocarpaceae I, III Tree Less common Elatostema hookerianum Urticaceae I, II, III AH Common Elatostema sessile Urticaceae I, II, III AH Abundant Elatostema sikkimense Urticaceae I, II, III AH Less common Endemic Eleusine indica Poaceae I, III AH Abundant Elsholtzia blanda Lamiaceae I, II, III AH Common Elsholtzia fruticosa Lamiaceae I, III PH Common Engelhardtia spicata Juglandaceae I, II, III Tree Common Entada rheedii Mimosaceae II, III Liana Less common Epilogium roseum Onagraceae I, II, III AH Abundant Equisetum debile Equisetaceae I, II, III PH Abundant Eragrostis nigra Poaceae II, III AH Less common Eranthemum pulchellum Acanthaceae II, III Shrub Less common convallaria Orchidaceae I, II, III PH Less common Eria dasyphylla Orchidaceae II, III Epiphyte Rare Endemic Eriobotrya dubia Rosaceae II Tree Rare Endemic Eriobotrya petiolata Rosaceae I, II, III Tree Common Endemic Erythrina arborescens Leguminosae I, II, III Tree Common Erythrina stricta Leguminosae II, III Tree Common Eugenia bracteata Myrtaceae II, IIITree Rare Eupatorium adenophorum Asteraceae I, II, III Shrub Abundant Eupatorium odoratum Asteraceae II, III Shrub Abundant Euphorbia hirta Euphorbiaceae II, III AH Abundant Euphorbia orbiculata Euphorbiaceae II, III AH Abundant Eurya acuminata Theaceae I, II, III Tree Abundant Eurya cerassifolia Theaceae I, II, III Tree Common Eurya theafolia Theaceae I, III Tree Less common Evodia fraxinifolia Theaceae I, II, III Tree Less common Exbucklandia populnea Hamamelidaceae I, II, III Tree Common Fallopia convolvulus Polygonaceae I, II, III AH Common Ficus cunia Moraceae II, IIITree Common Ficus drupacea Moraceae II, III SC Common Ficus semicordata Moraceae II, III Tree Common Ficus subincisa Moraceae II, III SC Rare Ficus virens Moraceae II, III Tree Common Flueggea virosa Euphorbiaceae II, III Shrub Less common Fragaria nilotica Rosaceae I, III PH Common Fragaria rubiginosa Rosaceae I, II, III PH Common

70 Biodiversity Conservation in the Kangchenjunga Landscape Corridors Availability Endemic Plants Families where Habita status Status present Fumaria indica Fumariaceae I, II, III AH Common Galinsoga parviflora Asteraceae I, II, III AH Abundant Garuga pinnata Burseraceae II, III Tree Rare Gaultheria fradrantissima Ericaceae I PH Less common Endemic Gaultheria hookeri Ericaceae I Shrub Rare Gaultheria nummularia Ericaceae I, II, III Shrub Abundant Gentiana capitata Gentianaceae I, III AH Common Gentiana pyroloides Gentianaceae I, III AH Less common Gentiana pedicellata Gentianaceae I, IIIAH Abundant Gentiana bryoides Gentianaceae I, III AH Less common Girardiana heterophylla. Urticaceae I, II, III Shrub Common Gleichenia glauca Gleicheniaceae I, II, III Shrub Common Globba hookeri Zingiberaceae I, II, III GH Common Globba racemosa Zingiberaceae II, III GH Common Gmelina arborea Verbenaceae II, III Tree Common Gnaphalium affine Asteraceae I, II, III AH Abundant Goldfussia capitata Acanthaceae II, III US Common Endemic Gouania leptostachya Rhamnaceae II, III SC Common Grangea maderaspatana Asteraceae II, IIIAH Common Grewia eriocarpa Tiliaceae II, III Tree Less common Grewia sapida Tiliaceae II, III Tree Less common Gynocardia odorata Flacourtiaceae II, III Tree Less common Endemic Gynura cusimbua Asteraceae I, II, III AH Common Habenaria densa Orchidaceae I, II, III Hedychium acuminatum Zingiberaceae I, II, III GH Common Hedychium coccinium Zingiberaceae II, III GH Rare Hedychium spicatum Zingiberaceae I, II, III GH Rare Hedyotis scandens Rubiaceae I, II, III SC Common Hedyotis stipulacea Rubiaceae I, II, III AH Less common Helenia