Relationship Between Industrial Development and City Planning in Company Towns of the Japanese Steel Industry During World War II

Urban and Regional Planning Review Vol. 3, 2016 | 163

~A case study of Muroran, Kamaishi, Hirohata and Yahata~

Nakano Shigeo1, Kaku Satoru2, Nakae Ken3, and Koyama Yusuke4

Abstract Japan’s wartime city planning and housing policy was the prototype for city planning in the postwar-era. The greatest issue for wartime city planning was the construction of military plants in local regions. This study aimed at clarifying the relationship between industrial development and the legal city planning of the Nippon Steel Co. Ltd. (NSC) during World War II, with a focus on the cases of the Muroran, Kamaishi, Hirohata and Yahata (Yawata) Works. The Japanese steel industry originated with NSC, which was founded as a national policy company through the consolidation of steelworks in 1934. Legal city planning was developed in relation to the construction of four huge steelworks: Muroran, Kamaishi, Hirohata and Yahata. City-planned streets were instituted in four cities with steelworks. However other legal city planning was different. The result of this research represents legal city planning for industrial development during World War II. The cases of industrial city planning during the war shared the principle of an air defense system. In contrast, advanced city planning notions such as “planning unit” and “regional planning” were introduced in accordance with the sizes of the respective cities.

Keywords: Planning history, Nippon Steel Co. Ltd., Industrial development, Company Town, Planning unit, Regional planning

Introduction 1) Background City planning during World War II (WWII)(1) is said to have been the prototype for city planning in postwar Japan.1) Planning standards (Ministry of Home Affairs, 1933) and government subsidies were introduced in 1933, which was the tantamount to extending the application range of legal city planning.2) Consequently, legal city planning was introduced in all cities. The issue of national defense was important during WWII, and city planning became related to the national land plan and regional planning. Under these circumstances, the “decentralization of industry” developed as a national policy from the standpoint of national defense. Together with a sense of restraint toward the construction of large cities during the war,3) the industrialization of local cities can be viewed as an important consideration for clarifying the characteristics of city planning in Japan’s modern era.4) Above all, heavy industry involved in defense industry showed notable progress, and the steel industry discussed in this

1 Professor, Graduate School of Science & Engineering, Shimane Univ., Ph.D. in urban and regional planning, [email protected] 2 Assist. Professor, Faculty of Engineering, Hokkaido Univ., Ph.D 3 Assoc. Professor, Graduate School of Engineering, Kobe Univ., Dr.Eng. 4 Assoc. Professor, Graduate School of Science & Engineering, Kagoshima Univ., Ph.D.

(C) 2016 City Planning Institute of Japan http://dx.doi.org/10.14398/urpr.3.163 Urban and Regional Planning Review Vol. 3, 2016 | 164 paper was the largest of these industries. The Japanese steel industry originated with Nippon Steel Co. Ltd. (hereafter, NSC), which was founded as a national policy company through the consolidation of steelworks in 1934. This paper discusses city planning during the war, with reference to the history and industrial development for NSC’s four major works: the Muroran, Kamaishi, Hirohata, and Yahata (or Yawata) Works. Existing researches on city formation processes emphasize the development of company towns using a specific town as a case study of NSC’s prewar industrial development and city planning related to company housing; 5) 6) 7) 8) 9) however these researches did not relativized city formation processes through a comparative analysis. Because previous studies (except in the case of Yahata) have already explored company strategy throughout the industrial development process, this study focuses exclusively on legal city planning for industrial infrastructure with reference to prior research. Given that the study’s subjects were principal steel-manufacturing cities, they were expected to develop similar infrastructures for their production systems. However, the differences in city formation processes suggest differing circumstances under which legal city planning was introduced in each of these cities. This study focuses on the four most common items of city planning in the prewar period: city-planned streets, land use zoning, city planning parks and green spaces, and land readjustment. This study also examines the implementation of legal city planning in urban areas with the same premise but different urbanization processes and reveals the characteristics of industrial city planning during wartime. In terms of comparative studies on legal city planning in the prewar period, mainly prefectural capitals and castle towns have already been analyzed.10) No current comparative studies exist on industrial cities. Hence, city planning problems were believed to be very different in the prewar and wartime periods. 2) Purpose Given these above facts, this paper examines the major cities of the steel industry (include iron-manufacturing), the key industry during the wartime period. Case studies are used to clarify how legal city planning—positioned as the most important way to facilitate improvements to industrial infrastructure— was formulated and projected. Subsequently, using a comparative analysis of each case, this research clarifies the characteristics of city planning during the war for the industrial development of heavy industry cities that were closely linked to the air defense system. 3) Subject and method In 1934, NSC was established as one Government Works and five private enterprises: Muroran, Kamaishi, Kenjiho (presently in North Korea), Kawasaki and Yahata. Subsequently two companies in Tobata and Osaka were incorporated into NSC. In Hirohata, a new steelworks was constructed in 1937. We select Muroran, Kamaishi, Hirohata and Yahata because these four cities formed a company town during the war, allowing us to easily understand the relationship between the industrial development and legal city planning given the simple spacial framework of a company town. In contrast, two steel works (located in Osaka and Kawasaki) in the complicated industrial zone are excluded from this study because clarifying the relationship between industrial development and legal city planning is difficult. Kenjiho Works was constructed in North Korea during WWII and is not included in this study. Concerning the research method, first, the historical processes of improvements to industrial infrastructure are outlined, which are prerequisites for this research and include references to the companies’ histories and newsletters. Given this prerequisite, the specific contents of legal city planning are clarified using official documents on city planning and materials published by local Urban and Regional Planning Review Vol. 3, 2016 | 165

Table-1 Background of Nippon Steel Co. Ltd. major steelworks Japan Steel Steelworks Muroran Works Kamaishi Works Hirohata Works Yahata Works Works City name Muroran Kamaishi Hiro Shikama Yahata Tobata 1907 Japan Steel 1874 government steelworks 1901 government 1917 Tobata Works Ltd. 1909 Wanishi established Yahata Steel Works of Toyo established Works Co. Works Iron Works Co., established 1883 government steelworks established Ltd. established abolished 1917 Hokkaido 1918 Kyusyu Steel Works 1887 Tanaka Mining Ltd. Steel Co., Ltd. established established established 1919 Japan Steel Works and Wanishi corporate Steel Works united 1914 Kamaishi mining Co., development 1931 Japan Steel Ltd. established Works Ltd. 1931 Wanishi separated Works Co. separated

1934.1.29 Nippon Steel Co. Ltd.( NSC ) established 3rd expantion - 4th expansion 1st-2nd expansion 1950.4 Fuji Iron & Steel Co., Ltd 1950.4 Yahata Iron & Steel Co., Ltd

