Journal of Archaeological Science: Reports 38 (2021) 103049

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Journal of Archaeological Science: Reports

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A multimethod approach to the study of Classic Maya houselots and land tenure: Preliminary results from the Three Rivers Region,

Joshua J. Kwoka a,*, Thomas H. Guderjan b, Sara Eshleman c, Thomas Ruhl d, Justin Telepak e, Timothy Beach c, Sheryl Luzzadder-Beach c, Will McClatchey f, Grace Bascop´e g a Georgia State University, Department of Anthropology, Sparks Hall, 33 Gilmer Street, Suite 335, Atlanta, GA 30303, USA b University of Texas at Tyler, Department of Social Sciences, 3900 University Blvd., Tyler, TX 75799, USA c University of Texas at Austin, Department of Geography and the Environment, 305 E. 23rd St., A3100, RLP 3.306, Austin, TX 78712, USA d University of Cincinnati, Department of Geography, McMicken College of Arts and Sciences, PO Box 210131, Cincinnati, OH 45221-0131, USA e Maya Research Program, 1910 East Southeast Loop 323 #296, Tyler, TX 75701, USA f Woodland Valley Meadows Farm/Oregon State University, College of Pharmacy, 1601 SW Jefferson Way, Corvallis, OR 97331, USA g Botanical Research Institute of Texas, 1700 University Dr., Fort Worth, TX 76107-3400, USA

ARTICLE INFO ABSTRACT

Keywords: Results of a recent lidar survey of northwestern Belize revealed a heavily modified anthropogenic landscape Boundaries populated by dense ancient Maya settlement. Most surprising was the detection of an extensive network of Classic Period Maya landesque capital in form of linear stone features, with 87.8 linear km identified to date. While likely multi­ Houselots functional, many of these features appear to delineate residential space and are similar in appearance to Land tenure contemporary Maya houselots. This paper presents the results of a pilot project designed to collect preliminary Lidar data on houselots utilizing multiple research methods. Despite differences in land use and vegetation among the Soil phosphorus study loci, ground truthing results suggest the lidar data are high fidelity. Excavations produced mixed results, with architectural excavations providing the broadest array of data, including evidence that two of the houselots were occupied during the Late Classic (AD 600 – 850) period. Qualitative soil tests for available phosphorus detected elevated levels in areas that are consistent with middens and kitchen gardens. In addition, micro­ topographic anomalies were identified that may have represented an important household resource. A synthesis of the available data results in a view of large houselots with broad agricultural resource bases. Finally, settle­ ment density and the ubiquity of demarcated houselots may signal the existence of a restricted-use land tenure system.

1. Introduction some regions have nearly spatially continuous settlement between centers and field systems (Canuto et al., 2018; Garrison et al., 2019), Over the past decade, a growing body of lidar data has challenged whereas others show discrete farming networks (Beach et al., 2019; models of ancient Maya economic, political, and social organization. By Dunning et al., 2020). These findings show there is much more in the employing this technology in concert with traditional archaeological Maya landscape beyond the rural–urban dichotomy. For the present field methods, hitherto unknown or poorly understood phenomena have study, the impact of lidar has been profound regarding both phenomena emerged from beneath the jungle canopy, including extensive fortifi­ and scale. cation systems (Canuto et al., 2018; Garrison et al., 2019), neighbor­ A recent lidar survey within the far northwestern corner of Belize hoods (Thompson et al., 2018), and wetland field complexes (Beach (Fig. 1) revealed dense ancient Maya settlement clusters located on et al., 2019). The resultant recalibration of our sense of scale and vari­ hilltops surrounded by seasonal wetlands, or bajos. Lidar digital survey ation has been equally impactful. Agricultural terraces (Beach et al., and digitization efforts are ongoing, but at present 2409 structures have 2002, 2015a, 2018) and wetland fields abound (Beach et al., 2015b, been identified within the 39.8 km2 survey block, for a structure density 2019; Krause et al., 2018; Luzzadder-Beach et al., 2012). Moreover, of 60.5/km2. For comparison, this figure exceeds regional structure

* Corresponding author. E-mail address: [email protected] (J.J. Kwoka). https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jasrep.2021.103049 Received 13 August 2020; Received in revised form 14 May 2021; Accepted 20 May 2021 Available online 5 June 2021 2352-409X/© 2021 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved. J.J. Kwoka et al. Journal of Archaeological Science: Reports 38 (2021) 103049 density figures for some of the major Classic period (AD 300–850) sites, within the study area as semi-urban. Following Smith et al. (2015, 174), including El Perú-Waka’, Tintal, , , and (Canuto semi-urban settlements have high population densities but lack the et al., 2018, Table 4). However, it should be noted that structure density complexity and functional heterogeneity of urban centers. Using the figures for those sites were generated using much larger survey areas, standard estimate of 5.6 inhabitants per structure (Hutson and Welch, and that these regions contain much larger sites and buildings. Never­ 2016, 106), the two settlement clusters included in this study (discussed theless, the data support the classification of the hilltop settlements below) may have had population densities of 1288 and 1363 people per

Fig. 1. Regional map showing locations of study loci and sites mentioned in the text. Map inset: 1) , 2) Río Bec, 3) , 4) Tintal, 5) Xultun, 6) Uaxactun, 7) El Zotz, 8) El Perú-Waka’, and 9) Tamarandito.