elliptica Gentianaceae I AH Common Helwingia himalaica Helwingiaceae I, II, III Shrub Common Hemiphragma heterophyllum Scrophulariaceae I, II, III PH Common Heraclium wallichii Apiaceae I, II, III AH Less common Endemic Herpetospermum Cucurbitaceae I, III AC Rare pedunculosum Hibiscus surattensis Malvaceae II, IIIAH Rare Himalayacalamus Poaceae III Liana Rare Endemic hookerianus Holarrhena pubescens Apocynaceae II, III Tree Abundant Holboelia latifolia Lardizabalaceae I, II, III SC Common Holmskioldia sanguinea Verbenaceae II, III Shrub Common Horsfieldia kingii Myristichaceae II, III Tree Rare Endemic Hoya edeni Asclepiadaceae II, III Epiphyte Less common Hoya parasitica Asclepiadaceae II, III Epiphyte Abundant Hoya longifolia Asclepiadaceae I, II, III Epiphyte Abundant Hoya serpens Asclepiadaceae III Epiphyte Rare Endemic Hydrangea aspera Saxifragaceae II, III SC Less common Hydrangea robusta Saxifragaceae I, II, III Shrub Common Hydrocotyl himalaica Apiaceae I, II, III PH Abundant Endemic Hydrocotyle nepalensis Apiaceae I, II, III PH Common

Section 2: Biodiversity Conservation 71 Corridors Availability Endemic Plants Families where Habita status Status present Hydrocotyle sibthorpioides Apiaceae II, III AH Abundant Hygrophila phlomoides Acanthaceae II, III AH Common Hygrophila polysperma Acanthaceae II, III AH Common Hygrophila spinosa Acanthaceae II, III AH Less common Hymenodictylon excelsum Rubiaceae II, III Epiphyte Rare Hymenophyllum parasiticum Rubiaceae I, II, III Epiphyte Less common Hypericum gracilipes Hypericaceae II AH Rare Endemic Hypericum japonicum Hypericaceae II, III AH Abundant Hypericum nepalensis Hypericaceae I, II, III AH Less common Hypericum petiolatum Hypericaceae II AH Abundant Hypoestis triflora Acanthaceae I, II, III AH Abundant Hypoxis aurea Hypoxidaceae II GH Rare Hyptianthera stricta Rubiaceae II, IIIShrub Rare Ichnocarpus frutescens Apocynaceae II, III SC Abundant Ilex depyrina Aquifoliaceae I, III Tree Less common Ilex fragilis Aquifoliaceae I, III Tree Less common Ilex hookeri Aquifoliaceae I Tree Rare Endemic Ilex insignis Aquifoliaceae I, II, III Tree Less common Ilex sikkimensis Aquifoliaceae I, III Tree Rare Impatiens cathcartii Balsaminaceae I, II, III AH Less common Endemic Impatiens discolor Balsaminaceae I, II, III AH Less common Endemic Impatiens longipes Balsaminaceae I, II, III AH Less common Endemic Impatiens kingii Balsaminaceae I, II, III PH Rare Endemic Impatiens pulchra Balsaminaceae I, II, III AH Less common Endemic Impatiens radiata Balsaminaceae I, II, III AH Less common Endemic Impatiens stenantha Balsaminaceae I, II, III Shrub Endangered Endemic Imperata cylindrica Poaceae I, II, III PH Abundant Inula cappa Asteraceae I, II, III US Less common Ipomoea carnea Convolvulaceae II, III Shrub Abundant Ipomoea quamoclit Convolvulaceae II, III AC Common Ipomoea purpurea Convolvulaceae II, III AC Common Isachne albens Poaceae I, II, III AH Less common Ixora undulata Rubiaceae III Shrub Less common Endemic Jasminum dispermum Oleaceae I, II, III SC Less common Juglans regia Juglandaceae II, III Tree Rare Juniperus pseudosabina Cupressaceae I, III Tree Rare Justicia procumbens Acanthaceae II, III AH Less common Knema tenuineriyia Myristichaceae II, III Tree Rare Endemic Kydia calcycina Malvaceae II, III Tree Less common Lagerstroemia hirsuta Lythraceae II, IIITree Rare Lagerstroemia parviflora Lythraceae II, IIITree Common Lantana camara Verbenaceae II, III Shrub Abundant Larix griffithiana Pinaceae I, IIITree Rare Lasiococca symphylliifolia Euphorbiaceae II, III Tree Rare Leea asiatica Leeaceae II, III Shrub Common Leea compatiflora Leeaceae II, III Shrub Less common Leea guinensis Leeaceae II, III Shrub Common Leea indica Leeaceae III Shrub Rare Endemic Lepisorus spp. Polypodiaceae I, II, III Epiphyte Abundant Leucas indica Lamiaceae II, III AH Abundant

