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Evaluation of a New Carbon Dioxide System for Autonomous Surface Vehicles VOLUME 37 JOURNAL OF ATMOSPHERIC AND OCEANIC TECHNOLOGY AUGUST 2020 Evaluation of a New Carbon Dioxide System for Autonomous Surface Vehicles a b c b CHRISTOPHER SABINE, ADRIENNE SUTTON, KELLY MCCABE, NOAH LAWRENCE-SLAVAS, b b d b b SIMONE ALIN, RICHARD FEELY, RICHARD JENKINS, STACY MAENNER, CHRISTIAN MEINIG, e f f f JESSE THOMAS, ERIK VAN OOIJEN, ABE PASSMORE, AND BRONTE TILBROOK a University of Hawai‘i at Manoa, Honolulu, Hawaii b NOAA/Pacific Marine Environmental Laboratory, Seattle, Washington c University of South Carolina, Columbia, South Carolina d Saildrone, Inc., Alameda, California e Liquid Robotics, Inc., Sunnyvale, California f Commonwealth Scientific and Industrial Research Organisation, Hobart, Tasmania, Australia (Manuscript received 29 January 2020, in final form 29 May 2020) ABSTRACT Current carbon measurement strategies leave spatiotemporal gaps that hinder the scientific understanding of the oceanic carbon biogeochemical cycle. Data products and models are subject to bias because they rely on data that inadequately capture mesoscale spatiotemporal (kilometers and days to weeks) changes. High- resolution measurement strategies need to be implemented to adequately evaluate the global ocean carbon cycle. To augment the spatial and temporal coverage of ocean–atmosphere carbon measurements, an Autonomous Surface Vehicle CO2 (ASVCO2) system was developed. From 2011 to 2018, ASVCO2 systems were deployed on seven Wave Glider and Saildrone missions along the U.S. Pacific and Australia’s Tasmanian coastlines and in the tropical Pacific Ocean to evaluate the viability of the sensors and their applicability to carbon cycle research. Here we illustrate that the ASVCO2 systems are capable of long-term oceanic deployment and robust collection of air and seawater pCO2 within 62 matm based on comparisons with established shipboard underway systems, with previously described Moored Autonomous pCO2 (MAPCO2) systems, and with companion ASVCO2 systems deployed side by side. 1. Introduction reducing the effects of climate change but in turn it is acidifying surface seawater. As a carbon sink, the oceans have helped buffer The ocean removes carbon from the atmosphere via climate change during the Anthropocene by absorb- gas equilibration and moves it into the ocean interior at ing approximately one-quarter of the carbon dioxide deep and intermediate water formation regions, in a (CO ) emitted to the atmosphere from human activity 2 process known as the solubility pump. Atmospheric (Friedlingstein et al. 2019; Gruber et al. 2019; Sabine carbon dioxide is also moved into the ocean interior via et al. 2004). Indeed, measurements of surface waters the biological pump, when the carbon that is taken up are documenting the fact that although much more by phytoplankton during photosynthesis is transported variable than the atmosphere, over long time and down as organisms die or are eaten and repackaged into space scales the ocean CO levels are increasing at 2 fecal pellets. Much of this biologically fixed organic about the same rate as the atmospheric CO concen- 2 carbon sinks to the subsurface ocean, where it is rap- trations (Bates et al. 2014; Landschützer et al. 2014; idly remineralized or respired back to dissolved CO . Takahashi et al. 2009; Wanninkhof et al. 2013a). The 2 Because both of the solubility and biological pumps vary oceanic removal of CO from the atmosphere is 2 by region and season, there is tremendous spatial and temporal variations in surface ocean CO2 concentra- Denotes content that is immediately available upon publica- tions (Bates et al. 2014; Landschützer et al. 2014; tion as open access. Takahashi et al. 2009; Wanninkhof et al. 2013a). Coastal regions are particularly vulnerable to changes Corresponding author: Christopher Sabine; [email protected] in ocean carbon chemistry and its biological impacts. DOI: 10.1175/JTECH-D-20-0010.1 Ó 2020 American Meteorological Society. For information regarding reuse of this content and general copyright information, consult the AMS Copyright Policy (www.ametsoc.org/PUBSReuseLicenses). 