EIFAC TECHNICAL Inland PAPER of Europe 52 suppi.

by William A. Dill Davis, California, USA

Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations

Rome, 1993 The designations employed and the presentation of material in this publication do not imply the expression of any opinion whatsoever on the part of the Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations concerning the legal status of any country, territory, city or area or of its authorities, or concerning the delimitation of its frontiers or boundaries.

M-40

ISBN 92-5-103358-7

All rights reserved. No part of this publication may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval system, or transmitted in any form or by any means, electronic, mechani- cal, photocopying or otherwise, without the prior permission of the copyright owner. Applications for such permission, with a statement of the purpose and extent of the reproduction, should be addressed to the Director, Publications Division, Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations, Viale delle Terme di Caracalla, 00100 Rome, Italy.

© FAO 1993 PREPARATION OF THIS DOCUMENT

In response to the recommendation of the European Inland Fisheries Advisory Commission (EIFAC) to present a synthesis of the state of inland fisheries in Europe, the first volume (EIFAC Technical Paper No. 52) and this supplement have been prepared by the author.

The summaries for the nine countries that follow represent material which was not incorporated into the first volume because of delays in response from the governments concerned. This supplement volume is based on a version approved by the concerned countries circa 1985, recently published literature, and the author's overall knowledge of the countries.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

In the first volume of EIFAC Technical Paper No. 52, issued by FAO in 1990, thanks were extended to the EIFAC National Correspondents, as well as to others, who aided in its preparation. To this list, the following names should be added to thank those EIFAC Correspondents and others whose response to queries by the EIFAC• Secretariat helped prepare this second volume: Mr N. Nechev (Bulgaria), Mr J.E. Brachet (), Mr D.M. Kostakopulos (), Mr F.J. Mota (Portugal), Prof. Dr N. Bacalbasa-Dobrovici (Romania), Dr M. Elegido (Spain), Dr B. Holmberg (), Dr J.W. Banks, Mr A.V. Holden, Miss J. Mitchell, Mr R.J. Pedlow, Mr B. Stott, Mr A. Swain and Mr R.B. Williamson (United Kingdom).

I am also grateful to the following for their aid in sending me infcirmation which has been used in preparing this supplement, or in helping me to view some of their fisheries personally: Dr K. Andersson (Sweden), Mr J. Allardi, Dr D. Babin, Dr M.G. Castelnaud, Mr R. Charpy, Mr P. Chimits, Dr D. Viard and Mr P.F. Vivier (France), Mr J.S. Alabaster, Mr I.R.H. Allen, Dr A.J. Brook, Mr E.D. Le Cren, Mr F.T.K. Pentelow and Mr K.A Pyefinch (United Kingdom).

Again, I am particularly grateful to Dr R.L. Welcomme, Chief, Inland Water Resources and Service of the Fisheries Department of FAO, and present Secretary of EIFAC, and Mrs R. Sola and Ms S. Borghese, also of the Fisheries Department of FAO, who have aided materially in the preparation of this supplement.

Distribution:

FAO Fisheries Department FAO Regional Fisheries Officers Directors of Fisheries EIFAC Mailing List Author - iv -

Dill, W.A. Inland fisheries of Europe EIFAC Technical Paper. No. 52 Suppl. Rome, FAO. 1993. 281 p.

ABSTRACT

This document presents a summary of the geographical, historical, technical and institutional infrastructure of inland fisheries in the following European countries: Albania, Bulgaria, France, Greece, Portugal, Romania, Spain, Sweden, United Kingdom. Information is set out in a standardized format for ease of comparison. The document completes the information provided in EIFAC Technical Paper No. 52, which refers to: Andorra, Austria, Belgium, Cyprus, Czechoslovakia, Denmark, Finland, Germany, (Fed. Rep. of), Hungary, Iceland, , Italy, Liechtenstein, Luxembourg, Malta, Netherlands, Norway, Poland, San Marino, Switzerland, Turkey, Yugoslavia. - v -

CONTENTS

Paae

Albania 1

Bulgaria 17

France 35

Greece 79

Portugal 107

Romania 125

Spain 151

Sweden 179

United Kingdom 213

Summary and Conclusion 273

General References 277

Errata to Technical Paper No. 52 279

▪

-1 -

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utrinto - 2 -

ALBANIA

The Republic of Albania, the smallest and least developed country in Eastern Europe, combines a narrow semi-tropical coastal fringe on the Mediterranean with an interior of rugged mountains and remote valleys. Primarily pastoral and agricultural, industrialization has been slow even under its economy, which has been controlled but is now shifting to a market economy.

Albania's contacts with its neighbouring countries have been slight for many years, an information on its fisheries is not well known to either EIFAC or FAO". At present, one can only say that Albania's inland resources are primarily those of its larger lakes, shared with Greece and former Yugoslavia, and that there is also a fishery potential in its reservoirs and coastal brackish waters.

1. AREA: 28 748 km2

2. POPULATION: 3 388 000 (est. 1990) Density: 118 inh/km2

3. PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY

Albania extends along the western lateral of the Balkan Peninsula, between 39° and 43°N, latitudes and 19° and 21°E longitudes, opposite the heel of the Italian boot.

Its greatest N-S extent is 346 km; its greatest E-W extent is 1 45 km. Its altitudinal range is from sea level to 2 764 m. The average elevation is 708 m, and two-thirds of the country is over 900 m.

Albania, with a frontier of 1 204 km, is bounded by former Yugoslavia on the north and east for 476 km, Greece on the south and southeast for 256 km, and the Mediterranean Ocean (Adriatic and Ionian Seas) on the west for 472 km. About 64 km of its former Yugoslavian border follows river courses; and 65 km of this border is within lakes. With respect to its Greek border, about 19 km are along rivers and 7 km within lakes2/.

Albania consists essentially of a coastal plain (about 20 percent of the country) backed by a mass of rugged high mountain ranges. In the extreme north, the highlands consist of the steep North Albanian Alps of highly eroded limestone and deep inaccessible valleys. The central highlands have a western portion of soft rocks, mainly sandstones, penetrated by wide river valleys, and an eastern portion which is primarily a high serpentine zone. The latter, a continuation of the western former Yugoslavian Dinaric range, is almost impassable. In the extreme south, limestone ranges again occupy the highlands, meet the sea, and continue south into Greece as the ranges of . The lowland area, predominantly of clays, sands, and gravels, lies along an irregular coast, 48 km at its widest point. Crossed by low limestone ridges running from the mountains to the coast, it is divided into a series of poorly drained once malarial plains separated by spurs and traversed by roughly parallel rivers. The coast, which is building into the sea, is flooded during the rainy season and snowmelt, and is bordered by marshes.

11 Albania has long been a land of mystery to the rest of Europe. For example, in 1790 its citizens were considered to be strange or even unknown by Lorenzo da Ponte, Mozart's librettist for Cosi Fan Tutte. K. Hassert's observation of 1898 on Albania still holds: "Das laud is weniger bekannt als weite Gebiete von Africa". Prophetically, in 1 914, Saki wrote: "Affairs [in Albania] are beginning to take a very serious turn." In short, especially since the country is now in a state of flux, to quote Anon (1989), "We confess to not knowing much about Albania"

2/ These figures derived from (Albania) Dir. des Stat. (1981) differ somewhat from those in the Yugoslavian and Greek statistical yearbooks (see the accounts for those countries) - 3 -

The densest Albanian forests occur in the north, but elevation as well as latitude determines the forest cover. Thus, Mediterranean vegetation such as scrub oak, olive, and maquis is found along the coast and in the south. Oak forests are found on the lower slopes above the xerophytic zone of maquis and extend far inland. They are replaced by beech forests on the higher and moister ranges, alternating with pine forests on the drier subsoils. Above tree-level (1 600-2 000 m) the peaks and ridges have Alpine vegetation. Meadows replace conifers in the higher mountains.

Limestone is the predominant under-rock, although many valleys are floored with sandstones and clays, and the central range has much igneous rock and serpentine. Much of the soil cover has been stripped off and deposited as alluvial fans and deltas.

Albania's coastline is well indented, but lacks islands and has few good harbours. Durres (Durazzo) is the major port and there are three minor ones. The northern two-thirds of the coast, fringed with turbid, silt- laden waters, is characterized by large rivers and deltas. Its shore lands are flat with lagoons and brackish swamps. The southern third has a narrow coastal plain with shorter rivers and clearer waters.

4. CLIMATE

The climate ranges from Mediterranean on the coast to continental in the interior.

In the southern coastal lowlands, the average annual temperature is 16.6°C, the coldest month (January) averages 8.9°C, and the warmest month (July) 25°C. Corresponding temperatures for the north- central uplands are: 10.5°, 1.1° and 21.1°C, respectively. Inland temperatures vary more with elevation than latitude. The winters are short but cold, with snow on some mountains until August. There is little frost in the lowlands but it is heavy in the mountains. The highland lakes are frozen but freezing is rare along the coast.

The annual precipitation averages 1 500 mm, ranging from less than 1 000 mm on the coast to 2 540 mm in the mountains. The wettest season is from October to March. Most of the rain comes in the form of brief but intense downpours. It usually does not percolate into the soil but runs off the land with great velocity.

5. HYDROGRAPHY AND LIMNOLOGY

Table 4 indicates an inland water area of 1 350 km2 or 4.7 percent of the country's total area. Europa (1979) says that this is lake area; Europa (1984) calls this amount "inland water" area. Since the Albanian area of its three largest lakes, generally considered as the most important freshwater bodies in the country, seems to total only about 316 km2 (see section 5.2), it seems probable that the larger figure includes lagoons and perhaps reservoirs as well.

The average annual run-off in Albania is about 350 mm or 10 000 million rre. Added to this is 3 000 million m3 received from upstream countries, so that the total annual river discharge leaving Albania is about 13 000 million m3 (Van der Leeden, 1975; ECE, 1978).

5.1 Rivers (Lum/Lumi)

The river courses usually consist of longitudinal troughs between the mountain ranges connected by narrow transverse (E-W) gorges cut through the harder rocks and then running westerly to the Adriatic. A northern river, the Vermoshe, which ultimately flows into the Danube, and an even smaller stream which empties southward into the Kastoria Basin of northern Greece are exceptions.

The principal rivers in Albania arranged in order of their length are shown in Table 1. The rivers of the country are, however, described below from north to south as they enter the Adriatic.

Buene (Boyana). This 44-km river (Buene in Albania, Bo'ana in Serbo-Croat) forms a boundary between former Yugoslavia and Albania, and is the outlet for Skadar (Scutari) Lake. Dredged to accommodate river traffic, it is navigable for small ships. - 4 -

Drin. The most constant river in Albania and perhaps even the longest is the Drin, its regularity maintained by forest cover and summer rainfall. It is formed by the union of the Black Drin (Drin i zi in Albania), which flows north from Lake Ohrid, with the White Drin (Drin i bardhe in Albanian) entering from the northeast. Both forks originate in former Yugoslavia where they are called the Crni Drin (or Drim) and the Beli Drin, respectively. Their product, the Great Drin (Drin i madh), proceeds westwardly to the Sea. The old Drin channel empties into the Adriatic just south of the Buene River, but the lower Drin's major channel is the 11-km Drinasa which joins the Buene just beyond the latter's outlet from Skadar Lake.

Mat. Rising in the central highlands, the Mat collects drainage from the Lume, Urake, Fan and Dibri rivers before it reaches its gorge. Consequently, it contributes a great load of sediment to its coastal plain.

Table 1

Principal rivers of Albania

River Length within Drainage basin Maximum discharge Albania (km) area (km2) (m3/sec)

Seman 286'd 5 740 1 800

Drin 281 5 635' 1 800

Vijose 221 4 188 4 240

Shkumbi 185 2 286 1 430

Erzen 109 750 980

Mat 97 2 400 740

Ishm 70 508 -

Buene 44 1 551' - a/ Apparently includes the Devoll b/ Within Albania only c/ Includes Skadar Lake

Source: Gegaj and Krasniqi (1964) for basin area and Buene River; remainder from (Albania) Dir. des Stat. (1981)

lshm. Formed by three torrents, the Lum i lshm also carries much sediment.

Erzen. Next south, this water-deficient stream forms a delta in Lalzes Bay north of the port of Durres.

Shkumbi. Originating near Lake Ohrid, the Shkumbi separates northern Albania from central Albania as it flows northwest and west in a transverse gorge toward the Adriatic.

Seman. With the largest basin completely within Albania, the Seman is formed in the lowlands by the union of the northern 160-km Devoll and the southern 113-km Osum. It flows generally west in meanders for 80 km to a delta near the Karavastas Lagoon on the Adriatic.

\Hose. Originating in Greece as the Aoes, the Vijose flows northwest for 237 km to the Adriatic north of Nartes Lagoon, separating central from southern Albania. En route it passes through several upper gorges before being joined from the left by the parallel Dhrino ("Southern Drin") and closer to its mouth by - 5 -

another parallel trough, the Shushice. The lower section of the Vijose traverses, in braided form, a wide extent of lowland and marsh.

Although much of the Mat and Shkumbi flows through broad valleys, most of the main rivers have cut deep channels into soft formations, e.g., the Drin flows through a 900-m deep gorge for 50 km. Another distinctive feature of Albanian rivers is the considerable elevation at which they flow before reaching the coastal plain. Generally their greatest drop is in their middle courses. They are also characterized by their precipitous falls, irregular seasonal flow patterns of floods and droughts, and ever-changing channels on the plains.

High water generally occurs from November to April, and many of the smaller streambeds are dry during the summer although springs are common.

The mean monthly discharges of the Drin and Vijose are shown in Table 2.

Table 2

Discharge of two major Albanian rivers

m3/sec River Mean monthly discharge, Basin Max.) Rec. and area flow' per km2 ne/s Station Jan Feb Mar Apr May Jun Jul Aug Sep Oct Nov Dec /yr

Drin 472 462 506 541 559 330 135 72.4 71 173 379 564 12 368 - 1960 River, -65 Vau Deje 576 772 372 482 459 295 134 88.0 90 212 498 556 2 180 1966

286 238 290 477 444 200 171 91.0 101 145 120 284 850 1967

445 452 294 310 270 254 91 13.0 240 199 479 639 2 330 1968

Vijose 366 378 282 279 192 111 67 43.3 39 57 199 360 5 200 - 1960 River, -65 Dorze 595 285 240 183 147 1 04 50 28.0 29 49 389 494 2 730 1966

316 130 124 172 182 100 69 44.0 47 46 37 188 1 340 1967

311 255 183 151 118 96 42 39.0 35 33 52 165 1 070 1968 a/ But see Table 1 for differing figures

Source: Van der Leeden (1975) after Unesco (1971)

5.2 Lakes (Liaen/Liaeni)

The three major lakes of Albania are all international, and all tectonic-karstic in origie.

Skadar or Scutari Lake. Known in Albania as Liaen i Shkodres or Shkoder, and in former Yugoslavia as Skadarsko Jezero, this northwestern lake is fed by the 97-km Moraca River of former Yugoslavia and tributary to the Adriatic Sea through the Buene River which has silted up so that it almost cuts the lake off

1/ Morphometric data on these lakes vary considerably according to the source. The allocation here of areas to sharing countries is taken from the Yugoslavian statistical yearbook for 1977. "Naim Frasheri" (1964) lists their Albanian areas as follows: Skadar 140 km2, Ohrid 97 km2, Prespa 100 km2 - 6 -

from the Sea. At a total area of 391 km2 (elevation 6 m), 38 percent of the lake or 147.9 km2 lies in Albania; 62 percent in former Yugoslavia. The largest of the Balkan lakes, it is reported to vary from 360 km2 in summer to 690 km2 in winter/spring. At an area of about 372 km2, it has a mean depth of 4.4 m. Despite its shallowness, it has a number of crypto-depressions (up to 63 m in depth) which (at least in former Yugoslavia) yield almost one-half of the lakes' commercial harvest, even though they occupy only one percent of its area. Warm and polymictic, Skadar is classed faunally as a cyprinid lake. (See Yugoslavia, section 5.2, for further details.)

Lake Ohrid or Okrida. Lying on the eastern border of Albania, where it is known as Liaen i Ohrit at an elevation of 695 m, it is shared by former Yugoslavia where it is called Ohridsko Jezero. Of its total area of 348.8 km2, one-third or 118.9 km2 lies in Albania. Deepest of the Balkan lakes, it has a maximum depth of 286 m, a mean depth of 145.2 m, and a volume of 50.53 km3. Ohrid is oligotrophic and contains an archaic fauna including both and cyprinids. (See section 5.2 of the review of Yugoslavia for further description.) Lake Presoa or Presoe. "Big Prespa", at 853 m, shared by Albania (Liaen i Presoes), former Yugoslavia (Presoansko Jezero), and Greece (Limni Meaãli Prespa), drains into Lake Ohrid by an underground stream. This oligo-eutrophic lake has a total area of 274 km2, of which 49.4 km2 (18 percent) lies in Albania, 1 76.8 km (65 percent) in former Yugoslavia, and 47.8 km2 (17 percent) in Greece. It has a maximum depth of 54.2 m, an average depth of 20 m, and a volume of about 4 km3. The catch is mainly of cyprinids.

Only 2.4 km away is "Little Lake Prespa" with which "Big Prespa" was formerly joined. Only the southern tip is in Albania where it is known as Liaen i Presoes se voael. Most of the lake lies in Greece known there as Umni Mikre Prespa or Ventrok.

Other lakes. Both Schreiber (1978) and "Naim Frasheri" (1964) state that there are over 150 lakes in Albania, and the latter says that the greater number are of large dimensions and lie in the highlands. However, in addition to the three large international lakes described above, it mentions only the Lura and Belshi lakes, giving neither their location nor area. There is a Lura district on the Black Drin, and a Belsh Plateau west of the lower Devoll. The latter area, of gypsum-karst, is pitted with dolines (basin-shaped collapsed structures with sink-holes) often occupied by small lakes.

Aside from coastal "lakes or lagoons" (see below), the only Albanian inland "lake" named on maps available to the author is Lake Maliq (Liaen i Malegit) a collapsed lacustrine basin south of Lake Ohrid, at about 813 m, in the Devoll drainage. Once 78 km2 in area and surrounded by reed beds, it floods the Koritza plain during high water. At one time it supported some primitive fisheries by men using rude dugouts, but much of it has been reclaimed.

If it is indeed correct (section 5 above) that Albania has 1 350 km2 of lake area, then there should be about 1 034 km2 of lakes in addition to the three large international lakes. This is impossible unless one includes what are believed to be quasi-lacustrine freshwater and maritime "lagoons" along the coast (section 5.4).

5.3 Reservoirs

The presence of mountain barriers before the rivers break through them in gorges en route to the lowlands, as well as impervious bedrock for dam sites, provide good conditions for reservoirs in Albania's upland basins.

At least three major hydroelectric stations have been constructed on the Drin, one at Koman having a 115-m dam, and a considerable number of reservoirs and canals for irrigation were built during the 1946-78 period. Data on three reservoirs are shown in Table 3. No information on their fisheries is available to the author. - 7-

5.4 Lagoons (Knete/Kneta)

Lagoons, marshes, and at least semi-freshwater lakes were once common along the low-lying Albanian coast. Malarial control, both through drainage and by flooding with sea water, as well as land reclamation for agriculture have changed the size of these water bodies and their character, and neither their present extent nor their use for fisheries is known to the author li. It may be of value however, as a basis for future study, to list and briefly describe these water areas, even if this is based largely on publications issued about 45 years ago. Proceeding down the Albanian coast from north to south, one finds the following lagoons, swamps and lakes.

Table 3

Three Albanian Reservoirs

Name Altitude Area Max. (m) (km2) depth (m)

Lac d' Ulze 128 14 56

Lac de Fierze 300 70 125

Lac de Vau i Dejes 74 22 51

Source: (Albania) Dir. des Stat. (1981)

Knete e Kakarrioit. South of the Buene River is a marsh and long narrow lagoon of this name draining northwest into the Buene.

Knete e Durresit. South of the Erzen and draining into Durres Bay, this great swamp also has a open lagoon about 3 km wide, once a port in Roman times.

Knete e Terbufit. South of the Shkumbi and somewhat inland is this lagoon or lake, also known as Liqen Terbuf, now at least partly reclaimed and planted to wheat and cotton.

Kneie e Karavastas. Southwest of Terbufit and on the delta of the Seman, is this large maritime lagoon, said to be 4.8 km wide and 14.5 km long.

Knete i Nartes or Ligen i Nartes. South of the mouth of the Vijose River and north of the port of Valona is another salt marsh and large maritime lagoon, once about 8 km x 13 km in size.

Pasha Liman. This small lagoon and swamp lies at the lower end of Valona Bay.

Liaen i Butrintit. Lake Butrinto opens into Butrinto Bay opposite Corfu at an elevation of 0.3 m It is about 16 km2 in area with an average depth of 3.5 m and a maximum depth of 25 m.

Ligen i Rezes. This small freshwater lake near Butrintit appears to be the southernmost body of static water on the Albanian coast.

1/ It is known from Carriere (1978) and (Albania) Dir. des Stat. (1981) that Durresit, Terbufit an Karavastas have all been at least partly reclaimed - 8 -

Reference to Table 5 shows that at least five of these waters were represented in early (1931) catch records, and Durresit is also known to have had a fishery.

In addition to this fragmentary and admittedly old information on Albanian lagoons, two recent authors may be quoted. Kiener (1978) states that the following are among the more important Albanian lagoons: "Monrak, Ceka, Mouit, Grek Lunit, Kravasta, Terluf, Libosce, Harta, Ducat and Butrinto". Ravagnan (1981) lists the following Albanian waters as among the "main brackish water fish farms of the Mediterranean": "lagoon of Harta, lakes of Ducati and Butruito, lagoons of Monrak, Coka Monit, and Grek Lunit". Unfortunately, no further details are provided.

6. LAND AND WATER USE

Albania is one of the least urbanized countries in Europe (only 35 percent), but in terms of arable land per caput it also ranks as one of the lowest of European agricultural countries. All of the agricultural land was socialized, and the use of modern methods such as mechanization and the employment of chemical fertilization have been emphasized. Irrigation from -cut streams of the highlands has been difficult, as has irrigation of the lowlands from its shifting sediment-laden rivers. Still, simple types of irrigation have been practised for years and about 14 percent of all lands are now irrigated (1986). Maize, wheat, oats, barley, sugar beets, potatoes, cotton, and tobacco are common crops. There are some orchards, including citrus, and vineyards. Fertilizer use (about 92 kg/ha) is well below the European average, although exceeding that in neighbouring countries such as Greece and former Yugoslavia. Livestock development is hampered by lack of fodder, but for many years sheep and goats have been grazed in the mountains.

There has been a considerable drainage of marshes and wetlands. Most of the forest except in the north is scrub type. It has been damaged by unsystematic cutting, use for charcoal, burning, and overgrazing. Although Albania still produces some wood for export, its annual production ranks about twenty-second in Europe.

Mining, which has been generating the largest share of the GNP, is extensive, especially for chromite, asphalt, nickel, iron, and copper. Low grade coal and some gas and oil is also present.

Table 4

Pattern of land use in Albania, 1986

Percent

Arable and permanent crops 24.9

Permanent pasture 1 3.9

Forest and woodland 36.3

Other land 20.2

Inland water 4.7

Total 100.0

Source: 1987 FAO Prod.Yearb., 41 (Publ. 1988)

The configuration and elevation of its rivers provides Albania with a considerable capacity for the production of hydroelectricity, although stabilization of runoff by snow accumulation is large only in the Drin - 9 -

basin which holds about half of the power resource. In 1 987, 680 000 kW or 89 percent of the country's total electrical production was hydroelectric; the other 85 000 kW was thermal. In terms of total energy production pa omit, this is a low figure for Europe. Schreiber (1978) states that the potential hydroelectric capacity of Albania is estimated at 2 500 000 kW and it has sold some electricity to Greece and former Yugoslavia. There are hydroelectric plants on a number of rivers, but their effect on fisheries is unknown.

From a state of neglect and underdevelopment, the centrally planned economy (the state has owned the major means of production) has furthered not only agriculture, foresty, and mining, but the development of energy resources in order to intensify industrialization. The latter now includes: food processing textiles, lumbering, light engineering, and mineral processing, and the development of heavy engineering is also on its way. In addition to some local shipping on the major lakes, only the Buel River, which is dredged and navigable for small ships, constitutes an inland waterway. Rail transportation (in 1988) included only 509 km of track, which is confined to the country, although linked to a line in former Yugoslavia. Automobile road transportation is also poor. Until recently there were no privately owned cars in Albania; most people travel by foot, bicycle or on muleback. There were only 1.6 automobiles per 1 000 persons (1979) and the road density in that year was only 0.19 km/km2. Even as late as September 1991, there were less than 500 private cars in Tirana, the capital (Anon., 1991).

With respect to total consumptive water use, it was estimated circa 1967 that about 200 million rri3 (only 1.5 percent of the total runoff) was withdrawn annually. Of this amount 60 percent was used in industry, 30 percent municipally, and only 1 0 percent in agriculture.

Summer grazing and indiscriminate hunting have reduced wildlife significantly, and it seems probable that potential sport has also suffered through poor land and water use and overexploitation.

Commercial fishing has never been very important in Albania. The total annual catch including aquaculture (marine and inland) is recorded as 12 468 t in 1987. Albanians are reported not to be fish-eaters, and for many years exported rather than consumed fish. Girin (1989) states that the per caout supply of fish in Albania is 4.7 kg.

Shut off from most of the world, as the country has been for years, tourism has not been an important part of the Albanian economy. There is, nevertheless, a national tourist agency, and about 1 0 000 foreigners have visited Albania annually. Visits to the Adriatic beaches and the larger lakes have been stressed as tourist activities and may be one of Albania's best hopes in the future. has not yet, however, been advertised as an attraction.

7. FISH AND FISHERIES

The author has little information on the inland of Albania. With former Yugoslavia, it shares the same fishes found in Skadar Lake (15 families of fish of 37 species) with cyprinids making up about 96 percent of the fish biomass. Common (Cvorinus carpio) and bleak (Alburnus albidus) are the Lake's most valuable food fishes, but "scrap" fish such as Pachvchilon pictum and Rutilus rubilio are also taken. Migrants from the cold tributaries include salmonids such as brown trout (Salmo trutta) and grayling (Thvmallus thvmallus). Migrants from the Adriatic through the Buene River include sturgeon (Acioenser spp.), European eel (Anauilla anauilla), grey mullets (Muail spp.), shad (Alosa fallax), and sea bass (Dicentrarchus labrax).

Albania also shares Lake Ohrid with former Yugoslavia. It contains 1 7 species of fish (10 of which are endemic) with Salmo letnica and Alburnus albidus constituting most of the commercial catch.