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2 km . According to the demographic model generated by Adams et al. Table 1 (2004, Table 15.1), peak population densities within the study area were Houselot study data. 2 2 167/km in rural areas and 869/km in urban zones. An unexpected Houselots result of the lidar survey was the detection of extensive networks of AL17-2 AL17-3 AL17-4 AL18-1 landesque capital in the form of linear stone features, 87.8 linear km of which have been identified to date. Many of these features delineate Total Length of Stone Features 576.5 m 398.4 m 413.4 463.3 m Bordering Houselot m domestic space and are similar in appearance to contemporary Maya Total Length of Gaps in Houselot 142.1 m 38.3 m 19 m 68 m houselots, or solares. The following paper presents the results of a pilot Boundary (i.e., No Walls) project designed to investigate ancient Maya houselots at a regional % of Houselot Perimeter Marked 76.4% 91.2% 95.4% 85.3% by Stone Walls scale. Project objectives included: 1) assess the accuracy and fidelity of 2 lidar data via ground-truthing, 2) obtain chronological and construction Total Houselot Area 14,366 11,069 m 9,663 12,659 m2 m2 m2 technique data for residential structures and linear stone features # of Structures within Houselot 6 4 5 7 through excavations, and 3) utilize qualitative soil phosphorus and Area Occupied by Architecture 1,118 532.5 m2 284 m2 871 m2 shovel test pit surveys to explore non-architectural space within m2 houselot interiors. These objectives were viewed as necessary first steps Non-Architectural Space 13,248 10,536.5 9,379 11,788 m2 m2 m2 m2 in exploring the possibility that bounded houselots are indicative of a Qualitative Soil Pav Survey Area 7748 m2 – 2990 8410 m2 private land tenure system, and that the large interior spaces are related m2 to staple crop production. % of Houselot Covered by Pav 53.9% – 30.9% 66.4% Survey Shovel Test Pit Survey Area 6684 m2 – – – 1.1. Households, houselots, and boundaries % of Houselot Covered by Shovel 46.5% – – – Test Pit Survey Much of the settlement documented in the lidar survey conforms to the well-studied patio group configuration (Ashmore 1981), whereby multiple structures representing a household, or task-related residential 1974, 1979). Drawing on this large body of comparative data and local group (Hirth, 1993, 22), bound a common patio. Within the Maya area, topography, two types of LSF have been identified within the study area the spatial manifestation of the household is the houselot, which in­ – agricultural terraces, and what appear to be boundary walls. Agri­ cludes structures and non-architectural space where domestic tasks are cultural terraces come in a variety of forms and have at least three performed. The houselot settlement pattern is a feature of many agrarian functions: reduce slope erosion, buildup soil beds, and improve soil societies in Mesoamerica and beyond (for a review, see Killion, 1992). moisture and retention (Beach and Dunning, 1995; Beach et al., 2002; Ethnographic and ethnoarchaeological studies of contemporary Maya Dunning and Beach, 1994). As such, they are located on sloping terrain houselots have identified compositional and spatial patterning (Collier, and oriented perpendicular to the slope (Fig. 2a). In contrast, the class of 1975; Deal, 1985; Hayden and Cannon, 1982, 1983; Vogt, 1976). At the features identified as boundary walls are either located on relatively core of each houselot sits multiple residential and ancillary structures, level surfaces or, if on uneven terrain, oriented with the slope (Fig. 2b). such as kitchens and storage buildings, centered on an open-air patio Some terrace features also occur on level ground such as box terraces that serves as an activity area (Ashmore, 1981, 48-50). Immediately (Beach et al., 2002) and raised beds in houselots at Chunchucmil (Beach surrounding the structural core is a toft zone for refuse disposal and 1998). Thus, the walled features in this study could meet the functional ˇ storage, followed by a multifunctional area that accounts for the ma­ requirements of raised beds but not those of slope terraces. Sprajc et al. jority of houselot space. This outer zone is populated by gardens, her­ (2021, 9) argue that this second class of LSF may have served a variety of baceous and woody plants – including trees – with economic and purposes, but the primary function was to direct rainfall run-off and/or medicinal value, apiaries and animal pens, pathways, and permanent facilitate drainage within agricultural fields. Their argument is based on refuse disposal areas. Beginning with Bullard (1952, 1954), similarities the generation of a stream network using a lidar-derived DEM and what between archaeological settlement and contemporary Maya solares appears to be the flow accumulation tool in ESRI’s hydrology toolbox. have long been noted for Late Classic (AD 600–900) and Postclassic (AD However, in some instances water appears to flow over the top of LSF ˇ 900–1539) sites in the Northern Lowlands and Río Bec region in (Sprajc et al., 2021, Fig. 5). particular (Beach, 1998; Bullard, 1952, 1954; Dahlin et al., 2005; A fundamental challenge to the boundary wall interpretation is the Dunning, 2004; Eaton, 1975; Fletcher and Kintz, 1983; Folan et al., muted elevation profile of 20 – 50 cm, as the authors estimated in the ´ 2009; Friedel and Sabloff, 1984; Hutson, 2016; Lemmonier and field. In contrast, contemporary Maya houselot walls in the Yucatan are Vanni`ere, 2013; Kurjack, 1974; Magnoni et al., 2012; Thomas, 1981; typically over 1 m in height. Possible explanations for the discrepancy Turner, 1979). While patio groups are ubiquitous in the Maya area, between morphology and function are that they served as foundations visible features demarcating houselot boundaries are not. The present for vegetation stands (Becker 2001, 433), or supported pole-and-thatch ´ study joins the cited examples of bounded houselots, the interiors of walls like those documented by Fletcher (1983a, 94, Fig. 6.2) at in which are occupied by domestic structures and sufficient non- the 1980 s. In the Tuxtlas region of southern Veracruz, Killion (1992, architectural space to support kitchen gardens (Table 1). 129) observed that the interior perimeters of contemporary houselots The demarcation of houselot boundaries within the study region is were lined with a mix of trees, bushes, and vines that functioned as vi­ tied to an abundance of linear stone features (hereafter LSF). In terms of sual and physical barriers. The key distinction is that vegetation was morphology, LSF range in surface elevation from 20 – 50 cm, and 4 – 6 m planted adjacent to rather than on top of houselot walls. Alternatively, in width. Among the digitized segments, individual feature length varies the demarcation of space may have been the primary concern, rather between 12 and 444 m. Similar LSF have been documented at sites in the than the impediment of physical movement. Ashmore (1981, 45) clas­ Northern and Central Lowlands, but they are neither uniform in distri­ sifies LSF as integrative features, and argues that they served to either bution nor configuration (Arnauld, 2008, 2012; Arnauld et al., 2012; facilitate or impede access within sites. Support for this hypothesis is Benavides Castillo and Manzanilla, 1987; Canuto et al., 2018; Eaton, provided by additional work at Chunchucmil, where linear stone fea­ 1975; Folan et al, 2009; Garrison, 2007; Garrison and Dunning, 2009; tures functioned as pathways and/or boundary markers (Huston and ´ Healy et al., 1983; Hughbanks, 1998; Hutson and Magnoni, 2017; Magnoni, 2017, 39–43). Drawing on ethnographic research in Yucatan, ´ Kurjack, 1974; Kunen, 2001, 2004; Kunen and Hughbanks, 2003; Bascope notes the existence of a social norm that prohibits one from Lemmonier and Vanni`ere, 2013; Macrae, 2017; Macrae and Iannone, entering a neighbor’s houselot uninvited. Returning to the study area, 2016; Robichaux, 1995; Thomas, 1974; Tourtellot et al., 2003; Turner, houselots located within hilltop interiors would be accessible only by