1305 Unauthenticated | Downloaded 09/26/21 01:52 PM UTC 1306 JOURNAL OF ATMOSPHERIC AND OCEANIC TECHNOLOGY VOLUME 37 Changes in tides, temperature, salinity, and primary subject to regional bias because they rely on data that in- production expose coastal regions to seasonal and spatial adequately capture mesoscale spatiotemporal (kilometers variations in surface ocean dissolved CO2 concentrations and days to weeks) changes. High-resolution spatiotem- (Bauer et al. 2013; Damm et al. 2010; Fassbender et al. poral measurement strategies need to be implemented in 2018). For example, along the Pacific coast of the United order to adequately evaluate the regional aspects of the States, seasonal (late spring to early fall) strengthening of global ocean carbon cycle. the northwesterly winds transport dense, CO2-rich water To augment the spatial and temporal coverage of from the subsurface up onto the continental shelf, ex- ocean–atmosphere carbon measurements, the National posing coastal ecosystems to potential acidification from Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA) both natural and anthropogenic sources (Fassbender Pacific Marine Environmental Laboratory (PMEL) de- et al. 2018; Feely et al. 2016). Changes in the frequency, veloped an Autonomous Surface Vehicle CO2 (ASVCO2) duration, and intensity of acidified conditions will affect system for deployment on remotely operated autonomous marine ecosystems in ways that we are only starting to platforms. In collaboration with Liquid Robotics Inc. understand (Barton et al. 2012; Bednarsek et al. 2012, (liquid-robotics.com) and Saildrone Inc. (saildrone.com), 2014a,b, 2017; Fabry et al. 2008; Kleypas et al. 2006; PMEL integrated ASVCO2 systems (Fig. 1)ontwotypes Reum et al. 2015). The fate of these economically im- of autonomous surface vehicles, a Wave Glider and portant regions is still largely unknown due to the limi- Saildrone. Similar pCO2 instruments have been deployed tations of applying results of laboratory experiments to on Wave Gliders recently (Chavez et al. 2018; Northcott the complexity of real-world ecosystems, as well as a et al. 2019), but the ASVCO2 system has the advantage of paucity in current biological and carbon system moni- being directly comparable to a network of moored CO2 toring approaches. systems deployed in all the major ocean basins. The Underway systems on research ships and commercial ASVCO2 systems described here were deployed on four volunteer observing ships as well as autonomous sys- Wave Glider and three Saildrone missions along the U.S. tems on mooring platforms have documented substan- Pacific coast, Australia’s Tasmanian coastline, and in the tial variations in the oceanic partial pressure of CO2 tropical Pacific between 2011 and 2018 in order to eval- (pCO2) and subsequent carbonate chemistry of coastal uate the performance of the sensors, and the utility of waters (Fassbender et al. 2018; Feely et al. 2016; Sutton these systems in carbon cycle research. et al. 2019; Wanninkhof et al. 2015). While research expeditions can gather data over vast spatial scales, 2. Methods large-scale coastal expeditions occur infrequently. This a. ASVCO system fails to capture mesoscale temporal (days to weeks) 2 variations in the carbon cycle. Mooring deployments The ASVCO2 system is a modified version of the compensate for the temporal gaps by capturing high- Moored Autonomous pCO2 (MAPCO2) system devel- frequency time series, but the sparsity of moorings that oped by PMEL and Monterey Bay Aquarium Research measure CO2 leaves large spatial gaps. Spatiotemporal Institute, which has been used for over a decade on gaps left by current measurement strategies hinder the dozens of moored surface buoys around the world scientific understanding of the oceanic carbon cycle, (Sutton et al. 2014). The details of the ASVCO2 design, especially in coastal regions that are exposed to meso- components (including equilibrator design), gas flow scale physical and biogeochemical forcing. paths, and analysis sequences/timing are all identical to Much of the carbon data collected from ships (bottle the MAPCO2 except as noted here, so they will not be measurements and underway pCO2 systems) and moored repeated. The modifications primarily involved a re- platforms have been synthesized into data products. Data packaging of the components and the development of products such as the Lamont Doherty Earth Observatory small, high pressure gas bottles for the reference gas surface ocean pCO2 database (Takahashi et al. 2009), the (Luxfer M22A high pressure carbon wrapped, aluminum- Surface Ocean CO2 Atlas (SOCAT) (Bakker et al. 2016) lined cylinder) for deployment on the Liquid Robotics, and the Global Data Analysis Project (GLODAP) Inc., Wave Glider (Willcox et al. 2010) and Saildrone, Inc. (Olsen et al. 2019) provide the basis for ocean uptake (Meinig et al. 2015), surface vehicles. The new cylinders calculations and validation of model simulations (Gruber were extensively tested at NOAA’s Earth System et al. 2019; Wanninkhof et al. 2013b). Together, large- Research Laboratory for more than a year to ensure scale carbon data products and modeling efforts have the concentrations did not significantly drift (,0.1 ppm improved our understanding of oceanic carbon cycling over six months) before they were implemented. A and allowed for better climate predictions. Unfortunately, manifold linking three small bottles together along large-scale and global data products
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