Other fishes of economic importance occurring in Albania are (Carassius carassius), roaches (Rutilus spp.), grass carp (Ctenooharynaodon idella), silver carp (Hv000hthalmichthvs molitrix), rainbow trout (Oncorhynchus mvkiss), and sandsmelts (probably atherina (Heosetia) boveri). A recent addition aquaculturally is a cyprinid, the round read or Wuchang bream (Meaalobrama amblvceohala) (see section 7.2), and another cyprinid, Pseudorasbora parva from Asia has been introduced into Lake Prespa. - 10 -

7.1 Capture Fisheries

7.1.1

Aside from the commercial fishing on Skadar Lake and Lake Ohrid, Albanians also fish in its third international lake, "Big" Prespa where the catch is mainly of cyprinids although trout and eel have also been reported as being caught here.

There have been fish traps on the larger Albanian rivers for some years, and at one time Albanian fishing boats from Lake Ohrid were carted overland to fish Lake Prespa. In 1960, Albania installed a harvesting weir on the Buene River which cut down the population of migratory fish in Skadar Lake.

The last detailed information on the inland catch of Albania published by FAO was that of Howard (1950), who presented some "estimates" of annual production which had been published almost 20 years before that time (see Table 5).

Table 5

Estimated annual catch in the fresh waters of Albania circa 1931

Water Tons

Shkoder Lake, Buene River, estuaries of 800 the Buene and Drin Rivers

Lake Butrinto 1 50

Lake Pascia Limani 30

Lake Arta (Nartes) 150

Lake Cravasta 120

Lake Terbuf 20

Total 1 270

Source: Howard (1950) after Italia (1931)

Since then, the FAO Yearbooks of Fishery Statistics (beginning with Volume 36) merely indicate that statistics on the nominal catch of inland or freshwater fishes in Albania are unavailable during the 1965-69 period. After that (through Volume 56 for 1983), the inland catch is listed as "0" meaning (in the Yearbook) that the catch was more than zero but less than 50 t during the 1970-73 period and more than zero but less than half a ton thereafter. The Yearbook then, however, began to break down the catch statistics for Albania, corrected some of the old ones and, furthermore augmented the catches decidedly. Thus, Vol. 64 for 1987 (FAO, 1989) listed the Albanian catch in freshwater as shown in Table 6.

If one assumes that the old estimates in Table 5 have any degree of validity, and that the fisheries in these waters had not declined to almost zero production, then the early estimates in the FAO Yearbooks of Fishery Statistics of "less than half a metric ton" for all Albanian inland fisheries appear manifestly absurd. Toward confirmation of the author's belief that the production of the Albanian inland fisheries was grossly underestimated in those years, he suggests two other approaches:

(i) It seems likely that today's Albanian catch per unit of area fished within the Albanian portion of the three major lakes is somewhat similar to those made in the former Yugoslavian and Greek portions of the same lakes. If this is true, then one might expect a catch in the Albanian portion of Shkoder Lake alone of about 300 to 460 t a year (see review of Yugoslavia).

(ii) Or, assuming that even if only 1 000 km' of Albania's lakes were productive (see section 5) and that they produced only the minimum of 5 kg/ha/year known for its three major lakes (see section 7 under Yugoslavia) - their annual production would still be 500 t.

As is shown in Table 6, the inland catch was still small but was decidedly larger than that shown in earlier statistics.

Table 6

Nominal commercial catch by species in the inland waters of Albania, 1 982-87 (in tons)

Species 1982 1983 1984 1985 1986 1987

Common carp (Cyorinus cargio) ...... 106

Crucian carp (Carassius carassius) ...... 153

Roaches (Rutilus spp.) ...... 43

Grass carp (Ctenogharyngodon idella) 2

Silver carp (Hv000hthalmichthys molitrix) ...... 818 Cyprinids n.e.i. () 1 700' 1 770F 1 580F 1 780F 1 850' 730

Freshwater fishes n.e.i. () 1 050F 1 045F 893F 1 048 1 097F 182

European eel (Anguilla anguilla) ...... 178

Rainbow trout (Oncorhynchus mykiss) 250' 250F 250F 250F 250' 236

Shads (Alosa spp.) ...... 93

Grey mullets (Mugilidae) ...... 362

Silversides/Sandsmelts (Argentinidae)al ...... 132

Total finfish ------3 035

Freshwater crustaceans (Crustacea) ...... 154

Total ------3 189 a/ Possibly marine or freshwater and marine Data not available FAO estimate Not applicable n.e.i. Not elsewhere included

Source: Yearb.Fish.Stat., FAO, 64 (Publ. 1989)

In addition to commercial fisheries, there are undoubtedly subsistence fisheries on the rivers along the coast. - 12 -

7.1.2 Sport fishing

I have no information on sport fishing in Albania and statistics apparently do not exist. The potential, however, is undoubtedly there.

7.2 Aouaculture

According to Girin (1989) the contribution of aquacultural production in fisheries consumption in Albania was 22.6 percent circa 1985, and he lists an annual Albanian aquacultural production of 3 000 t in 1984, 1985 and 1986. However, this production comprised both freshwater and marine species, and the bulk of this is composed of Mediterranean mussels (Mytilus aalloprovincialis). The statistics shown in Table 7 are considered to be of much greater accuracy.

Table 7

Production from aquaculture in fresh water in Albania, 1986-89 (in tons)

Species 1986 1987 1988 1989

Crucian carp (Carassius carassius) 1 2 5 2 7

Grass carp (Ctenopharynqodon idella) ...... 7

Silver carp (Hypophthalmichthys molitrix) 300 272 302 346

Wuchang bream (Meqalobrama amblycephala) ...... 1

Roaches (Rutilus spp.) ...... 5

Cyprinids (Cyprinidae) 48 42 62 126

Freshwater fishes n.e.i. (Osteichthyes) 30 20 11 1

Rainbow trout (Oncorhynchus mvkiss) 22 22 245 270

Grey mullets (Mugilidae) 1 1 3 1

Total 413 362 625 771

Source: FAO, Fishery Statistics and Economic Data Branch, Department of Fisheries, 1991

The greatest emphasis in production in Albania is placed upon the silver carp followed by that on rainbow trout. It seems possible to the author that culture of (Cyprinus carpio) follows that of these two easily cultivable and well-liked species. Certainly many carp are produced to stock lakes and reservoirs.

Meqalobrama amblycephala, termed "Wuchang bream" by FAO in Table 7, but more generally known as "round head bream", is a mid-water or benthic species which is used in polyculture by the Chinese. It seems proable that it was introduced during the Chinese period in Albania. It is not known to have been introduced into European countries along with the usual piscicultural quartet of Chinese carp, grass, silver, bighead (Aristichthys nobilis), and black snail (Mylopharynaodon piceus). - 13 -

Girin (1989) says that in Albania, 85 people work in the trout industry, producing 350 t and that there are nine units producing (this probably includes the Chinese carp) and that new units are under construction. He further states that a total of 12 Albanian hatcheries produce 17 million carp fingerlings for stocking static waters.

Foodstuff for aquaculture (probably pellets) are said to be imported from France.

8. OWNERSHIP, ADMINISTRATION, MANAGEMENT, INVESTIGATION AND AGREEMENTS

Information on these aspects of the inland fisheries of this country with (until recently) a centrally planned economy has not been available to FAO or EIFAC. However, ECE (1978) says that Albania has a bilateral agreement with former Yugoslavia concerning uses of boundary waters.

9. STATE OF THE FISHERY

9.1 Yield

See section 7.

9.2 Factors Affecting the Fishery

In general, natural conditions are not favourable for inland fisheries in Albania except in its lakes, and these are not very productive. The rivers have limited and irregular flow (torrential in winter often nearly dry in summer) and their upper reaches often lie in tortuous and inaccessible gorges. In the lowlands, they silt up, change their channels and create swamps or marshlands.

Land reclamation has reduced much of the aquatic habitat. For example, during the 1946-78 period, about 485 km' of new land were created ((Albania) Dir. des Stat., 1981). Deforestation and overgrazing have eroded much of the land, silted the waters and, despite the underlying terrain of limestone, decreased its fertility.

Even in the coastal areas, there has not been the emphasis on lagoon fisheries found in some of the other Mediterranean countries, and it is believed that the installation of fish traps at lagoon outlets has been the principal form of management. Sociologically, the inhabitants have been oriented toward the Danube - not the coast - and in the past (up to about 1930), the lowlands were malarial in nature thus hindering development of either capture fisheries or extensive aquaculture. Emphasis on drainage both for malarial eradication and to provide agricultural land has affected lagoon fisheries.

On the other hand, water withdrawals (see section 6) have not been great, and industrial development not large (60 percent of the labour force was still in agriculture circa 1979). At present the average annual volume of run-off per caout is about 3 837 m3. The actual situation concerning the effectiveness of this volume of flow in dilution of polluting effluents is unknown.

The effect of dams and other works of man on migratory fishes, e.g., shad, grey mullets and European eel, is unknown. In any event, however, reservoir development should increase the potential for fisheries in upstream waters.

Apart from their basic productivity and species composition, development of the lake fisheries depends in part upon the management procedures used in the bordering countries. - 14 -

9.3 Prospect

In this country probably still with a good deal of central planning, and apart from the main stream of European development, recent plans have placed emphasis on various goals: socialized agriculture, increased exploitation of mineral resources, and both hydroelectric and industrial development favouring heavy industry.

One of the few statements concerning inland fisheries found in readily available sources is that of Worldmark (1976) and repeated (1984): "In 1958 a development programme for inland fisheries was begun; the results were improved exploitation and conservation as well as increased fish reserves and catches".

Lacking any firm information on Albanian inland fisheries other than that presented here, it is difficult to attempt a future evaluation. However, in view of the facts at hand, only limited development is foreseen, except perhaps in aquaculture and lagoon or brackishwater fisheries, and when the country has achieved more stability some emphasis on tourist sort fishing.

10. REFERENCES

Albania, 1981. Direction des Statistiques pres la Commission du Plan d'Etat, 35 Annees d'Albanie socialiste. Donnees statistique sur le developpement de l'economie et de la culture. Tirana, Editions - 8 Nentori, 139 p.

Carriere, P., J.P. Deffontaines and C. Raichon, 1978. L'Albanie: developpement d'une agriculture socialiste et Mediterraneene. Universite Paul Valery de Montpellier, Institut National de Recherche Agronomique (S.E.I.), 143 p.

Chekrezi, C.A., 1971. Albania past and present. New York, Arno Press and the New York Times, 255 p. France, Ministere de la Guerre, 1915 Commission de Geographie du Service Geographique de l'Armee, Notice sur l'Albanie et le IvIontOnegro. , lmprimerie Nationale, 140 p.

Gegaj, A. and R. Krasniqi, 1964. Albania. New York.

Great Britain, Naval Intelligence Division, 1945. Albania. Oxford, Oxford University Press, Geographical handbook series, BR 542 (Restricted):416 p.

Keefe, E.K. et al., 1971. Area handbook for Albania. Washington, D.C., Superintendent of Documents (DA PAM 550-98):223 p.

Louis, H., 1927. Albanien, eine Landeskunde vornehmlich auf grund eigener Reisen. Stuttgart, J. Engelhorns Nachf., 164 p.

Naim Frasheri, 1964. Albania. Geographical, historical and economic data. Tirana, "Naim Frasheri" State Publishing House, 61 p.

Schreiber, T., 1978. L'Albanie. Evolution politique, economique et sociale. Notes Etud.Doc.Paris, (4482):124 p. - 15 -

Skendi, S. (ed.), 1956. Albania. New York, Frederick A. Praeger, 389 p.

U.S. Department of State, Bureau of Public Affairs, 1981. Albania. Backaround Notes Ser.Wash., (8217):6p

Vlora, A.K., 1979. La nuova Albania: lineamenti fisica, antropici ed economici. L'Universo: Riv.Bimest. Divula.Geoa.,Firenze, 79(1):66-122

Anon., 1989. Muttontown's King. The New Yorker, Sept. 11, 1989, pp. 33-4

Anon., 1991. Albania discovers the automobile. San Francisco Chronicle, Sept. 8, 1991, Sunday Punch Section, p. 5 -17-

ROMANIA oe0"

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escem° Block 44 Tundzha Sea lskar 4 G.Dimitov S8EDN.4 60R4 R 4 N C p L A PLOVDIV Mari tsa Batak 0

Arda V 0 TURKEY r.

ECE

Aegean Se a

BULGARIA -- International boundary ® National capital • Cities Rivers o Reservoirs 0 50 100 Km - 18 -

BULGARIA

The Republic of Bulgaria, on the eastern Balkan Peninsula, is bordered on the north by the Danube and on the east by the Black Sea. Two-thirds mountainous, a partly wooded area often snowbound and furrowed by river valleys, Bulgaria is also an area of great plains.

Moderately densely populated, this once agricultural country with a peasant economy is being industrialized rapidly despite an essential lack of mineral resources.

Water deficient, with great demands on its river by agriculture and industry, its inland fishery resources suffer as a result of their needs. The damages have been offset to some extent by establishment of fisheries in reservoirs and an increase in aquaculture for both cyprinids and trout.

Commercial fishing for inland species is declining, and sport fishing is still a minor recreational activity.

1. AREA: 110 912 km2 "

2. POPULATION: 9 246 000 (est. 1990) Cler 83 inh/krre

3. PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY

Bulgaria is situated in the northeastern Part of the Balkan Peninsula, on the Black Sea, between 41° 14' and 44°13'N latitudes and 22°40' and 28°36'E longitudes.

Its extreme length (S-E) is 520 km and its greatest breadth (W-E) is 274 km. Its altitudinal range is from sea level to 2 925 m with an average elevation of 480 m.

To the north, Bulgaria's common frontier of 591 km with Romania runs along the Danube River for 453 km. On the southeast, Bulgaria is bounded by Turkey for 269 km, on the south by Greece for 475 km and on the west by former Yugoslavia for 536 km.

The 378-km coastline on the east is narrow, sandy, slightly indented, and has a number of lagoons and littoral lakes.

About two-thirds of the country is mountainous, the rest mostly cultivated plateau, river valleys, and coastal plain. About 70 percent of the country is below 500 m, 20 percent lies between 500 and 1 000 m, and 10 percent above 1 000 m. Proceeding from north to south, Bulgaria can be divided into four major alternating bands of low and high terrain which extend generally east and west across this quadrilateral country: (i) the treeless Danubian Plain or Plateau; (ii) the Stara Planina or Balkan Mountains; (iii) the central Thracian Plain or Maritsa Valley, (iv) the Rila-Rhodope mountains. There is also an area of low hills, fens and sandy steppes below the Danube delta.

The Danubian Plain, occupying more than one-quarter of the country and averaging 178 m in elevation, extends from the former Yugoslavian border to the Black Sea. It is a fertile grain-producing region with undulating hills.

To the south, the Danubian Plain blends into the foothills of the Stara Planina; together they constitute 46 percent of the country. An eastern extension of the Carpathians, this mountain range, of crystalline schists, limestone and granite, terminates at the Black Sea. It is 596 m long and 19-48 km wide. Its rounded

1 / This includes 267.8 km' of the territorial waters of frontier rivers - 19 -

summits average 722 m and it is 2 379 m high at its highest point. Over most of its length it is divided between drainage to the Danube and to the Aegean Sea. In the east, small areas drain into the Black Sea.

The southern slopes of the Stara Planina and a parallel ridge, the Sredna Gora, give way to the Thracian Plain. Occupying 38 percent of the country, it encompasses the fertile Maritsa River basin and the lowlands that extend from it to the Black Sea.

The southernmost lateral physiographic band of Bulgaria is the Rila-Pirin-Rhodope range, 16 percent of the country. This crystalline block of granite and gneiss is the most outstanding topographic feature of the Balkan Peninsula. With peaks over 2 700 m in the western Rila range, the elevation decreases easterly to rarely exceed 450 m along the Turkish border.

About 35 percent of the country is forested and about 52 percent has fertile soils. The Danubian Plain is now primarily a grain-producing belt with brush, grass and reeds along the river. The Thracian Plain is also extensively cultivated with a great variety of plants. The lower mountain slopes are forested with oak and beech, elm and ash, followed by pines and firs. Alpine meadows and pasture are found at the higher elevations. In the southern Rhodope, vegetation is typically Mediterranean with scrubby underbrush and maquis. Only about half the forest area has really tall timber (75 percent deciduous and 25 percent coniferous). The remainder, which is scrub vegetation or brushwood, serves to lessen erosion and slow runoff.

Soils of good quality make up almost three-quarters of the country's surface. Fine black chernozems, rich in loess and humus and overlying limestones, occur in the north, merging into less fertile grey soils away from the Danube. Chernozem-smolnitza alluvium, and brown forest soils occupy the Thracian Plain. The high mountains have brown and grey forest and meadow soils, and the Maritsa, Tundzha, and major tributaries of the Danube have fertile alluvial soils.

4. CLIMATE

Situated in the southernmost part of the temperate zone, the climate of Bulgaria is transitional between Eastern European continental and Mediterranean. Humid continental systems generally prevail in the north: hot summers, cold winters, and precipitation well distributed throughout the year. In the south, the Mediterranean climate has mild, damp winters and hot, dry, rain-free summers. In between the two, average temperatures and precipitation are erratic.

The average annual temperature is 10.5°C, with a range from -38°C to 45°C. Temperatures in the capital, Sofia, average 1.6°C in January and 21°C in August.

The average annual rainfall is 672 mm with an average range throughout the country from 450 to 1 200 mm, mostly occurring from October to June. There are frequent summer droughts (see section 5.1).

The frost-free season (indicative of the growing season) is 180-215 days on the Danubian Plain, 1 98- 206 days on the Thracian Plain, and 214-260 days on the Black Sea coast.

A few pockets in the mountains contain snow throughout the year. The lower elevations are snow covered for about a month. Average cloudiness is about 55 percent, and average relati■fe humidity reaches 75 percent.

5. HYDROGRAPHY AND LIMNOLOGY

Table 2 indicates that the total inland water area of Bulgaria is only about 36 000 ha or 0.32 percent of the country's total area. FAO has not altered this figure for over 25 years and it is believed to be minimal. - 20 -

Surface water resources are limited. The average annual run-off from rainfall on Bulgarian territory is 1 62 mm or 18 000 million rn3. However, about 179 000 million rn3 is received from upstream countries resulting in a total annual river discharge of 197 000 million m3 leaving the country (Van der Leeden, 1975; ECE, 1978).

Overall, about 57 percent of the water drains into the Black Sea and 43 percent into the Aegean basin. The northern areas have a spring run-off maximum, the southern areas a winter run-off maximum.

The northern watershed of the Stara Planina, all of the Danubian Plain, and the area from 50 to 80 km inland from the coast drain to the Black Sea. The Thracian Plain and most of the higher lands of the south and southwest drain to the Aegean. There are also about 324 km2 that drain into a few salt lakes that have no outflow.

5.1 Rivers

Anon. (1967) states that there are 150 000 km of rivers in Bulgaria. Popov (1981 ) says that 21 000 km of the entire river network are suitable for fisheries: about 5 000 km in a trout zone, 12 000 km in a zone, and 4 000 km in a carp zone. Of the 21 000 km, he states that 1 4 000 km, with an area of 8 500 to 9 000 ha, are suitable for fishing and fish breeding, and that the other 7 000 km are still being improved for fisheries.

Originating in the mountains, the water supply of the Bulgarian rivers is mainly from rainfall, a little from springs, lakes and marshes. There is abundant karst water and most of the springs are of this nature. All-in-all, however, most of Bulgaria's rivers carry little water, and about one-third of them dry up during the summer. The major drainage basins of Bulgaria are discussed below:

Danube drainage. The Danube (Dunav), the country's largest river, enters Bulgaria at its boundary with former Yugoslavia and Romania about 80 km below Iron Gate. It continues for 453 km along the border with Romania and then progresses for 375 km through Romania to its mouth in the Black Sea. Its flow at Orsova, 110 km above its entrance to Bulgaria, averages about 5 400 m3/sec, and it obtains only about 4 percent of its total volume from its Bulgarian tributaries. The Bulgarian side of the Danube is one of undercut bluffs and hills 90-180 m in height - contrasting with the swamps and lagoons on the lower Romanian side. In Bulgaria, the highest waterlevels in the Danube are usually reached during June floods, and in normal winters it is frozen over for about 40 days. (See Romania for further description.)

Danube tributaries. Proceeding from west to east, i.e., downstream, the major Bulgarian affluents of the Danube are the: (i) Lom (93 km); (ii) Ogosta (146 km); (iii) Iskar or lskur (402 km); (iv) Vit (195 km); (v) Osam (333 km); (vi) Yantra (270 km), and (vii) Rusenski Lom (232 km). All of these originate in the Stara Planina with the exception of the Iskar, the third largest river in Bulgaria, which heads in the north Rila Mountains and drains the Sofia basin.

These tributaries fall rapidly to cut deep valleys through the loess of the Danubian Plain. Their eastern banks tend to rise sharply, their western sides may have broad fields with alluvial soils.

Minor Black Sea rivers. These include: Provadika, Kamchiya (245 km), Fakiyska and Veleka rivers. Collectively, they carry less water than the Bulgarian tributaries of the Danube.

Aegean drainage. The most important Aegean river is the Maritsa, the second largest river in Bulgaria. It rises in the Rila Mountains but drains the Thracian Plain, portions of the Stara Planina and eastern Rhodope. From its source south of Sofia, it flows 274 km east and southeastward through Bulgaria, forms the Greco- Bulgarian line for 1 6 km and then the Greco-Turkish line for 1 85 km, turning south to form a delta in the Gulf of Enos at the end of a 483 km journey. Not navigable, it is used for irrigation and hydropower. Its discharge is shown in Table 1. - 21 -

Table 1

Discharge of the Maritsa River in Bulgaria

Mean monthly dischargeniNec: Max. Station flow Jan Feb Ma Apr May Jul Aug Sep Oct Nov Dec

Plovdiv 65 54 100 110 175 40 10 6 1 4 22 24 36 485 1 6 May 3 1965

47 52 33 55 65 51 1 3 14 16 25 77 113 378 8 July 6 1966

56 61 95 99 105 56 24 17 26 26 32 35 292 22 May 12 1967

38 49 44 29 20 13 3 8 21 23 35 36 286 1 8 Feb 2 1968

Source: Van der Leeden (1975) after Unesco (1971)

Maritsa's two most important Bulgarian tributaries are also international rivers. The Arda, which rises in the Rhodope, flows 230 km through Bulgaria to enter Greece (where it is called the Ardhos) and join the Maritsa on the Turkish border at the end of a 267-km journey'. The Tundzha or Tundjarrises in the Stara Planina and flows through Bulgaria for 283 km to meet the Maritsa in Turkey (where it is known as the Tunca) at the end of its 332 km journey.

Other than the Maritsa, the two largest of the Bulgarian rivers flowing to the Aegean are the Struma and Mesta. The Struma originates in the Rila Mountains and flows south through Bulgaria for 241 km to enter Greece (where it is known as the Strvmon) and conclude its 346 km passage to the Sea. To its east is the Mesta, also rising in the Rila, flowing for 106 km in Bulgaria (a total of 241 km) to its delta in Greece (known here as the Nestos).

5.2 Lake and Lagoons

There are six types of lakes in Bulgaria: glacial, karst, tectonic, landslide, those on river banks, and littoral (Bokov, 1981).

Most of the natural lakes are found in western Bulgaria in the Rila and Purin Mountains where there are several hundred oligotrophic lakes, mostly glacially scooped or cirque lakes. Naidenow (1975) states that there are 230 of these lakes in the Rila Mountains and about 1 65 in the Purin Mountains, and Bokov (1981) agrees generally, saying that there are 190 in the Rila and 164 in the Purin. Popov (1981) also says that Bulgaria's natural lakes are concentrated in the Rila and Purin mountains, in the trout zone, but states that their total number is 269. Of these, he says that 1 61 lakes, totalling 351.8 ha, are suitable for angling. Most of these lakes are found in clusters at elevations between 1 858 and 2 709 m, mostly between 2 200 and 2 400 m.

The area of these lakes varies between 0.01 and 21.2 ha, 70 percent of them being between 0.1 and 1.5 ha. Their maximum depth varies between 0.3 and 39 m, only 5 of those in the Rilas and 11 in the Purins being over 5 m in depth.

The lakes below 2 250 m have summer surface water temperatures around 12-13°C, rarely to 20°C; higher lakes have summer surface temperatures around 1 0-11°C. Temperatures around 4-7°C have been recorded at depths. These lakes have an ice-cover for 200-220 days of the year. The oxygen content is high, 7.5-12 mg/I; and pH varies from 6.4 to 7.2.

Larger lakes or lagoons, some called limans, are found along the Bulgarian coast. They vary in salinity depending upon the influx of fresh water and their connection with the sea. Thus, Lake Pomoriye may be

The Maritsa is known as the Evros in Greece and the Maric in Turkey - 22 -

saltier than the Black Sea. Popov (1981) says that there are 18 Black Sea ponds and lakes with a total water area of 8 600 ha of which five are used for salt production and as mud spas. The others are used mainly for commercial fishing, and the Shabla, Ezerets, Kamchiya, and Dyavolsko ponds, with a total area of about 210 ha, are used for angling. They are inhabited by freshwater fishes, but during the high water of spring, sea fishes enter them.

Anon. (1967) states that the most important of these waters as fish producers are Vaia, Mandra, Beloslav, Varna and Blatiza and that these and some smaller ones have a total area of 6 050 ha. Nowak (1968) provides the following information on Bulgaria's coastal lakes. Burgas Lake, 2 400 ha with an average depth of 0.7 m, is the most important of these, yielding up to 400 t of fish annually. Mandra Lake has an area of 1 070 ha, an average depth of 1.1 m, and an annual production of about 300 t of fish, including common carp (Cyprinus carpio), pike-perch (Stizostedion lucioperca) and grey mullet (Muail spp.). Varna Lake, 1 750 ha with an average depth of 9.5 m is comparatively unproductive - less so than its connection, Belevo (400 ha) which contains grey mullet.

Bulgaria also has some marshlands, primarily along the Danube and the Black Sea coast.

5.3 Reservoirs (Yazovir)

Some of the reservoirs in Bulgaria are created by damming rivers or basin areas, and some by damming a lake's outlet and raising the water level.

According to Naidenow (1972) there were 43 reservoirs in Bulgaria in 1 970 with a total area of 320 km' and total volume of 7 thousand million m3. Conversely, Vodproekt Design Institute (in Van der Leeden, 1975) states that in 1970, there were 2 015 dams in Bulgaria with a total reservoir surface area of 45 380 ha and total storage capacity of 4 860 million m3. About 92 of these were large "State" dams. Popov (1981) further states that there are 1 820 small dams in Bulgaria covering 15 000 ha, and 147 medium-sized and large reservoirs covering 35 000 ha.

Naidenow (1972) says that the Bulgarian reservoirs lie between 50 and 2 475 m, most of them between 200 and 1 100 m. Those over 2 000 m above sea level are oligotrophic, those at lower mountainous levels (say up to about 1 550 m) are usually mesotrophic, and the largest group are dam basins in the plains below 600 m.

The small reservoirs, built mostly on the plains, are used for irrigation and fish breeding. They are stocked each year with one-year-old carp which attain marketable size by the end of the growing season. Most of the larger dams, which are used for irrigation and partly for power production, are built in the mountains and foothills between elevations 500 and 1 200 m, but some such as Kahn and Belmeken are situated at altitudes of 1 800 and 2 000 m. With the exception of some water supply and storage dams, all of the Bulgarian reservoirs are stocked with fish and used for commercial fishing and/or angling under a fee system.