72 Biodiversity Conservation in the Kangchenjunga Landscape Corridors Availability Endemic Plants Families where Habita status Status present Leucas mollisima Lamiaceae II, III PH Less common Leycesteria formosa Caprifoliaceae I, II, III Shrub Common Lindera assamica Lauraceae III Tree Rare Endemic Lindera latifolia Lauraceae II, IIITree Rare Liparis resupinnata Orchidaceae I, II, III Epiphyte Endangered Lithocarpus elegans Fagaceae I, II, III Tree Less common Endemic Lithocarpus fenestratus Fagaceae II, III Tree Less common Lithocarpus pachyphyllus Fagaceae I, II, III Tree Common Endemic Litsea citrata Lauraceae I, II, III Tree Common Litsea cubeba Lauraceae I, II, III Tree Common Litsea elongata Lauraceae I, II, III Tree Common Litsea hookeri Lauraceae II, III Tree Less common Endemic Litsea monopetala Lauraceae II, III Tree Common Litsea polyantha Lauraceae II, III Tree Common Litsea sericea Lauraceae II, III Tree Less common Lobelia seguinii Lobeliaceae I AH Less common Lonicera glabra Caprifoliaceae I, II, III SC Common Lonicera macrantha Caprifoliaceae I, III SC Less common Luculia gratissima Rubiaceae I, II, III Shrub Common Lycopodium clavatum Lycopodiaceae I, II, III PH Common Lycopodium sernuum Lycopodiaceae II, III PH Less common Macaranga pustulata Euphorbiaceae II, III Tree Less common Machillus odoratissima Magnoliaceae I, II, III Tree Common Macropanax dispermus Araliaceae III Tree Rare Maesa chisia Myrsinaceae I, II, III Shrub Abundant Maesa indica Myrsinaceae II, III Shrub Common Maesa rugosa Myrsinaceae III Shrub Less common Magnolia campbellii Magnoliaceae I, II, III Tree Common Mahonia napaulensis Berberidaceae I, II, III Shrub Common Endemic Mallotus nepalensis Euphorbiaceae I, II, III Tree Abundant Mallotus phillippensis Euphorbiaceae II, III Tree Abundant Mallotus roxburghianus Euphorbiaceae II, III Tree Less common Endemic Mazus surculosus Scrophulariaceae I, II, III AH Common Meconopsis nealensis Papaveraceae I, III PH Less common Meconopsis paniculatus Papaveraceae I, III PH Less common Melastoma malabathricum Melastomataceae II, III Shrub Abundant Melastoma normale Melastomataceae II, III Shrub Less common Melilotus indica Leguminosae II, III AH Less common Mesua ferrea Clusiaceae II, III Tree Less common Mesua floribunda Clusiaceae III Tree Rare Michelia champaca Magnoliaceae II, III Tree Common Michelia doltosopa Magnoliaceae I, II, III Tree Common Michelia lanuginosa Magnoliaceae I, II, III Tree Less common Mikania micrantha Asteraceae II, III SC Abundant Mimosa himalayana Mimosaceae II, III Shrub Abundant Mimosa pudica Mimosaceae II, III AH Abundant Mimulus nepalensis Scrophulariaceae I, II, III AH Abundant Monotropa uniflora Monotropaceae II, III Saprophyte Rare Morinda anguistifolia Rubiaceae II, III Tree Common Endemic Mucuna macrocarpa Leguminosae II, III Liana Less common