1892 : Hokkaido Colliery and 1857 : Oshima Takatou was 1937 : Hirohata Works was the first 1901 : Yahata Steel Works, a Railway Company developed a coal the first to succed at using a steelworks constructed by NSC. government entity, was constructed embarkation port. modern method of iron Hirohata Works was the first to be through reparation after the making. locatid near a consumption area. Japanese-Sino War. Yahata steel 1907 : Japan Steel Works Ltd. was works was located to receive coal established by Hokkaido Colliery 1874 : A government from Chikuho and iron ore from and Railway Company at a navy site steelworks was established Daiya, China. under a government policy. by the Ministry of Technology. Because this 1917 : Tobata Works was 1909 : Wanishi Works Co. was operation was near Kamaishi established by Toyo Iron Works Co., background established by Hokkaido Colliery port, importing iron ore was Ltd. and Railway Company through an easy. ex-legionary settlement. 1934 : Yahata Steel Works and 1887 : Tanaka Chobei Tobata Works were affiliated with 1919 : Japan Steel Works Ltd. and established the first private NSC. Wanishi Works Co. was merged. iron company, Tanaka Mining Ltd. 1931 : Japan Steel Works Ltd. and Wanishi Works Co. was separated. 1934 : Kamaishi mining Co., Ltd. was affiliated with NSC. 1934 : Only Wanishi Works Co. became affiliated with NSC.

company housing official member houses : 200 - white-collar houses : 170 - plan factory worker houses : 3,000 blue-collar houses : 1,500 before agricultural and ex-legionary harbour city settlement fishing village harbor city fishing village industrialization fishing village population in 107,628 42,167 8,285 35,061 261,309 84,260 1940 city area in 75.90 km 2 46.30 km 2 18.34 km 2 54.79 km 2 9.76 km 2 1941.9 industrial around resource(iron ore) around resource(coal) area around consuming region around resource(coal) area location area sloping land vale plain land sloping land sloping land geography coast coast coast Tokai bay coast date of 1940.2.11 application of 1928.9.10 1933.7.28 1937.10.14 (Himeji 1923.7.1 1926.4.1 city planning law city:1927.4.1） city-planned city-planned streets streets city-planned zoning zoning streets city-planned scenic district city-planned streets scenic district legal city land readjustment streets city planning zoning city-planned streets city planning planning zoning land readjustment parks city planning parks parks exclusive zoning city planning open space industrial district green space district open space land readjustment district emergency restoration from war damage remarks Sanriku tsunami new industrial city reconstruction war-damage reconstruction Reference: KASHIMURA Toshio (1958), Muroran Steel Works 50 years’ history, Fuji Iron and Steel Co., Ltd. Muroran Works, Commission of editorial 70 years' history(1958), Hokkaido Colliery and Steamship Co., Ltd. 70 years' history, Hokkaido Colliery and Steamship Co., Ltd., Nippon Steel Co. Ltd. Kamaishi Works (1986), with Iron, Nippon Steel Co. Ltd. Kamaishi Works, Nippon Steel Co. Ltd. Hirohata Works (1970), Hirohata Works 30 years' history, Nippon Steel Co. Ltd. Hirohata Works, Nippon Steel Co. Ltd. Yahata Works (1976), Yahata Works construction record, Nippon Steel Co. Ltd. Yahata Works et al. �� Urban and Regional Planning� �� Review�� Vol. 3, 2016 | 166 �� city planning committees. Then, we clarify the relationship between industrial development and ��legal city planning during the war using a comparative� �� analysis. �� 1. History of factory buildings and industrial�� infrastructure characteristics (Table-1) ��Because company history �� and � prior�� studies described the history of factory ��construction, 11 ) 12 ) 13 ) 14 ) we only examine�� geographic trends of the following�� industrial ��infrastructure involved in legal city planning:�� factory-related facilities, transportation facilities, ��company housing and welfare facilities. �� 1) Muroran Works �� Wanishi Works Co. (subsequently NSC�� Muroran �� Works) �� and Japan Steel�� Works Ltd., ��two companies �� in �� the steel industry,�� were located�� in Muroran�� in Hokkaido � �� Prefecture. Both ��were managed �� by Hokkaido Colliery �� and Railway�� Company,�� and were ��intended to utilize �� coal � 15) ��produced �� in Sorachi district � �for �� the steel � industry.�� Their factories were located along the ��railroad connecting the coal production site�� with Muroran�� Port, and they characteristically ��communicated �� with the �� system �� in which steel�� was produced by Wanishi Works. This steel ��volume was processed by Japan Steel Works ��Ltd. and subsequently �� exported through Muroran �� Port. Wanishi Works and The Japan Steel Works Ltd. merged in 1919 and subsequently divided. �� Only Wanish Works Co. subsequently joined NSC during the consolidation of the steel industry �� in 1934. Although Horobetsu and Nakajima company housings was developed in Muroran � �� (Photo-1), Higashi-machi company housing, which was used by Japan Steel Works Ltd., was �� constructed in 1940, when the east side of the old city area was also developed. Legal city planning was introduced to improve the Higashi-Muroran area in the east part of the city. 2) Kamaishi Works Kamaishi, the east-coast city of Iwate Prefecture, is the birthplace of modern iron making in Japan. Kamaishi Works was operated as a government entity to make iron from iron ore produced in Kamaishi Mine. Although the Japanese Government closed the Works shortly Photo-1 Old photo of Muroran Works �� following the complete failure of iron �� Nakajima company houses production, Tanaka Mining Ltd. (later ：History of Muroran city（1941）� Kamaishi Mining Co.) succeeded in � � �� producing iron and operated the facility. At Kamaishi, a railroad was constructed to transport iron ore produced at Kamaishi Mine across the narrow river valley. Kamaishi Works was constructed on the coast, with the intention of utilizing the port. As a result, Kamaishi Works gradually increased the production of imported iron ore from China. In 1933, Kamaishi was damaged by the Showa Sanriku tsunami. The Ministry of Photo-2 Kamaishi Works company houses Urban and Regional Planning Review Vol. 3, 2016 | 167