The Iskar, Mesta, Maritsa, Vacha, Arda, Tundzha, Rositsa, Struma and other rivers are sites of large water development projects for power, irrigation, and/or water supply. Among the larger reservoirs are: Iskar, Batak, G. Dimitov, A. Stamboliiski, Studen Kladenez and Piasacnik. A frequently cited example of multiple use of rivers in Bulgaria is the development on the Vacha, a 120-km tributary of the Maritsa. It has six dams which produce power, water for irrigation and domestic supply, and furnish recreational facilities.

A barrage is being constructed by Bulgaria and Romania on the Danube below the mouth of the Olt (Turnu-Margurele/Nikopol).

5.4 Coastal Waters

The coastal waters of the Bulgarian Black Sea are more saline than those of Romania to its north, where the influence of the Danube's flow is far greater (see section 5.4 in the chapter on Romania). - 23 -

6. LAND AND WATER USE

Table 2

Pattern of land use in Bulgaria, 1986

...Percent

Arable and permanent 37.3 crops

Permanent pasture 1 8.3

Forests and woodland 34.8

Other land 9.2

Inland water 0.32

100.00

Source: 1987 FAO Prod.Yearb., 41 (Publ. 1988)

Agricultural production, which is mainly self-sufficient, is concentrated in State and cooperative farms covering about 99 percent of the arable land. Cereals predominate on the Danubian Plain while the irrigated Thracian Plain produces more diversified crops. A wide variety of field crops, fruit and vegetables, including warm-weather crops such as cotton, tobacco, rice, roses and grapes are produced. Fertilization, about 1 63 kg/ha, is above the European average (143 kg/ha). Livestock production consists mostly of sheep in the mountains and cattle and hogs on the Danube tableland.

Good soils make up about three-quarters of the country's surface, but frequent summer droughts lead to wide fluctuations in yield and necessitate extensive irrigation. About 30 percent of the cultivable land or 11 percent of the country is now irrigated (1986). Dams provide water for about half the area, diversions from streams about one-third, and pumped water from streams and ground supply the remainder. Much of the water is wasted by primitive gravity methods which may also cause loss of fish. The main water resources are concentrated in areas far away from cultivable areas, thus requiring long and expensive irrigation canals. Bulgaria has a long history of water regulation for both irrigation and drainage, as well as diking to offset flood damage and provide more agricultural land. The Danube used to flood about 50 000 ha in Bulgaria, which after recession of the water would leave 7 000-8 000 ha as ponds of considerable significance to fisheries. Now, almost all of this areas has been drained, and about 300 km of dikes have been erected along the Danubian lowland. Drainage of the lowlands and marshes along the Danube and Black Sea has been basically completed.

Aside from these demands and changes in water bodies, generally to the detriment of fisheries except where large reservoirs have been built, a number of other land and water uses have affected inland fisheries in Bulgaria.

Bulgaria produces some lumber, but ranks low (about seventeenth) in the European scale, only about 4.8 million m3 in 1985. Its forests have deteriorated through extreme use. Afforestation, which is in progress, should aid the water supply.

Mineral resources are small: some low grade coal, iron ore and pyrites, lead, zinc, copper, chromium, salt and a little oil. There are many mineral springs which attract tourists. - 24 -

Although for many years Bulgaria had a peasant agricultural economy, emphasis of late has been on industrial development. Their relative positions have been reversed and about 70 percent of the people now live in urban areas. Although slowed by lack of raw materials, industry which is virtually all State-owned, has grown tremendously since the second world war. Emphasis is on machine building and chemicals; food processing and textiles are also important.

This growth has increased the demands for water and power and intensified problems of water pollution. Major pollutants in Bulgaria are iron, phenols, suspended soils, and organic matter.

In 1987, the total installed electrical power capacity in Bulgaria was 10 743 000 kW of which 1 975 000 kW (18 percent) was hydroelectric. Nuclear power was 2 260 000 kW (21 percent). The remaining 61 percent was thermal. The streams furnishing adequate sites for hydroelectric dams have been used extensively, but there is still a potential for development. Multiple use of such dams, including fishing, is frequent.

Auto roads, then railroads (about 4 500 km in 1987) and last of all ship and air furnish Bulgaria's transportation. Roads (about 37 000 km) in 1988 are difficult to maintain and hamper easy travel, they had a density of only 0.34 km/km2 in 1986. Private automobile ownership is very low (as in other Balkan countries) only 54 per 1 000 persons (1978-79). The Danube River constitutes the only navigable water in Bulgaria. The International Danube Commission, formed in 1948, ensures free navigation and river management throughout this 453-km section. There are no locks or dams in the Bulgarian sector of the river and vessels of 2 500 t can be accommodated. Although the river freezes for a short time during the winter and floods in the spring, it is usable for about 300 days each year, and is the principal route for imports and exports.

Emphasis on commercial fishing in Bulgaria lies with its sea fisheries, and has been based primarily on the catch by a State-owned distant water fishing fleet based in Burgas, rather than on the limited resource potential of the Black Sea. Per caout consumption of fish is about 8.6 kg/year.

Tourism is not high, about 7.5 million in 1 987 with many in transit.

7. FISH AND FISHERIES

The inland fisheries of Bulgaria include fluvial, diadromous, and species. Popov (1981) states that Bulgaria has 65 freshwater species and 36 diadromous species, and Busnita (1967) lists 60 species in 15 families as resident in the Bulgarian Danube alone. Of these, about eight families are of commercial importance. The sub-sections that follow discuss the fishery for these and other species.

Table 3 contains the official 1965-87 catch statistics for Bulgaria's inland waters as reported by FAO based on data routinely contributed by the Government. No distinction is made here between fish derived from the capture fishery and those by aquaculture.

Table 4, derived directly from Bulgarian officials during a visit by FAO officers shows somewhat different "production" figures during the 1963-70 period. Although no clear distinction is made in this table between the yield from lotic waters through capture fisheries and aquaculture, it is almost certain that the word "ponds" indicates fish cultural ponds and that the yield from "limans" may be partially the result of "aquaculture". Limans are brackish coastal lagoons used for "extensive culture" especially of common carp (Cvorinus carpio). The total yields for each year during the 1965-69 period in this table are greater than those reported in FAO Fishery Statistics Yearbook, 36, for the same years. Only in the figures for 1970 are they lower. Possibly some of the discrepancies are due to the rounding off of statistics used in the Yearbook; other differences cannot be explained in this fashion. Table 3

Nominal catches by species in the inland waters of Bulgaria 1965, 1970, 1980-87 (in tons)

Species 1965 1970 1975 1980 1981 1982 1983 1984 1985 1986 1987

Common bream (Abramis brama) 0 0 54 41 39 56 0 - - 50 70

Common carp (Cyprinus carpio) 3 400 5 400 5 931 11 274 12 440 14 253 11 467 11 008 9 911 10 357 10 027

Cyprinids, n.e.i. (Cyprinidae) 100 200 134 100 86 100 0 - - 100 116

European catfish (Silurus planis) 0 0 27 12 10 13 0 - - 5 8

Pike-perch (Stizostedion lucioperca) 100 0 36 86 40 48 0 - - 5 18

Freshwater gobies () 100 0 0 8 13 12 0 - - - -

Freshwater fishes, n.e.i. 0 1 900 1 442 744 312 650 668 1 050 775 2 149 1 083

Sturgeons (Acipenseridae) 0 100 34 13 21 23 25 9 6 8 7

Trouts (Salmo spp.)ai 100 0 123 126 194 272 1 438 923 1 159 1 333 1 514

Pontic shad (Alosa pontica) 0 0 46 5 53 136 128 34 60 58 17

Grey Mullets (Mugilidae) 100 0 0 0 0 0 0 - - 1 -

Total finfish 3 900 7 600 7 827 1 2 409 13 208 15 563 13 726 13 024 11 911 14 066 12 860

Crayfishes (Cambarus/Astacus) 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 - - - -

Miscellaneous freshwater molluscs 700 0 0 0 0 0 0 - - - -

Grand total 4 600 7 600 7 827 12 409 13 208 15 563 13 726 13 024 11 911 14 066 12 860

0 Probably nil, negligible or insignificant; or less than 50 t during 1965-73, or less than half a ton during later years. None a/ probably all Rainbow trout, Oncorhvnchus mvkiss Source: 1965 FAO Yearb.Fish.Stat., 36 (Publ. 1974) 1975, 1980-83 FAO Fish. Dept. Fishery Statistical Database (FISHDAB); 1984-87 FAO Yearb.Fish.Stat., 64 (Publ. 1989) - 26 -

Table 4

Statistics of fish production in the inland waters of Bulgaria, 1963-70 (in tons)

....Limans Rivers Ponds Total

Year tons % tons % tons % tons % 1963 1 005 21.6 745 16.1 2 894 62.3 4 644 100.0

1964 1 721 30.8 537 9.6 3 330 59.6 5 588 100.0

1965 1 134 19.2 1 085 18.3 3 695 62.5 5 914 100.0

1966 1 051 20.7 617 12.2 3 407 67.1 5 075 100.0 1967 2 054 24.1 725 8.5 5 749 67.4 8 528 100.0 1968 1 027 15.8 539 8.3 4 914 75.9 6 480 100.0

1969 1 834 24.6 408 5.5 5 223 69.9 7 465 100.0 1970 895 1 3.1 542 7.9 5 400 79.0 6 837 100.0

Source: Ruivo, PiIlay and Malec (1971)

The reports further illustrate some of the difficulties of obtaining accurate figures on the catch in Bulgarian inland waters and the production through aquaculture. Thus, FAO (1980) states that "production from capture fisheries is now much less than aquaculture, which is of growing importance. There were, in 1978, some 1 500 ha under culture and some 16 630 m of cages were being utilized; total production was of the order of 8.5 thousand tons with carp the principal species but with limited amounts (300-400 t) of rainbow trout also being produced." The report then goes on to say that during the period 1966-76, "...production from freshwater species reached the figure of 7 000 t..." and then increased by 3 000 t. These last figures agree somewhat broadly with the "official" figures in the FAO Yearbook of Fishery Statistics, except for the statistics on trout production which are decidedly augmented'.

Even different figures on aquacultural facilities are provided by Popov (1981) who says that, circa 1980, there were 105 carp breeding stations in Bulgaria covering 3 100 ha of water and 44 trout breeding stations with a water area of 24 ha. Cages installed at some dams and power stations to develop large-size carp or trout totalled 3 600 in number and a total useful volume of 142.2 m3.

In view of the discrepancies between the various sources of data quoted above, it is difficult to assess the relative contributions, whether estimated or measured, of commercial capture fisheries, sport fisheries, or aquaculture (intensive or extensive) to the inland fisheries of Bulgaria until about 1985. Discussion of this puzzling situation will be continued below.

1/ The original draft of the Fishery Profile of Bulgaria (FAO, 1980) was prepared by Capt. K. Gaydarov, Deputy Director-General of Bulgaria's Ribno Stopanstvo in Burgas, and apparently used without change in any of the statistics quoted here, and without comparison with other FAO papers on the subject - 27 -

7.1 Capture Fisheries

7.1.1 Commercial fishing

As indicated above, it is difficult to distinguish the yields up to about 1985 of Bulgarian inland capture fisheries from those of aquaculture. However, the fishery based on wild stocks is now probably smaller than that for domesticated stocks.

River fishing is concentrated along the Danube floodplain; the Bulgarian side is steeper and thus has less fish habitat than the northern or Romanian side. Among the Danube fishes taken are: the sturgeons (Huso and Acipenser), European eel (Anouilla anouilla), pike ( lucius), many cyprinids such as common carp (Cvprinus carpio), bream (Abramis brama), bleak (Alburnus alburnus), rawer or asp (Asoius aspius), barbel (Barbus barbus), white bream (Blicca bioerkna), crucian carp (Carassius carassius), roach (Rutilus rutilus), and (Tinca tinca), European catfish or wels (Silurus planis), and pike-perch (Stizostedion lucioperca). According to Anon. (1967), the catch in the Bulgarian Danube during the last thirty years averaged 700 t annually (range, 100-1 800 t). This source also reports that 40 percent of this catch was composed of carp, 12 percent of sturgeon and 10 percent of catfish. Another source (Busnita, 1967) listed the catch in the main stem of the Bulgarian Danube as 600 t annually.

The most important commercial fishing in Bulgaria (again, according to Anon., 1967) is carried on in the static waters along the Black Sea coast. The principal fishes caught are grey mullet (Muoil ceohalus), gobies ( obius cephalaroes) and common carp. The average annual catch from these lakes (totalling 6050 ha in area) was 700 t, exceeding 1 400 t in some years (Anon., 1967). See also section 5.2 for some other old catch figures in these lakes or lagoons.

The large reservoirs (with a total area of 20 000 ha) were reported to produce a catch of about 300 t annually, composed mainly of cyprinids and pike-perch (Anon., 1967).

The above figures (some of which seem uncertain) can be compared with those in Table 3 and 4, and supplemented by Table 5 showing the catch of diadromous fishes and mullets in the Black Sea by Bulgaria. In any case, the commercial catch of wild fish in Bulgaria has declined.

7.1.2 Sport Fishing

In 1960 there were 48 000 organized sport fishermen in Bulgaria; in 1980 there were 155 000 and 180 000 were expected in 1985 (Popov, 1981). Even if this latter estimate should be correct, the percentage of Bulgarian sport fishermen in 1985 would have been only 1.9 percent of the total population.

Popov (1981) also says that the catch in "non-industrial" waters of Bulgaria (i.e., sport catch) is over 1 000 t/year.

Fish sought by the angler in Bulgaria include: brown trout (Salmo trutta), rainbow trout (Oncorhvnchus mvkiss), sturgeons, European catfish, perch (Perca fluviatilis), pike-perch and various cyprinids such as common carp, barbel, bream, chub (Leuciscus) skobar (Chondrostoma nasus), and rawer or asp.

Permission for angling is issued by the Ministry of Forests and the Timber Industry for a fixed tax which also includes accident insurance. There are various types of permits including special ones for non- residents. There are also various seasons and catch limits.

Bulgarian tourist agencies now advertise angling for trout, chub, and barbel in the Rhodope mountains, and for carp and grey mullet in lowland reservoirs. One judges from the literature that these are rather specialized excursions, and that the number of anglers fishing a specific water is severely limited. It may be that some of this angling is similar to the special hunts in Bulgaria for big-game mammals such as bear. Table 5 Nominal catches of diadromous species and mullets in marine statistics Fishing area 37 (Black Sea only) by Bulgaria, 1965, 1970, 1975, 1980-87 (in tons)

Species 1965 1970 1975 1980 1981 1982 1983 1984 1985 1986 1987 Sturgeons 100 0 34 37 28 27 11 3 3 22 14 (Acipenseridae) Pontic shad 100 0 46 4 10 39 51 44 37 9 6 (Alosa pontica) Striped mullet' 0 0 0 6 10 ------(Mimi! cephalus.) Grey mullets - 0 10 0 10 3 26 6 1 5 10 (Mugilidae) Total 200 0 90 47 58 69 88 53 41 36 30 a/ It seems probable to the author that several species were included in this category which Vol.56 (Publ. 1984) of the FAO Yearbook of Fishery Statistics dropped, and shifted the 1980 and 1 981 catch figures to "Mullets, n.e.i., Munil This category not represented 0 Probably nil, negligible or insignificant; or less than 50 t during 1965-73, or less than half a ton during later years Source: 1965 FAO Yearb.Fish.Stat., 36 (Publ. 1974) 1970, 1975, 1980-83 FAO Fish. Dept. Fishery Statistical Database (FISHDAB) 1984-87 FAO Yearb.Fish.Stat., 64 (Publ. 1989) - 29 -

There appears to be a considerable amount of stocking and stream improvement carried on by the Ministry of Forestry and the Timber Industry and the Bulgarian Hunting and Fishing Union.

7.2 Aquaculture

There are two major types of aquaculture in Bulgaria: cyprinid and trout culture (mainly rainbow trout). Common carp is the principal species raised, but Chinese carps have also been introduced with a view toward polyculture. The Chinese carps used are: grass carp (Ctenopharynqodon idella), silver carp (Hv000hthalmichthys molitrix), and bighead (Aristichthvs nobilis). Apparently silver carp is the major Chinese carp reared (see Table 6). Tests have also been made of two American species: buffalo (lctiobus cvorinella) and channel catfish (lctalurus lacustris).

The main production from inland waters comes from carp ponds owned and operated by the state or cooperatives. As has been emphasized before, however, it is difficult to determine from the reports available: the pond area involved, the annual production of each species or species-group, or the yield per hectare. The following information is presented chronologically.

According to Anon. (1967), the total pond area of the Bulgarian State farms was about 1 000 ha, the annual farm yield per hectare was 2 000-3 000 kg of carp and 5 000-6 000 kg of trout, and their total annual production of edible fish was 350-400 t (see section 9.1). The State farms also produced over 10 million fry or fingerlings which were sold to agricultural cooperatives or other organizations to rear in their own waters. These fry and fingerlings were also used to stock both lowland and mountain lakes as well as rivers.

Anon. (1967) further stated that the Bulgarian agricultural cooperatives had a total pond area of over 15 000 ha towards the end of 1966, and that their total production of consumable fish at that time exceeded 3 000 t.

Ruivo, Pillay and Malec (1971) stated that in 1 971 there were six State fish farms in Bulgaria: five entirely for carps and one for trout. They also said that there were only 1 400 ha of fish ponds in the country. Their statistics on fish production (1963-70) are shown in Table 4. It is assumed here that the "pond" production is entirely aquacultural and that the "liman" production is partly due to extensive aquaculture.

Bulgaria (1972) stated that the annual Bulgarian "production" of freshwater fish was about: (i) 5 560 t of carps from 22 460 ha; (ii) 17 t of trout from 23 500 ha; (iii) 21 340 000 fingerling carps (K.), and (iv) 4 560 000 fingerling trout. These figures indicated that the yield of adult or consumable carps was only 247 kg/ha/year, a very low figure if indeed this were strictly aquacultural production, and decidedly different than the later report of Bulgaria/EIFAC (1974) that the average yield of Bulgarian fish farms was 2 000 kg/ha/year, or that of Fish Farm. Inter., 11 (11) (1984) stating that the average Bulgarian production was 2 500 kg/ha/year.

It has already been noted (section 7 above) that FAO (1980) stated that in 1978 there were some 1 550 ha under culture, utilization of some 16 630 rri3 of cages, and that "total production was of the order of 8.5 thousand tons with carp the principal species but with limited amounts (330-400 t) of rainbow trout also being produced".

The figures given by Popov (1981) for Bulgarian aquacultural facilities given in section 7 above will not be repeated here. - 30 -

Matena and Berka (1987), apparently relying on data contributed by Bulgarian authors, also state that the average fish output obtained by Bulgarian state fish farms is above 2 000 kg/ha/year l/. They attribute this high yield to efforts of intensification, primarily fertilization and feeding, plus a favourable climate. They also specify a growing season from April to October, with a rearing season lasting two years. According to them, first year carp reach an individual weight of 40-80 g and second-year carp a weight of 600-1 200 g. Carp are rarely reared to an age of three years in Bulgaria, but when this is done, fish of 3 kg may be expected. Marketable fish are generally less than 1 kg in weight.

Ackefors (1989) estimated the area in Bulgaria to be 22 400 ha in 1984.

The most recent figures (and probably the most accurate) available to the author are shown in Table 6.

Table 6

Production from aquaculture in fish water in Bulgaria, 1986-89 (in tons)

1986 1987 1988 1989

Common carp (Cvprinus carpio) 8 621 10 024 9 527 9 200

Silver carp (Hvpothalmichthvs molitrix) il 2 127 959 959' 959b/

Rainbow trout (Oncorhvnchus mvkiss) 1 333 1 514 1 554 1 455

Total 12 081 12 497 12 040 11 614

at Not listed separately in FAO Yearbook Fish. Stat. 4 through Vol. 64 b/ Estimate Source: FAO Fish. Info. Data and Stat. Serv. (1991)

It seems obvious that discrepancies between different authors (some of which may be due to misinterpretation on my part, but in most cases are caused by "masking", i.e., inexact expression and a tendency to write so all-inclusively), make it difficult to clearly separate the consumable products of commercial aquaculture from those destined to stock waters used by the capture fishery, or from the capture fishery itself.

There is also some "extensive" fish culture in the brackish limans, and there is (or was) some rice paddy fish culture.

8. OWNERSHIP, ADMINISTRATION, MANAGEMENT, INVESTIGATION AND AGREEMENTS

Little information is available to the author on ownership, administration, management, and investigation in inland fisheries in this republic with centrally planned economy for many years.

FAO (1980) states that the Ministry of Agriculture has the overall responsibility for fishery administration in Bulgaria, and has a Fisheries Economic Board (Ribno Stopanstvo) to assist in policy formulation and project implementation. Various institutions and enterprises work under the direction of this Board. Advisory services are rendered by the Committee for Science and Technical Progress and the National

1/ Recent Bulgarian references to aquaculture and other fisheries not seen by the author include: Toth (1980), The Bulgarian fishery, Haldzat 26:156-7; Janev (1979), Present state and prospects of Bulgarian fish culture, Rib. Stopan, 26:2-3; Janev (1979), Program on intensified development and modernization of Bulgarian fisheries, Rib. Stopan, 26:1-5

- 31 -

Agro-Industrial Union. There is a freshwater fisheries station in Plovdiv, and research on the main warmwater species is carried out at the Fisheries Institute at Burgas (Ackefors, 1989). The latter author also believes that there are about three fishery or aquacultural publications in Bulgaria.

Popov (1981) indicates that the cages used to rear large-size carps or trout are installed by departments of the Ministry of Forests and the Timber Industry, the Fisheries Economic Board, and Agro-Industrial complexes. Various aspects of the sport fishery including stocking and stream rehabilitation appear to be undertaken mainly by the Ministry of Forests and the Timber Industry in cooperation with the Bulgarian Hunting and Fishing Union. This Ministry issues angling permits. Various groups concerned with "Protection of the Natural Environment" are concerned with detection and abatement of water pollution.

Bulgaria has a bilateral agreement with Greece concerning water supply and irrigation in their boundary streams, one with Turkey concerning their boundary streams, and one with former Yugoslavia concerning common boundary streams. It also has a tri-lateral agreement with Greece and Turkey concerning boundary streams. Bulgaria also belongs to the international Danube Commission which deals with navigation and related problems on the Danube River and has participants from all the Danube countries.

9. STATE OF THE FISHERY

9.1 Yield

The statistics in Table 3 show that the "catch" of inland finfish in Bulgaria has risen decidedly since 1965: from a total of 3 900 t in 1965 to 12 860 t in 1987. The other "production" figures for Bulgaria, Table 4, for 1963-70 also show a rise with a peak in 1967. However, the only clear trend appears to be a decided increase in the production from "ponds", i.e., apparently from aquaculture.

It is obvious that the descriptions cited above require greater precision to permit good comparisons. For example, some of the yields in Bulgaria as expressed by (or calculated from the data of) different authors are as follows:

Production kg/ha Source

State farms - carp 2 000-3 000 Anon. (1967) Cooperatives - consumable fish 200 Anon. (1967) Carp (adult) 247 Bulgaria (1972) Fish farms- average 2 000 Bulgaria/EIFAC (1974) State farms 2 000 Matena and Berka (1987)

If correct, the lowermost figures for yield are very low, and the higher ones quite high for a country at this latitude and with its prevailing water conditions.

9.2 Factors Affecting the Fishery

Water resources in Bulgaria are quite limited. Johnson and Brown (1976) claim that Bulgaria ranks with the German Democratic Republic and Hungary in having the poorest water resources in Europe'''. There are no large natural lakes in the country and the high mountain lakes are small and relatively unproductive. The "limans" along the coast are fertile, but water pollution and the growth of aquatic weeds lessen their fishery productivity. Most of the rivers have little water, some are badly polluted, and over one-third dry up during

1/ The "German Democratic Republic" is now the eastern part of the more extended Germany - 32 -

the summer. The largest river, the Danube, lacks the swamps and lagoons of the Romanian side, and its fishery is now adversely affected both by drainage of overflow areas and by upstream development.

Demands for water for irrigation have long been high in Bulgaria and industrialization has increased water demand. There has been a considerable amount of reservoir construction, but most of the larger reservoirs are in the mountains where the basic productivity is not high and is further lessened because of their primary use for hydroelectric power production, irrigation and water supply.

Initially low flows, made even lower through agricultural and industrial use, plus increasing water pollution have severely limited fish production. In 1972, it was considered that about 46 percent of the total length of the rivers was polluted and 1 700 km rendered fishless. The situation has not improved, and recent popular articles consider that Bulgaria's polluted waters constitute an ecological disaster (Simons, 1990; Vita, 1990). With a yearly total discharge leaving the country of 197 000 million m3, the annual runoff per caput appears very high, 21 307 m3. However, most of this discharge is confined to the Danube which runs only along the northern border of the country and thus affects only a small portion of Bulgaria. If one considers only the 18 000 million m3 of runoff originating within Bulgaria, the annual runoff per caput is only 1 947 m3.1' This is well below the European average and renders effluent dilution difficult.

Difficulties in increasing aquatic production also impinge upon a past history of: drainage, poor forestry practices, and local abuse of the fisheries through the use of explosives and poisons.

Concentration in recent years on the development of a high-seas fishery for Bulgaria has lessened attention to inland fishery development.

9.3 Prospect

The prospects for increased inland fish production have been exagerated by some Bulgarian sources. Popov (1981), for example, states that the Programme of the Council of Ministers of the People's Republic of Bulgaria for Accelerated Modernization and Development of Freshwater Fisheries of 1978 envisaged that the production and catch for the freshwater fisheries should increase from 9 360 t in 1978 to 12 000 t in 1979, 16 000 t in 1980, and 30 000 t in 1982 (see, however, Table 3). (The projected increases appeared to be based on the theory that increased stocking would bring about their fulfillment.) Similarly, FAO (1980), based on a Bulgarian source, stated that Government plans for aquaculture envisaged a production of 30 000 t from fresh waters and 10 000 t from mariculture (the latter with a negligible output at that time), by 1990. Rather extensive plans for the rearing of sea bass (Dicentrarchus labrax), mullet, and several species of in the 500-ha Pomoriye lagoon and even ocean ranching for are discussed in this article.

Despite all these plans, it should be noted that by 1989 the entire aquacultural production in Bulgaria was still only 11 164 t, and commercial fishing in the Danube and other streams will continue to decline. Possibly improved management and the creation of new storage reservoirs will aid the capture fishery, but basically it would appear that there can be but little augmentation in commercial production from open waters.