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Fig. 2. Elevation (MAMSL) profile graphs of: a) agricultural terrace on sloping terrain and, b) possible boundary wall on comparatively level terrain. Arrows indicate locations of linear stone features. Features depicted at the same scale. Data generated using the Interpolate Line tool in ArcGIS 3D Analyst extension. walking through adjacent houselots or on top of LSF. It should be noted stone feature was excavated. According to the current landowner, large that although terraces have a clear agricultural function, they could also tracts of forest were clear-cut around 2014 for cattle grazing (Fig. 3). As serve as expressions of human territoriality (Sack 1986, 19) by marking of the summer of 2019, this area was used as rangeland and divided into space as restricted. Indeed, it is plausible that multi-functionality is a a serious of paddocks subjected to alternate stocking at a density of core attribute of LSF. Therefore, the authors argue that within the study approximately 1 cow/1.5 acre. Land cover consists of herbaceous region, the ancient Maya employed both feature classes to demarcate grasslands populated by patches of chaparral vegetation and canopy houselot boundaries. trees, the latter remnants of the otherwise clear-cut forest. In 2018, a single houselot located 1 km west of Xnoha (AL18 area) and 2.3 km south of the AL-17 area was explored through excavation 1.2. The Three Rivers adaptive region: ecology and culture history and a soil phosphorus survey. The houselot occupies the summit of a steep, broad, forested hill. Following Brokaw and Mallory’s vegetation The study area is located in the far northwestern corner of Belize typology (2017, 12–16), study area AL18 is located in upland forest. within an area known as the Three Rivers Region that also encompasses Telepak noted the presence of high-value tree species that are otherwise parts of northeastern and southeastern . This desig­ scarce in regional forests due to historic and modern selective timber nation is attributable the presence of the Río Azul, Río Bravo, and logging. Aside from ancient Maya settlement and the occasional spent Booth’s River – all tributaries of the Río Hondo. In terms of physio­ shotgun shell, no evidence of human or livestock land use was graphic regions, the study area sits within the La Lucha Uplands just encountered. west of the Pet´en Karst Plateau. Local landscapes are characterized by weathered limestone ridges and conical hills interspersed among 2. Materials and methods seasonally wet depressions, or bajos (Dunning et al., 2003, 15-16). ’ Following Holdridge s (1967; see also Hartshorn et al., 1984) biocli­ Selection of the houselot sample was opportunistic and focused on matic classification scheme, the Three Rivers Region falls within the easily accessible locales. Aside from selecting houselots with clearly subtropical moist life zone. Regional variation in vegetation composi­ demarcated boundaries (i.e., >75% enclosed by walls), no effort was tion is intimately tied to topography and soil properties. made to ensure the sample was representative of all houselot sizes and Archaeological and paleoenvironmental data provide evidence of configurations. Such data will not be available until the lidar digital human occupation during the Late Archaic by at least 1500 BCE (Beach survey and digitization projects are complete. Although the collection of et al., 2015c; Krause et al., 2018; Lohse et al, 2006). Initial villages were preliminary archaeological and environmental data was the primary – established in the Middle Preclassic period (1000 400 BCE), and the objective, the authors also viewed the project as an opportunity to assess first large regional centers emerged during the Late Preclassic period the utility of multiple field methods with an eye towards a systematic (100 BCE-AD 250). Regional population levels grew during the ensuing study of regional houselots in the future. Classic, with peak densities during the Late Classic (AD 600–850). With the onset of the Postclassic (AD 900–1539), the region was largely abandoned (Guderjan, 2007; Houk, 2015), though small settlements 2.1. Lidar data processing and ground truthing have been recorded in association with regional wetlands (Beach et al., 2019; Krause et al., 2019). Selective logging and chicle harvesting were In July of 2016, the National Science Foundation-supported National introduced during the 19th century. Established in 1958, the Mennonite Center for Airborne Laser Mapping conducted a lidar survey of the study community of Blue Creek is the primary driver of regional environ­ region that encompassed an area of 39.8 km2. The resulting data, which mental change. Aside from natural disturbances (e.g., treefalls, hurri­ were collected with Teledyne Optech’s Titan multiwave lidar (Fernan­ canes, etc.…), regional forests not subjected to modern use represent dez-Diaz et al., 2014), were interpolated to produce 50 cm resolution 1000 years of development (Brokaw and Mallory, 2017, 2). bare-earth terrain models. A digital survey of the lidar data was initiated in 2018, utilizing Esri’s ArcGIS platform. This process proceeded by 1.2.1. Study loci creating an inventory of structures and spatially discrete landscape Four houselots and one linear stone feature are included in this study features, such as small reservoirs and cave entrances, utilizing point (see Fig. 1). In 2017, investigations centered on a hill located 2.5 km shapefiles. These were then digitized, along with linear stone features, northwest of the minor center of Xnoha (AL17 area), where three resulting in a series of polygon and line shapefiles (Fig. 4). Identification contiguous houselots (AL17-2 through 4) were explored through exca­ of archaeological features was facilitated by blending multiple raster vations and a soil phosphorus survey. These houselots are located on visualizations generated with Relief Visualization Toolbox (Kokalj and gently sloping terrain between the base of a steep hill and a bajo. Somrak, 2019; Zakˇsek et al., 2011), and by use of the Red Relief Image Approximately 400 m to the west, on top of the adjacent hill, a linear Map (RRIM) technique developed by Chiba et al. (2008). The latter

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Fig. 3. Left – AL18 study area in upland forest. Right – AL17 study area in rangeland.