Fig-1 Hirohata airial view map : drawn by Yoshida Htsusaburo, in the author’s possession. Home Affairs formulated a reconstruction plan for the old city near the seacoast.16) At the same time, Kamaishi Port was designated as an international port, with substantial improvements made to it, beginning in 1934.17) These two plans were significant for the business development of NSC after its inauguration. However, because there was no space to expand in the urban area along the traditional railway, Kamaishi Works, after Kamaishi Works merged into NSC, it constructed Kaminakashima, Kosano, Kogawa and Matsukura company housing(Photo-2), in succession from the coastal to the inland area. In response to this move, Kamaishi laid down streets for the area, including the inland area. 3) Hirohata Works Hirohata Works was constructed as a new factory after NSC’s inauguration. Hirohata, or the Photo-3 Conserved industrial current south part of Himeji City in Hyogo Prefecture, heritage of Yahata Works (1901) was selected as the location for the works for several reasons: its location near the Ibo River water system, making it convenient for water intake; its proximity to Kinki district, which consumes steel products; and for the ease of land acquisition in the area.18) A steelworks generally tends to be located in an area in which steel originates because iron products are heavy. In actuality, NSC had never constructed a steelworks near a consumption area prior to Hirohata Works. Nonetheless, Hirohata was selected because iron ore was not available in many areas in Japan. Hence, Japan had to depend on imported iron ore during wartime. In Hirohata, space for works was secured through land reclamation and readjustment.19) Land readjustment in Hirohata started as a prefectural land-readjustment project. Then, halfway through, the project was designated as a new industrial city construction project, funded by a national subsidy. The construction of Hirohata Works was characterized as the integrated implementation of the development of a large-scale factory space and legal city planning (Fig-1). 4) Yahata Works Yahata Works is the government iron and steelworks that began operating in 1901 and led the development of Kitakyushu’s industrial zone, in the northeast part of Fukuoka Prefecture Urban and Regional Planning Review Vol. 3, 2016 | 168

Table-2 Chronology of legal city planning for four Nippon Steel Co. Ltd. major steelworks cities NSC steelwork Muroran Works Kamaishi Works Hirohata Works Yahata Works s related planning history City name Muroran Kamaishi Hiro Shikama Yahata Tobata /A.D. 7.1 application of ・expanding application of 1923 city planning law city planning law 1924 1925 4.1 application of 7.26 designation of city planning law city planning area 1926 11.24 designation 10.1 application of of city planning building law area 4.1 application of 3.1 application of 1927 city planning law* building law 9.10 application of city planning law 4.1 application of 1928 11.1 application of building law* building law 5.31 designation of 1929 city planning area* 8.8 designation of 1930 city planning area 1931 1932 ・ 4.20 application of revision of city planning law building law (expanding the application) ・ 7.28 application of introduction of planning 1933 city planning law standard (Ministry of Home designated city Affairs) ・ planning area introduction of governmental subsidy Establishment of Nippon Steel Co., Ltd. 1934 5.11 decision on city-planned streets and zoning 1935 1936 6.10 designation of scenic district 10.14 application of city planning 3.17 decision on 11.24 designation 1937 law city-planned streets of zoning project 12.1 decision on land readjustment 3.23 revised city- 3.23 decision on planned streets* city-planned streets 1938 ・revision of building law 7.21 application of building law

・ 1939 regional dispersion policy of industry 7.3 decision on 1.24 decision on city-planned streets city-planned streets 2.11 application of 1940 and project ・national planning city planning law city-planned streets 1.25 decision city planning parks project ・ 9.19 designation of guideline for newly 1941 city planning area industrial city (Ministry of Home Affairs)

12.16 designation 12.22 designation of zoning and 3.31 decision on of zoning and decision on city- 11.9 designation of city planning green ・temporary steps to restrict 1942 city planning parks exclusive industrial planned streets and space and construct industrial areas district city-planned streets project

4.16 designation of open space district 3.31 decision on ・ 1943 war exception of building city-planned streets 4.30 decision on law land readjustment ・evacuation act of important 1944 factory 1945 End of WWII

Reference: Koubun Zassan, National Archives of Japan. * instituted at Himeji city. Urban and Regional Planning Review Vol. 3, 2016 | 169

(Photo-3). Yahata in Dokai Bay was selected because it was conveniently located for both the importing of iron ore from China and the utilization of coal produced at Chikuho Coalfield, as well as for regarding national defense. Toyo Iron Works Co., Ltd. was founded in Tobata. Yahata Works and the blast furnace in Tobata were founded during the inauguration of NSC. Since the founding of Yahata Works, industrialization has spread beyond municipal boundaries, leading to the formulation of a city plan for the entire area of present-day Kitakyushu, including Yahata and Tobata. Basic regional planning research was conducted in 1927.20) This research indicated that a characteristic of Yahata Works was the exploration of extensive city planning at an early stage.

2. Introduction process of legal city planning (Table-2) The city planning law was first applied to Yahata in 1923, when the application of this law was expanded to the prefectural capital and industrial cities that showed a notable population increase. The application of this law was subsequently followed by application of the Urban Building Law and the establishment of city planning areas. However, not until after the consolidation of the steel industry in 1934 were that city plans actually decided upon and projected. Though the national policy of industrial decentralization that developed following the consolidation of the steel industry, the City Planning Committee of each prefecture drew up various city plans to promote the industrialization of their cities. In Muroran, the City Planning Committee of Hokkaido Prefecture first designed land use zoning and then formulated the city- planned streets and parks. In Kamaishi, the City Planning Committee of Iwate Prefecture planned the city-planned streets, but they were not projected. However, the Ministry of Home Affairs developed reconstruction plan following the Showa Sanriku tsunami in 1934. In Hirohata, the City Planning Committee of Hyogo Prefecture planned land readjustment across Hiro and Shikama and first formed the framework that included the city-planned streets. Subsequently, the committee designated that land use zoning and exclusive industrial district were under the urbanization control. In Yahata, the City Planning Committee of Fukuoka Prefecture simultaneously planned streets and land use zoning in an integrated boundary for the five cities of Kitakyushu,21) and implemented the city-planned street projects in succession. At the same time, the committee introduced scenic districts, green spaces and open space districts to retain the living environment. The committee also implemented city planning parks and land readjustment projects in some areas. As discussed, each city introduced an official plan in the same period, but the specific content of their plans and projects differed. In the following sections, each item of the legal city plans is examined in detail.