Section 2: Biodiversity Conservation 73 Corridors Availability Endemic Plants Families where Habita status Status present Mucuna pruriens Leguminosae II, III SC Common Mussaenda roxburghii Rubiaceae II, IIIShrub Common Musa balbisiana Musaceae I, II, III PH Abundant Naravelia zeylanica Ranunculaceae II, III SC Common Neanotis gracilis Rubiaceae I, II, III AH Less common Endemic Neilia thyrsiflora Rosaceae I, II, III Shrub Common Neillia rubiflora Rosaceae I, III Shrub Less common Nervillea macroglossa Orchidaceae II, III GH Rare Neolamarckia cadamba Rubiaceae II, III Tree Abundant Neyraudia arundinacea Poaceae I, III Tree Less common Notochete hamosa Lamiaceae I, II, III PH Common Ophiopogon intermedius Liliaceae I, II, III PH Common Ophiorrhyza nutans Rubiaceae I, II, III AH Common Ophiorrhyza succirubra Rubiaceae I, II, III AH Common Endemic Ophiorrhyza treutlerii Rubiaceae I, II, III AH Common Endemic Oplismenus compositus Poaceae I, II, III AH Abundant Oplismenus burmannii Poaceae I, II, III AH Abundant Oberonia mucronata Orchidaceae II, III Epiphyte Endangered Oroxylum indicum Bignoniaceae II, III Tree Abundant Oryza meyeriana Poaceae II AH Endangered Endemic Oryza minuta Poaceae II AH Endangered Endemic Osbeckia muralis Melastomataceae II, III Shrub Rare Osbeckia nepalensis Melastomataceae II, III Shrub Common Osbeckia crinita Melastomataceae I, II, III Shrub Less common Osbeckia stellata Melastomataceae I, II, III Shrub Common Oxalis acetocella Oxalidaceae I PH Rare Oxalis corniculata Oxalidaceae I, II, III AH Abundant Oxalis corymbosa Oxalidaceae II, III GH Abundant Oxalis latifolia Oxalidaceae II, III GH Common Oxyspora paniculata Melastomataceae I, II, III Shrub Common Pandanus nepalensis Pandanaceae II, III Tree Abundant Panisea parviflora Orchidaceae III Epiphyte Rare Pantapanax racemosus Araliaceae I, II, III Epiphyte Rare Parasassafrans confertiflora Saxifragaceae I, III PH Less common Paris polyphylla Liliaceae I, II, III GH Common Parochitus communis Leguminosae I, II, III AH Abundant Parthenocissus semicordata Vitaceae II, III SC Less common Paspalum dilatatum Poaceae II, III AH Less common Paspalum scrobiculatum Poaceae II, III AH Common Peliosanthes macrophylla Haemodoraceae II, III PH Less common Pentapanx fragrans Araliaceae I, II, III Tree Less common Peperomia heyniana Piperaceae I, III Epiphyte Less common Peperomia pellucida Piperaceae I, III Epiphyte Common Peperomia tetraphylla Piperaceae I, III Epiphyte Common Pericampylus glaucus Menispermaceae II, III SC Common Persea fructifera Lauraceae II, III Tree Less common Persea odoratissima Lauraceae I, II, III Tree Less common Persicaria capitata Polygonaceae I, II, III PC Abundant Persicaria runcinata Polygonaceae I, II, III AH Abundant Phlogacanthus thyrsiformis Acanthaceae II, III Shrub Abundant

74 Biodiversity Conservation in the Kangchenjunga Landscape Corridors Availability Endemic Plants Families where Habita status Status present Phoebe haineana Lauraceae II, III Tree Less common Phoebe lanceolata Lauraceae I, III Tree Less common Phoenix acaulis Arecaceae II, III Shrub Rare Phyllanthus embelica Euphorbiaceae II, III Tree Common Phyllanthus urinaria Euphorbiaceae II, III AH Abundant Pieris formosa Ericaceae I Tree Rare Endemic Pilea cordifolia Urticaceae I, II PH Less common Endemic Pilea glaberrima Urticaceae II, III AH Less common Pilea bracteata Urticaceae I, II, III AH Less common Endemic Pilea ternifolia Urticaceae I, III PH Less common Endemic Pilea symmeria Urticaceae I, II, III AH Abundant Pinus longifolia Pinaceae I, II, III Tree Common Pinus roxhburghii Pinaceae I, II, III Tree Common Piper chyvya Piperaceae II, IIIUS Common Endemic Piper longum Piperaceae II, IIIPC Common Piper pedicellatum Piperaceae I, II, III PC Common Piper mullesua Piperaceae I, II, III PC Common Plantago erosa Plantaginaceae I, II, III PH Abundant Plectocomia himalayana Arecaceae II, III Liana Endangered Pogostemon amaranthoides Lamiaceae II, IIIUS Common Pollinia ciliata Urticaceae II, III PH Less common Polyalthia simiarum Annonaceae II, III