The opportunity for increased trout culture using mountain or spring water appears good, and application of modern methods to pond fish-(mostly cyprinid) culture should result in an overall increase in

1/ These calculations are made on basis of discharges listed by both Van der Leeden (1975) and ECE (1978). Comparison of these runoff figures for Bulgaria with those of the other lower Danube countries indicate that the Bulgarian figures may be too high. Holden and Lloyd (1972) using other data state that the annual runoff in Bulgaria is 19 600 million m3 (probably referring only to runoff originating within the country), and that only 12 000 million m3 of this is "available for use". On this basis, they calculated that the annual runoff per caput at that time was 1 450 rn3 - 33 -

inland fish production. But here, as elsewhere, this will not occur unless the place of fisheries in multi- purpose land and water use is firmly established. will continue to grow slowly.

10. REFERENCES

Bokov, G. (ed.), 1981. Modern Bulgaria, history, policy, economy culture. Sofia, Sofia Press Agency, 469 p.

Bulgaria, 1972. Rapport de la Bulgarie. In FAO/EIFAC country reports on fish diseases and their control and national and international traffic of live fish and fish eggs. (FAO/EIFAC Meeting Paper). Rome, FAO, FI:EIFAC/72/SC II-Symp.9:6-7

Bulgaria/EIFAC, 1974. Country report on inland fishery activities in Bulgaria, 1973. (Paper sent to EIFAC Secretariat by Bulgaria's EIFAC Correspondent for the 8th Session of EIFAC, 1974)

Bulgariia, 1983. Statistcheski godisshnik na Narodna Republika Bulgariia. Sofia, 673 p.

FAO, 1980. Bulgaria. Fishery Country Profile. Rome, FAO, FID/CP/BUL. Rev. 1:4 p.

Keefe, E.K., et al., 1974. Area handbook for Bulgaria. Washington, D.C., U.S. Government Printing Office, DA PAM 550-168:329 p.

Kostov, D., 1928. Geografiia na Bulgariia i susednite durzhavi. Plovdiv, 289 p.

Naidenow, W., 1972. The formation of fauna in Bulgarian barrage lakes. In Productivity problems of freshwaters, edited by Z. Kajak and A. Hillbricht-Ilkiuska. Warszawa-Krak6w, Proceedings of the IBP- Unesco Symosium on Productivity problems of Freshwaters. Kazimierz Doluu, Poland, May 6-12, 1970, pp. 901-8

Naidenow, W., 1975. Biologische Eigenheiten der Glazialen Hydrofauna aus den Gebirgen Rila und Pirin (Bulgarien). In Limnology of shallow waters, edited by J. Salanki and J.E. Ponyi. Budapest, Akademiai Kiado, pp. 281-4

Nowak, W.S.W., 1968. The economic oceanography of the Bulgarian . Ti'doschr. K.Ned.Aardriiksk.Gensot., (79):21-50

Popov, B.S., 1981. Bulgaria, fish-breeding, angling. Sofia, Sofia Press, 33 p.

Ruivo, M., T.V.R. Pillay and C. Neddlec, 1971. Report of a visit to Bulgaria, 2-9 May 1971. FAO Fish.Travel Rev.Aide Mem., (561):9 p.

Simons, M., 1990. Bulgarians kept in dark on pollution. San Francisco Chronicle, March 30, 1990, pp. A-25, A-27

Valev, E.B., 1949. Bolgariia. Ekonomiko-geograficheskoe opisanie. Moscow p. 36

Winston, V.H., 1957. The land. In Bulgaria, edited by L.A.D. DeIlin. New York, Frederick A. Praeger, pp. 28-58

Anon., 1967. Bulgaria: la piscicoltura d'acqua dolce. Gazz.Pesca, 14(6):64-5 - 35 -

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FRANCE International boundary o National capital • Cities Rivers 0 50 100 175 200 Km CORSICA - 36 -

FRANCE

The French Republic, bounded by eight countries, the Atlantic and the Mediterranean, is the largest country in western Europe. Its terrain varies from coastal marshes through rolling agricultural lands and forests to snow-capped Alps and mountain meadows. France is rich in rivers, small streams and interconnected waterways. It possesses many small ponds and some coastal lagoons, but is deficient in large natural lakes.

Largely agricultural in land use and with most of its industry concentrated in the north, its waters remain of generally high quality for fisheries. They have, however, been greatly affected by modifications for transport and for hydroelectric development, resulting both in barriers to and creation of enlarged fishing waters.

Commercial fishing continues in inland waters, especially for diadromous or euryhaline species, but sport fishing far exceeds it in importance - both with respect to total catch and the number of participants. Salmonids, pike, perch and various cyprinids are among the most important sport fishes. Aquaculture for trout has become highly developed and the potentialities for brackishwater culture are good.

1. AREA: 547 026 km2

2. POPULATION: 55 470 000 (est. 1990) Density: 101 inh/km2

3. PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY

France is situated in western Europe between 42°20' and 51°5'N latitudes and 8°15'E to 4°47'W longitudes.

A quadrilateral, its extreme length (N-S) is about 960 km; its greatest breadth (E-W) is 905 km. Its average elevation is about 400 m; more than one half of the land is above 200 m, but less than one quarter above 500 m. The attitudinal range is from sea level to the summit of Mt. Blanc at 4 807 m in the Alps.

France is bounded on the northeast by Belgium for 630 km and Luxembourg for 75 km, on the east by Germany for 435 km, Switzerland for 550 km, and Italy for 500 km, on the south by Andorra for 60 km, and Spain for 690 km. It also bounds the principality of Monaco, an enclave of only 181 ha, on the Mediterranean in southeastern France. Its sea boundaries are the North Sea and English Channel (La Manche) for 1220 km on the north, the Mediterranean Sea for 1700 km on the south, and the Bay of Biscay and Atlantic Ocean (including islands) for 1 800 km on the west.

The coast of continental France including its islands and estuaries is 4 731 km in length. It has chalk cliffs in the north, rocky capes and bays in Brittany, and flat reaches in the southwest and along the Mediterranean including some coastal lagoons.

Physiographically, France can be divided as follows:

(a) Four great dissected upland massifs (horsts) of granite and gneisses providing thin, infertile soils. These are the:

(i) Armoricain Massif (including Brittany and a part of Normandy), of the north-west, a low, dissected peneplane never exceeding 425 m and occupying one eighth of the country.

(ii) Massif Central of eroded crystalline rocks and lavas averaging 915 m - a plateau area in the south-centre occupying one sixth of the country.

(iii) Vosges, wooded highlands of the northeast rising to over 1400 m. - 37 -

(iv) Ardennes, also in the northeast and reaching into Belgium and Luxembourg, an area of narrow, incised valleys.

(b) Three-fold mountain systems:

(i) The Franco-Swiss Jura, low mountains, averaging 915 m, east of the RhOne and bordering Switzerland, heavily forested and with many lakes and a folded limestone upland.

(ii) The great Alps, in the southeast, high montane, mostly limestone and metamorphic rocks, with permanent snows, many cirques, moraines and hanging valleys.

(iii) The Pyrenees, high mountains to the south forming a border with Spain between the Atlantic and the Mediterranean, and composed of limestone and crystalline rocks with permanent snows and torrential waters. Never heavily glaciated, they lack the large lakes and glaciers characteristic of the Alps, and are lower in elevation, i.e., to 3 298 m in France.

(c) Between these mountain systems are seven valley and coastal drainage areas:

(i) Paris Basin. This basin, occupying almost one quarter of the entire country, is drained by the Seine, the Somme and to some extent by the Loire. The prevailing bedrock is limestone but includes clay and sand and is overlain in part by limon or weathered loess. Mostly under 185 m in elevation, it is the most important agricultural lowland of western Europe.

(ii) Aauitaine Basin. This great southwestern basin between the Pyrenees and the Massif Central and the Bay of Biscay, occupying about 15 percent of the country, is drained by the Garonne and Dordogne. Mostly alluvial fan (sandstone, clay, limestone) in the south and southeast, its northern extent of low flat plains behind coastal dunes is occupied in part by lagoons unconnected with the sea except for the shallow Bassin d'Arcachon. Many of its former marshes have been drained and the area planted with pines.

(iii) Flanders. This northeastern lowland of sand and clay is drained by the Lys and Escaut which continue into Belgium.

(iv) Alsace. Part of the great trough between the Vosges and the Black Forest, drained into the Rhine.

(v) Lorraine. Scarplands and valleys between the Vosges and Ardennes, drained by the Meuse and Moselle.

(vi) RhOne-Sa6ne Basin. This is a long down-faulted corridor running from north to south with the major rivers fed mainly by eastern tributaries from the Jura and the Alps.

(vii) Mediterranean Coast. Occupied in part by the Rh6ne delta with many irrigation canals, it is an area of dunes, lagoons, salt marshes and xerophytic vegetation. Sand spits cut off lagoons in the west; there are rocky jagged cliffs to the east.

In addition to its mainland (see above), the island of Corsica, with an area of 8 720 km' and coastline of 802 km, is considered part of metropolitan France. Situated in the western Mediterranean, 225 km south of Nice, it is a mass of crystalline rock rising to 2 706 m. Covered with maquis, only a small part is cultivated. The rivers are short and torrential, but it has a number of productive lagoons.

France lies in the European mixed forest zone. Temperate deciduous trees (oaks and associates) are widespread but reduced through clearing. Higher areas range upward from pine, fir and beech to stunted Alpine vegetation and mountain meadows. Parts of the Mediterranean area have in addition to the olives, cypresses and the vine, a somewhat ravaged woodland, much of which is now maquis. - 38 -

There is a wide variety of base rocks and soils, much of the country having been modified by centuries of intensive cultivation. The Massif Central, Armoricain, and Vosges have generally poor soils - granitic and acidic. The soils of the Alps and Pyrenees, including limestone and metamorphic, range from alluvium to screes. The basins are variable, often limy, sometimes with heaths and swamps.

4. CLIMATE

The climate, which is temperate, has three types:

(i) Atlantic or oceanic (soft, cool and wet) in the west;

(ii) Continental (warm summers, cold winters and drier) over most of eastern and central France; and

Mediterranean (hot dry summers and mild winters) along a narrow strip in the south.

With a wide spread in both latitude and altitude, there are striking differences in temperature. The mean annual temperature is about 10°C at Paris (north) and 14°C at Nice (south). The seasonal range is highest in the Rhineland (19°C) and smallest in Brittany (7°C). The greatest recorded range is -42°C to 40°C.

Rainfall is also variable throughout the country. In parts of the Pyrenees, Alps and Cevennes (Massif Central) it reaches 2 000 mm per year but in the Paris and Aquitaine Basins it is about 500 mm annually. Overall, the annual rainfall is around 750 mm a year, the maximum about 1 200 mm and the minimum about 550 mm.

Snow-cover ranges from none in the lowlands to periods of five to eight months in the higher mountains. Snowline in the Alps is at 2 400 to 3 000 m. Lakes over 2 000 m in the Alps and Pyrenees bear an ice-cover for most of the year, and the Rhine sometimes freezes.

The growing season, based on frost-free days, is about: 345 days in Brittany, along the Channel and on the Mediterranean; 275-300 days in the Paris Basin; less than 265 days in the Massif Central and higher mountains.

The total annual solar radiation in France varies from about 100 Kcal/cm2 in the north to 140 Kcal/cm2 along the Mediterranean.

5. HYDROGRAPHY AND LIMNOLOGY

The total area of inland water in France according to Table 7 is 1 400 km2 or only 0.25 percent of the total area. This is a ridiculously low figure as will be seen from the statistics that follow (sections 5.1 and 5.2). Dependent upon the source, these show a range of 1 830 to 2 454 km2 for the area of static waters alone. If to these one adds the areas estimated for fluvial waters (ranging from 1 263 to 1 309 km2), one obtains total areas for inland waters ranging from 3 093 to 3 763 km2 or from 0.56 to 0.69 percent of the total area of the country.

The approximate annual runoff from rainfall on French territory alone is 300 mm or 168 000 million m3. Added to this is 39 000 million m3 received from upstream countries resulting in a total annual river discharge leaving France of 207 000 million rre (Van der Leeden, 1975; ECE, 1978).

Generally speaking, the slope of the land (from the Alps) and the direction of the rivers is to the northwest; the Rhene Valley is a notable exception, and there are some streams draining northeast. The Pyrenees form a natural boundary with Spain by following the watershed; consequently, almost no streams are common to both countries. - 39 -

5.1 Rivers

Throughout most of this paper, the term "river" can generally be taken to include all fluvial or flowing waters, regardless of size. However, some of the French statistics make so many distinctions between various types of flowing water, based on both size and use, that whenever it appears necessary I have used both the French terms and their English equivalents as translated by their authors. With respect to flowing waters, the general order of progression in France is about as follows: fleuve (a stream that flows into the sea); riviere (a large stream that does not reach the sea); ruisseau (a smaller stream or brook); ruisselet (a brooklet). A fleuve cOtier is a small coastal stream.

Arrignon (1985) classifies them more precisely according to width: rivieres naviaables, 100 m; rivieres flottables 22.5 m; petites rivieres, 8 m; ruisseaux, 1 m; ruisselts, 0.5 m.

The length of the fluvial waters (cours d'eau or eaux courantes) of France has, in recent years, been estimated as follows: 258 574 km (Charpy, 1957), 300 000 km (Framji and Mahajan, 1969), 250 000 km (France/EIFAC, 1974), 270 650 km (Cons. Sup. de la Peche, 1980), and according to Arrignon (1985), 270 265 km of which 225 000 km are salmonoid waters and 45 265 km are cyprinid/pike waters.'

With respect to the area of these waters, an even more difficult evaluation, Charpy (1957) states that it totals 130 950 ha, Cons. Sup. de la Peche (1980) totals it as at least 126 350 ha, and Arrignon (1985) totals it as 70 765 ha of which 25 500 ha are salmonoid waters and 45 265 ha are cyprinid/pike waters.

Comparisons of the validity of such statistics appears useless, especially as most are of the same general order of magnitude and since it cannot be determined whether each author has included exactly the same components. In the present section the greatest attention will be fixed on statistics derived from the Cons. Sup. de la Peche (1980).

Here it is stated that the 270 650 km of French streams include 11 800 km belonging to the public domain, and 258 850 km of private streams (cours d'eau non idominaux), i.e., those whose beds belong to the riparian owners (see Table 1).

Table 1

Length and average width of private French streams

Type Width (m) Length (km)

Streams (cours d'eau) 1 0.0 20 850

Streams (cours d'eau) 1.0 88 000

Creeks (ruisseaux) 0.5 150 000

Total 258 850

Source: Cons.Sup. de la Peche (1980) French and English versions

1/ Throughout this report on France, the information cited as Cons. Sup. de la Peche (1980) can be found in a more available publication: Anon. (1982), see section 10. - 40 -

Lawmakers have also established two categories of streams in France based on the presence of trout ( Category 1) and on their absence (Category 2). Category 1 streams are characteristic of the mountains, although some fine lowland trout waters exist. Category 2 streams, also termed "white fish" or poisson blanc (referring to cyprinids) or "cyprinid-pike" streams are characteristic of the plains and peneplains; they have mixed populations of cyprinids, pike, perch, pike-perch, etc. (see Table 2).

Table 2

Extent and area of French streams according to their fishing categories

Length (km) Area (ha)

Category 1 (trout waters)

Brooks (ruisselets) 150 000 7 500

Creeks (ruisseaux) 60 000 6 000

Rivers (rivieres) 15 000 1 2 000

Total 225 000 25 500

Category 2 (Cyprinid-pike waters) il

Creeks (ruisseaux) 28 000 2 800

Small rivers 6 000 4 800

Floatable rivers 2 500 5 600

Navigable rivers 8 765 87 650

Total 45 265 100 850

Grand total 270 265 126 350

a/ To Category 2, one also adds 4 680 km or 5 000 ha of canals

Source: Cons. Sup. de la Peche (1980)

The major rivers in France are listed in Table 3. Table 4 shows the discharges of 27 important rivers in mainland France and three in Corsica. - 41 -

Table 3

8/ Principal rivers of France (basin, river and length in km)

Escaut Creuse 255 Doubs 430

Escaut 430 Mayenne 195 Ardeche 120 (avec Maine)

Lys 214 Sarthe 285 Isere 290

Scarpe 100 Vilaine 225 DrOrne 110

Garonne Blavet 140 Durance 305

Garonne 575 Rance 110 Argens 115

Ariege 170 Vire 120 Var 120

Tarn 375 Orne 152 HerauIt 160

Aveyron 250 Meuse Aude 220

Lot 480 Meuse 950 Tat 120

Dordogne 472 Sambre 190 Seine

Adour 335 Rhine Seine 776

Charente 360 Rhine (frontier-e) 190 Aube 248

Sevre Niortaise 150 III 208 Marne 525

Loire Moselle 550 Oise 302

Loire 1 020 Meurthe 170 Aisne 280

Allier 410 RhOne Yonne 293

Cher 350 Rherne 812 Loing 166

Indre 265 200 Eure 225

Vienne 350 SaOne 480 Rille (ou Risle) 140

Somme 245

a/ With the exception of the Rhine, it is the total length of the river that is indicated, even if it is not completely confined to France

Source: France, Institut national de la statistique et des etudes economiques (1982) - 42 -

A general description of the major river systems follows:

Rhine. The Rhine (Rhin in French), one of the greatest rivers in Europe, concerns France for only 190 km (of its total length of 1 350 km) where it forms a border with Germany, where it is known as the Rhein. In this area it is still largely Alpine in regime with a swift current and a spring maximum, carrying much debris and subject to floods.

Tributaries of the Rhine originating in France include the completely French river, the 208-km III, and the 550-km Moselle, which joins the Rhine in Germany (where it is called the Mosel) via Luxembourg.

The Meuse Basin is also in the Rhine drainage. Originating in France, the 950-km Meuse is joined in Belgium by the Sambre (which also starts in France) and then proceeds to the Netherlands where it is called the Maas and forms a common delta with the Rhine. Another international stream, the 113- km Chiers, which originates in Luxembourg, joins the Meuse in France.

Loire. The Loire, the longest river in France and perhaps the least stable in regime, rises in the Massif Central and flows west, draining a fifth of France during its 1 020 km route to the Atlantic. With rapid runoff in its upper part where the ground is impermeable, it loses water in its lower broad flat bed through percolation and heavy summer evaporation. Although its average annual flow is about 875 m3/sec, it can drop to only 25 m3/sec in dry summers and then rise in violent floods to 12 000 m3/sec. Attempts to control the Loire by construction of dikes have been made since the Middle Ages. It has a 56-km estuary but is navigable in a limited sense for only 210 km.

The other major rivers in this basin are listed in Table 3.

RhOne. The 812-km Rhone, the eighth longest river in Europe, rises in Switzerland, passes for 72 km through Lake Leman (Lake of Geneva) and enters France 20 km below the Lake. Within France itself, where its course totals 550 km, it falls 371 m between Geneva and the Mediterranean. The Rhone catchment experiences many regimes: Alpine and upland, snow-rain and rain-snow, and even Mediterranean in the lower reaches. The RhOne has a rapid flow and the highest discharge of any French river, its average being about 2 200 m3/sec, and its greatest flood about 14 000 m3/sec. Due to Alpine snowmelt, its maximum flow is in May and June, its minimum in September. But the flow is rather regular due to the balancing effect of Lake Leman, snowmelt which occurs at a different time in the Jura, and the autumn and winter maxima in its western tributaries. It debouches through a great two-armed delta into the Mediterranean, discharging about 22 million m3 annually.

The chief tributary of the Rh6ne is the placid and highly navigable Sa6ne (480 km), which helps balance its flow. Rising in the Vosges and entering near , the SaOne's flow is greatly supplemented by its major tributary, the 430-km Doubs from the Jura. As one proceeds downstream, the Rh6ne is joined by a number of large less constant streams originating in the Alps, e.g., the torrential Isere (290 km) and the Durance (305 km).

(iv) Garonne. Draining about one-tenth of France, the Garonne (575 km) originates in the Pyrenees where it flows through Spain for 48 km and then proceeds northwest through France to the Atlantic Ocean north of Bordeaux. It has scanty storage at its head, there being only a. few small lakes, little permanent snow and ice, and much impermeable rock in the Pyrenees. Similarly, there is little storage for its tributaries from the Massif Central. Despite some compensating effect from its different sources, the Garonne has an irregular regime with a seasonal maximum in the spring. It has an average flow of about 700 m3/sec, 300 m3/sec at low water, and floods to several thousand m3/sec.

In addition to its tributaries shown in Table 3, the Garonne is joined by the 76-km Salat, 40-km Arize, and 85-km Ciron. The Dordogne (472 km), which in itself constitutes a major system, rises in the Massif Central, is fed by tributaries such as the Cere (112 km), Vezere (192 km) and Isle (233 km) and merges with the Garonne at their common estuary, the Gironde. The Garonne is not navigable except in its estuary. Table 4

Discharge of selected French rivers

River and station Basin Mean monthly d scharge, m2/sec Period of 2 area km Year record Jan FebFeb. Mar. Apr May June July Aug. Sept Oct. Nov. Dec.

Moselle, Hauconcourt 9 400 1 88 217 1 69 126 90.6 80.6 60.0 68.0 62.0 67.8 108 1 60 112 1950-60

Meuse, Chooz 10 120 240 251 172 132 99.0 68.0 47.9 54.5 66.0 78.5 131 218 129 1953-65

Seine, Bazoches-les-Bray 10 240 77.0 85.0 85.0 134 85.0 61.0 26.4 14.3 18.7 23.1 30.4 8.10 60.0 1962-65

Seine, Vitry-sur-Seine 31 300 1 36 164 223 282 207 1 38 62.5 48.5 97.5 116 118 345 161 1964-65

Seine, Paris 44 320 505 568 456 314 228 1 55 114 99 105 1 31 253 351 273 1927-61

Yonne, Courlon 10 460 122 120 109 1 30 89.0 59.0 31.3 27.0 34.4 37.7 53.0 119 77.5 1961-65

Mame, Noisiel 12 580 150 158 1 30 102 78.5 54.5 38.0 36.5 46.4 43.8 72.5 119 86.0 1956-65

Oise, Creil 14 600 125 146 116 124 85.5 60.5 46.5 39.7 46.6 55.0 96.5 155 91.5 1960-65

Allier, Pont-du-Guetin 14 340 212 204 194 178 1 33 115 58.5 41.5 59.5 80.5 120 162 129 1955-65

Loire, Montjean 110 000 1 530 1 640 1 470 1 100 840 582 375 255 260 381 876 1 1 80 874 1921-60

Loire, Gien 35 890 552 591 531 442 365 263 135 90 1 04 187 404 484 345 1921-60

Vienne, Nouatre 19 650 383 250 266 263 1 85 113 94.0 68.5 91.5 124 193 363 200 1 958-65

Dordogne, Bergerac 1 3 800 453 324 372 365 275 182 106 105 1 29 211 288 515 278 1958-65

Vezere, Montignac 3 125 96.5 104 81.0 64.5 53.5 36.0 23.9 18.6 20.8 36.2 63.0 88.5 57.0 1921-60

Tarn, Rouby 15 500 328 185 320 198 196 123 60.0 40.0 98.5 274 350 1 035 267 1923-33 1951-59

Garonne, Mas d'Agenais 52 000 861 938 917 822 762 544 279 175 190 274 487 839 590 1921-60

Lot, Cahors 9 170 229 229 186 124 93.2 70.3 34.0 29.7 32.4 60.5 1 31 203 118 1941-60

Adour, St. Vincent de 7 830 143 136 101 81.6 72.4 64.0 31.0 21.0 26.9 40.1 67.9 109 74.5 1951-60 Paul

Rhone, Chateaufort 1 2 600 219 216 398 415 507 548 653 500 528 296 369 735 451 1965

Rh6ne, La Mulatiere 50 200 1 250 1 270 1 210 1 070 923 999 904 831 783 803 1 180 1 110 1 030 1921-60

Rh6ne, Beaucaire 95 590 1 887 1 888 2 005 1 870 1 873 1 899 1 429 1 173 1 199 1 422 2 026 1 863 1 712 1920-60

Ain, Chazey 3 630 132 128 211 157 94.5 74.0 51.0 84.5 95.0 90.5 148 171 120 1960-65 Table 4 (continued)

River and station Basin Mean monthly discharge, m2/sec Period of area km 2 Year record Jan. Feb. Mar. Apr. May June July Aug. Sept. Oct. Nov. Dec.

Saone, Le Chatelat- 11 660 1 88 134 244 205 223 1 87 60.0 43.6 206 1 66 162 520 195 1 965 Pouilly

Ardeche, Sauze Saint 2 240 1 02 89.0 114 77.0 32.0 48.0 11.0 15.0 22.0 82.0 101 107 66.5 1 955-64 Martin

Isere, Veurey 9 450 1 09 101 1 74 227 475 570 425 269 280 201 188 304 278 1 965

Durance, Jouques- 11 700 148 161 216 233 302 322 1 47 96.5 98.5 191 225 1 98 195 1951-60 Cadarache

Escaut, Conde sur 2 580 20.6 24.1 1 7.9 18.5 16.3 14.3 11.2 11.2 10.8 12.5 1 5.9 22.2 16.3 1961-65 l'Escaut

Somme. Abbeville 5 560 28.6 28.6 29.6 30.0 25.9 24.5 25.7 25.0 23.2 22.6 25.8 33.7 26.9 1963-65

Charente, Cognac 4 630 80.0 48.3 64.0 46.6 40.7 25.5 21.7 16.3 38.9 45.4 61.0 195.0 57.5 1965

Aude, Carcassonne 1 794 37.2 36.5 44.4 51.5 51.0 30.6 14.4 9.3 8.5 1 0.0 13.5 21.1 27.3 1921-30

Orb, Reals 1 148 34.9 33.9 53.0 1 9.5 1 4.3 1 0.5 7.00 4.79 9.55 111.0 39.6 44.6 31.9 1957-62 1965

Var, La Mescla 1 827 25.5 26.5 35.2 46.5 67.5 61.5 50.5 22.1 25.6 37.9 45.3 35.7 40.0 1921-60 CORSICA

Golo, Ponte-Leccia 366 6.71 3.91 9.86 5.29 6.04 2.85 0.45 0.23 3.28 4.42 8.37 9.41 5.08 1 965

Tavignano, Altiani 489 11.8 5.52 33.5 1 0.3 1 7.3 6.61 1.12 0.55 5.65 17.1 23.0 20.1 12.8 1965

Taravo, Guitera 157 5.96 3.96 8.37 5.87 4.66 2.10 1.08 0.84 - - 6.21 8.13 - 1965

Source: Van der Leeden (1975) after Direction du Gaz et de l'Electricite (1966) and Unesco (1967) - 45 -

(v) Seine. Rising in central France at an elevation of only 471 m, the Seine (776 km) flows north through Paris to the English Channel; it and its tributaries form the major drainage of the Paris Basin. Most of its course is through an area of permeable limestone in which it is deeply incised. The Seine is a very winding and sluggish river, e.g., a direct line from its source to mouth is only 402 km, but the river distance is 776 km, and at an elevation of only 36 m, it is still 360 km from the sea. It has a winter maximum and a summer minimum but its flow is fairly regular; it averages about 300 rre/sec, dropping to less than 50 m3/sec.