3. City-planned streets (Tables-3, 4) Many municipalities planned urban streets in prewar Japan,22) including Muroran, Kamaishi, Hirohata and Yahata. As mentioned in a statement delivered on July 3, 1940 by the Ministry of Home Affairs, the City Planning Committee of Hokkaido Prefecture planned to improve the roads around Higashi-muroran railway station (Fig.-3), where urbanization developed in conjunction with the expansion of NSC’s Muroran Works and Japan Steel Works Ltd.23) As previously discussed, the construction of company housing around Higashi-muroran railway station was urgently needed. The road improvement plan was actually intended to facilitate the construction of company Urban and Regional Planning Review Vol. 3, 2016 | 170

Table-3 Reasons for the legal city planning decisions in four Nippon Steel Co. Ltd. major steelworks cities

Muroran Works Kamaishi Works Hirohata Works Yahata Works Muroran Kamaishi Hiro Shikama Yahata Tobata Urbanization caused by the This area has Most of the city planning area This area has expanded This area has rapidly This area has been expansion of Muroran Works experienced an is agricultural land and the extraordinarily as an industrialized since Yahata urbanized from the and Japan Steel Works, Ltd. increased the population road network is confusing. industrial city. Various Steel Works was established, industrialization of and other factories. and number of houses facilities need to be and has been extremely Yahata. Some of roads Urbanization around Higashi- from the expansion of planned urbanized. The roads are are in order but most are Muroran station. NSC Kamaishi Works comprehensively in the chaotic and narrow. irregular and narrow. Problem expanding the munitions city planning area. industry.

The main roads are planned in Essential roads are Planning of the road network Fundamental improvement in Preparation for traffic parallel with a railway and sub designated as city- is based on several criteria and the road network and traffic congestion when the roads connect hinterlands with planned streets to takes priority in the Land efficiency in preparation for Tobata port facilities are the main road. Eight wide prepare for urbanization. Readjustment Area plan. the completion of the port completed in the future. roads have greenbelts for facilities of Dokaiwan and the health, recreation, fire breaks factories being developed in Planned roads defined in city plans Planned roads and air defense system. the future. Design policy

The coast of Muroran port and This area has been developed Heavy industrial Moji, Kokura, Tobata, Wakamatsu and Yahata are throughout Higashi-Muroran as an industrial city with the factories have increased expected to become more developed as industrial areas are designated as industrial Hirohata Works of NSC. The remarkably, and new of the future because of the Chikuhou coalfields in the areas in accordance with the development is hoped to be and large factories are background, Yahata Steel Works and many other land situation. The hills against well under control. The 200- located on the coast of factories. These cities are closely related and need to be a background of scenic meter-wide belt-shaped area Shikama port or along planned together. The most important issue is the

Areas mountain are designated as between Sanyo Railway and the canal. This area is industrial areas, which are designated along the residential areas. The city the industrial area is an hoped to be developed Doukaiwan coastline. The commercial areas are center and along the main road undesignated area for a buffer healthily, and designated principal areas of the urbanized area. The area suitable are designated as commercial zone between the residential districts exist for to accommodate the population is designated as the areas for daily convenience. areas and industrial areas. building control. residential areas, such as the suburb of Yahata.

【Exclusive Industrial district】【Open space districts】 The site for industry reclaimed Given recent productive capacity expansion, especially from the sea is designated as in the Kitakyushu industrial area, some factories have Zoning an exclusive industrial district. been established or enlarged, and the population and housing densely have increased. Open space districts are designated for the air defense system, fire protection, and health and hygiene.

【】 Districts Scenic districts The Yahata area, near the coalfields of Chikuhou, has been developed as one of the largest heavy industrial areas of west Japan. Green spaces have been gradually lost through housing development; therefore, scenic districts are designated to conserve the green space.

The Hiro area has developed A Land Readjustment Remarkable population rapidly from the building of a Project including the growth has resulted in a large factory; therefore, a Hiro Land Readjustment housing shortage in this Land Readjustment Project Area heavily industrial area. has been implemented for A Land Readjustment rational development. Project to establish an NSC Skilled Workers Training Center and to improve the Sakaigawa River is preparing the area for housing

Land Readjustment Projects developments and air defense systems.

【City planning Parks】【City planning Parks】【City planning Parks】 NSC and Japan Steel Works Yahata Works, NSC is located Areas throughout Mt. caused rapid concentration of here and has expanded as the Konpira, near Kokura the population in this area. center of Kitakyushu heavy and Yahata, are Nakajima Park is designated as industrial area because designated as city a city planning park for additional munitions factories planning parks because citizens’ park facilities and air have relocated. Given the green spaces have defense facilities. concern about public health gradually decreased as a and city defenses, Memorial result of drastic Park, Shiroyama Park, and industrialization. Kogasaki Park are designated as city planning parks.

【City planning green spaces】 Kitakyushu, as the heavy industrial area of Japan, is very important for the expansion of productive capacity and City planning parks and green spaces City planning parks and green national defenses. Therefore, the city plan decision ensures national defenses and prepares for improvements in the citizen’s physical capacity.

Reference: Koubun Zassan, National Archives of Japan. Urban and Regional Planning Review Vol. 3, 2016 | 171

Table-4 Classification of legal city-planned streets Muroran Kamaishi NSC Steelworks Hirohata Works Yahata Works Works Works City name Muroran Kamaishi Hiro Shikama Yahata Tobata Broad street 8 - - - - type 1 - - - - - First-class type 2 - 1 - - - street type 3 8（7） - 2 1 3（1） 2 type 1 5（5） - 3 4 2 7（1） Second-class type 2 7（4） 1 8 6 5 2 street type 3 - 8 2 8（1） 7 2 First-class alley - 12 - - 2 Second-class alley - - - - - * ( ) : number of city planning project, gray represents a large number.