Tree Less common Endemic Polygala arillata Polygalaceae I, II, III Shrub Less common Polygala glomerata Polygalaceae II, III PH Less common Polygonum orientale Polygonaceae II, III AH Common Polypodium spp. Polypodiaceae I, II, III PH Common Porana grandiflora Convolvulaceae I, II, III AC Less common Porana paniculata Convolvulaceae II, III SC Common Portulacca oleracea Portulaccaceae II, III AH Common Potentilla fruticosa Rosaceae I, II, III PH Rare Potentilla fulgens Rosaceae I, II, III PH Common Potentilla polyphylla Rosaceae I, II, III PH Common Pothos cathacartii Araceae II, III Epiphyte Common Pouzolzia hirta Urticaceae I, II, III PH Abundant Pouzolzia sanguinea Urticaceae II, III AH Less common Pouzolzia zeylanica Urticaceae II, III AH Abundant Premna bracteata Verbenaceae II, III Tree Less common Premna scandens Verbenaceae III Shrub Rare Primula denticulata Primulaceae I, II, III Tree Common Primula listeri Primulaceae I, III PH Rare Primula scapigera Primulaceae I PH Rare Primula petiolata Primulaceae I PH Less common Primula capitata Primulaceae I PH Common Prunella vulgaris Lamiaceae I, II, III AH Abundant Prunus cerasoides Rosaceae I, II, III Tree Abundant Pseudostachyum Poaceae III Shrub Rare Endemic polymorphum Pteridium sp Dennstaedtiaceae II, III PH Common Pteris Pteridaceae I, II, III PH Common Pterospermum acerifolium Sterculaceae II, III Tree Common

Section 2: Biodiversity Conservation 75 Corridors Availability Endemic Plants Families where Habita status Status present Pueraria lobata Leguminosae III SC Rare Puereia phaseoloides Leguminosae II, III PC Abundant Puereia sikkimensis Leguminosae II, III Liana Less common Endemic Pyrularia edulis Santalaceae II, III Tree Endangered Quecus thomsoniana Fagaceae II, III Tree Less common Endemic Quercus glauca Fagaceae II, III Tree Less common Quercus lamellosa Fagaceae I, II, III Tree Abundant Quercus lineata Fagaceae I Tree Common Randia dumetorum Rubiaceae II, III Tree Common Ranunculus diffusus Ranunculaceae I, II, III AH Abundant Ranunculus laetus Ranunculaceae I PH Rare Raphidophora glauca Araceae I, II, III Epiphyte Less common Reevesia pubescens Sterculiaceae II, III Tree Rare Reissantia arborea Hippocrateaceae III Tree Rare Rhododendron arboreum Ericaceae I, II, III Tree Abundant Rhododendron Ericaceae I Tree Less common campanulatum Rhododendron cinnabarinum Ericaceae I Tree Common Rhododendron dalhousie Ericaceae I, II Shrub Common Endemic Rhododendron decipiens Ericaceae I, III Tree Less common Endemic Rhododendron falconeri Ericaceae I, III Tree Less common Endemic Rhododendron grande Ericaceae I, II, III Tree Rare Rhododendron hodgsonii Ericaceae I, III Tree Less common Rhus chinensis Anacardiaceae II, III Tree Less common Rhus succedanea Anacardiaceae I, II, III Tree Common Ricinus communis Euphorbiaceae I, II, III Shrub Common Rorippa indica Brassicaceae I, II, III AH Common Rosa sericea Rosaceae I Shrub Less common Rubia manjith Rubiaceae I, II, III AC Abundant Rubia wallichiana Rubiaceae I AC Less common Rubus acuminatus Rosaceae III Shrub Less common Rubus calycianus Rosaceae I, II, III US Common Rubus efferatus Rosaceae I, II, III Shrub Less common Rubus lineatus Rosaceae I, II, III Shrub Common Rubus paniculatus Rosaceae I, II, III Shrub Common Endemic Rubus rugosus Rosaceae I, II Shrub Abundant Rubus senchalensis Rosaceae I, II Shrub Rare Endemic Rubus splendidissimus Rosaceae I, III Shrub Rare Endemic Rumex nepalensis Polygonaceae I, III PH Abundant Rungia pectinata Acanthaceae II, III AH Abundant Saccharum aurundinaceum Poaceae II, III PH Common Saccharum langesetosum Poaceae I, II, III PH Common Saccharum spontaneum Poaceae I, III PH Abundant Salix salwinensis III Tree Rare Salix tetrasperma Salicaceae II, III Tree Rare Sambucus canadensis Sambucaceae I, II, III Shrub Common Sambucus hookeri Sambucaceae I Shrub Less common Sapindus mukorossii Sapindaceae III Tree Less common Sapium eugeniifolium Euphorbiaceae II, III Tree Less common Sarcochlamys pulcherrima Urticaceae III Shrub Rare Endemic