Many modifications have been made to the Seine to improve its channel so that it is now highly navigable, and it has navigable connexions with many rivers including the: Somme, Escaut, Sambre, Meuse, Rhine, SaOne and Loire, it is connected to every corner of the country except Brittany and the west.

Its major tributaries are listed in Table 3. Among these, the 302-km Oise rises in Belgium and flows for 15 km to the French border.

(vi) Escaut. Rising in northern France, the Escaut crosses Belgium (where it is also known as the Schelde or Scheldt) to join the North Sea. Major French tributaries are the Scarpe (100 km) and the Lys which join it in Belgium. The Escaut is the master stream for many French and Belgian canals.

In addition to these major drainages, there are many smaller rivers proceeding directly to the sea, e.g., the 245-km Somme with a 24-km estuary leading to the Channel, the Vilaine and the Adour (338 km) into the Atlantic, and the Aude (222 km) into the Mediterranean.

In summary, France has a wide variety of flowing waters: small, swift and unproductive Alpine torrents; large rivers with irregular regimes and steep gradients (e.g., Loire and Garonne); braided streams like the RhOne; some in deep gorges; and placid chalk-rich streams (rivieres de craiae) such as the Risle, Touques, and Ran of Normandy.

In addition to such differences between individual waters, French streams often have zones differing markedly in physical and faunal characteristics. Following the general continental classification elaborated by Huet (1949, 1954, 1962) and proceeding generally downstream, these zones, named after a dominant fish inhabitant, are as follows:

(I) Trout zone - rocky, swift, with cold and well-oxygenated water (e.g., most French headwater streams);

(ii) Grayling zone - less swift and less rocky, e.g., the RhOne from Lyon to Genissiat, the Ain and Loue;

(iii) Barbel zone - quieter water with more vegetation, e.g., the RhOne south of Lyon, the Seine, Yonne, Garonne.

(iv) Bream zone - localized in slow and tranquil rivers, comparable to ponds, e.g., most of the Same, l'Indre and Cher.

Not all French rivers possess all these zones. For example, the grayling zone is not well represented in France, and the barbel zone often directly succeeds the trout zone. Furthermore, some heavily vegetated waters with low gradient may be excellent trout streams if the water is cold, e.g., in Normandy.

In addition to these four zones, the estuarial portions of French rivers are often of decided fishing importance especially for diadromous or euryhaline fishes, e.g., lampreys, shad, eel and elvers, mullets, sea bass and sole. - 46 -

5.2 Lakes (Lacs)

Statistics on the number of lakes, their types and extent obtained from various French sources differ somewhat and have not been completely reconciled.

Charpy (1957) listed the static waters of France as follows:

Lakes of the public domain 50 000 ha Reservoir or barrage lakes 23 000 ha Private ponds (etangs) 110 000 ha

Total 183 000 ha

France/EIFAC (1974) classed the lakes of France as follows:

Large lakes (public domain) 61 700 ha Reservoirs 40 000 ha Smaller ponds (private) 110 000 ha

Total 211 700 ha

In this latter classification (similar to Charpy's) the group of "large lakes" included the 23 400 ha which is France's portion of Lake Leman (total area 581 km') which it shares with Switzerland. It also included inland lakes such as Annecy and Bourget as well as coastal lakes and lagoons. Some of the latter group, Hourtin, Cazaux and Biscarosse, for example, are treated as inland waters whereas others come under maritime jurisdiction (see section 5.5). France/EIFAC (1974) also stated that the number of smaller lakes or ponds was approximate as no complete inventory of such waters existed, and that this category included some ponds which were used for extensive or intensive fish culture.

Other figures given for the extent of ponds in France are the 134 000 ha of "etangs en rapport" (ponds in production) in 1 976 listed by France, Inst.Nat.Stat. (1978) and about 100 000 ha according to Matena and Berka (1987).11

The latest statistics received by EIFAC were those of the Conseil Superieur de la Peche (1980) which stated that the public domain of France included 31 700 ha of domanial lakes, not including the Grand-Lieu Lake of 3 700 ha. It also stated that there were some 210 000 ha of private lakes and ponds but that this figure was not constant as 1 500 ha of water bodies were created each year. It will thus be seen that some of the discrepancies between figures from various sources may be due to definition and inclusion or exclusion of what may be termed "reservoirs" (see section 5.3).

Arrignon (1985) said that the natural lakes of France totalled 50 000 ha.

No matter which statistics are selected, it is obvious that France is not well supplied with large natural lakes. The principal ones (in addition to France's portion of Lake Leman) are listed in Table 5, and some characteristics of four of the best known are shown in Table 6.

1/ France, Inst. Nat. Stat. (1982) lists a total area of 124 000 ha in France used in 1980 principally for "'Ache" - 47 -

Table 5

Six principal natural lakes of France

2 Lake Area (km )

Le Bourget (Savoie) 45.0

Grand-Lieu (Loire-Atlantique) 37.0

Annecy (Haute-Savoie) 27.0

Aiguebelette (Savoie) 5.4

Saint-Point (Doubs) 4.0

Gerardmer (Vosges) 1.2

Total 119.6

Source: France, Institut national de la statistique et des etudes economiques (1982)

Table 6

Characteristics of four important lakes in France

Parameter Annecy LÓman& Nantua Bourget

Altitude m 416 372 474.5 231.5

Area(total) km2 27 581.3' 1.4 44.6

Mean depth m 42 152 28.4 81.0

Maximum depth m 82 310 43.0 145.0

Capacity km3 - 89 - -

Retention time years 3.3 12 0.7 8.0

Primary production cm2/day 292 1 015 523.0 2 050" (rough average)

Temperature (min) °C - 4 - -

Temperature (max) °C 20-24 24 - - at Lake Leman is also described in the chapter on Switzerland. The statistics given there differ a bit from these as do those given by Pelletier (1978) and Gerdeaux (1990), but are so minor that they are considered unimportant. b/ French portion is about 234 km2; the Swiss portion about 347.3 km2 c/ April-September

Source: Pelletier (1978), Wojtenka, Gerdeaux and Allardi (1988) and Gerdeaux (1990) - 48 -

Some of the French lakes are of glacial origin, e.g., Annecy and Bourget, and moraine lakes such as Lac de Chalain and Lac de Nantua. Some have been formed by landslides, e.g., Lac de Montriand (Haute- Savoie), Lac de Chaillexon (Doubs), and Lac de Sylans (Ain). The Jura has a number of tectonic lakes such as, the Lacs de Saint Point and Remorey. Lac de Narlay, also in the Jura, is a lake formed by dissolution of limestone.

Many of the lakes in the Massif Central are of volcanic origin. Some are found in craters, others have been produced in irregularities caused by volcanic (lava) action, e.g., Lac de Godivelle and Lac du Bouchet, Lac de Bourdouze and Lac d'Issarles.

Finally, lagoons and ponds or etangs occupy portions of the French coast. Some were formed by deltaic action, e.g., the Etang de Vaccares in the Camargue.

Others, separated by dunes from the sea, were developed by aeolian effects when wind-blown sands impounded the ponds or &tangs, e.g., the etangs along the western coast (Landes) north of Biarritz .

The great subalpine lakes, such as Leman, Bourget and Annecy were originally oligotrophic, but are tending towards eutrophism today. They contain a mixed population of salmonoid fish (such as char and coregonids), percids, cyprinids, pike and burbot11. More numerous, however, are the eutrophic lakes such as those in the Jura, the lake of Nantua (Ain) is a typical example. There are also intermediate type lakes such as the subalpine lake Aiguebelette (Savoie) which is dominated by perch, pike and cyprinids with a poor population of coregonids and char. Finally, there are many humic lakes on acid soils, e.g., the lake of Gerardmer in the Vosges.

5.3 Reservoirs (Lacs artificiels; Lacs de barrage; Lacs de retenue de barrage)

Circa 1960, France had 103 artificial lakes totalling 17 460 ha, an 31 natural lakes, totalling 1 735 ha, which had been raised to become reservoirs (Vivier, 1960). By 1974, there were about 40 000 ha of reservoirs, in France, belonging generally to Electricite de France which has ceded the fishing rights to the State (France/EIFAC, 1974).

Reservoir lakes are abundant, especially in the Massif Central, and are in general eutrophic.

Table 7 is a list of French reservoirs (barrages) each with a capacity of over 100 million rrO, compiled as of January 1990. The 25 then in service had a combined capacity of 7 247 million m3. Over half of these had been constructed since 1960.

5.4 Canals (Canaux)

Statistics on the number, length and size of inland waterways in France differ - as has been pointed out above - depending upon the source and interpretation. Thus, France/EIFAC (1974) records 11 800 km of canalized rivers, both it and Cons. Sup. de la ['ache (1980) record 4 680 km of canals. France, Inst.Nat.Stat. (1982) states that at the end of 1981, the length of used waterways in France was as follows: 3 908 km of streams, rivers, lakes and ponds (etangs) and 4 660 km of canals. Arrignon (1985) records 2 320 km (2 550 ha) of fish productive canals. Europa (1989) says there were 8 500 km of navigable waterways in France in 1987. France, Inst. Nat. Stat. (1991) records the total length of used waterways in France as 6 252 km.

In any event, canalization of natural waters is common in France, and in addition there are many artificial waterways which also provide fishing.

1/ Annecy is the only one of these lakes to which coregonids were not native. They were introduced into it from lakes Leman, Bourget, Neuchatel and Constance - 49 -

Table 7

French reservoirs with a capacity of over 100 million m3 ''

Name Total capacity Year (million. m3) completed

Serre-Poncon 1 270 1960

Sainte-Croix 767 1974

Vouglans 605 1968

Bort-les-Orgues 477 1951 Marne 350 1974

Mont-Cenis 322 1 968

Sarrans 296 1 932 Grandval 292 1959

Monteynard 240 1962

Villerest 128 1982

Tignes 230 ' 1953

L'Aigle 225 1947

Seine 205 1965 Roselend 187 1961

La Rance 184 1966

Le Chastang 1 87 1951

Parreloup 169 1951

Grand maison 1 40 1985

Castillon 149 1 948

Saint-Etienne-Cantales 135 1945

Naussac 190 1981

Oredon 127 1982 Salagou 125 1971 Le Sautet 130 1935

Vassivieres 107 1951 at In addition to these, another reservoir was being constructed as of January 1990. Aube (152 million m3)

Source: France, Institut national de la statistique et des etudes economiques (1991) - 50 -

5.5 La000ns (Lagunes)

The extent of lagoons (i.e., littoral areas of shallow static water of various degrees of salinity connected with the sea) in France is unknown to me. Part of this is due to vagueness by various authors as to location of the lagoons, or their failure to specify them by name or as to their area. Part is a question of nomenclature. Most of the major lagoons in France are called Netangs", a word which is also frequently used for freshwater ponds, whether natural or artificial. Some are called "Ins", some "baie fermee" or "marais maritime", or "salins". Such usages make it difficult to distinguish between the various types of surface waters in France described in the literature.

Atlantic Ocean lagoons. Maps such as the fishing map issued by Cons. Sup. de la Peche (1974) show the following large lagoons or etangs along the Bay of Biscay proceeding south from the Gironde: Etang d'Hourtin et de Carcans, Etang de Lacanau, Bassin d'Arcachon, Etang de Cazaux et de Sanguinet all connected by canals. South of these is the Etang de Biscarosse et de Parentis, and a number of smaller etangs, including Leon, Soustons, Blanc and Lac d'Hossegor.

Kiener (1978), in his monograph on brackish waters, has a section on "Lagunes des C6tes Francaises", but with respect to France's western coast discusses only the small littoral ponds of Sables d'Olonne (between the Loire and the Gironde) and the 155-km Bassin d'Arcachon. He points out that little ponds contiguous to the Bassin once supported grey mullets (Munil spp.) and sea bass (Dicentrarchus labrax).

Mediterranean lagoons. The fishing map cited above shows the following littoral etangs, proceeding in a generally easterly direction from the Spanish boundary along France's Mediterranean coast: Canet, Leucate, Bages-Sigean, Ayrolle, Thau, Mauguio, Etangs de la Camargue (e.g., Etang du Vaccares), and Etang de Berre. To these a map, Petit and Schacter (1959), adds the following etangs: Ingril, Vic and PeroIs between the Etang de Thau and Etang de Mauguio (l'Or), and on the RhOne delta shows the small lagoons of: la Ville, le Roi, Imperial, Les Rieges, Fournelet, Gloria, Olivier, Lava!due and Pos. Amanien, et al. (1981) and Quignard (1984) group the lagoons south of Montpellier as the "etangs palavasiens": Vic, Pierre Blanche, Arnel, Prevost, Mejean, PeroIs, Grec and Mauguio. Reference to other maps disclose other nomenclatures and locations. Suffice it to say that although the Mediterranean coast of France has a large number of lagoons close to or at times connected to the sea, their extent is difficult to determine. For example, Levi and Troadec (1974) present a table indicating that France has six brackishwater basins or complexes in the Mediterranean totalling 31 500 ha in area with a depth of 3-10 m, and a salinity of 10-40 ppt. But Kiener (1978) says that the French littoral (apparently Mediterranean only) has 60 000 ha of lagoons including 3 000 ha in Corsica. Amanieu and Lasserre (1981) state that there are 120 000 ha of "lagunes" in the Golfe du Lion (the area from the Spanish border to Toulon) with a catch of 10 700 t, and Noel (1982) states that the French Mediterranean lagoons have 65 000 ha which have been fished for years, mainly for eels, and with a declining catch rate.

In summarizing their physical attributes, Petit and Schachter (1959) point out that almost all of the French Mediterranean lagoons lie along the Golfe du Lion in a region subject to constant geological modifications (the largest true French lagoon, the 15 000-ha Etang de Berre is an exception). This diverse cordon littoral has a history of instability; many of the lagoons have been opened or closed to the sea for varying periods, and have received varying amounts of fresh water. Among the principal factors determining their existence and their biological status have been the Mediterranean weather (high temperatures and evaporative rate, winds and occasionally torrential rain), floods, diversion of water, pumping, extension of rice culture, shifts in colonization from the sea, stock introductions, and man-engendered eutrophication. Surface temperatures are high (30-40°C) especially in shallow lagoons. Dissolved oxygen varies from about 7 ppm to zero, accompanied by liberation of hydrogen sulphide and consequent death of the fish fauna. Salinities in these lagoons vary from almost fresh water to hyperhaline (over 40 ppt).

As an example of the changes that occur in a Mediterranean lagoon, Kiener (1978) discusses the effect of changes in land and water use upon the biota of the Etang de Berre. Once a synclinal lake or freshwater body, changes in its outlet by the Roman general Marius (155-86 B.C.) caused it to become oligohaline. In 1925 it became salt (32 ppt) by the opening of a channel to the sea, and then in 1966, - 51 -

provided by fresh water through factory effluent, became desalinized to kill off its marine fauna and support euryhaline forms such as grey mullets, sea bass and eels.

The fish fauna in these lagoons varies from euryhaline species such as grey mullets (Muail spp.), eel (Anauilla anauilla), gilthead (Soarus auratus), sea bass (Dicentrarchus labrax), and sole (Solea vulaaris) to carp (Cvarinus carDio), pike-perch (Stizostedion lucioperca) and other oligohaline species. There is a capture fishery in many of the lagoons, and in some it is somewhat allied to aquaculture (see section 7.2). However, Ravagnan (1981) says that among the great number of lagoons in France, the only ones which are to any extent "structured" as fish farms are those of the Perpignan region.

Corsican lagoons. Corsica, the French island directly north of Sardinia, is a special case. Kiener (1978) lists four lagoons here forming an ensemble of more than 3 000 ha: Biguglia, Diana, Urbino and Palo. Their fishery production consists of eel, grey mullet, sea bass, sparids, sole, atherinids and gobies. Ravagnan (1981) mentions Biguglia, Diana and Urbino as natural ponds. Amanieu and Lasserre (1981) state that there are 3 200 ha of "lagunes" in Corsica, providing 380 t annually. Frisoni (1981) states that the eastern part of Corsica offers a wide variety of lagoons covering about 3 000 ha. Among the most important of these, he lists the meso-polyhaline Biguglia, with an area of 1 500 ha and a depth of 1.8 m, and two euhaline lagoons with a depth of 9-11 m, the 570-ha Diana and 790-ha Urbino. In Biguglia there is traditional fishery using fixed "bordigues" which produced, in 1978, 170 t of grey mullets, sea bass and eels. Using the same techniques, Diana produced 6 t and Urbino 20 t. (See section 9.2 for yields from lagoons.)

6. LAND AND WATER USE

Table 8

Pattern of land use in France, 1986

Percent

Arable and permanent crops 34.7

Permanent pasture 22.2

Forest and woodland 26.7

Other land 16.1

Inland water 0.25

Total 100.0

Source: 1987 FAO Prod. Yearb., 41 (Publ. 1988)

Although there has been only a small development of large urban centres in France, it is considered to be about 74 percent urban today. However, about 60 percent of the land is used for agriculture, primarily by small family holdings. Abundant cyclonic rain makes cultivation possible even on mountain slopes, but irrigation is increasing along the lower Rh6ne and in Languedoc'. In 1986, about 11 800 km or 2 percent of the country was being irrigated. Farming is diversified, being high in production of cereals, potatoes and sugar beets, and with a flourishing horticulture, great vineyards and vegetable gardens. Live stock production

1/ France's first irrigation canals were probably built by the roman in the lower Rheone valley, and by the end of the 15th Century irrigation was being carried out here on a large scale - 52 -

is also very high. There is heavy fertilization of crops in much of France, above the European average, a contributor to eutrophication.

There are about 4 million ha of conifers and 8 million ha of deciduous trees in the forests, and France ranks about third in Europe in roundwood production. Inclusion of stream care in forestry planning has long been a part of the French tradition.

Mining is important in France which ranks as Europe's first producer of iron and fourth of bauxite. Coal, potash, salt, sulphur, lead and zinc are also important. Gravel and sand extraction is high, especially from stream beds and often to the detriment of fisheries.

Although industry is widespread, it is nevertheless concentrated in the industrial north (iron, steel, chemicals and textiles), Alsace-Lorraine (iron and steel), near Lyon (chemicals, textiles and metallurgy) and around Paris (all types). Food processing, auto manufacture and aluminium are also important.

The 1987 contribution to industrial water pollution by major industrial segments is shown in Table 9.

Table 9

Contribution to industrial water pollution in France, 1987

Percentage according to industrial segment Industrial segment Suspended materials Oxidizable materials Toxic materials

Chemical 24.0 16.4 52.3

Agro-food 24.5 45.6 0.2

Metal 14.6 8.9 33.9

Wood, paper, etc. 10.1 12.9 0.9

Textiles 5.5 8.7 4.4

All others' 21.3 7.5 8.3

Total 100.0 100.0 100.0

a/ Commerce and services, extractive industries, leather and hides, energy production, mineral industries, printing, plastics, tobacco, etc.

Source: France, Institut national de la statistique et des etudes economiques (1991) after the Ministere de l'Environnement.

Pollutants from agriculture, mining and domestic wastes as well as from industry affect a considerable portion of France's national and international waterways. The Rhine, for example, is seriously injured by saline pollution from potash mines, and polluted rivers flowing into Belgium constitute another international problem. An inventory of water quality in 525 rivers throughout France made in 1971 and 1976 showed the principal pollutants to be: mineral materials (chlorides and sulphates), organic material, nitrogenous material, detergents and radioactivity. Oil pollution is high in some coastal areas. In person-equivalents, water pollution amounted to 76 million and was expected to be 100 million by 1985. Nevertheless, pollution from domestic wastes is subsiding. In 1988, 99 percent of France had a system of collection and 92 percent a system of sewage treatment. - 53 -

In 1987, the installed electrical power capacity in France was 97 600 thousand kW. Although 25 percent of this was thermal energy, France's coal resources are declining and little oil is available (France is, however, the foremost producer of uranium in western Europe.) Consequently, nuclear energy (50 percent of the whole) is growing rapidly, the remainder (25 percent) is hydroelectric. With abundant water (at least seasonally) and steep gradients, France has good hydroelectric resources, and many impoundments have been constructed to produce electricity, especially in the Alps, Pyrenees and Massif Central. Many of these impoundments can also be used for fishing. There are also many barrages without true impoundment, e.g., on the lower RhOne. Much of the potential is still untapped, but the best sites have been used.

France has one of the densest road and rail systems in the world. Its road density alone is 2.7 km/km' and private automobile ownership is high (396 per 1 000 people). This enables easy travel for angling and has been a factor in the increased fishing intensity occurring as a result of a higher standard of living. France will soon be linked to England by tunnel.

Although France's largest ports are at river mouths, its rivers are not suitable for navigation. Aside from size, the difficulties include extensive meanders (as on the Seine), uneven flow and presence of sandbars (as on the Garonne and Loire), shifting channels (as on the Rhine) and rapids (as on the RhOne). Nevertheless, an extensive programme of river regularization and canalization has created a complex system of h/ interconnected navigable waters (see section 5.4) . Despite the large canal system, its narrow channels and many locks make much of it unsuitable today for heavy transport except in the northeast with its mature river systems, evenly distributed rainfall, and presence of industrial centres. Heavy use of certain waterways and the presence of locks, weirs and pollution have been detrimental to anadromous fishes.

Despite rather abundant surface water resources, France is now drawing heavily on its ground water reserves, etg., the Paris region gets about 40 percent of its water from underground. The tables are dropping and some pollution has occurred.

Commercial fishing even in marine waters is a relatively unimportant sector of the French economy (France ranked 21st in total world catch by weight in 1987) and only accounts for about 5 percent of its total nutritional supply, despite the relatively high per caput consumption of about 25 kg/year.

With respect to total water consumption in France, a survey in the 1950s (using its maximum figures) suggested the following proportions of a total annual consumption then of 28 900 million m3: 52 percent for agriculture, including irrigation, 36 percent for industry, including 23 percent for power and 12 percent for domestic use (House, 1978). Other figures (for 1976 by France, Inst.Nat.Stat., 1978) show that an allotment for surface water alone was distributed as follows: 53 percent to the power industry, 14 percent to other industries, 22 percent to agriculture, and 11 percent to domestic use.

Tourism is important in France; about 37 million tourists visited it in 1987. Fishing by tourists has increased but it is not a major attraction for them.

7. FISH AND FISHERIES

7.1 Capture Fisheries

From a "legal viewpoint" about 65 species of fish, belonging to 23 families, are considered to be present in the fresh waters of France. See Anon. (France) (1982) for a full list of these species, and Allardi (1984) for an account of the 17 species of exotics then in the French freshwater fauna.

Those species sought after by both commercial and sport fishermen include: European eel (Anguilla anguilla), shad (Alosa spp.), Atlantic salmon (Salmo salar), brown trout (Salmo trutta), char (

1/ The pioneer canal in modern Europe was the Canal du Midi finished in 1 681 to link the Mediterranean with the Atlantic - 54 -

aloinus), the introduced lake trout (S. namavcush), various coregonids (Coreaonus spp.), pike (Esox lucius), grey mullets (Muail spp.), (Perca fluviatilis) and pike-perch (Stizostedion luciooerca). The introduced rainbow trout (Oncorhvnchus mvkiss) provides a minor fishery.

Several species of crayfish are also taken in fresh waters. The most common is Austr000tamobilus pallioes,, followed by Astacus astacus and A. torrentium. Introduced species are the well established Orconectes limosus, present since 1911, and Procambarus clarkii, Pacifastacus leniusculus, and Astacus leotodactvlus, which is raised by French culturists, as well as being the major crayfish imported for food.

Of the finfishes, although its present catch is small, the Atlantic salmon has received much attention, and illustrates some of the problems of fish maintenance in France. At one time, the Atlantic salmon fishery was very important in French streams ranging from Picardy to the Pyrenees and including the Doubs, Moselle Saar and Loire Basin. The decline of this fishery began in the Eighteenth Century after special fishing rights were granted to the Inscrits Maritimes (old enlistees in the Navy) thus allowing in the estuaries and tidal waters. This was accompanied by an increase in water pollution, navigation, and the construction of-barriers to migration. Divided authority between the Ministry of Marine, Bridges and Roads, Hydraulic Services, and Water and Forests further compounded the difficulties of salmon management. As an example of such decline, it has been estimated that the salmon catch in the Loire Basin of about 40 000 fish in 1891 had dwindled to less than 2 000 in the 1970s (Schwiebert, 1975).

Circa 1957, the catch of Atlantic salmon in France was estimated as about 10 000 in Normandy and Brittany, 6 900 in the Loire Basin, and 20 000 in the Gaves des Pyrenees for a total of 36 000 fish or (at 7 kg a fish) 250 t (Charpy, 1957). By 1971, it was estimated that the entire catch of salmon in France amounted to only 2 900 fish by sports fishermen and 1 800 by commercial fishermen (Netboy, 1974). Reduction continued. Even in one of the best French areas, the Adour (Gave d'Oloron basin), between 1972 and 1977 there was a reduction in take from 600 to 200 salmon (66 percent) by anglers and from 2 000 to 100 (95 percent) by commercial fishermen (Brunet, 1980). See also Table 12.

According to Netboy (1974), runs still exist in the Gaves d'Oloron (the most viable salmon fishery in France), d'Ossau, de Nive and d'Aspe in southwestern France; in Brittany in the Aulne, Elle, Laita and Odet, Triex and Leff; in Normandy in the See, Sienne and Selune; and in the Allier. Brunet (1980) lists the salmon streams of France (south to north) as follows: Adour (Gave d'Oloron and Nive), Nivelle, Loire (Allier), and about 25 small rivers in Brittany (mainly), Normandy and Picardy.

With respect to the entire capture fishery, FAO (1979), without citing its source, says that the total production from France's inland waters "...is unlikely to be less than 50 000 t..." from both commercial and sport fishing. Similarly (i.e., without indicating its source) and without specifying whether the catch was commercial or recreational, Europa (1988) stated that the catch of fish from inland waters in France in 1985 was 29 820 t. See section 9.1 for other estimates.

7.1.1 Commercial fishing

In addition to the fishes listed above as being sought after by both commercial and sport fishermen, the following are sought after only by professional fishermen: sea lamprey (Petromvzon marinus), lampern (Lamoetra fluviatilis), sturgeon (Acioenser sturio), smelt (Osmerus everlanus), burbot (Lota &t.a), silverside (Atherina sp.) and flounder (Platichthvs flesus).

According to France/EIFAC (1974), the estimated catch of inland fish for food in France (by professional, semi-professional, and "amateur" fishermen using commercial type gear) was as follows:

(i) 5 000 t from freshwater public domain, including rivers and smaller streams; (ii) 11 000 t from "etangs" and small lakes and ponds totalling 110 000 ha (it is not clear how much of this production is to be considered of wild fish and how much of fish cultivated on an extensive scale); - 55 -

(iii) 2 000 t, mostly of "poisson blanc" from large lakes; (iv) 3 000 t of eels and elvers (civelles)1'

A request to France from EIFAC in 1979 to amend these figures totalling 21 000 t, resulted in no change in the estimates nor in further explanation. Unless the "amateur" fishermen took an exceedingly large percentage of this catch, however, the figures below, which are all based on "official" French statistics show that this estimated catch was entirely too large.