Fig. 4. Lidar digital survey and digitization process: a) RRIM prior to digital survey, b) RRIM with points indicating structures, and c) blended hillshading and sky- view factor (N = 16) visualizations overlaid with digitized structures and features. SVF, as well as openness and slope gradient DEMs for RRIM were generated with Relief Visualization Toolbox, ver 2.2.1 (Kokalj et al., 2011; Zakˇsek et al., 2011). Lidar data courtesy of the Northwestern Belize LiDAR Consortium.

5 J.J. Kwoka et al. Journal of Archaeological Science: Reports 38 (2021) 103049 technique in particular can enhance the visibility of small topographic those with a surplus. features (Kokalj and Somrak, 2019). For the study loci, ground truthing proceeded by uploading data generated by the digital lidar survey to a 3. Results Trimble Geo 7x Global Navigation Satellite System (GNSS). Data fidelity was assessed along two axes – whether structures and archaeological 3.1. Ground-truthing features identified in the digital survey were in fact present, and the degree of match (i.e., area, height, etc…) between digitized structures Within the four houselots subjected to archaeological investigation, and those surveyed in the field. 22 structures were identified during the lidar digital survey, all of which were confirmed through ground truthing. Of the 22 structures, 68% (N 2.2. Excavations = 15) were identified by Kwoka during field surveys conductedprior to the lidar digital survey effort. These previously unidentified structures Excavations were conducted within houselots AL17-2 and 3, as well consisted entirely of small, low platforms covered by thick vegetation. as AL18-1, with unit sizes ranging from 1 × 1 m to 2 × 2 m. Operations Within the Maya Lowlands, a critique of lidar is that it can fail to capture were designed to collect chronological data on structure construction low-lying platforms under thick vegetation, specifically within transi­ and occupation sequences, and by association, LSF. The latter can be tional forests, bajos, or disturbed areas (Hutson, 2015; Prufer et al., difficult to date without employing a radiometric technique, as ceramic 2015; Reese-Taylor et al., 2016). That the lidar survey captured five preservation is often poor. Excavating ancient Maya architecture can be structures covered by dense vegetation within a disturbed area (i.e., time intensive due to the possibility of encountering special deposits, grazing area) may indicate that the frequency of omission, or Type 1 such as ritual offerings and burials. To avoid this scenario, excavations errors will be low. However, a systematic and expansive ground- focused on well-defined patio spaces within the structural core of truthing program is necessary to confirm this assertion. Comparisons houselots. The linear stone feature (AL17-1) was excavated via a 2 m × of architectural data collected in the field via GNSS with those generated 6.5 m trench that straddled the feature. A shovel test pit survey was from lidar-derived DEMs demonstrated correspondence in terms of conducted within the interior of houselot AL17-2 that utilized a 25 m structure length, width, and elevation (Fig. 5). Reference points for LSF grid. Shovel test pit dimensions were 50 cm × 50 cm. identified in the digital survey were shown to be accurate, though no effort was made to assess degree of match between digitized feature 2.3. Qualitative soil phosphorus survey length and length observed in the field. Overall, results of the ground truthing program corresponded with the digital survey, suggesting the In addition to the shovel test pit survey, houselot non-architectural regional lidar data is high fidelity. space was explored through a qualitative 10 m grid survey of easily extractable available soil phosphorus (Pav), specifically within house­ lots AL17-2 and 4, and AL18-1. Common sources of pre-modern 3.2. Excavations and ceramic analysis anthropogenic phosphorus include human waste, organic refuse (e.g., plant and animal byproducts), burials, and ash from fires (Holliday and Despite the 2 km distance separating study areas, data obtained from Gartner, 2007:302). Of importance to archaeologists is that P is rela­ patio excavations was consistent. All excavations documented a single tively immobile upon entering the soil system, thus providing a spatial construction phase comprised of a plaster floor capping one or two indicator of past human activity. At the time of the study, the AL17 study layers of construction fill deposited directly on bedrock (Fig. 6). The area was actively utilized as rangeland, and so potential contamination ancient building practice of exposing bedrock for use as a foundation or from livestock was a concern (see Section 1.2.1). While free-ranging plaza surface is well documented, with roots stretching back to at least cattle may distribute phosphorus unevenly along grazing lines, the the beginning of the Middle Preclassic period (ca. 1000 BCE; Inomata impact over such a short duration is minimal and restricted to the sur­ et al. 2015). The AL18-1 ceramic assemblage was analyzed by Colleen face. Paz-Kagan et al. (2016) study of a modern cattle farm determined that surface P values of a high-density stocking area (1.1 cows ha) were statistically similar to a moderate stocking density area (0.55 cows ha) and a control area with no cattle. However, P values for cattle concen­ tration areas (e.g., preferred grazing locations) were statistically different. In addition, a study by Sigua et al. (2014, 1699) found that there was no net gain of soil-extractable P in pastures with rotational grazing. Therefore, soil samples were collected from a depth of 30 cm, with the same protocol used in the AL18 area for standardization. Pav survey areas varied for individual houselots, covering between 31 and 66% of houselot interiors (see Table 1). Owing to concerns of expediency and cost, qualitative Pav values were obtained using a commercially available soil test kit – specifically, Luster Leaf’s Rapitest for soil P. In a study assessing the accuracy of commercially available soil test kits through comparison with quanti­ tative laboratory analyses, Faber et al. (2007) found that the Rapitest kit was the most accurate at measuring soil P. Due to testing protocol, all samples were removed off-site and processed in the Maya Research Program field laboratory. Soil was mixed with distilled water at a ratio of 1:5, stirred, and then left to settle for 24 h due to the high clay content of the soils. After settling, the solution was extracted and placed within a container composed of individual testing and reference chambers backed by a color reference chart. The Rapitest powdered agent was then added to the testing chamber, the resulting solution mixed, and after ten minutes, the color was recorded using the reference chamber. Colors ranged from light blue for soils deficient in Pav to dark blue for Fig. 5. RRIM overlaid with GNSS structure survey points collected in the field.