76 Biodiversity Conservation in the Kangchenjunga Landscape Corridors Availability Endemic Plants Families where Habita status Status present Satyrium nepalense Orchidaceae I, II, III GH Less common Saurauja nepalensis Actinidaceae II, III Tree Common Saurauja roxburghii Actinidaceae II, III Tree Less common Endemic Sauropus quadrangularis Euphorbiaceae II, III Shrub Common Schefflera bengalensis Araliaceae I, II, III Epiphyte Abundant Schefflera elata Araliaceae II, III Epiphyte Less common Schima wallichii Theaceae II, IIITree Abundant Schisandra grandiflora Schisandraceae I, III SC Rare Schisandra neglecta Schisandraceae I, III SC Common Schisandra propinqua Schisandraceae I, II, III SC Common Scrophularia uticacefolia Scrophulariaceae III AH Less common Endemic Sechium edule Cucurbitaceae I GC Abundant Sedum multicaule Crassulaceae I PH Common Selinum tenuifolium Apiaceae I, III AH Less common Semecarpus anacardium Anacardiaceae II, III Tree Less common Senecio chrysanthemoides Asteraceae I AH Less common Senecio diversifolius Asteraceae I AH Common Senecio scandens Asteraceae I, II, III AH Common Setaria pulmifolia Poaceae I, II, III AH Abundant Setaria glauca Poaceae II, III AH Abundant Shorea robusta Dupterocarpaceae II, III Tree Abundant Shuteria hirsuta Leguminosae II, III AC Less common Sida acuta Malvaceae II, III AH Abundant Sida rhomboidea Malvaceae II, III PH Abundant Sida spinosa Malvaceae II, III AH Less common Smilax ferox Smilacaceae I, II, III SC Common Smilax minutiflora Smilacaceae I US Rare Smilax rigida Smilacaceae I US Rare Smilax zeylanica Smilacaceae II, III SC Common Solanum erianthum Solanaceae II, III AH Common Solanum myriacanthum Solanaceae II, III AH Abundant Solanum nigrum Solanaceae I, II, III AH Common Solanum torvum Solanaceae II, III Shrub Common Sorbus cuspidata Rosaceae I Tree Common Sorbus microphylla Rosaceae I Tree Common Spiranthes australis Orchidaceae I, II, III GH Common Spirea micrantha Rosaceae I Shrub Rare Endemic Stellaria lanata Caryophyllaceae I AH Rare Endemic Stellaria media Caryophyllaceae I, II, III AH Abundant Stellaria sikkimensis Caryophyllaceae I, II, III AH Common Endemic Stellaria vestita Caryophyllaceae II, III AH Rare Stephania hernandifolia Menispermaceae II, III GC Common Stercula villosa Sterculiaceae II, III Tree Common Stereospermum chelonodes Bignoniaceae II, III Tree Less common Stereospermum colais Bignoniaceae III Tree Common Streptolirion volubile Commelinaceae I, II, III AC Common Strobilanthes capitata Acanthaceae II, III US Common Strobilanthes roseus Acanthaceae I, III US Less common Strobilanthes thomsonii Acanthaceae II, III US Less common Endemic