First, we turn to the FAO Yearbook of Fishery Statistics. With but one exception, during the 1965-84 period it does not contain any useful statistics on the catch of the majority of freshwater fishes in France. During this period the Yearbook states that the catch of "freshwater fishes" or catches in "inland waters" are "not available", except that - strangely enough - it does provide a list of catches in inland waters for the single year of 1 980. (the same information is derived from FISHDAB)v. Table 10 provides this record. It will be obvious from the discussion in section 7.2 that the "catch" of 20 000 t of rainbow trout listed in the table represents the aquacultural production for the year. It seems quite possible that most of the "catch" of cyprinids and common carp also represents aquacultural production.

Then, in 1985, the FAO Yearbook again started listing the inland fish "catch" in France in some detail (see Table 11). Again, it is quite obvious that most of this "catch" is aquacultural production (see section 7.2).

Finally, we note the estimated maximum commercial catch by inland fishermen in France in 1989 reproduced in Table 12.

The combined evidence from Tables 10-12 plus that shown in Table 13 shows that the commercial catch by inland fishermen in France is quite low.

The FAO Yearbooks do list the catch of diadromous fishes in France for Marine Statistical Area 27, the Northeast Atlantic, and Area 37, The Mediterranean (see Table 1 3). These somewhat erratic statistics are reproduced here only to illustrate the difficulties of attempting to derive conclusions from such figures. For example, the sudden appearance of the trout catches in the Northeast Atlantic in 1978, and of rainbow trout in 1985-87 ( which I doubt), and the ups and downs in the eel catch are all very puzzling.

Partial catches from several areas are recorded by various authors as follows.

Forrest (1976) says that the greatest concentration of eels in Europe is to be found in the rivers flowing into the Bay of Biscay, especially the Loire and the Gironde, and that about 800 million elvers are taken annually in this area. Cantrelle al. (1982) cites a national catch of 1 345 t of elvers in 1970: 800 t from the Loire, 65 t from the Vie, Lay, Sevre Niortaise and Charente, 200 t from the Gironde, and 285 t from the Adour. They point out that the elver fishery in France is practised essentially on water courses and certain parts of its Atlantic coast, and that the fishery is considered maritime on the coast and in the estuaries

1/ Although a basic principle (restated in the Act of 10 July 1970) forbids any non-professional to sell his catch, nonetheless, the line between "professional" and "amateur" or recreational fishermen is not always clearly drawn in France. For example, with respect to sea fishing, recreational sailors and fishermen can (under a decree of 14 July 1971) use a wide variety and amount of gear for each boat, e.g., 2 rods, 2 longlines with 30 hooks, 2 traps, 1 harpoon, a landing net, and in the Atlantic Ocean, La Manche and North Sea even a trammel net. Furthermore, elvers in the Loire estuary and Allis shad in the Gironde may be fished and sold by non-professionals who live in the area. Resentment of such practices has afforded both latent and open conflict between the two classes of fishermen (OECD, Committee for Fisheries, 1981)

2/ The French statistical yearbooks are also lacking in such information - 56 -

and water courses below the point where salinity ends, and fluvial above this point (see section 8.1). Without good concordance of the marine and freshwater regulations, as well as because of diversities in categorization of the fishermen (maritime, fluvial, professional or amateur), control of the fishery is difficult. With respect to the catch of wild eels in France, Brown (1977, 1983) states that about 4 000 t are taken from fresh water, 3 000 t from brackish waters of the Mediterranean, and 1 000 t from brackish waters of the Atlantic (see also Table 10-12). Most of the large eels from France are exported to Italy, Belgium, Germany and the Netherlands. Most of the eels are exported to Spain.

Another example of commercial catches in an entire estuary, is given by Castelnaud et al. (1982). With respect to the Gironde, the 1978 catch was composed of: 400 t of eels, 190 t of elvers, 630 t of shad and 74 t of lamprey.

Table 10

Nominal catches in the inland waters of France, 1980 (in tons)

Lampreys (Petromyzonidae) 200

Common carp (Cvorinus carob) 2 130

Cyprinids (Cyprinidae) n.e.i. 990

Pike (Esox lucius) 110

Freshwater fishes, n.e.i. 45

European eel (Anguilla anguilla) 2 582

Atlantic salmon (Salmo salar) 29

Rainbow trout (Oncorhvnchus mvkiss) 20 000

Allis and Twaite shad (Alosa spp.) 1 000

Mullets (Mugilidae) 920

Total finfish 28 006

Freshwater prawns and shrimp 59 (Palaemonidae)

Total 28 065

Source: FAO Fish.Dept.Fishery Statistical Database (FISHDAB) or FAO Yearbook of Fishery Statistics, 52 (Publ. 1983) - 57 -

Table 11

Nominal catches in the inland waters of France, 1985-87 (in tons)

Species 1985 .. 1986 1987

Common carp (Cyorinus caroio) 3 270 3 270 4 000

Cyprinids n.e.i (Cyprinidae) 820 820 3 000

Pike (Esox lucius) 1 80 180 400

European catfish (Silurus alanis) ------5

European eel (Anauilla anauilla) 380 1 003 350

Sturgeons n.e.i (Acipenseridae) ------10

Atlantic salmon (Salmo salar) 80 80 80

Trouts n.e.i (Salmo spp.) ...... 1 000

Rainbow trout (Oncorhynchus mvkiss) 24 650 28 450 30 000

Coho salmon (0. kisutch) 200 200 200

Eastern brook trout (Salvelinus fontinalis ... 350 350

Total finfish 29 580 34 353 39 395

Giant freshwater prawn (Macrobrachium rosenberaii) ... 1 87 192

Freshwater prawns and shrimp (Palaemonidae) 3 ... 13

Crayfish (AStacidae) ------99

Grand total 29 583 34 540 39 699 n.e.i not elsewhere indicated not available

Source: Yearb. Fish. Stat. FAO, 64 (Publ. 1989) - 58 -

Table 12

Estimated commercial catch by inland fishermen in France, 1989 (tons)

Species Weight

Cyprinids (Cyprinidae) 332.2

Sea lamprey (Petromvzon marinus) 116.9

Lampern or River lamprey (Lampetra fluviatilis) 1.1

Pike (Esox lucius) 19.4

European catfish (Silurus alanis) 0.7

Black catfish (Ictalurus melas) 26.4

Burbot (Lota Iota) 31.7

European perch (Perca fluviatilis) 98.1

Pike-perch (Stizostedion vitreum) 58.8

Black bass (Micropterus sp.) 0.9

European eel, adult (Anauilla anauilla) 302.4

European eel, elver (A. anouilla) 41.2

Coregonid or whitefish (Coreaonus spp.) 107.7

Atlantic salmon (Salmo salar) 2.7

Brown trout (S. trutta) 26.6

Char (Salvelinus alpinus) 6.2

Allis shad (Alosa alosa) 246.2

Twaite shad (A. fallax) 14.9

Grey mullet (Mugilidae) 135.4

Flounder (Platichthvs flesus) 0.4

Friture (Cyprinidae and Percidae) 81.8

Bait fishes (various) 1.7

Crayfish (Astacidae) 7.1

Crevette blanche (Palaemon lonairostris) 4.1

Miscellaneous 0.7

1 665.2

Source: Babin (1991) - 59 -

The number of professional fishermen (i.e., those using nets and similar gear) in the inland waters of France during the 1967-88 period ranged from a high of 20 285 (1975) to a low of 9 431 (1987), according to France, Inst. Nat. Stat., 1978, 1982 and 1983. Circa 1990, however, the very detailed study of Castelnaud and Babin (1990) showed that on the national level there were only: 486 professional inland fishermen (those who use nets or similar gear and can market their catch ("pecheurs professionels fluviaux"), 118 people associated with this industry ("travailleurs de la [Ache"), and somewhat more than 1 200 people using lines to catch fish commercially ("pecheurs commerciaux"). Sixty-three percent of the professional inland fishermen fished intensively and 38 percent of the group had fishing as their only profession. Obviously, inland commercial fishing is declining in France.

Commercial gear used in France for inland fishing comprises the usual equipment: trammel and gillnets, bag nets, eel pots, dipnets, etc. Castelnaud and Babin (1990) illustrate this gear.

7.1.2 Sport fishing

A clear distinction between sport or recreational fishing and commercial fishing in France is that sport fishermen cannot, by law, market their fish. Despite the overlaps in type of gear used by the two groups, most sport fishermen angle, i.e., use hook and line to capture their quarry.

Derivation of statistics on the number of anglers in France is facilitated since it is forbidden to fish "free waters" or eaux libres (see section 8.1) without being a member of an official fishing and piscicultural association and paying an annual fishing tax used for development of national fishery resources. (The following statistics are derived from: Conseil Superieur de la ['oche (1980), and France, Inst.Nat.Stat. (1978, 1982 and 1983).

In 1950, 1 856 105 people paid this special fishing tax, and during the 1967-80 period the number ranged from a high of 2 874 000 (1967) to a low of 2 359 400 (1980). The Conseil (gp ciI) further stated that if one took into consideration fishermen exempted under the tax (e.g., those under 16, wives, military personnel on leave), there were about 4 million amateur fishermen in France or one angler per 13 people.

Although the number of licensed anglers has not increased in recent years, fishing pressure is higher because access to many of the better waters is less than in the past. Tourist fishing is also increasing. There is also an increase in the number of people who pay a supplementary tax to fish for salmonids and other carnivorous fish. Rising from 308 815 fishermen in 1950 to a height of 1 956 200 in 1971 and to 1 984 200 in 1988, most of the French sport fishermen now pay this supplementary tax.

About three quarters of the French sport fishermen are bait fishermen (using hook and line supported by a float). The others are primarily cast (spinning), troll and net fishers. Of those who use artificial lures, fly fishermen rank lowest in number. Table 13

Nominal catches of diadromous species and mullets in marine statistical fishery areas by France, 1965-87 (in tons) Area 27, Northeast Atlantic

Lampreys European eel Sturgeon Atlantic salmon Trout n.e.i European smelt Allis and twaite : Rainbow trout (Petromyzontidae) (Anguilla anguilla) ( Acipenser sturio) (SaImo salar) (SaImo sm.) (Osmerus shads (Alosa :(Oricorhyrichiat niykige):: eperlanus) alosa, A. fallax)

1965 0 0 0 0 .900

1966 0 0 0 0 800

1967 0 0 0 0 800

1968 0 0 0 0 1 000

1969 0 0 0 0 1 200

1970 0 0 0 0 1 400

1971 600 0 0 100 1 400

1972 700 0 0 0 1 500

1973 2 900 0 0 0 2 900

1974 0 1 114 0 1 27 761

1975 0 1 140 1 4 0 26 803

1976 21 1 300 0 2 0 24 1 487

1977 0 244 0 0 0 0 1 127

1978 1 65 0 2 37 5 1 302

1979 4 1 083 4 3 7 13 1 567

1980 13 909 0 23 0 13 1 436

1981 0 335 0 5 42 4 49 1 045

1982 9 535 0 20 83 0 39 855

1983 19 605 0 11 1 0 58 1 294

1984 496 0 4 9 32 1 201

1985 407 0 5 17 28 1 382 462

1986 697 11 64 203" 16 62 1 947 645

1987 616 0 72 359' 9 58 1 446 650 Table 13 (continued)

Area 37, Mediterranean and Black Sea

Year Lampreys European eel Sturgeon Atlantic salmon Trout n.e.i European smelt Allis and twaite Mullets Rainbow trout (Petromyzontidae) (Anguilla anguilla) (Acipenser sturio) (Salmo salar) (SaImo spp.) (Osmerus shads (Alosa (Mugil spp.) (Oncorhynchus mykiss) eperlanus) alosa, A. fallax)

1965 1 700' 0 500

1966 1 300 0 500

1967 2 000 0 600

1968 2 700 0 600

1969 1 900 0 800

1970 4 200 0 900

1971 4 300 100 900

1972 1 900 0 800

1973 1 000 0 500

1974 1 379 0 643

1975 795 0 750

1976 1 659 0 693

1977 1 294 0 936

1978 1 875 0 1 325

1979 2 061 - 0 1 985

1980 1 012 0 1 741

1981 1 090 0 2 718

1982 934 0 2 337

1983 1 251 0 1 721

1984 1 810 - 1 671

1985 1 501 - 1 118

1986 1 224 - 1 169

1987 1 362 - ...

0 probably nil, negligible or insignificant; or less than 50 t during 1965-73, or less than half a ton during later years a/ listed as sea trout (SaImo trutta) n.i.e Not included elsewhere b/ 1965-70 catch estimated by FAO this category not listed this year not available Source: 1965-69 Yearb.Fish.Stat.FAO, 36 (Publ. 1974) 1970-83 FAO Fish.Dept.Fishery Statistical database (FISHDAB) 1984-87 Yearb.Fish.Stat.FAO, 64 (Pub.1989) - 62 -

7.2 Aauaculture

The production in France through aquaculture is difficult to express quantitatively because of a general vagueness in the use of this term (or the allied term "pisciculture") by many authors. Thus, de Kinkelin and Tuffery (1972) said that according to Charpy (1968), the production from different sectors of pisciculture in France attains 23 000 t/year, divided into 12 000 t from salmoniculture and 11 000 t from ponds ("etangs"). It appears obvious from the authors that a portion of the piscicultural production was used for stocking waters for angling (repeuplement des plans d'eau), and thus does not represent fish culture in the sense that the product is destined for immediate consumption following harvest'. A later paper (PiIlay, 1979) using data derived from France, stated that France's aquacultural production in 1975 was estimated at 15 000 t. From other data at hand (see Table 14), this figure probably represented only the trout production in that year, and unfortunately, the titles of some papers which would appear to cover the subject are grossly misleading'.

Freshwater aquaculture in France is devoted primarily to raising rainbow trout and common carp. Three other cyprinids, tench (Tinca tinca), roach (Rutilus rutilus), rudd (Scardinius ervthroohthalmus), and pike (Esox lucius) are also commonly raised in French fish ponds. More or less reliable figures on the production of these fishes are given below. In addition to freshwater pond culture, various finfishes, crustaceans, and molluscs are obtained from brackish or saline waters in France where it is often difficult to distinguish between the products of extensive aquaculture and those of a capture fishery. As elsewhere in this report, the subject of either aquaculture or capture fisheries in littoral "inland" areas where brackish waters prevail is not well covered for France.

Trout. In 1945, France produced about 1 500 t of rainbow trout. It took 20 years to double this production: 2 992 t in 1965. But then in only two years it doubled again to 6 006 t in 1967, and almost redoubled (to 11 595 t) by 1972. It then took about nine years to again double the output to say, 21 000- 24 000 t in 1981. Today, France and Italy are the largest producers of consumable trout in Europe. France raised 32 000 t of trout in 1989 (see Table 14). Of these, FES (1989) says that 29 000 were "portion-size" trout and 3 000 t were "large trout". Almost all of the trout raised for consumption are rainbow, although a few eastern brook trout (Salvelinus fontinalis) are also raised for food (Table 14).

In 1975, there were 700 trout farms in France, but about 200 of these simply bought fish of about 160 g and grew them within a few weeks to sell at market size of 180-200 g. The remaining 500 farms both hatched and grew out trout, and about 50 of these accounted for half of the country's production. Most of the country's production is in northern France, especially Brittany and Normandy.

Trout are both exported mainly to Belgium, and imported mainly from Italy and Denmark.

Although most of France's trout are raised in fresh water, circa 1977 about 200 t were raised in brackish water with yields ranging from 4 to 20 t/ha (Brown, 1983). About half of this production came from the Mediterranean, and efforts are being made to increase trout production in both brackish and sea water. In 1983, about 500 t of trout were raised in salt water according to Fish Farm. Inter., 11(11) (1984), and in 1987 the same statistics held (Allardi, 1990).

Aside from table fish, there is a growing demand in France for trout to be stocked for fee fishing especially near Paris. It is estimated that 5-10 percent of the total production is sold for this purpose.

As Huet (1970) says: "Les poissons eleves sont destines a la consommation ou au repeuplement des eaux libres (eaux courantes; eaux stagnantes: lacs et etangs naturels et artificiels)"

2/ A good example is the paper "General Situation of Aquaculture in France" by Rouzaud (1973) which is confined to an outline of research on and the initial production of marine and euryhaline species Table 14

Production of cultivated trout in France, 1965-89 (in tons)

Year :France/ Giorgetti and ShavV, Sham/. Fish Fish Farm. Inter. Allard( FAO, Fish.lrifo. FE$: °, WAC(1 974) Ceschia (1982) and Thomas 9( 10)::(1982) 11(7) (1984) (1990) Data and.Stat. (18860989) (1981) Serv.(1991)°`

1965 2 992

1966 4 418

1967 6 006

1968 7 108

1969 7 827

1970 9 206

1971 10 516

1972 11 595

1973 13 500

1974 15 000 15 000 14 000

1975 16 000 16 000

1976 13 000 13 000 15 000

1977 14 000 14 000 15 000

1978 18 000 17 000 18 000 18 000

1979 18 000 18 000 18 000

1980 20 000 19 000

1981 21 000 24 000

1 982 25 000

1983 25 000

1984 24 000

1985 24 662 25 500

1 986 29 095 26 945

1 987 30 500 30 850

1988 32 100 30 500

1989 31 350 32 000

a/ All rainbow trout except as follows: 1984 plus 200 t of "others"; 1985 - plus 270 t of "other salmonids"; 1986 - plus "other and unspecified salmonlds" b/ All rainbow trout (500 t in the sea) except for 350 t Eastern brook trout in addition c/ All rainbow trout except as follows: 1986-87 500 t brown trout (est.) and 350 t Eastern brook trout; 1988-800 t brown trout (eat) and 350 t Eastern brook trout; 1989- 1 000 t brown trout and 350 t Eastern brown trout - 64 -

FAO, Info. Data, and Stat. Serv. (1991) listed brown trout (SaImo trutta) as an aquacultural product of France (interpreted by the author as raising them for food) during the 1986-89 period, but either the listing or the interpretation may be incorrect. Allardi (1990) presents an official French table showing that this species was raised only for "repeuplement" in France in 1987, and the same conclusion probably holds true for both previous and later years. In 1987, about 37.5 million "catchable" (one or two summers) browns plus millions of eyed and alevins were produced for stocking streams, lakes and reservoirs. In short, brown trout are raised primarily to stock recreational fishing waters, and the best trout areas are usually stocked annually.

Coho salmon. In 1975, about 25 t of this introduced Pacific salmon (Oncorhvnchus kisutch) were produced by the French government at a seawater pilot plant and it was believed that 500 t could be raised by 1980 (Girin and Harache, 1979). Allardi (1990) lists 600 t raised in France in 1987, and FAO, Fish. Info. Date and Stat. Serv. (1991) lists 1 085 t of Coho salmon raised there in 1989.

Cvpriniculture. Data on the French production of common carp, related species and associates (such as pike) is by no means as reliable as that which can be obtained for trout production. Brown (in both 1977 and 1983), for example, stated that total cultured carp production in France was difficult to determine - no government studies or data being available. He further stated that estimates of total yearly production of carp ranged from about 5 000 to 14 000 t. He also said that the most intensive carp producer in France, who both fed his fish and fertilized his ponds, produced 225-250 t from 200 ha, an average annual yield of 1.25 t/ha. Brown (1983) stated that very few farmers made their living solely from carp production, i.e., the production and sale of carp were supplemental to other agricultural enterprises. Most carp require three summers of growth in France before being sold for food at a size of about 1 kg. (Matena and Berka (1987) say that their marketable size in France is 1 200 - 1 800 g). Furthermore, many fingerlings are sold for sport fishing.

A more detailed account of French cypriniculture is found in Williot (1980) under the misleading title of "Etat actuel de la Pisciculture d'Etang en France"; he actually covered only freshwater pond fish culture and that for only some of the major regions of France. However, one does learn that the principal species cultured in these ponds are common carp, roach, rudd, and pike, that most of their reproduction is natural and that fertilization if practised (often it is not) is generally with lime. The ponds are mostly old ones in poorly drained areas otherwise unsuitable for agricultural use, are fed mostly by rainfall, are shallow, usually under 10 ha in area, and owned by agriculturists. The major pond areas of France are: Dombes, Moselle/Lorraine, Brenne, Camargue and Sologne. The average annual yields in the Dombes were 180-200 kg/ha, 140 kg/ha in Lorraine, and 100 kg/ha in Brenne. Harvest is from October to January.

Table 15 shows the aquacultural production in France of cyprinids and all other non-salmonoid inland fishes during the 1984-89 period as listed in two FAO publications. Although the information presented there was obtained from France, it seems probable to me that the table includes both aquacultural production for food and production for repopulation (stocking). For this reason, it is believed that Table 16 illustrating the complete aquacultural production in France in 1987 presents a more accurate picture.

In any case, it appears obvious that common carp production is far greater than that of all other "warmwater fish". Most of the carp are sent to Germany according to Girin (1989).

Eel culture. Eel are cultivated in fresh, brackish and salt water. In France, eels of 150-200 g could be expected at the end of the second season following intensive feeding. According to Brown (1977, 1983) the only intensive eel farms in France in 1975 were discontinuing their operations because of production problems and low prices. Fish Farm. Int. (1980) has a more optimistic account of a French test station on the Loire where 30-50 t of eel/year could be produced using heated water from a nuclear plant. Extensive eel culture is practised to some extent in France's brackish waters, but wild eel are abundant and most of the catch of adults and elvers is exported.

Crustaceans. Although crayfish are found in all parts of France, they are rare in hard rock regions, and have been reduced because of loss of habitat and the crayfish plague (Aphanornyces astaci). Crayfish farming was important in France a century ago, but has now diminished to a few farms raising Astacus - 65 -

leotodactvlus and A. astacus. Brown (1983) stated that about 10 t of A. leotodactvlus were raised at about six French farms. France now depends largely upon imports for its highly desired crayfish supply. In 1978, 2 006 t were imported of which 1 964 t were from Turkey (Arrignon, 1981). Only 5 t of crayfish were raised in France in 1989 according to FAO, Info. Data. and Stat. Serv. (1991).

Shrimps or prawns are also raised in France, the introduced giant freshwater prawn (Macrobrachium rosenberqii) from Asia being one of them.

Table 15

Aquacultural production of non-salmonoid inland fishes in France, 1984-89 (in tons)

1984 1985 1986 1987 1988 1989

Common carp (Cyprinus carpio) 4 370 4 370 4 370 4 000 4 335 4 500

Roaches (Rutilus spp) ------1 870 2 000 2 200 2 500

Tench (Tinca tinca) ------1 170 1 000 1 200 500F

Pike (Esox lucius) ------390 400 440 450

Unspecified cyprinids 3 000 3 040 3 040 ------

Unspecified freshwater pond fish 390 390 ------

European catfish (Silurus glanis) ------60 5 5 10

Eel (Anguilla anquilla) 1 0 1 0 237 400 770 810

Sturgeons (Acipenseridae) -- --- 10 1 0 10 10

Sea bass (Dicentrarchus labrax) 20 25 90 140 1 45 100F

Gilthead (Sparus auratus) ___ 15 10 1 0 170 2OF

Crayfishes (Astacidae) ___ 5F 5F 5

Giant freshwater prawn (Macrobrachium 187 192 195 280 rosenbergii)

Freshwater shrimps 1 ------a/: This table apparently includes all types of aquaculture (both for food and repopulation) F: FAO estimate Source: 1984-1985 - Girin (1989) 1 986-1989 - FAO, Fish.Info.,Data and Stat. Serv. (1991) - 66 -

Table 16

Official aquacultural production of non-salmonoid inland fishes in France, 1987

Pond ("Rang") production Tons Number

Production for food

Common carp 2 500 ---

Tench 450 ---

Roaches and other cyprinids 300 ---

Pike 200 ---

Other associated species 400 ---

Products derived from carp 200 ---

Production for repopulation

Common carp 1 500 17 million fry

Tench 550 25 million fry

Roaches and other cyprinids 1 500 ---

Pike 200 6 million embryonic eggs

Other associated species --- 2 million fingerlings

--- 300 000 adults

Pike-perch (Stizostedion luciooerca) --- 150 000 fry

Catfish --- 100 000 fry

Brackish water production

European eel 380 ---

Grey mullets (Mugilidae) 240 ---

Sea bass 25 ---

Prawn/shrimp ("Crevettes imperiales") 13 ---

"Production dites nouvelles"

Eel (in fresh water - intensive system) 50 ---

Elvers (intensive system) 250 ---

Catfish some ---

Crayfish some ---

Sturgeons (Acipenseridae) 1 0 ---

Prawn/shrimp ("Chevrettes (DOM-TOM)") 192 ---

Source: Allardi (1990) after a study by G. Pineli of the French Ministry of Agriculture (Bureau aquaculture continentale) in Aqua Revue, (22), Dec. Jan. 1989 - 67 -

Other species. Aside from the culture of molluscs and marine crustaceans (not considered in this report), various euryhaline fishes contribute to the fishery in the brackish littoral waters of France. Predominant among these are: European eel (Anguilla anguilla) (see above) grey mullets (Mugil spp.), sea bass (Dicentrarchus labrax), gilthead bream (Sparus auratus) and other sparids, sole (Solea vulaaris) and floundery. Their utilization is based primarily on their migration from the sea into lagoons in the spring and their return in autumn when they are usually captured in simple traps. This is, therefore, more of a capture fishery than true aquaculture, and in general aquaculture in French lagoon (termed marais a poisson) has not reached the level of the valliculture ("vallicoltura") practised in Italy's brackish water (see Italy).

Although the culture of sea bass and sea bream is still mainly dependent on the capture of wild fry it is now moving towards hatchery production. Circa 1989 there were 6 hatcheries for these fish in France (Girin, 1989.)

Fish feed manufacturers are now well established in France for trout, shrimp and other species, as are manufacturers of aquacultural equipment. Aquaculture is well on its way nationally.

As emphasized before, however, this report does not pretend to cover adequately either aquaculture or capture fisheries in France's brackish waters, even though they may be considered "inland". There has been some discussion of these in section 5.5 on lagoons, and a recent, if generalized, report of France's coastal aquaculture along the Mediterranean can be found in ADCP (1979).

8. OWNERSHIP, ADMINISTRATION, AND MANAGEMENT2'

8.1 Ownership

Under the law in France, a distinction is made between "free waters" (eaux libres) and "landlocked waters" (eaux closes). Free waters include all bodies of waters and their tributaries that eventually flow into the sea. The downstream limit of such a system is formed by the point of appearance of salinity which is determined by decree. Land-locked waters are those closed off in such a way that they cannot communicate with free waters except by flooding or emptying. They can be ponds, ditches, or even small lakes. These land-locked waters are outside the jurisdiction of fluvial fishing regulations under the Rural Code, and their owners and their assignees can fish them in any season, day or night, or by any means except the use of poison.

The free waters in France include: (i) lakes and streams of the public domain, and (ii) private lakes and streams. (See sections 5.1 and 5.2 for their extent and Table 17 with respect to their ownership.)