Higashi-Muroran

Muroran Works

Japan Steel Works

Fig.2 Legal city-planned streets of Muroran Koubun Zassan 1940, Vol.86, City Planning11, National archives of Japan. housing. In Muroran, the City Planning Committee of Hokkaido Prefecture formulated the city- planned streets as eight broad streets, the widest streets planned in the steel cities (Table-4). Broad streets were rarely planned as standard in the case of small cities, but those planned for Muroran were each 55 to 61 meters wide. The City Planning Committee of Hokkaido Prefecture planned broad streets to create a greenbelt for the air defense system and fire prevention installations, as well as for citizens’ health and recreation. However these streets were not constructed in exact accordance with the plan. The tendency was to construct relatively wide roads in addition to these broad streets, and these roads were designed to be at least 15 meters wide. These broad streets and wide roads in the city of Muroran were developed for the air defense system and were arranged in a grid pattern, presumably intended to provide firebreaks and to form fire prevention blocks. Shigeyuki Taniguchi, one of the engineers on the City Planning Committee of Hokkaido Prefecture at the time, said “What we were trying to do in Hokkaido was preparing blueprints for firebreak belts about 110 meters wide between factories Urban and Regional Planning Review Vol. 3, 2016 | 172 and residential estates. Furthermore, in the cases of general industrial areas, cities shall be divided into several sections by streets up to 110 meters wide.”24) Based on Taniguchi’s statement, Muroran was assumed to provide fire prevention blocks by arranging wide-lane streets in a grid pattern as a part of its general industrial district plan. Another reason for the wide- lane street design in Muroran was snowfall and thaw, which required drainage systems, thus necessitating wider streets relative to other areas.25) In Kamaishi, the Home Minister Fig.-3 Reconstruction plan of Kamaishi decided on city-planned streets on March Ministry of Home Affairs the Planning Bureau (1934), 31, 1943, toward the end of the war. The reconstruction report of the Showa Sanriku tsunami on reason stated for the city-planned streets the damaged local authority. was road improvements to manage the larger number of houses, resulting from the expansion of NSC’ Kamaishi Works in Kamaishi (Table-4).26) The Ministry of Home Affairs formulated a reconstruction plan to assist Kamaishi’s recovery from the Showa Sanriku tsunami, and Kamaishi intended to follow the plan when reconstruction the old streets(Fig.-3). In contrast, the City Planning Committee of Iwate Prefecture formulated city-planned streets to connect the Kamaishi port and company housing at the midland. In Photo-4 Hirohata main street Kamaishi, these city-planned streets were about 8 to 12 meters wide. The streets were narrow presumably because they were located in a valley, which was the exact opposite situation from that of Muroran. In Kamaishi, the city- planned streets did not improved, but NSC constructed many roads to develop Kosano company housing (1936−37) and Kogawa company housing (1940−41). Some of company housing roads were constructed as wide street, with company houses that installed firewalls built along them (Photo-2).27) At that time, the fire belt was confirmed for legal city-planned streets. In Hirohata, the Home Minister decided on city-planned streets on December 1, 1937, in conjunction with the start of the reclamation of factory space and the construction of a new city that integrated the Hiro and Shikama areas. As mentioned in its statement, the City Planning Committee of Hyogo Prefecture first formulated city-planned streets only in the land- readjustment area designated in the previous year. In Hirohata, the City Planning Committee of Hyogo Prefecture drew city-planned streets as if on a blank sheet of paper because Hirohata was originally agricultural land. Hirohata city-planned streets were used as the standard for arranging various facilities. According to the memories of Motojiro Adachi, who was involved in the construction of Hirohata Works, the City Planning Committee of Hyogo Prefecture Urban and Regional Planning Review Vol. 3, 2016 | 173

Agaho

Hirohata Works

Fig.-4 Hirohata city plan immediately after WWII Old stock of Takasago engineering works department, archives of Hyogo Prefecture. formulated these streets in accordance with a plan for the placement of the factory. Hirohata Works asked Obayashi Corporation to conduct a survey for the placement of the facility within the premises, and to fix the exact axis lines of the four cardinal points. The location of the first blast furnace was first decided upon using the triangulation points of Kyomi Mountain and Tomami.28) Subsequently, the line was fixed to true north using the North Star as the base point, and the line perpendicular to the due north line was used as the east-west line (Fig.-4). Every building was located in exact accordance with these coordinates denoted in meters north, south, east and west. Consequently, as confirmed in the city planning map, Hirohata’s streets were characterized by their emphasis on the east-west and north-south lines. In Hirohata, the city developed along its streets and was to be integrated with Hiro and Shikama. From October 1937 to July 1938, Hyogo prefecture’s land readjustment enforcement authorities preferentially improved the main street leading from Hirohata Works to the Agaho private railway station. In particular, the broad street leading true north from Hirohata Works furnace to Kyomi company housing (Photo-4). According to the memories of Tadaro Nagasawa, a city planning sectional chief in Hyogo Prefecture, city planning was grid-shaped based on this main street, and wide city-planned streets ensured a fireproof block.29) The concept of a fireproof block was introduced during WWII for air defense purpose, and was then adopted for the residential planning unit that subsequently became an important theory in contemporary Japanese city planning. For Yahata and Tobata, the City Planning Committee of Fukuoka Prefecture characteristically formulated city-planned streets under the concept of integrating Moji, Kokura and Wakamatsu.30) In the five cities that subsequently comprised Kitakyushu City, the concept of regional planning was introduced at an early stage and integrated street development from the Urban and Regional Planning Review Vol. 3, 2016 | 174 outset. Before the formulation of regional planning, a baseline survey of the Kitakyushu area was conducted in 1927, the first of its kind in Japan.31) Kazumi Iinuma, then chief of the city planning section at the Ministry of Home Affairs, visited the United States and several European countries in 1923 with the aim of studying and introducing regional planning to Japan. Following the International City Planning Conference held in Amsterdam in 1924, the concept of regional planning became widely accepted among city planning engineers as a technique to control metropolitanization. The principle was applied to five cities in the northern Kyushu area (which were then undergoing significant development as industrial metropolises) to create an integrated city plan that encompassed all of them. Takusaburo Togo, then head of the City Planning Division in Fukuoka Prefecture’s Department of Home Affairs, described the details of the plan as follows: “When choosing streets for city planning, the most attention was paid to building a trunk road to connect transport networks in the five cities and their hinterlands.” 32 ) Accordingly, the wide-lane Route 2, the National Road, was developed along with the organization and integration of major roads connecting the areas around Dokai Bay to form loop roads. The plan apparently included improving inner-city streets in accordance with the respective cities’ circumstances and with the intention of decentralizing the region. Yahata and Tobata were both deserted villages prior to industrialization. Because the roads were arranged in a disorderly manner in both villages, problems arose from an increase in traffic resulting from the industrialization driven by the Yahata Works. In Yahata, the main roads were planned to surround the industrial belt located along the Doukai Bay coastline (Fig.-5).33) In Tobata, the roads leading to Yahata were built as main roads surrounding Doukai Bay, whereas the roads near Tobata Port and those that promoted coordination between Kokura and Wakamatsu were improved.

Wakamatusu

Tobata

Yahata Works Kokura

Kurosaki St. Yahata St. Takami Company Yahata housing

Fig.-5 Legal city-planned Streets of Tobata and Yahata Koubun Zassan 1934, Vol.41, City Planning4, National archives of Japan. Urban and Regional Planning Review Vol. 3, 2016 | 175

Table-5 Legal city planning zoning

NSC steelworks Muroran Works Hirohata Works Yahata Works City name Muroran Hiro Shikama Yahata Tobata dimensions dimensions dimensions dimensions dimensions Zoning % % % % % （ha）（ha）（ha）（ha）（ha） Commercial Area 69.4 2.4 82 3.5 78.5 4.7 166.4 11.0 93.7 12.8 Industrial Area 435 （restricted industrial 994.6 34.5 18.9 317.5 18.9 665.6 44.0 322.8 44.0 （310） district） Residential Area 1,820.8 63.1 1713 74.3 1232.5 73.3 628.3 41.5 227.8 31.0 Undesignated Area 77 3.3 52.5 3.1 53.6 3.5 89.3 12.2 Total 2,884.8 100 2307 100 1681 100 1,513.9 100 733.6 100.0 ・Gray tone denotes a large number.