Section 2: Biodiversity Conservation 77 Corridors Availability Endemic Plants Families where Habita status Status present Swertia chirayita Gentianaceae I, II PH Endangered Swertia dilatata Gentianaceae II, III AH Rare Symplocos cochinchinensis Symplocaceae II, III Tree Common Symplocos theaefolia Symplocaceae I, II, III Tree Common Syzgium operculatum Myrtaceae II, III Tree Common Syzigium claviflorum Myrtaceae II, III Tree Rare Syzigium formosum Myrtaceae II, III Tree Less common Talauma hodgsonii Magnoliaceae II, III Tree Common Taxus baccata ssp wallichiana Taxaceae I, IIITree Endangered Endemic Tectona grandis Verbenaceae II, III Tree Abundant Terminalia alata Combretaceae II, III Tree Abundant Terminalia arjuna Combretaceae II, III Tree Abundant Terminalia bellirica Combretaceae II, III Tree Abundant Terminalia chebula Combretaceae II, III Tree Rare Terminalia myriocarpa Combretaceae II, III Tree Common Tetrameles nudiflora Datiscaceae II, III Tree Rare Tetrasera sermentosa Dilleniaceae II, III SC Rare Tetrastigma bracteolatum Vitaceae I, II, III SC Abundant Endemic Tetrastigma campylocarpum Vitaceae II, III Liana Common Tetrastigma planicaule Vitaceae II, IIILiana Endangered Thunbergia coccinea Acanthaceae I, II, III SC Common Thunbergia fragrance Acanthaceae II, III SC Abundant Thunbergia lutea Acanthaceae II, III SC Less common Endemic Thysanolaena maxima Poaceae I, II, III PH Abundant Toona ciliata Meliaceae II, III Tree Common Toona sureni Meliaceae III Tree Rare Torenia penducularis Scrophulariaceae I, II, III AH Abundant martianus Arecaceae II, IIITree Common Trewia nudiflora Euphorbiaceae II, III Tree Common Trichosanthes lepiniana Cucurbitaceae I, II, III Liana Abundant Trichosanthes tricuspidata Cucurbitaceae I, II, III Liana Less common Tridax procumbens Asteraceae II, III AH Common Trifolium repens Leguminosae I, II, III AH Abundant Tsuga dumosa Pinaceae I, III Tree Less common Turpina pomifera Staphyleaceae I, II, III Tree Less common Uncaria sessilifructus Annonaceae II, II SC Less common Endemic Urnea lobata Malvaceae II, IIIAH Abundant Urtica dioica Urticaceae I, II, III Shrub Abundant Urtica parviflora Urticaceae I, II, III Shrub Abundant Uvaria lurida Annonaceae II, III Shrub Less common Vaccinium pedata Vacciniaceae I Shrub Rare Vaccinium retusum Vacciniaceae II, III Shrub Common Endemic Vaccinium serratum Vacciniaceae I, II, III Epiphyte Common Valeriana hardwickii Valerianaceae I, II, III AH Common Vallaris solanacea Apocynaceae II, III SC Common Vanda teres Orchidaceae II, III Epiphyte Common Vandopsis undulata Orchidaceae I, II, III Epiphyte Less common Ventilago denticulata Rhamnaceae II, III Liana Rare Vernonia lobata Asteraceae III Shrub Rare

78 Biodiversity Conservation in the Kangchenjunga Landscape Corridors Availability Endemic Plants Families where Habita status Status present Veronica javanica Scrophulariaceae I, II, III AH Abundant Viburnum erubescens Caprifoliaceae I, III Tree Abundant Viburnum paniculatus Caprifoliaceae I Tree Rare Viola diffusa Vialaceae II, IIIAH Common Viola hookeri Vialaceae I, IIIPH Endangered Endemic Viola serpens Vialaceae I, II, III PH Abundant Vitex negundo Verbenaceae II, III Shrub Abundant Vitex quinata Verbenaceae III Tree Rare Wallichia densiflora Arecaceae II, III Shrub Less common Wallichia disticha Arecaceae II, IIIShrub Rare Wendlandia coriacea Rubiaceae II, III Tree Less common Endemic Wendlandia wallichii Rubiaceae II, III Tree Less common Endemic Wrightia arborea Apocynaceae II, III Tree Common Wrightia speciosissima Apocynaceae II, III Tree Rare Yushania maling Poaceae I, II, III Shrub Common Zanthoxylum acanthopodium Rutaceae I, II, III Shrub Common Zanthoxylum armatum Rutaceae II, III Liana Rare Zeuxine affine Orchidaceae I, II, III GH Rare Zeuxine goodyearoides Orchidaceae I GH Rare a AH= annual herb, AC= annual climber, GC= geophytic climber, GH= geophytic herb, PC= perennial climber, PH= perennial herb, RP= root parasite, SC= shrubby climber, SS= suffrutescent shrub, US= undershrub

Section 2: Biodiversity Conservation 79