(i) Waters in the public domain. These include not only lakes and streams intended for navigation (and their tributaries), but also water courses which supply water for agricultural, industrial and domestic use, or are used for flood control. Fishery leases on waters of the public domain are renewed every five years both for line fishing and the use of other types of gear.

11 Under the heading "Supply of species with aquaculture potential", ADCP (1979) states that "According to 1976 statistics, the catches of cultivable species along the Mediterranean coast of France consisted of 1 612 t of mullet, 1 508 t of eel, 283 t of sole, 1 587 t of Sparidae, including the gilthead and other breams, and 1 661 t of demersal percomorphs, including the sea bass". Obviously these totals do not represent presently cultivated fish, and the statistics do not agree with those of the FAO Yearbook of Fishery Statistics. (See Table 16)

2/ This section is derived from: Gaudet (1974), material received from France by EIFAC in 1979, Aptekman (1979), Cons. Sup. de la Peche (1980), and personal communication (March 1992) from M.G. Castelnaud (CEMAGREF) who also used material received from J. Allardi (CEMAGREF) and D. Viard of the Cons. Sup. de la Peche - 68 -

(ii) Private waters. These are waters whose beds belong to the riparian owners.

As is shown in Table 17, the proportion of private property in the total fishing area is very large. There is a good deal of competitive bidding for lease of fishing rights on these areas, and - especially in land- locked waters where the fishing tax is not imposed - some owners prefer to fish the property themselves.

There are no legislative provisions establishing a general order or priority between different water uses, areas, or established rights.

Table 17

Ownership in France within the total fishing area (percent)

Rivers Lakes and ponds

Public domain 12.4 42.0

Property of federations 5.4 2.5 and associations

Private domain 82.2 55.5

Total 100.0 100.0

Source: Cons. Sup. de la !Ache (1980) after a survey in 1977 by the Societe Frangaise d'Enquetes par Sondage (SOFRES)

8.2 Administration and Management

Two ministries are generally responsible for administration of French inland fisheries: the Ministry of the Environment and the Ministry for Agriculture and Forest.

8.2.1 Ministry of the Environment

With respect to inland fisheries, the following elements are involved: the General Inspectorate for the Environment; the General Secretariat of the High Committee for the Environment; the Service of Research and Information for the Environment; Directorate for the Prevention of Pollution, and the Directorate for the Protection of Nature.

The latter Directorate includes a Service of Fisheries and Hydrobiology. It also supervises the Conseil Superieur de la Peche. (As the latter has a certain degree of autonomy, it will be discussed separately, in section 8.2.3.)

8.2.2 Ministry for Agriculture and Forests

With respect to fisheries, there is a Directorate for Veterinary Services, two laboratories of Aquatic Animal Pathology, a Directorate of Production and Exchanges and a Directorate of Rural Area and Forest.

8.2.3 Conseil Superieur de la Peche

This fisheries council is classified as a national public body having both an advisory and technical function. It has legal status and is financially autonomous, under the supervision of the Ministry of - 69 -

Environment. Its principal mandates are to: (i) give technical advice to fishing groups and public authorities on ways to enhance, protect or manage fish populations and aquatic ecosystems; (ii) advise public authorities on legislation and regulations concerning inland fishing; (iii) to train and manage 650 nationally appointed wardens with fisheries environmental and pollution police powers.

One aim of the Conseil is to distribute responsibility among public authorities, the Conseil, and approved groups of fishermen. The authorities look after policing, control and exploitation of fish in domanial waters, and policing and control of fishing in private waters, as well as the legislative, regulatory and organizational aspects of fishing.

The Conseil's financial resources accrue from the fishing tax. It returns part of these monies to local fishing groups in the form of personnel put at their disposal as well as with certain subsidies to augment their own resources.

The approved fishing groups are the link between the authorities and riparian owners. They negotiate with owners of fishing rights and provide a channel of communication between various national, regional and departmental authorities and the fishermen.

Amateur and professional fishermen have equal representation on the Conseil Superieur with local authorities concerned with fishing. Other groups consulted are representatives of riparian owners, manufacturers and sellers of fishing equipment, national associations of specialized fishermen, fish breeders and environmental associations.

8.2.4 Fishermen's Groups

Amateur fishermen who fish in free waters must be members of an approved fishing and piscicultural association (Association Agreee de Peche et de Pisciculture) and pay an annual fishing tax. These associations (numbering 4 100 in 1 980) supervise fishing areas for their protection and development. The approved associations constitute a federation for each Department in France. The federations coordinate the actions of their members and develop and protect departmental resources against poaching and pollution. Each federation has at its disposal fishing wardens designated by the Conseil Superieur de la Peche as well as an individual budget, augmented by subsidies, for projects such as ponds, hatcheries and fish stocking. They have the status of State-approved establishments.

Professional fishermen who are lessees and permit holders have similar obligations. They must be members of an approved professional association (Association Agreee Departementale or Interdepartementale de Pecheurs Professionels) which collects a special fishing tax.

8.3 Scientific and Research Services

Major services of this type are the National Institute of Agronomic Research (INRA) and two hydrobiological stations: one at Biarritz and one for lake research at Thonon. There is also the French Institute of Agricultural and Environmental Engineering Research with a division for the Quality of Water and a division for Fisheries and Fishculture.

8.4 International Aareements

Bilateral agreements exist between France and Belgium on technical cooperation on navigable rivers, and between France and Switzerland on water quality and fisheries of Lac Leman and hydropower on boundary streams. France has a trilateral agreement with Belgium and Luxembourg on uses of their boundary streams.

France belongs to an international commission with Germany and Luxembourg concerning water quality of the Moselle and Saar rivers. - 70 -

It is a member of the International Commission for the Protection of the Rhine against pollution, given legal authority by a treaty together with Germany, Luxembourg, the Netherlands, Switzerland and the European Economic Community (EEC). This Commission is charged with drawing up permit and discharge standards and will fix the maximum tolerable levels of pollution in the Rhine.

France also belongs to the Central Commission for Navigation on the Rhine to guarantee freedom of navigation on this river. Other members include Germany, the Netherlands, Switzerland and the UK.

9. STATE OF THE FISHERY

9.1 Yield

Lacking the type of catch statistics (gross as they may be) available for most European countries in the FAO Yearbook of Fishery Statistics, it is difficult to trace general trends in the inland fishery catch in France.

It is, however, quite obvious that the fishery for its stocks of Atlantic salmon deteriorated long ago (see section 8.1), and that all of its salmonoid stocks are particularly vulnerable to continued manmade changes such as both chemical and thermal water pollution, the erection of barrier dams, diminished flows and gravel extraction. It is also obvious that since France is a large country with many individual waters, the yield of fish is spread over many areas. The vulnerability of stocks through deleterious effects of either nature or man are therefore minimized.

Tables 18 and 19 provide some estimates of the average yields and total annual production from France's inland waters in recent years.

Table 18

Estimated average yield of fish from French inland waters

Type of water kg/ha/year

Trout streams 65

Cyprinid brooks (ruisseaux) 80

Rivers 90

Navigable rivers 50

Natural lakes 16

Ponds (etangs) 120

Source: Cons. Sup. de la Peche (1980) French and English versions

It may be noted that the grand total of estimated production (i.e., catch) in Table 19 is close to the gross estimate made by Charpy (1957) of an annual freshwater production of almost 19 585 t from the same type of French waters. Charpy added that in addition to these figures one should add the catch of France's anadromous fishes, of which the annual catch of salmon alone was close to 260 t, and the production from private trout farms of (at the time) about 1 500 t. He also estimated that each of these harvests could be increased through better management so that those of all fluvial waters could be increased from 5 435 to - 71 -

7 658 t per year, those of lakes of the public domain from 700 to 950 t per year, reservoirs from 250 to 500 t per year, and private ponds from 13 200 to 22 000 t per year. This would amount to a total production of 31 108 t per year from the same type of waters represented in Table 18.

Arrignon (1985) has also cited a variety of "approximate" figures for both production and yield in France's inland waters. Some of these are exact duplicates of the figures in Tables 18 and 19 (although the source is not given) and some of his other figures are close to those quoted here.

In considering any of the figures cited here, one must bear in mind that they are all labelled as estimates, Charpy's prognostications of future yield appear to be based on the very theoretical formulae of Leger, and the estimates by the Conseil Superieur de la Peche (1980) are stated to be "...the result of sampling, rather than a more direct, census approach".

Substituting the term "yield" for "established practices", the author agrees generally with Souchon and Trocherie (1990) that its expression is most often based on know-how or empirical methods. The new methods to be followed in France as a result of the latest Freshwater Fisheries Act (1984) may serve to improve both figures on yield and improve, as Souchon and Trocherie (1990) prognosticate, freshwater ecosystem management.

With respect to freshwater aquaculture, it is noted that the yield from carp production is quite low, only about 180 kg/ha annually. This is far below that achieved even in a number of European countries where climatic conditions are more adverse, and can probably be attributed to the fact that much of the French carp culture has been extensive with little feeding.

Some yields reported from the brackish waters of France follow. It is not always clear whether they represent yields from what are essentially capture fisheries within confined waters or are at least partly the result of aquaculture. The Etang de Berre is reported to have produced more than 100 kg/ha/year of European eels for several years before the stocks became exhausted (ICES/EIFAC, 1976). Bonnet (1973) reports a yield of 158 kg/ha/year of finfish from this 15 000-ha lagoon in 1971, and 260 kg/ha/year of finfish in 1971 from the 7 500-ha Etang de Thau. Annual production in the 5 400-ha Etang de Salses-Leucate was over 200 kg/ha/year in the 1964-71 period, and only 35-50 kg/ha/year in 1976-78 (Quignard, 1984). Amanieu and Laserre (1981) report a yield (stock unspecified) of 89 kg/ha/year from 120 000 ha in the Golfe du Lion (Mediterranean in 1978). In Corsica, the yield of various euryhaline fishes from about 3 000 ha of lagoons was about 130 kg/ha/year (Kiener,1978), and from 3 200 ha of lagoons about 119 kg/ha/year in 1971 (Amanieu and Laserre, 1981). Frisoni (1981) says that the yield of finfish from the Corsican lagoon Biguglia was once 150 kg/ha/year, but is now 100 kg/ha/year, and that in 1978, the lagoon of Urbino produced 25 kg/ha/year and that of Diana only 10 kg/ha/year of finfish. Frisoni, Guelorget and Perthuisot (1984) say that Biguglia produces 100-150 kg/ha/year of eels, mullets, sea bass and sparids.

It has been considered by many that a yield of 150 kg/ha/year can be obtained from a brackishwater lagoon under good management (see Italy).

9.2 Factors Affecting the Fishery

The wide variety of France's inland waters - ranging from small Alpine torrents to large meandering rivers, and from high mountain tarns to deep natural lakes and warm brackish lagoons ensures a variety of fishing, as does its species complex. Its intricate system of canals and interconnected rivers ensures a wide distribution of species, and - in the case of introduced fishes - has heightened their spread. Furthermore, most of the country's growing season is rather long, for example, young salmon in the Allier grow rapidly, to become smolts when only 1 3-1 5 months old (see Norway). - 72 -

Table 19

Estimated annual fish production in the inland waters of France

Type of water t/year Percent of total

Trout streams (cours d'eau)

Brooks (ruisselets) 525

Creeks (ruisseaux) 420

Rivers (rivieres) 780

Total 1 725 7.3

Cyprinid/pike streams

Creeks 220

Small rivers 420

Floatable rivers 505

Navigable rivers 4 380

Total 5 525 23.6

Static waters (plans d'eau)

Natural lakes 800

Reservoirs (lacs de retenue) 400

Ponds (6tangs) 15 000

Total 16 200 69.1

Grand total 23 450 100.0

Source: Cons.Sup. de la Peche (1980) French and English versions

For a country of its size, France is, however, deficient in its number of large natural freshwater lakes, and thus the opportunity for yield from lacustrine fish such as coregonids is minimized. Furthermore, factors such as eutrophication and overexploitation seem to have reduced stocks and recreational of both char and coregonids in lakes such as Bourget. Coordination of regulations for both commercial fishing in Lake Leman (Geneva) which is shared with Switzerland has been a helpful recent move (see, especially, Gerdeaux (1990). Fisheries in its large reservoirs have not attained a position of as great importance as might be expected.

There is, therefore, an emphasis upon stream fishing, but even here conditions are not always optimal - particularly because of the great variations in flow of many of the rivers. For example, in the Dordogne the ratio between maximum and minimum flow is 1:780. And, with respect, to the country\ wide gross surface flows, there is a seasonal fluctuation from a median January figure of 9 800 m3/sec down to an August flow of only 2 800 m3/sec, and at least every hundred years the low season flow may be as low as 1 000 m3/sec throughout France (House, 1978). Such variations affect fisheries vitally; they affect the fishing itself, habitat, food production, migration and water quality. Such fluctuations have also encouraged the construction of flood control structures, aids to navigation and impoundments for generation of electricity (the great drops in streams such as those in the Alps have also been a factor in the latter development). Some of these developments have been an aid to fisheries. Others have been detrimental, especially where barriers to migration have been created and where the flows below dams have been severely lessened.

Water pollution is also a problem. For example, circa 1972 it was reported that with respect to fish kills in France, about 30 percent were caused by the chemical industry, 27 percent by agricultural wastes, - 73 -

and 22 percent by domestic sewage (Holden and Lloyd, 1972). Furthermore, it should be noted that the annual runoff, at present about 3 732 m3 per caput, is well below the European average. Were France a densely populated country, the annual runoff would not be enough to maintain reasonably good water quality in its rivers.

Nevertheless, water quality in France is generally conducive to fish production, for throughout most of the country the rivers are not so badly polluted that aquatic life is drastically harmed. There is still relatively low public sewerage in rural areas, and concentration of industry in the north minimizes country- wide pollution from this source. Furthermore, the treatment capacity, in terms of millions of person- equivalents, increased from 13.0 in 1970 to 48.5 in 1980. Improvement in water quality is shown in Table 20.

Unlike a good many European countries, a great effort is made in France to derive direct revenue from angling through sale of fishing licences which is then used to improve fishing through stocking, control of overfishing, and other forms of management. Although most of the choice (trout) fishing is in the hands of private owners, the State allows licensed anglers to fish in all public waters.

9.3 Prospect

Given the large size of the country, its relatively low population density, the emphasis on agriculture (without severe demands for irrigation), and generally favourable ecological conditions - the prospect for continued inland fisheries in France is good.

The anadromous fisheries have suffered greatly through past development, but there have been as yet only limited intercatchment exchanges (other than those to sustain inland navigation) which might affect fisheries adversely. As in the UK an integrated approach to river basin management came at a rather late date to France (circa 1965-66) and is still in its early stages. It is obvious that great changes will now occur in these basins.

The number and length of waterways in commercial use is actually declining; conversely, tonnage on these waterways has increased. Many more reservoirs will be built, especially to increase critical low water flows, and this will obviously change fishing patterns. There is also a move in France to encourage industries to use surface rather than ground water. The extent of all the changes and the effects upon fisheries cannot be appraised accurately, but some extent of the magnitude of impending changes may be visualized by noting the following estimations. In 1967, the Commission de l'Eau, Water for Peace 1967, estimated that by the year 2025, with a population of 60 million, the total water needed for domestic, industrial, agricultural and navigational use in France would amount to 122 000 million m3 annually, as against a use of only 43 000 million m3 in 1970. Another estimate (House, 1978) stated that by the year 2000, domestic requirements in France would rise by a factor of 2.3 and the needs for power station cooling and process water by 5.7 (Cf. section 6). Obviously, there will be serious competition between alternative users for the available supplies.

Despite such competition, it is believed that the general goals of water quality management in France now include: (i) no further deterioration, and (ii) gradual improvement over time (Johnson and Brown, 1976). It is known that since an effluent charge programme began around 1970, water quality began to improve, and that there has been more abatement in the last few years than in all the previous ones. As an example of improvement, diversion of sewage from the Lake of Nantua in the 1970s drastically reduced orthophophates with subsequent cessation of the proliferation of Oscillatoria rubescens (Feuillade et at, 1984). See also Table 20.

As in most European countries, the general outlook for commercial capture fishing in inland waters is one of gradual decline. Sport fishing, backed up by active angling associations, will remain the most important type. There is now some effort to make it more of a tourist attraction but, with respect to angling, France is thought of primarily as a place for resident fishermen. Table 20

Changes in the quality of surface waters in France, 1977-1988

Percentages in each category Quality 1977 1979 1981 1983 1984 1985 1986 1987 1988

With respect to biological oxygen demand

Water free from pollution 1 0.2 10.8 13.1 25.1 14.9 10.3 10.0 19.3 24.3

Quality slightly less 35.0 29.8 41.5 36.4 39.1 37.6 30.0 35.5 29.8

Quality passable 36.4 37.6 32.0 26.6 32.7 34.7 43.3 30.4 33.9

Quality mediocre 12.6 15.5 10.2 7.2 8.1 10.7 11.6 1 0.5 9.2

Water unsuitable for most uses 5.6 6.0 2.8 4.3 4.9 6.6 5.0 4.0 2.5

Total 100.0 1 00.0 100.0 1 00.0 100.0 1 00.0 1 00.0 100.0 100.0

With respect to ammonium

Water free from pollution 1 3.5 3.9 1 3.6 10.8 7.3 4.7 3.6 7.2 9.6

Quality slightly less 30.3 41.7 44.6 47.2 56.5 51.2 51.1 41.3 46.0

Quality passable 34.5 37.3 27.6 27.2 23.9 28.7 30.5 34.4 26.2

Quality mediocre 14.4 11.3 10.3 1 0.8 8.3 1 0.1 9.9 11.0 12.5

Water unsuitable for most uses 7.0 5.6 3.7 3.9 3.8 5.0 4.7 5.8 5.5

Total 1 00.0 100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0 1 00.0 100.0 100.0 100.0

Source: France, Institute national de la statistique et des etudes economiques (1991) after the Minsitere de l'Environnement - 75 -

Growth in aquaculture is certainly possible, especially through improved and more intensive management of both fresh and brackish waters. Brown (1983), for example, stated that French trout producers and specialists suggested that production could rise by 10-20 percent before all the existing freshwater supplies were used up. He also believed that if brackishwater culture expanded, there might be no foreseeable limit to this type of production where yields of 4-20 t of trout/ha might result.

On the wider scale, one should note that "planning" has become more and more a part of the Government's life. The first Plan was devoted to increasing industrial and agricultural production, but the latest plans have deliberately shifted from the primacy of growth and led to more emphasis on the quality of life. This should have a direct effect upon inland fisheries with emphasis on environmental protection and improvement as well as on the recreational aspects of fishing.

10. REFERENCES

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Allardi, J. (ed), 1990. Rapport d'activite intersession pour la France, 1988-1990. C.E.C.P.I-E.I.F.A.0 (Meeting Paper) 1 6eme session, Prague, mai 1990. 12 p. (mimeo)

Amanieu, M., et al, 1981. Etude preliminaire de l'amenagement a des fins d' exploitation extensive d'une lagune saumatre littorale, la lagune de la Sarrazine a Palavas (HerauIt, France). Stud.Rev.Gen.Fish. Counc.Mediterr., (58): 241-56

Aptekman, T., 1979. France. In Water laws in selected European countries. Vol.', compiled by Agrarian and Water Legislation Section, Legislation Branch, Legal Office, FAO Leoisl.Stud., (10):257 p.

Arrignon, J., 1975. Crayfish farming in France. In Freshwater crayfish. Papers from the Second International Symposium on Freshwater Crayfish. Held at Baton Rouge, Louisiana, U.S.A., 1974, edited by J.W. Avault, Jr. Baton Rouge, State University of Louisiana, pp. 105-16

Babin, D. 1991. Resultats de l'enquete expresse 1989. Estimation de la production et du chiffre d' affaires des !Aches professionelles frangaises (marins pecheurs exclus). CEMAGREF (Division Aquaculture et POche), 4 p.

Bonnet, M., 1973. Les pitches maritimes sur les cOtes frangaises de la Mediterranee: actualites, perspectives. Sci.Peche, (222), 18 p.

Brunet, A.R., 1980. Present status of the Atlantic salmon stocks in France and environmental constraints on their extension. In Atlantic salmon: its future. Proceedings of the Second International Atlantic Salmon Symposium, Edinburgh 1978, sponsored by the International Salmon Foundation and the Atlantic Salmon Research Trust, edited by A.E.J. Went. Farnham, Surrey, England, Fishing News Books Ltd., pp. 128-34

Cantrelle, I., et al., 1 982. La pOche de la civelle en France: generalites, aspects reglementaires, cas de l'estuaire de la Gironde. In Allocation of Fishery Resources. Proceedings of the Technical Consultation on Allocation of Fishery Resources, held in Vichy, France, 20-23 April 1980, edited by J.H. Grover. FAO/American Fisheries Society, pp. 31-3

Castelnaud, G., el ak, 1982. La !Ache dans l'estuaire de la Gironde (France): ses particularites et ses problemes. In Allocation of Fishery Resources. Proceedings of the Technical Consultation on Allocation of Fishery Resources, held in Vichy, France, 20-23 April 1980, edited by J.H. Grover. FAO/American Fisheries Society, pp. 34-6 - 76 -

Castelnaud, G. and D. Babin, 1990. La [Ache professionelle aux filets et aux engins dans les eaux continentales frangaises. Deuxieme Partie. Les bassins Rhone-SaOne-Doubs, Rhin, Somme, Charente, Garonne-Dordogne, Adour, et les lacs alpins. CEMAGREF Groupement de Bordeaux (Division Amenagements Littoraux et Aquaculture/Ministere de l'Environnement), 141 p.

Champigneulle, A., et al, 1986. Etude de la production de preestivaux de coregone (Coreoonus sp.) en cages eclavees immergees dans le Leman. Bull.Fr.Peche, (300):1-12

Charpy, R., 1957. Apercu d'ensemble sur la production piscicole d'eau douce francaise. Cah.Richesses Piscic. Fr., (6):1-9

, 1968. La production piscicole frangaise. Bull.Tech.Inf.lno.Serv.Aqric.,Paris, (228):345-54

Conseil Superieur de la Peche, 1974. Peche en France. Edition 1974. Conseil Superieur de la Peche avec le concours du Ministere de l'Agriculture et le Secretariat General de la Marine-Marchande, Paris.

, 1980. La !Ache recreative en France dans le domaine fluviale. Meeting (Country) paper presented at the Technical Consultation on Allocation of Fishery Resources, Vichy, France, 20- 24 April 1980:18 p. (mimeo)

, 1980a. Recreational fishing in the rivers of France. Meeting (Country) paper presented at the Technical Consultation on Allocation of Fishery Resources, Vichy, France, 20-24 April 1980: 24 p. (mimeo) (Translation of the French version)

FAO, 1979. France Fishery Country Profile. Rome, FAO, FID/CP/FRA Rev. 1:4 p.

Feuillade, J., et al., 1984. Traitement d'un lac par detournement d'eaux usees; reaction d'une population d'Oscillatoria rubescens D.C. Verhint.Ver.Theor.Anaewlimnol., 22(Part2):1040-6

Fish Farming International, 1980. Warm water eels. 50 tons a year from French power station test farm. Fish.Farminq Int., 7(3):42-3

France/EIFAC, 1974. Information on inland water fisheries in France. (Response to a questionnaire, EIFAC/74/Circ. 10, Nov. 1974). UnpubL

, 1979. Information on inland water fisheries in France. (Response to the EIFAC Secretariat revising Dill, 1976). Unpubl.

France, Institut national de la statistique et des etudes economiques, 1978. Annuaire statistique de la France, 1978. Resultats de 1976/77. Nouvelle serie no. 25. Paris, Ministere de l'economie,vol.83:799 p.

, 1982. Annuaire statistique de la France 1982. Resultats de 1981. Nouvelle serie No. 29. Paris, Ministere de l'economie, vol.87:832p.

, 1983. Annuaire statistique de la France 1983. Resultats de 1982. Nouvelle serie No. 30. Paris. Ministere de l'economie, des finances et du budget, vol.88:852 p.

, 1991. Annuaire statistique de la France 1990. Resultats de 1989. Nouvelle serie No. 37. Paris, Ministere de l'economie, des finances et du budget, Vol. 95:887 p.

Frisoni, G.F., 1981. Exploitation et amenagement des lagunes de la Corse. Stud.Rev.GFCM, (58):265-71 - 77 -

Frisoni, G., 0. Guelorget and J.P. Perthuisot, 1984. Diagnose ecologique appliquee a la mise en valeurs biologique des lagunes c6tieres Mediterraneennes: approche methodologique/Ecological diagnosis applied to biological development of Mediterranean coastal lagoons: methodological approach. Stud.Rev.GFCM/Etud.Rev.CGPM, (61) Vol.1:39-95

Girin, M. and Y. Harache, 1979. L'elevage des poissons en eau de mer: Nouveaux resultats francais en matiere de recherche et de developpement. In Advances in aquaculture. Papers presented at the FAO Technical Conference on Aquaculture. Kyoto, Japan, 26 May-2 June 1976, edited by T.V.R. PiIlay and W.A. Dill. Farnham, Surrey, England, Fishing News Books Ltd., for FAO, pp. 173-9

Great Britain Naval Intelligence Division, 1942. France. London, H.M. Stationery Office, Geographical Handbook series BR:503, Vol. 3:503 p; Vol. 4:524 p.

Hansen, N.M., 1969. France in the modern world. New York, Van Nostrand Reinhold Co., 167 p.

House, J.W., 1978. France: an applied geography. London, Methuen and Co., Ltd., 478 p. de Kinkelin, P. and G. Tuffery, 1972. Rapport de la France/Report from France. In Country reports on fish diseases and their control and national and international traffic of live fish and fish eggs. Symposium on the Major Communicable Fish Diseases in Europe and their Control, organized by FAO/EIFAC with the support of 01E, 20-22 April 1 972, Amsterdam, the Netherlands. (FAO/EIFAC Meeting Paper) Rome, FAO, FI:EIFAC 72/SC II-Symp.9, Supp1.1:15 p. (mimeo)

Laurent, P., 1973. Astacus and Cambarus in France. In Freshwater crayfish. Papers from the First International Symposium on Freshwater Crayfish, Austria, 1972, edited by S. Abrahamsson. Lund, Sweden, Studentlitteratur, pp. 69-78

Laurent, P.J., D. Vigneux and E. Vigneux, 1984. Presence en France d'especes exotiques d'ecrevisses provenant d'introductions recentes. EIFAC Tech.Pao./Doc.Tech.CECP1, (42) Suppl. Vol.2:405-11

Noel, S., 1982. French experiment in water temperature control. Fish.Farminq Int., 9(9):2

OECD, Committee for Fisheries, 1 981. France. In Recreational fishing. Paris, Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development, Fl/21 1:15-7

Pelletier, J . P., 1978. Production primaire du Leman et de quelques lacs francais voisins. Verh.Inst.Ver.Theor.Anaew.Limnol., 20:921-7

Petit, G. and D. Schachter, 1959. Les etangs et lagunes du littoral mediterraneen francals et le probleme de la classification des eaux saumatres. Arch.Oceanoqr.Limnol.,Venezia, 11 Suppl.:76-91

Rouzard, P., 1973. General situation of aquaculture in France. Stud.Rev.GFCM, (52):25-33. Issued also in French

Souchon Y. and F. Trocherie, 1990. Technical aspects of French legislation dealing with freshwater fisheries (June 1984): "Fisheries orientation schemes" and "fishery resources management plans". In Management of freshwater fisheries. Proceedings of a symposium organized by the European Inland Fisheries Advisory Commission, G6teborg, Sweden, 31 May - 3 June 1988, edited by W.L.T. van Densen, B. Steinmetz and R.N. Hugues. Pudoc. Wageninaen, pp. 190-214.