Higashi Muroran

Muroran Works

Japan Steel Works

Fig.-6 Muroran zoning Koubun Zassan 1937, Vol.65, City Planning20, National Archives of Japan. 4. Zoning (Table-3,5) Land use zoning was rarely implemented in local cities before the war, except for in prefectural capitals.34) Regarding the four cities covered by this research, zoning was conducted in all except for Kamaishi. In Muroran, the Home Minister decided on zoning on November 24, 1937. The zoning of Muroran focused on the industrial and housing areas because the commercial area accounted for only 2.4% of the city. Above all, the City Planning Committee of Hokkaido Prefecture planned the field around Higashi-Muroran as a new urban area and designated it as an industrial area. Muroran Works company housing was contained in an industrial area (Fig.-6).35) However, in Hirohata, the City Planning Committee of Hyogo Prefecture designed both land use zoning and an exclusive industrial district on which the Home Minister decided on December 22, 1942 (Fig.-7,8,9). Because the Hiro and Shikama areas share almost the same Urban and Regional Planning Review Vol. 3, 2016 | 176 ratio of land use area (Table-5), the plan for these two areas was presumably formulated in an integrated manner. Hirohata has the typical characteristics of an industrial city with a very small commercial area, and a relatively low ratio Hiro of industrial area to total area. For Hirohata, whereas only the industrial site of Hirohata Works was designated as an exclusive industrial district, scarcely any factory space was Shikama established for general companies (Fig.-8). At the same time, that undesignated areas were set as a buffer zone for industrial and housing areas is also noteworthy (Fig.-7). Unlike in Muroran, the company housing site in Hirohata is included in the housing area and takes up a relatively large share of that space. The City Planning Committee of Fig.-7 Hiro zoning Fukuoka Prefecture designated the land use Koubun Zassan 1942, Vol.131, City Planning22, National Archives of Japan. The yellow area is an zoning, and integrated into Yahata, Tobata, undesignated area. Kokura, Wakamatsu and Moji the same city- planned streets (Fig.-10). Both Yahata and Tobata have the highest ratio of industrial area to total area and have the typical characteristics of an industrial city (Table-5). The designated industrial area that surrounds Doukai Bay plays a central role in the Kitakyushu industrial zone. Most importantly, given industrialization and its related developments, many company houses were constructed in Yahata, in both the area surrounding the Takami company housing— designed for executives—and the area Fig.-8 Shikama Zoning surrounding the Tsukida and Itozu company Koubun Zassan 1942, Vol.130, City Planning21, National Archives of Japan. Explanatory note is the housings, designated as a scenic district to same as Fig.-7 promote the living environment as specified by the legal city plans (Fig.-11).36) Takami company housing was later reconstructed as a mid-rise condominium building; however, the surrounding environment was preserved, except for a row of cherry trees that were cut down (Photo-5). In Yahata and Tobata, the City Planning Committee Hirohata Works of Fukuoka Prefecture designated an open space district for the air defense system, fire prevention, and citizens’ health, and a central green space (17.36 ha) was developed in the Fig.-9 Exclusive industrial district of Hirohata center of Tsukida. In contrast, the space provided Koubun Zassan 1942, Vol.131, City Planning22, for the business area was limited, although it was National Archives of Japan. The blue line indicates an exclusive industrial district. Urban and Regional Planning Review Vol. 3, 2016 | 177

Moji

Wakamatsu Tobata

Kokura Yahata

Fig.-10 Moji, Kokura, Tobata, Wakamatsu and Yahata zoning Koubun Zassan 1934, Vol.42, City Planning5, National Archives of Japan.

Kurosaki St. area Takami Company housing area

Fig.-11 Scenic district of Yahata : In the author’s possession at center of the city. According to Togo Takusaburo, the aim was to disperse the urban area.37)

5. City planning parks and green spaces (Muroran, Yahata, and Tobata) In response to the population increase caused by the establishment of NSC’s Muroran Works and Japan Steel Works Ltd., the City Planning Committee of Hokkaido Prefecture designated both Nakajima Park and Shukutsu Parks, and the Home Minister approved the designation on March 31, 1942. These two parks were expected to play the dual roles of “citizens’ welfare facilities” and “very important air defense facilities in the current situation.”38) In contrast, the City Planning Committee of Fukuoka Prefecture simultaneously planned Urban and Regional Planning Review Vol. 3, 2016 | 178 city planning parks in Kitakyushu’s five cities, and the Home Minister approved them on January 25, 1940. In Yahata, the committee planned three parks: Memorial Park, Shiroyama Park and Kogasaki Park. In its statement explaining the plan and decision, the City Planning Committee of Fukuoka Prefecture mentioned that they were for citizens’ health and the air defense system, indicating that Yahata’s decision was based on the same concept as that of Muroran.39) The City Planning Committee of Fukuoka Prefecture planned Konpira Park in Tobata. Photo-5 Today’s conserved green space This park was designed for the preservation of green at Takami District of Yahata Works space, which had decreased because of industrialization, and its surrounding area was designated as a scenic district.40) The development project started in 1939, and the squares, park roads, and other park facilities were improved.

6. Land readjustment (Hirohata, Yahata and Tobata) In Hirohata, the City Planning Committee of Hyogo Prefecture planned for land readjustment to be integrated into the two city planning areas of Hiro and Shikama areas (Fig.-12).41) The design policy for Hirohata’s land readjustment stipulated that each street should be wider than six meters and that the share of parks and other green spaces should be larger than 3% of the total area to comply with the “Design standards for land readjustment” (Ministry of Home Affairs, 1933). Because space in the land readjustment area was to be reserved for seven elementary schools, the neighboring district can be presumed to have been planned in units corresponding to school districts. According to the “Hiro-mura report,”42) the Hirohata land readjustment project built wide roads to serve as fire lines to support the air defense system and properly allocated schools and parks in each urban block (Fig.12, Photo-7). Consequently, the contents of the plan were found to be similar to the neighborhood unit theory. The plan did not follow the Rudburn system; however, the combined school and park, with its separation of pedestrians and vehicles, was realized around the Agaho private railway station (Photo-6). The Hirohata land readjustment was set as a six-year project, starting in 1937 at an approximate total cost of 5,900,000 yen. After 1940, the Home Minister designed Hirohata as a Newly Industrializing City, and the project was implemented with a government subsidy. In October 1939, Hyogo Prefecture, enforcement authorities for land readjustment based on Article 13 of the City Planning Act, accomplished the replotting design of the Hirohata land readjustment. More than 1,244 ha were subject to the enforcement, of which more than 937 ha were subject to the replotting design. The factory grounds for Hirohata Works were not subject to the replotting design. The rate of land decrease was 37.74%, which was very high at that time. After readjustment, public land accounted for 24.3% of the city, and land for parks accounted for 2.9%. However, the “guidelines for the construction of Newly Industrializing City-planning Project,”43) published by the Planning Bureau of the Ministry of Home Affairs in 1941, set the standard for public land at greater than 35% of the city’s area, and the area for parks and green spaces at greater than 5% of the total. In Hirohata, land readjustment was enforced as a Newly Industrializing City-planning Project; however, the planning standard in Hirohata was set lower than other Newly Industrializing Cities constructed during the war.(2) Urban and Regional Planning Review Vol. 3, 2016 | 179

Agaho St.