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Fig. 6. Patio excavations after encountering bedrock: a) AL17-2, and b) AL17-3. Stratigraphy key: 1 – humic/collapse, F1 – lime plaster floor, 2/3– construction fill, and 4 – bedrock.

Hanratty (Maya Research Program, project ceramicist). Despite the poor excavation of the linear stone feature was labor intensive, and ultimately state of preservation, five eroded rim sherds of Late Classic form were required 18 days of labor due to the dense stone matrix. Few ceramics identified, along with one Achote Black rim sherd of the same period were recovered, none of which were datable. An important insight (2021, personal communication, Colleen Hanratty). As of writing, the gained from this excavation was the documentation of variance in sur­ results of the ceramic analysis of the AL17 operations are pending. face and subsurface morphologies. While having a mounded appearance However, Kwoka noted the presence of a broken yet nearly complete on the surface, excavation revealed a rough stone platform approxi­ Late Classic Chilar Fluted vase below the floor of AL17-3. mately 90 cm wide, with numerous large stones resting near the center Based on the data obtained and the average effort expenditure of two (Fig. 7). Furthermore, the dark color of the clay soil matrix within and days per unit, the patio excavations were productive. In contrast, surrounding the feature indicates a high organic matter content, which

Fig. 7. Linear stone feature AL17-1, facing west. From right to left of photograph, unit width is 2 m. Stone platform in the foreground, possible wall in the center.

7 J.J. Kwoka et al. Journal of Archaeological Science: Reports 38 (2021) 103049 relates to young soil formation adjacent to limestone (Beach et al., figure fails to account for the small rock piles and depressions that 2018). Over the course of three days, 19 shovel test pits were excavated populate houselot interiors. Quantitative data are unavailable for these within the interior of houselot AL17-2, only half of which produced features, but field observations indicate that the majority of houselots artifacts. Comparatively high artifact densities were recorded adjacent contain both, and that the former occur with greater frequency. Small to structures, with the highest density along the backside of a large piles of stone, sometimes referred to as chich mounds, are often found in residential group – a common location for middens. Since the primary association with linear stone features (see studies cited in Section 1.2). objective of this method was to collect data from non-architectural They served important, yet varied roles within ancient Maya domestic space, the shovel test pit program was discontinued. economies and subsistence strategies. Documented functions include mulch and support for tree root systems, especially in the shallow soils of 3.3. Qualitative soil phosphorus survey the Northern Lowlands (Kepecs and Boucher, 1996; Fedick and Morri­ son, 2004), foundations for apiaries (Batun Alpuche, 2009), as well as Qualitative soil Pav values were measured for 117 samples (Table 2) corn and bean cribs (Kunen, 2004, 33), and stockpiles of raw materials obtained from contiguous houselots AL17-2 and AL17-3. Results (Fig. 8) for lithic production (Kwoka, 2014, 2017). indicate an overall deficiency in Pav, as 78% of samples produced In contrast, the small depressions are poorly understood, though a depleted or deficient values. While no surplus values were recorded for cultural origin seems likely. Their small size is incommensurate with either houselot, AL17-4 had almost double the amount of adequate and known limestone block or sascab (saprolitic limestone gravel) quarries. ’ sufficient values. Sufficient values were concentrated in three areas, Some could represent capped chultunob , the bell-shaped storage ranging in size from 32 – 375 m2, located in proximity (i.e., 2 – 6 m) to chambers excavated into bedrock. However, chultun capstones do not structures. Houselot AL17-3 also had three areas with sufficient Pav create an impermeable seal. Several of these depressions were observed values, though they covered much smaller areas of 25 – 53 m2. One of retaining water and supporting moisture-loving plant species as the wet these abuts the back of the large residential compound, while the others season progressed (Fig. 9). A more plausible scenario is that these fea­ were located at distances of 10 – 12 m from the edge of the structure’s tures are small solution dolines or ponors, also known as sarteneja in ´ basal platform. An additional 117 soil samples were collected from the portions of the Yucatan peninsula. Archaeological and ethnographic houselot AL18-1. Survey transects were extended 5 – 10 m beyond the studies of rejolladas, which are much larger dolines, provide evidence of eastern and northern houselot boundary walls to explore the possibility agricultural and water storage functions. In comparison to surrounding that these areas were used for refuse disposal (Hutson et al., 2007). In terrain, these features exhibit productive and stable microenviron­ contrast to the AL17 area, adequate to surplus Pav values were recorded mental conditions ideally suited to the production of economically for 59% of the samples. Ten areas with sufficient to surplus values were important species (Beach, 2016; Dine et al., 2019; Houck, 2006; Munro- identified with areas between 10 and 1366 2m . As with houselot AL17-2, Stasiuk et al., 2013). Within the Petexbatún region of Guatemala, high Pav values were recorded for a zone running along the back of two Dunning et al. (1997, 261) observed that some rejolladas contained residential structures. Other areas with elevated Pav values were located relict domesticated cacao trees. Larger rejolladas at (Beach either adjacent to structures, or at a distance of 10–18 m. and Dunning, 1997) and near La Milpa (Weiss-Krejci and Sabbas, 2002) functioned as water reservoirs. The observation of standing water and hydrophilic plants within the houselot small depressions shows these 4. Discussion areas conserve and focus water, which could extend the growing season through the dry season and other periods of drought. Thus, these could As is often the case with pilot projects, the efforts detailed above function as microhabitat gardens for local cropping and even adapta­ generated far more questions than answers. Nevertheless, the data tions to drought. provide preliminary insights into a broad array of issues, including Excavations documented only a single construction phase for each houselot characteristics, regional settlement history, and ancient Maya patio, thus providing support for a short duration occupation. Although agricultural and land tenure systems. Furthermore, important method­ the ceramic analysis is in process, material recovered from two of the ological lessons were learned in terms of design, execution, and cost- sampled houselots is consistent with a Late Classic occupation. Based on benefit of individual methods. The ensuing discussion presents a syn­ the regional demographic model developed by Adams et al. (2004), thesis of study data in conjunction with an assessment of employed field which integrates over three decades of settlement pattern studies from methods. multiple projects, an occupation falling between the mid-7th through late-9th centuries AD is plausible (Fig. 10). Since this period encom­ 4.1. Houselot characteristics and chronology passes a span of 250 years, inclusion of a radiometric dating program in future studies will be essential to determining if houselots and associated Comparison with published ethnographic and archaeological data features (e.g., walls and rock piles) were contemporaneous. The absence (Table 3) demonstrates that the sampled houselots fall on the high end of of Late Preclassic and Early Classic ceramics in houselot assemblages is the size spectrum, with a mean area three times larger than Classic unexpected when compared to Adams and colleagues’ demographic period houselots at Chunchucmil (discussed in Section 4.2). Despite model. Indeed, previous work by Gonzalez´ (2013, Appx. C and I) sug­ their large size, houselot interiors contain an average of 5.5 structures. gests a more complex occupation history. The author excavated two For comparison, 51% of houselots at Chunchucmil contain six or more houselots in the AL18 area, including one that adjoins AL18-1. Ceramics (Magnoni et al., 2012, 318-319). These data points indicate that recovered from two structures and a LSF trench were dominated by sampled houselots are comprised almost entirely of non-architectural Early Classic types: Aguila Orange, Balanza Black, Red, and space – between 92 and 97%. However, due to research design, this