S P S P P S P S Otsu company P housing area S

P S P P P S P S P P P S P S P S

S P P

P Hirohata Works

S : School P : Park

Fig.-12 Land readjustment planning map of Hirohata : Tokyo Metropolitan Archives, Uchida Yoshikazu documents.

Private Sector Land Readjustment area Hirohata Works Agaho Station company housing

Public Author Land Readjustment area Agaho Station

Fig.-13 Tomami land readjustment area(First Fig.-14 Tomami land readjustment plan) Archive of Hyogo Prefecture area(Last plan) Archive of Hyogo Prefecture.

Photo-6 Unfinished ring road in front Photo-7 Housing area and parks in of Agaho St. front of Agaho St. Urban and Regional Planning Review Vol. 3, 2016 | 180

In the adjacent area of Hirohata, Tomami and Otsu, the private sector planned a land readjustment project based on Article 12 of the City Planning Act. These plans were to build a radial or loop road integrated with a city center. At that time, radial and loop roads were easily applied to Newly Industrializing Cities. In Hirohata, the government (the City Planning Committee of Hyogo Prefecture) planned land readjustment peculiar to radial and loop roads hand in hand with the private sector. Land readjustment in the adjacent area of Hirohata was originally intended for the industrial development of Hirohata Works. However, as the project proceeded, the housing schemes for steelworkers and city planning contradicted each other. In the end, the housing project for Hirohata Works was given priority, resulting in the failure of the Enforcement of Land Readjustment Project failed44) and reconsideration of the land readjustment plan with loop and radial roads (compare Fig.-13 and Fig.-14). To date, the project remains unfinished and contributes to traffic problems in the area (Photo-6). This example indicates a typical issue of Japanese city planning where the needs of large private enterprises took precedence over those of the public. A large number of land readjustment association were pointed out as being founded in the area surrounding Yahata Works,45) 46 ) and projects were extensively promoted. As Table-6 shows, land readjustment in Yahata, conducted by private associations, was concentrated in the areas around the company housing in Takami District, as well as around Kurosaki railway station. The loop and radial street planning in front of Kurosaki railway station was a rare example at the time of a land readjustment project managed by a private association (Photo-8). The undertaking was planned by the young Tamotsu Machida, who later took charge of postwar reconstruction in Tokyo and built the Metropolitan Expressway. As part of the land readjustment, private association carried out infrastructure development in Yahata. The main purpose of the project was to provide favorable access to company houses for the employees of

Table-6 Pribate sectore land readjustment list at Yahata before WWII

Dimension of Reduction ratio of Land Date of Around Date of land Project cost site area(%) readjustment replotting senic Site location permission readjustment (Yen) Public Reserve area disposal district (㎡) land d land

・SHIN TOSHI vol.7-2, City planning association of Japan, pp.178-179, 1953.2, HP of Kita Kyusyu City. Urban and Regional Planning Review Vol. 3, 2016 | 181

Yahata Works. The fact that many of the surrounding areas were designated as scenic districts reveals the company’s intention to ensure a favorable living environment for its employees (Fig.-11). Takusaburo Togo indicates the advantages of small distances between residential areas and the factories for commuting as a characteristic of city planning in Yahata. He also pointed out the problem of smoke from the factory. The designation of scenic districts is considered to have been a countermeasure to the Photo-8 Monumental inscription about problem. the Kurosaki land readjustment project Meanwhile, the City Planning Committee of Fukuoka Prefecture planned the only land readjustment plan for the eastern part of Nakabaru area of Tobata as a legal city plan.47) With the establishment of the NSC Skilled Workers Training Center, 53 ha of land were readjusted and improved for the reclamation of housing areas and the improvement of air defense facilities.

Conclusion (Fig.-15) 1) Overview Driven by the national policy of decentralizing industry, the construction of industrial cities in local areas grew substantially during the wartime period. Within this trend, the steel industry accounted for most of the growth. The issues of city planning that resulted from the development of the four steelworks’ operations can be summarized as the development of new city streets in the suburbs in Muroran, the remodeling of existing streets in Kamaishi, the construction of a new city that combined multiple steelworks in Hirohata, and the formation of an industrial zone in Yahata. The steel cities discussed in this paper all shared a common theme: a legal city plan was formulated to manage the development of heavy industry. However, each city was significantly different in its specific content in accordance with its own situation. The city-planned streets in Muroran and Hirohata created new urban areas and extensively improved the variety of streets despite differences in scale; the former covered part of the suburbs and the latter covered the entire city area. In Muroran, the City Planning Committee of Hokkaido Prefecture formulated city-planned streets, including several broad streets, although the city-planned broad street project was not completed. In Hirohata, the City Planning Committee of Hyogo Prefecture planned the street network that became the framework for the city. The committee also preferentially improved the network according to the land readjustment project instituted by a public corporation. In contrast, Kamaishi and Yahata progressed with urbanization before legal city planning was introduced, and improving existing roads was a basic city planning policy. Regarding zoning, in every city except for Kamaishi, the City Planning Committee designated the land use area. Muroran characteristically designated an industrial area that included residential estates for company housing as part of its industrial area. A characteristic specific to Hirohata is that its land use area was integrated with the Hiro and Shikama areas, whereas an undesignated area was set as a buffer between the factory and housing. Even in the industrial area, the land used by the steelworks was designated an exclusive industrial district. In view of the fact that only a few exclusive industrial districts existed before the war, each Urban and Regional Planning Review Vol. 3, 2016 | 182