Table 2 Qualitative Pav survey values.

Houselot Samples Environment Depleted Deficient Adequate Sufficient Surplus

AL17-2 74 Rangeland 55% (41) 27% (20) 14% (10) 4% (3) – AL17-4 43 Rangeland 23% (10) 46% (20) 26% (11) 5% (2) – AL18-1 117 Upland Forest 10% (12) 31% (36) 29% (34) 12% (14) 18% (21) Interior Only 92 11% (10) 33% (30) 27% (25) 12% (11) 17% (16) Exterior Only 25 8% (2) 24% (6) 36% (9) 12% (3) 20% (5)

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Fig. 8. Qualitative soil Pav survey results displayed as a Pav density surface generated with ArcGIS Spatial Analyst extension.

Table 3 Comparative data for mean houselot size.

Data Type Site/Region Range/ Mean Source m2 Area/m2

Archaeological NW Belizea 9,379 – 11,238 Present Study 13,248 Chunchucmila 442 – 3,595 Magnoni et al., 15,206 2012, Table 3 Cobaa 20 – 1,795 Goni˜ Motilla, 9,077 1993, 128 104 – 845 Bullard, 1954 2,528 Historical/ Chan Kom – <1,000 Redfield and Contemporary Villa Rojas, 1934 Coba 375 – 1,392 Fletcher, 2,500 1983b, 96 Northern – 5,000 Sanders, 1962, Yucatan (est.) 88 aCalculated as enclosed area minus area occupied by architecture.

Triunfo Striated. Transitional Early Classic – Late Classic Dolphin Head Red sherds also were present. The second houselot investigated by Gonzalez´ is located 250 m west of AL18-1. In addition to the Early Classic materials listed above, Late Classic ceramics were well- represented: Aguas Turbias, Belize Red, Benque Viejo Polychrome, Cambio Striated, Dos Bocas/Booth’s River, and Encanto Striated. Fig. 9. Small water-filled depression in AL17 study area. An initial impression of the lidar-generated DEMs was that they exhibited excessive surface roughness (see Fig. 4), a common issue with small ancillary features suggests that they were an important household fine-resolution lidar data (Lindsay et al., 2019). However, field obser­ resource, and their exclusion from this study represents a significant gap vations indicate that at least a portion of this “roughness” corresponds to that must be addressed in the future. Prior to exploring DEM smoothing the accurate capture of small rock piles and depressions. The ubiquity of techniques, this process should proceed with a ground-truthing program