Kogawa and Kosano company housing area

Fig.-15 Same-scale city planning maps of Muroran, Kamaishi, Hirohata and Kitakyushu : Koubun Zassan, National archives of Japan and Fig.-2, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10 Urban and Regional Planning Review Vol. 3, 2016 | 183 served as the city’s core for an industrial area. The designation of Hirohata can be viewed as a special case.48) One characteristic of Yahata is that the City Planning Committee of Fukuoka Prefecture extensively designated industrial areas to secure factory space outside Yahata Works as industrial development in the city. At the same time, the committee designated scenic districts surrounding residential estates to create housing areas for factory workers at the Yahata Works. In contrast, the existence of city planning parks designed for health and hygiene, fire prevention, the air defense system, and an open space district characterized the situation during the war. As typified by Tokyo’s green plan, this concept is viewed as the epitome of measures for parks in Japan during the war. The usual practice for reclaiming space for a large factory is to engage in a land readjustment project. In Newly Industrializing Cities, the city planning committee of the relevant prefectures implemented land readjustments through public corporations and government subsidies. In Hirohata, an urban area was formed in a grid, with the steelworks’ blast furnace at its center, and a residential area was designed with school districts as its units. Hirohata represents a notable case of a city space reflecting the factory exactly as it was. However, in Tobata, a land readjustment project was planned in conjunction with the construction of the NSC’s training center, but the development plan was small. In Yahata and Tobata, many land readjustment associations in the private sector created residential estates. The City Planning Committee of Fukuoka Prefecture adopted a planning method to improve the urban area step by step; this method was the extreme opposite of that used by the City Planning Committee of Hyogo Prefecture in Hirohata when it attempted to construct a new city. 2) Findings This discussion on case studies from the steel industry, which exemplifies the large- scale industrial development that occurred during the war, clarifies that the city planning method of industrial development was merely a normal part of city planning that included city- planned streets, zoning and land readjustments. However, we believe that a different planning method was selected depending on each city’s situation and, in particular, its scale. In the small city of Kamaishi, the City Planning Committee of Iwate Prefecture only planned streets, which was the standard method for small cities before WWII. Although the city-planned streets were not improved, the NSC built many roads along with the construction of company housing. Some of the roads were wide for fire protection, and company houses were built with firewalls along the roads. Although the order of the regional designation was the opposite, in the medium-size cities of Muroran and Hirohata, the City Planning Committee of each prefecture controlled land use zoning and improved the city’s infrastructure through land readjustments and city-planned street projects, all of which were implemented by public corporations. The concept of an air defense system is prominent in these city planning examples and was a feature of industrial development during the war. Fire prevention blocks were implemented through wide-lane streets in Muroran and land readjustment in Hirohata. Although these methods differed, the concept underlying the design was the same. Regarding a fire prevention block as a planning unit, city planning in Hirohata adopted the idea of pedestrian–vehicle separation. This adoption can be considered the beginning of an idea that later led to the theory of the neighborhood unit, which was introduced in Newly Industrializing Cities during wartime in accordance with the guidelines of the Ministry of Home Affairs. In contrast, as observed in the case of Hirohata, land readjustment projects with loop and radial roads (which were combined legal city planning and private sector projects) sometimes reached a deadlock in surrounding areas. The situation in Urban and Regional Planning Review Vol. 3, 2016 | 184

Hirohata is a typical example of a corporation enforcing industrial development that was given priority over legal city planning. As a result, the grand design behind city development as conceived by the City Planning Committee of Hyogo Prefecture was never fully implemented. In the large city of Yahata, the City Planning Committee of Fukuoka Prefecture formulated a plan to integrate surrounding cities with the intention of constructing an extensive area. At the same time, Yahata demonstrates that urbanization problems were conspicuous because of industrialization; therefore the committee planned scenic districts, open spaces, and parks and afforestation to preserve the living environment and air defense system. In the Kitakyushu area, the concept of regional planning was introduced from the perspective of national planning, and the steel-manufacturing cities of Yahata and Tobata formed the core of the plan. Centering on the government’s iron and steel works, the Yahata area expanded significantly and became a large industrial zone. For this reason, although Yahata was previously a company town, it was in a position to restrict further industrial expansion. While sharing the same national defense considerations, from the viewpoint of urbanization control, the city planning situation in Yahata differed from that in Muroran and Hirohata, where development was still new. City planning in Yahata was characterized by progress in terms of adopting regional planning to control urbanization in an integrated manner, not only in the city itself but also in the overall area, including the surrounding urban centers. Although regional planning was not institutionalized and, thus, did not actually influence legal city planning, that cohesive city planning was created to include the five cities in the Kitakyushu area is noteworthy. Accordingly, roads were built to run through these five urban centers, and thoroughfares around Dokai Bay received priority as the core of the industrial zone. In contrast, to decentralize the cities, commercial areas were designated but were limited to the central districts of the respective cities. Although new streets were planned for these central areas, the project was reduced to improving the existing streets. That residences for Yahata Works employees were built as part of the land readjustment led by a private association is also significant, and the surrounding areas were designated as scenic districts with the purpose of creating a favorable living environment. As previously discussed, the cases of industrial city planning during the war (which introduced legal city planning) shared the principle of an air defense system. In contrast, advanced city planning notions such as “planning unit” and “regional planning” were introduced in accordance with the sizes of the respective cities. That city planning of the industrial development type (as implemented in Muroran and Hirohata) introduced the idea of the “planning unit” in the form of fire prevention blocks is noteworthy. Along with the concept of planning standards, planning units can be seen as fundamental to the design of cities in Japan. The view of the planning unit (sought by these industrial cities) is closely related to the introductory process of the neighborhood unit theory. After being introduced for the first time in guidelines for Newly Industrializing Cities, the planning unit was applied to postwar reconstruction projects and spread throughout the country. Yahata, which was already becoming an expansive industrial zone, employed industrial city planning of the control type. The city’s design incorporated the theory of regional planning before the Ministry of Home Affairs intended to institutionalize it, thus forming a far-reaching strategy for city planning in the region, which involved the entire Kitakyushu area to ensure comprehensive control of the cities. Despite the fact that the regional planning concept was never institutionalized, it was later used to organize metropolitan areas in the postwar period. Urban and Regional Planning Review Vol. 3, 2016 | 185

Acknowledgement This work was supported by the Asahi Glass Foundation and partially supported by Grant-in-Aid for Scientific Research(B), Grant Number 15H04098, 15H04106.

Notes (1) In this paper, the war period discussed is from the Sino-Japanese war to the Pacific war (1937-1945) . (2) Later, the project was applied as a Newly Industrializing City-planning Project and funded by a government subsidy from 1940 to 1944, for a total sum of 127,500 yen, in accordance with the “support guidelines for a Newly Industrializing City-planning Project.” With this subsidy, the planning project for streets totaling 14,836.9 meters in length was implemented, and all major streets were improved by the end of the war.

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