9 J.J. Kwoka et al. Journal of Archaeological Science: Reports 38 (2021) 103049

Fig. 10. Three Rivers Region demographic model (modified from Adams et al., 2004, Fig. 15.3). accompanied by the generation of a classification error matrix (Lillesand structures and LSF, perhaps indicating an even earlier origin of private et al., 2015, 574-581). This would provide a qualitative measure of land tenure. This date corresponds with the construction and occupation accuracy for the digital survey and improve the ability to recognize the of bounded houselots at Chunchucmil (Magnoni et al., 2012). signatures of ancillary features in the lidar data. Important questions have also been generated concerning Classic agricultural production. Drawing on ethnographic and ethno­ archaeological data (Killion, 1990; Netting, 1977; Sanders, 1981; Turner 4.2. Ancient Maya agriculture and land tenure and Sanders, 1992; Wolf, 1966), ancient Maya agricultural production has been conceptualized in spatial terms as following a garden-infield- The data pertaining to land tenure provide many possibilities. Classic outfield model. According to this model, select edibles and economi­ Maya land tenure is poorly understood (McAnany, 1995, 65), with cally important species were cultivated in household kitchen gardens, models relying primarily on ethnohistoric and ethnographic data while nearby infields were utilized for the intensive cultivation of staple (Collier, 1975; Netting, 1982, 1993; Restall, 1997; Vogt, 1976; Wisdom, crops. These practices were supplemented by the extensive cultivation of 1940). Within the Northern Maya Lowlands, concepts of restricted land- distant outfields. McAnany (1995, 68) suggests that land use rights use rights and inheritance were in place prior to the Spanish entrada. became less restrictive the further one moved away from intensively Ethnohistoric documents contain multiple references to land surveys cultivated infields. Within the lidar survey area, opportunities for (McAnany, 1995, 84) and titles (Roys, 265, 1939; Roys, 1943, 37; Roys, outfield cultivation are limited by near-continuous settlement of 1969, 64–65). As to the former, Marcus (1982, 254; see also Roys, 1969, elevated (i.e., non-bajo) land. Furthermore, the contiguous distribution 5) draws on linguistic evidence to argue for the antiquity of this practice, of houselots would also appear to provide limited space for infields. To citing the Yucateko Mayan term ah ppiz k’aan for a specialist who clarify, there is ample “empty” upland terrain, but it falls within measured fields. However, this term may have also referred to the demarcated houselots. In conjunction with the large size of sampled measurement of fields for ritual purposes. Classic period inscriptions houselots and abundance of non-architectural space, these factors could contain a wealth of information concerning political control of terri­ indicate that houselot interiors played an elevated role in staple crop tories but are silent on issues of commoner land tenure (Martin and production during the Early Classic period. This could account for the Grube, 2008). As such, the networks of terraces and boundary walls large discrepancy in mean area between the Three Rivers Region and demarcating houselots represent the strongest evidence for Classic Maya other areas of the Maya Lowlands. That is, “infields” may have been land tenure. If archaeological and contemporary houselot boundary located within houselots. Furthermore, such a scenario aligns with walls were functionally equivalent, then this would suggest the exis­ McAnany’s (1995, 74; also see Garrison et al., 2019) suggestion that tence of a land tenure system based on restricted land use rights. Mul­ high population densities during Early Classic and concomitant lack of tiple lines of evidence support this interpretation. Cross-culturally, there vacant terrain may have resulted in a decreased reliance on outfield is a link between the amount of labor invested in landscape modification cultivation. Testing this hypothesis will require the investigation of two and system of land tenure; large labor inputs are positively correlated significant variables – houselot chronologies and bajo margins. Current with restricted use rights (Adler, 1996). Whether resulting from accre­ data suggest that houselots do not represent contemporaneous occupa­ tionary or rapid growth, the 87.8 linear km of terraces and boundary tions. In such a case, unoccupied land and/or abandoned houselots walls represent a substantial labor investment in the creation and would represent a prime agricultural resource. Recent research within maintenance of landesque capital. Such an investment indicates planned neighboring areas of the Central Lowlands has demonstrated that some future use, which can only be guaranteed by the presence of a system bajo margins were utilized for staple crop production (Dunning et al., that restricts use and transfer rights (Earle, 2000, 49). Furthermore, in a 2018). This transitional environmental zone is abundant within the synthetic study of wealth inequality in both prehistoric and contempo­ study area (see Fig. 1). rary settlements, Shenk et al. (2010) found that land is the most important and unequally distributed form of wealth in agrarian soci­ eties. This pattern is attributable to the transformation of land into 4.3. Methodological assessment inheritable wealth. Ethnographic studies of the Maya (Collier, 1975; Netting, 1993) have demonstrated an association between intensive Conclusions drawn from study data should be tempered by the agricultural production, land inheritance, and the emergence of private acknowledgement of sample design and size limitations. Representa­ property (Earle, 2000, 43). Based on these factors, there is strong evi­ tiveness cannot be assessed until the lidar digital survey and digitization dence to suggest that a system of private land tenure was in place in the projects are complete. Even so, preliminary results of ground-truthing Three Rivers Region by at least the Late Classic period. Houselots efforts suggest that an accurate accounting of the size and composition bounded by LSF also appear in the Río Bec region during this timeframe. of regional houselots can be generated from the lidar data provided the One of Gonzalaz´ ’s houselots contained Early Classic residential adjustments outlined above are made to account for ancillary features. A

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Arnauld, M.C., 2008. Maya urbanization: agrarian cities in a preindustrial world, in: common theme of the preceding discussion is the need for fine- ´ resolution chronological data. These data are essential to understand­ Mastache, A.G., Cobean, R.H., Garcia Cook, A., Hirth, K.G. (Eds.), El urbanismo en mesoam´erica. Pennsylvania State University and Instituto Nacional de Antropología ing regional settlement history, the tempo of landesque capital invest­ e Historia, University Park and Mexico City, 1-36. ment, and ultimately the processes underlying the possible emergence of Arnauld, M.C., Michelet, Vanni`ere, B., Nond´edeo,´ P., Lemonnier, E., 2012. Houses, private land tenure. Transitioning from patio to on-structure vertical emulation, and cooperation among the Río Bec groups. In: Arnauld, M.C., Manzanilla, L.R., Smith, M.E. (Eds.), The neighborhood as a social and spatial unit in excavations will not only increase the probability of documenting Mesoamerican cities. University of Arizona Press, Tucson, pp. 202–228. complete houselot occupation sequences but should also produce date­ Ashmore, W., 1981. Some issues of method and theory in lowland Maya settlement able carbon and robust ceramic samples. From a cost-benefit perspec­ archaeology. In: Ashmore, W.A. (Ed.), Lowland Maya settlement patterns. University of New Mexico Press, Albuquerque, pp. 37–69. tive, the utility of additional linear stone feature excavations is Batun Alpuche, A.I., 2009. Agrarian production and intensification at a Postclassic Maya C questionable in the absence of 14 dating or geomorphology programs. community, Buena Vista, Cozumel, Mexico. PhD dissertation, Department of Methods designed to investigate non-architectural space within Anthropology, University of Florida, Gainesville. Beach, T., 1998. Soil constraints in northwest Yucatan, Mexico: Pedoarchaeology and houselot interiors produced mixed results. Few artifacts were recovered Maya subsistence at Chunchucmil. Geoarchaeology 13 (8), 759–791. from the shovel test pit survey, likely indicating intersection and Beach, T., 2016. Morals to the story of the “Mayacene” from geoarchaeology and detection probability issues deriving from an overly large interval paleoecology. In: Sanz, N. (Ed.), Tropical forest conservation: long-term processes of (Hutson et al., 2007, 449). Reduction of the sample interval (e.g., 5 m) human evolution, cultural adaptations and consumption patterns. UNESCO, Mexico City, pp. 111–139. and inclusion of microartifacts and ecofacts via soil floatation would Beach, T., Dunning, N.P., 1995. Ancient Maya terracing and modern conservation in the improve both the scope and quantity of collected data. From a site Pet´en rain forest of Guatemala. J. Soil Water Conserv. 50, 138–145. prospection standpoint, the qualitative Pav survey was productive and Beach, T., Dunning, N.P., 1997. An ancient Maya reservoir and dam at Tamarindito, el Pet´en, Guatemala. Latin American Antiquity 8, 20–29. cost efficient, but provided little data beyond the identification of Beach, T., Luzzadder-Beach, S., Krause, S., Guderjan, T., Valdez Jr., F., Fernandez-Diaz, J. possible activity areas. The next phase of this study would benefit from C., Eshleman, S., Doyle, C., 2019. Ancient Maya wetland fields revealed under increasing the volume of collected samples so that sufficient soil remains tropical forest canopy from laser scanning and multiproxy evidence. 2019. PNAS, Oct. 2019, 201910553. DOI:10.1073/pnas.1910553116. for quantitative laboratory analysis of areas exhibiting high Pav values. Beach, T., Luzzadder-Beach, S., Dunning, N., Hageman, J., Lohse, J., 2002. Upland Such analyses need not be restricted to measures of soil P. agriculture in the Maya lowlands: Ancient conservation in northwestern Belize. Geogr. Rev. 92 (3), 372–397. Beach, T., Luzzadder-Beach, S., Cook, D., Dunning, N., Kennett, D.J., Krause, S., Declaration of Competing Interest Terry, R., Trein, D., Valdez, F., 2015a. Ancient Maya impacts on the Earth’s surface: an early Anthropocene analog? Quat. Sci. Rev. 124, 1–30. Beach, T., Luzzadder-Beach, S., Guderjan, T., Krause, S., 2015b. The floating gardens of The authors declare that they have no known competing financial Chan Cahal: soils, water, and human interactions. Catena 132, 151–164. interests or personal relationships that could have appeared to influence Beach, T., Luzzadder-Beach, S., Cook, D., Krause, S., Doyle, C., Eshleman, S., Wells, G., the work reported in this paper. Dunning, N., Brennan, M.L., Brokaw, N., Cortes-Rincon, M., Hammond, G., Terry, R., Trein, D., Ward, S., 2018. Stability and instability on Maya lowlands tropical hillslope soils. Geomorphology 305, 85–208. Acknowledgements Becker, M.J., 2001. Houselots at , Guatemala: it’s what’s out back that counts, in: Ciudad Ruiz, A., Iglesias Ponce de Leon,´ M.J., Martínez Martínez, M.C. (Eds.), Reconstruyendo la ciudad maya: el urbanismo en las sociedades antiguas. Sociedad Permission to conduct the above research was graciously provided Espanoila˜ de Estudies Mayas, Madrid, pp. 427-460. by the Belizean Institute of Archaeology and the community of Blue Benavides Castillo, A., Manzanilla, L., 1987. Introduccion:´ estudio de centros urbanos: in, ´ Creek. The authors would also like to acknowledge the collaborative, Manzanilla, L. (Ed.), Coba, Quintana Roo: analisis de dos unidades habitacionales mayas. Universidad Nacional Autonoma´ de M´exico, Mexico City, pp. 11-24. multi-disciplinary nature of this project, which includes contributions Brokaw, N. Mallory, E.P., 2017. Vegetation of the Rio Bravo Conservation and by an ethnobotanist, environmental anthropologist, soil scientist, hy­ Management Area, Belize. Manomet Bird Observatory and Programme for Belize, drologist, and archaeologists. Kelly Riggs and Gary Orlando made sig­ Manomet and Belize City. Bullard, W., 1952. Residential property walls at Mayapan. Carnegie Institution of nificant contributions to this study by processing the soil samples. Washington, Current Reports 3, 36-41. Perhaps most importantly, this research would not have been possible Bullard, W., 1954. Boundary walls and house lots at Mayapan. Carnegie Institution of without the assistance of our local collaborators from the village of San Washington, Current Reports 13, 234-253. ˜ ´ˇ Felipe, Belize. We thank the two anonymous reviewers whose comments Canuto, M.A., Estrada-Belli, F., Garrison, T.G., Houston, S.D., Acuna, M.J., Kovac, M., Marken, D., Nond´ed´eo, P., Auld-Thomas, L., Castanet, C., Chatelain, D., Chiriboga, C. helped clarify and improve this manuscript. Any remaining errors are R., Drapela,´ T., Lieskovsky, T., Tokovinine, A., Velasquez, A., Fernandez-Díaz,´ J.C., attributable to the authors. Shrestha, R., 2018. Ancient lowland Maya complexity as revealed by airborne laser scanning of northern Guatemala. Science 361 (6409), eaau0137. https://doi.org/ 10.1126/science.aau0137. Funding Chiba, T., Kaneta, S., Suzuki, Y. Red relief image map: new visualization method for three dimensional data. International Archives of the Photogrammetry, Remote Sensing and Spatial Information Sciences. Vol. XXXVII, Part B2, 1071-1076. Lidar data utilized in this study was obtained by the Northwest Belize Collier, G.A., 1975. Fields of the Tzotzil: the ecological bases of tradition in highland LiDAR Consortium with support from the National Science Foundation Chiapas. University of Texas Press, Austin. 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