Vivier, P., 1957. Le milieu aquatique et son amelioration. Cah.Richesses Piscic.Fr., (6):49-59

, 1960. Temperature et oxygene dessous en profondeur dans les lacs de barrage artificiel francais. Schweiz.Z.Hydrol., 22:350-64 - 78 -

Williot, P., 1980. Etat actuel de la pisciculture d'etang en France. In La pisciculture en &tang. Actes du Congres sur la pisciculture en etang. Arbonne-la-Foret, France, 11-12-13 mars 1980, edited by R. Bi!lard. Paris, Institut National de Recherche Agronomique, pp. 411-25

Wojtenka, J. D. Gerdeaux, and J. Allardi, 1988. Coregonid fishery in Lake Annecy - an example of dual exploitation. Finnish Fish. Res., 9:389-96

Anon., 1982. Recreational fishing in the rivers of France. In Allocation of Fishery Resources. Proceedings of the Technical Consultation on Allocation of Fishery Resources, held in Vichy, France, 20-23 April 1980, edited by J.H. Grover. FAO/American Fisheries Society, pp. 569-82 - 79 -

FORM ER BULGARIA YUGOSL 71/ "•••". Megali Pr espa THRACE

M i kri Prespa LÇustoriaLVegoritis ALBANIA

LEMNOS ( R• loarrion \

CORFU CO 1.1:1Rus, ‘c) ‘1, CO TURKEY •Cobtfa PREVEZ LEVKASA ,

CEPHALONg

OLE /onion Se a

GREECE --International boundary ® National capital • Cities

50 100 150 Km - 80 -

GREECE

The Hellenic Republic, southernmost of the Balkan countries, lies between the Mediterranean's Ionian and Aegean Seas. Although sea-oriented and sea-girt, with a galaxy of islands, it is primarily a mountainous country. Much of Greece is barren, eroded, and deforested, dissected by small rapid rivers and enclosing a few isolated basins.

Primarily agricultural, it is being industrialized in a few key areas, and here pollution problems are manifest.

Its few rivers, torrential in winter and water-deficient in summer, are incapable of providing good fisheries. The inland fisheries are concentrated in its natural lakes and in brackishwater lagoons. A so-called lagoon culture, actually a modified form of capture fishery primarily for euryhaline species, has considerable potential. True aquaculture is at present mainly in the form of trout culture, but is expanding into other fields. Inland sport fishing is at a minimum level.

1. AREA: 131 957 km2

2. POPULATION: 1 0 085 000 (est. 1990) Density: 76 inh/km2

3. PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY

As part of the Balkan peninsula extending southward into the Mediterranean Sea, Greece is situated between 34°48'11" and 41°45'01"N latitudes and 19°22'41" to 29°38'39"E longitude.

Its greatest length (E-W) is 992 km, and its greatest breadth (N-S) is 793 km. Its altitudinal range is from sea level to 2 917 m on Mt. Olympus. About 67 percent of its area is above 200 m, and about 13 percent above 1 000 m.

Greece is bounded on the northwest by Albania for 247 km, or the north by former Yugoslavia for 256 km and Bulgaria for 475 km, and on the northeast by Turkey for 203 km11. A peninsula, its western flank is bathed by the Ionian Sea, its eastern flank by the Aegean Sea.

About one fifth of its area is composed of more than 1 400 islands, of which less than 200 are inhabited. The sea cuts very deeply into the land to form an extremely long coastline. With islands excluded, the coast is about 2 700 km; with its islands it is about 15 021 km long, an extent surpassed by few other countries.

About 80 percent of Greece is mountainous, a southern continuation of the rugged mountains of Albania, former Yugoslavia and Bulgaria. Intermontane basins, valleys and plains, mostly covered with sands, marls and clays, make up 20 percent of the country.

On a very broad scale, Greece can be divided into two environmental regions:

(i) the sub-continental northern part, and (ii) southern or Mediterranean Greece and its islands.

1/ Boundary lengths after Hellenic Republic (1988). Of these boundaries, 217 km are rivers and 26 km are on lakes - 81 -

Another way to describe the country is to divide it into five major traditional and geographical regions:

(i) Greek Thrace and Macedonia along the northern border and fronting on the northern Aegean Sea;

(ii) below these the area of Northern Peninsular Greece composed of Epirus to the west on the Ionian Sea, and Thessaly to the east on the Aegean;

(iii) Central Greece extending south to the Gulf of Corinth and including the Athens area;

(iv) the Peloponnesus or southernmost Peninsular area, and

(v) Insular Greece, a fringe of islands some widely separated from the mainland.

Thrace and Macedonia. Thrace, the northeastern corner of Greece, is separated from Turkey by the Evros River and from Macedonia to its west by the Nestos River. Its northern border with Bulgaria runs through the Rhodope Mountains. Partly plateau and partly lowland, in addition to its two major rivers it has a large lagoon, Porto-Lago, connecting with Lake Vistonis, on its Aegean coast. Macedonia, lying between the Nestos River and the Albanian border, shares its mountain ranges with former Yugoslavia and Bulgaria and has important agricultural areas. Its major rivers are the Strymon, Axios and Aliakmon. Its major city is Salonika, the second largest city and port in Greece.

Northern Peninsular Greece. Its western section, Epirus, is an isolated area of high mountains of folded sandstones and limestone, poor uplands, and karst. On the windward side of the Pindus Mountains, it has high rainfall. Its soils are poor, but Epirus has some good areas for trout culture. To its east, and extending to the Aegean, is Thessaly which consists essentially of two basins linked by the Penios River. Its plains are the most important agricultural lands in Greece, constituting both granaries and cattle raising regions.

Central Greece. To the south, and extending to the Gulf of Corinth, is a more Mediterranean area, characterized by olive rather than oak trees. This region of plains, foothills, mountains, and rocky coasts supports the largest city and port area of Greece, the Athens-Piraeus complex.

Pel000nnesus. Separated completely from the upper peninsula by the Gulf of Corinth and Corinth Canal, this is a mountainous area of few lowlands and a narrow indented coastal fringe. Partly karstic with underground drainage, its rivers, including the major Evrotas and Alphios, go dry in the summer.

Insular Greece. The 1 400 Greek islands are widely distributed throughout the surrounding seas, occupying 24 796 km2 (almost 20 percent) of the total area. Crete, the largest island (8 336 km2) is the fifth largest island in the Mediterranean. Other large islands are: Euboea (3 654 km2), the largest island in the Aegean; the two largest Ionian islands, Cephalonia (781 km2) and Corfu (542 km2); Lesbos and Rhodes. Many of the lowland areas of Greece were once swampy and malarial. They, along with many of their shallow lakes, have been drained.

Although largely depleted, forests still occupy a fifth of the country. Aleppo pines and mixed deciduous trees (oak, beech and chestnut) are at lower altitudes, and conifers such as spruce are at the highest altitudes. Large areas of maquis (macchia) dominate the country, and much of the vegetation has been denuded.

Included within the great variety of soils, fissured limestone rocks prevail, followed by sandstone, crystalline rocks, and conglomerates. Mountain soils are thin, and strong karstic formations exist in many regions.

Most of the people live either in the large cities, such as Athens-Piraeus and Salonika, or in small scattered villages. - 82 -

4. CLIMATE

Most of Greece enjoys classic Mediterranean climate, with the exception of the north which is continental. Broadly speaking, there are only two seasons: cold and wet (October to March), and hot and dry (April to September).

Under this regime, the average temperature ranges from 1.7°C to 41°C in the south and from -9°C to 35°C in the north. In August the average maximum temperature is 32°C in both Athens and Salonika. In January, the average minimum temperature is 5.5°C in Athens and 2.8°C in Salonika.

The average annual rainfall is about 700 mm, varying from 1 400 mm in the west to 350 mm in the east and southeast. Most of the rainfall occurs in late autumn and winter and is, therefore, of little aid to agriculture or in keeping the streams alive. Many of the higher mountain peaks are snow-covered for several months.

5. HYDROGRAPHY AND LIMNOLOGY

Key (1956) states that the inland water area of Greece including marshes is about 4 percent of the country's total area. A decidedly lesser estimate is that shown in Table 5, based on data contributed by Greece, indicating that Greece's inland water area is only 1 140 km2 or 0.86 percent of its total area. A higher estimate is that of Greece/EIFAC (1979) saying that the combined area of Greece's lakes (850 km2) and lagoons (400 km2) is 1 250 km2 or 0.95 percent of its total area. Aside from Key's figure, the highest figure known to the author given for all the area of Greece's inland waters (rivers, lakes, and lagoons) is that furnished by Kotsonias (1984): 2 100 km2 or 1.6 percent of the country's total area (see also sections 5.2 and 5.4).

The average annual runoff from rainfall on Greek territory is 150 mm or 20 000 million rre. About 23 000 million m3 is received from upstream countries, resulting in a total annual river discharge of 43 000 million m3 leaving the country (Van der Leeden, 1975; ECE, 1978). It is obvious that only the upper tier of Greek regions has much of a sustained river discharge.

The drainage pattern is influenced decidedly by porosity and solubility of the rocks in the limestone regions. Seasonal downpours are often "lost" almost immediately through seepage and runoff. The geologically young mountains of the north create a network of streams which fall into gorges, and the greatly indented coastline makes for short rivers. Coupled with the Mediterranean climate, none of these factors promote river systems suitable for navigation, irrigation, or productive fisheries.

5.1 Rivers

In northern Greece, the major rivers originate outside the Mediterranean zone, and although their water level is highest during the winter there is sufficient rain in summer to keep them in constant flow. On the other hand, the southern rivers, those on the eastern side of the peninsula, and those on the islands are torrential during the winter, fluctuate highly, and have very low summer discharges becoming intermittent or dry. In some of the mountain areas their slope is steep and they are in gorges. On level terrain their beds are wide and stony providing little habitat for fish. In karst areas, some simply disappear to run underground and re-emerge in the sea.

A list of the principal rivers of Greece appears in Table 1. The combined length of these 20 rivers is 2 339 km. Ananiadis (1972a) states that the surface area of Greece's productive rivers is 5 800 ha.

Only 13 rivers in the country have a summer discharge exceeding 3 m3/sec. The discharge of five of these is given in Table 2. - 83 -

Table 1

Principal rivers and lakes in Greece

Rivers km Lakes km2

Aliakmon 297 Trichonis 96.5

Akheloos 220 Volvi 75.6

Penios (Thessaly) 205 Vegoritis 72.5

Evros' 204 Koronia 47.9

Nestosai 130 Vistonis 45.6

Strymonw 118 Mikri Prespe 43.1

Thiamis 115 Megali Prespe 38.3

Alphios 110 Castoria (Orestiada) 28.6

Arachthos 110 lliki 22.7

Enipeus 84 loannion (Pamvotida) 19.2

Evrotas 82 Doiranisa' 15.0

Louros 80 Petron 14.2

Sperkhios 80 Ambrakia 13.6

Megdovas 78 Lyssimachia 13.2

Axioe 76 Chimaditis 10.8

Aoosai 70 Ozeros 1 0.0

Gallikos 70 Voulkaria 9.1

Ladon 70 Stymphalia 3.3

Mornos 70

Penios (Peloponnesus) 70 a/ Length or area on Greek territory

Source: Hellenic Republic, National Statistical Service of Greece (1988) after Hellenic Military Geographical Service (lake areas rounded)

Thrace and Macedonia. The Evros (known as the Meric in Turkey and Maritsa in Bulgaria where it originates) forms the Greco-Bulgarian border for 16 km and then the Greco-Turkish border for 192 km. Turning south to form a delta in the Gulf of Enez, it completes a total journey of 483 km. A major tributary, originating in Bulgaria as the Arda, crosses Thrace to join the Evros as the Ardhos.

Farther west, the Bulgarian Mesta enters as the Greek Nestos, to form the boundary between Thrace and Macedonia, travel for 130 km in Greece, and form a delta in the Aegean at the end of its total journey of 241 km. - 84 -

Table 2

Discharge of five rivers in Greece, 1937-67

Akheloos Nestos (Krernasta) Aliakmon Axios Strymon January 278 100 172 104 164 February 265 142 182 118 88

March 242 180 228 135 178 April 222 140 237 181 125

May 154 95 191 228 125

June 92.6 60 129 156 124

July 57.1 33 62 65 62 August 39.4 22 39 31 25

September 42.7 28 38 27 19

October 86.3 38 66 56 33 November 217 87 104 83 71

December 297 115 170 135 137 Six monthly average: 230 October-March

April-September 101 Yearly average 165

Mean annual 46.3 runoff lisecikm2

Basin area: 9 455 24 662 1 6 553 6 178 Total km2

Within Greece km2 9 455 1 818 6 027 2 524

Max. known flow 1 000 2 500 2 200 1 500 3/see m

Min.3/sec known flow 9.0 12.1 5.5 9.6 m

Source: Van der Leeden (1975) after ECE, 1970 Van der Leeden (1975) after Chorafas, Water for Peace, 1963 - 85 -

Still farther to the west in Macedonia, the Strymon, originating in Bulgaria as the Struma, flows for a total of 346 km, with 118 km in Greece, to the Aegean.

West of the Strymon is the Axios, flowing for 76 km in Greece from former Yugoslavia (known there as the Vardar) to the Aegean west of Salonika.

The Aliakmon drains western Macedonia for 297 km into the Aegean.

Epirus, Thessalv and Central Greece. The Thiamis or Kalamas (115 km) enters the Ionian Sea opposite Corfu. Well to the east, the Penios (205 km) drains much of Thessaly to enter the Aegean. Farther west in Epirus is the Arachthos (110 km) which flows south to the Ambracian Gulf on the Ionian Sea, and to its east the Akheloos River (220 km) flows south to Messolongian on the Ionian Sea.

Pel000nnesus. The major rivers here are the Alphios (110 km) entering the Ionian Sea near Olympia, and the Evrotas (82 km) running through Sparta to the sea. Most of the streams in the region drop steeply from the mountains to their narrow plains and then to the sea. Fed by winter rains they are typical of southern Greek streams, silt-laden in the winter, reduced to trickles in the summer.

5.2 Lakes

Information on Greek lakes varies decidedly. Belloc (1948) states that they are "...vast and numerous particularly in Thessaly, Epirus and Macedonia" and that their assemblage is composed of true mountain lakes, peneplain lakes, and valley lakes. Newbigin (1952) says that many lakes appear on the maps but that they are usually remnants filled by sediments and with a demise accelerated by drainage. Framji and Mahajan (1969) say that there are 16 lakes with a total area of 600 km2, wedged into closed (without any surface outlet) hollows, especially in semi-mountainous or mountainous zones, most of which are shallow up to 30-40 m. Ananiadis (1972a) says that the "productive" lake area is 400 km2. FAO (1975) says that 15 lakes have a total area of 600 m2, and Van Noort (1975) states that there are about 20 lakes with a total area of 655 km2 but includes an appendix (based on an unpublished report by D. Riedel) listing 19 freshwater lakes in Greece totalling 661 km2 in area. Finally, according to Greece/EIFAC (1979), the total lake area in Greece is about 850 km2.

A list of 18 principal lakes in Greece, using official Greek figures, appears in Table 1. The total Greek area of these lakes is 579.2 km2.

Table 3, listing 12 northern Greek lakes, shows, however, somewhat different figures for area, most of them somewhat smaller than those shown in Table 1, and in the case of Chimaditis a surprising difference in reported surface area (0.4 km2 instead of 10.8 km2). While - except in the case of Lake Chimaditis - the exact areas as well as the exact depths differ a bit depending upon the country's yearbook consulted, the estimates are reasonably close.

In the northern Greek lakes (see below) only Mikri Prespa and Megali Prespa belong to the Adriatic Basin. The remainder are linked to the Aegean Sea and are sometimes called the Aegean Lakes. They are all tectonic and date from the Tertiary, thus being much older than most of the European (Quarternary) lakes. Some of the other Greek lakes (e.g., Pheneos, Stymphalia and Karaklimn) are solution lakes.

Most of them are shallow and one (Lake Kerkini) has been transformed into an irrigation reservoir.

All of the northern lakes are alkaline (about pH 8). Doiranis, Castoria, and Mikri Prespa are dimictic; Volvi, Vegoritis and Megali Prespa are warm monomictic. Algal blooms occur on all of these lakes and there are dense beds of aquatic vegetation. With the exception of Vegoritis and Megali Prespa, they are all eutrophic. Koronia and Vistonis may even be considered hypertrophic. The trophic state has long been underway, but has advanced with agricultural development. - 86 -

Three of the major lakes art shared with other countries'. Limni Megali Prespa, of which Greece 2 claims 38.3 km or 14 percent of the total area of 274 km2, is shared with Albania (known there as Limn i Presoes) and former Yugoslavia (Prespansko Jezero). This oligo-eutrophic cyprinid lake, at an elevation of 853 m, has a maximum depth of 54.2 m, an average depth of 20 m, and drains into Lake Ohrid (Albania and former Yugoslavia) through an underground channel. Only a small tip of Limni Mikra Prespa or Ventrok lies in Albania (known there as Ligen i Prescids se v000l); 43.1 km2 lies in Greece. The third international lake, Doiranis, lying at an elevation of 148 m, has a total area of 43 km2 of which 15 km2 (35 percent) lies in Greece, and the remainder in former Yugoslavia where it is known as Doiransko. This eutrophic lake has a maximum depth of 10.4 m and a mean depth of 6.5 m. A typical representative of the "Aegean lakes", it is quite productive of cyprinids.

D. Riedel (in an unpublished report cited by Van Noort, 1975) states that of 19 major freshwater lakes in Greece, 19 contain cyprinids (10 of these with carp), 9 contain eel, 5 catfish, 1 mullet, 2 or perhaps 4 trout, and 2 crab.

5.3 Reservoirs

Circa 1972, there were 2 000 ha of reservoirs (Ananiadis, 1972a).

The largest reservoirs, used mainly for hydroelectric production, are: Kremaston and Kastrakiu (Aetolokarnania prefecture), Tarropu (Karditsa pref.), Polyphytu (Kozani pref.) and Peneiu (Elia pref.) which is used for irrigation (Greece/EIFAC, 1979). Kremaston on the Akheloos River is one of the world's major dams, 124 m in height, and impounding 4 750 million m3.

5.4 Lagoons

As used here (and in other sections of the text), the term "lagoon" refers generally to a coastal body of water in permanent or intermittent connection with the sea by either natural or artificial means. Often on deltas, they are generally brackish (i.e., a combination of fresh and marine waters), shallow, and productive biologically. Lagoons that have a connection with the sea have mixed populations of brackish or euryhaline fishes. These generally enter the lagoon in the spring and attempt to return to the sea in autumn, but some (e.g., eel) may remain longer, and some lagoons with considerable fresh water may have permanent populations such as carp.

In Greece, the term "lagoon" is sometimes applied to basins with somewhat different characteristics, for example to coastal "etangs" which may be situated farther inland, or in some cases what are really "embouchures" or embayments with only marginal closure to the sea, say by a chain of small islands. In general, they are quite shallow, but some are relatively deep. For example, the large lagoon of Messolongion (14 750 ha) on the west central coast of Greece has an average depth of only 0.45 m and a maximum depth of only 1.65 m, but its arm, the Lagoon of Etolico (1 750 ha), has a maximum depth of 30 m. Salinities vary decidedly, ranging from (mixo-) oligohaline even to hyperhaline, and differing not only from lagoon to lagoon but seasonally. Messolongion, for example, has varied seasonally from 2.7 to well over 50 ppt in some places. Water temperatures also vary a great deal throughout the year, e.g., in Messolongion they vary annually from about 12°C to 28°C and may even be lower. For euryhaline and eurythermic species, such as mullet, eel, sea bass and gilthead, salinities of 15-30 ppt and water temperatures from 18°C to 25°C are favourable.

There are some very extensive lagoon areas in Greece primarily along the northern Aegean and eastern Ionian seas. Both old and new reports vary decidedly as to their individual and total extent. Nevertheless,

1/ The Greek areas given above for these three international lakes are taken from the official Greek figures in Table 1. Table 3 and official Albanian and Yugoslavian figures differ somewhat (see section 5 of the reports for these countries) - 87 -

for what it is worth, and in order to concentrate attention on some of the discrepancies in order to attain future accuracy, there follow some accounts of general location and size of Greek lagoons.

Table 3

Characteristics of lakes in northern Greece

Lakes Altitude Surface area Mean depth Maximum depth (m) (ha) (m) (m)

Vistonis 15 4 500 2.0 3.5

Koronia 75 4 200 6.6 8.5

Volvi 37 6 860 1 3.5 23.0

Kerkini 35 6 000 5.0 1 5.0

Doiran 1 48 1 5608/ 6.5 9.8

Veggoritis 540 7 000 25.0 46.0

Petron 572 1 400 2.0 4.0

Zazari 650 200 3.5 5.0

Chimaditis 673 400 3.0 4.0

Kastoria 688 3 237 3.5 9.0

Mikri Prespa 853 4 841' 6.7 7.9

Megali Prespa 853 3 764' 18.0 55.0 a/ Excluding area in other countries

Source: Crivelli (1990)

One of the most comprehensive reviews of Greek lagoons is that of Belloc (1948) made shortly after the second world war at a time when damage had been done to a number of lagoon areas and production diminished. He catalogued the Greek lagoons as follows:

"6 on the coast of Thrace and 1 in Macedonia, 2 in the island of Corfu, 1 on the island of Leucade, 4 lagoons or groups of lagoons in the Gulf of Preveza, 1 on the coast of Acarnania, 1 group Missolonghi-Aetolikon on the coast north of Patras, 6 in Peloponesos: 3 in Elis and 3 in Messenia"'

1/ Almost 25 years later, Ananiades (1972) used almost exactly the same listing of "the most important lagoons in Greece", except to credit the Peloponneus with only five lagoons (two in Elia and three in Messenia). In 1984, he modified his description, going into much greater detail, although still preserving the same basic groupings - 88 -

He then specifically listed 21 groups including 45 individual waters. In addition to these, he listed eight which were in bad condition and stated that there were a considerable number of others that could be used as "vivari" or fish farms. It is difficult to identify all of the lagoons that Belloc listed with those described by later authors, but a number of the largest and most identifiable, at least as to general area, if not exact boundary, together with the areas and reported annual fish production are shown in Table 4. The lagoons he described varied from 15 000 ha to less than 100 ha in extent and generally in depth from 0.5 to 1.5 m. They thus became very warm in summer and cold in winter, and changes in salinity were also great, e.g., the upper part of Porto-Lago was almost fresh (limnetic) while parts of Messolongion were recorded as having a salinity of 43 ppt. Belloc further noted that mortalities of incoming fish from the sea sometimes occurred following floods of the entering rivers.

A review of Mediterranean brackishwater lagoons by De Angelis (1960) stated that there are numerous extensive lagoons in Greece, especially those of Thrace, Macedonia and Epirus. He did not estimate their total area, but listed a number of the most important ones with areas ranging from 14 000 to 200 ha (see Table 4).

Ananiadis (1972) says that all the lagoons and salt ponds in Greece cover a surface of almost 60 000 ha, and in another paper (Ananiadis, 1972a) says that there are about 50 000 ha of "lagunas" and "etangs" (said not to be "lakes") in Greece. In another report, published 12 years later Ananiadis (1984) says that the total area of Greek lagoons, including coastal "etangs", "embouchures" and estuaries, is 43 448 ha. A table in that report lists 61 lagoons or brackishwater fishing grounds and their areas. The three largest are: Porto-Lago (10 000 ha), Messolongion (6 100 ha), and Tsoukalia (4 200 ha). Although this is the most comprehensive recent report on the lagoons of Greece that I have seen, difficulties in trying, to match the lagoons of one report with those of others make it useless to try to duplicate them all". The reader is, therefore, referred directly to this report for details and I shall only try to use his overall statistics in this discussion (see below).

Somewhat earlier, Van Noort (1975) said: "The more important brackishwater basins of Greece are found in the area of Messolongion, Cape Meraion, Preveza, and near Xanthi (Lake Vistonis). Smaller brackishwater inlets are known under the names: Nikola, Kawoura, Mama, Papuschak, Levkos, Xithia and Khoma. Lagoons are found mainly along the west coast of the Peloponnesus and the district of Ipiros." He also stated that the total surface of about 50 brackishwater lagoons and basins in Greece was estimated to be around 20 000 km' (2 million ha). Such an enormous estimate, representing 15 percent of the total area of the country, is, of course, quite erroneous.

FAO (1975) stated that there were 50 lagoons in Greece with a total area of 40 000 ha.

Kiener (1978) grouped the lagoons of Greece into:

(i) those of the Ionian coast, totalling about 17 000 ha, and (ii) those of the Macedonia coast north of the Aegean Sea, totalling 7 500 ha, i.e., a total of 24 500 ha of Greek lagoons.

1/ Here, as elsewhere in this report, various spellings of transliterated Greek names, as well as local synonymies, contribute to these difficulties - 89 -

Table 4

Areas and yields of some Greek lagoons, 1948-64

Annual production/yield Remarks Reference Lagoon Approx. area Total Per unit area (ha) (kg) (kg/ha)

Porto-Lago 12 700 640 000- 50-80 Belloc (1948) (Bouron or Vistonis) 1 000 000

Porto-Lago 5 000 400 000 80 De Angelis (1960)

Porto-Lago 1 0 000 500 000 50 Annual prod. includes Ananiadis (1972a) Lake Vistonis

Vassova 200 1 2 000 60 Vassova, Karassu and De Angelis (1960) Kuburnu, virtually one lagoon on Aegean Sea, Macedonia

Karassu 1 000 50 000 50 De Angelis (1960)

Kuburnu 1 000 20 000- 20-40 De Angelis (1960) 40 000

Tsoukalia 5 715 12 820' 2.2 Gulf of Amvrakikos, Belloc (1948) Ionian Sea

Tsoukalia - 80 000- -- Including Lake Rhodis De Angelis (1960) 120 000

Voulkaria 1 778 25 600 1 4 Amvrakikos Gulf Belloc (1948)

Voulkaria 1 200 26 000 22 De Angelis (1960)

Messolongion 1 5 000 230 000 15 Group of about 10 Belloc (1948) lagoons, 0.5-2 m

Messolongion 1 4 000 800 000- 57-71 De Angelis (1960) 1 000 000

Messolongion 16 000 900 000' 56 Pillay (1966)

Pappas 1 000 51 280 51 West Peloponnesus Belloc (1948)

Pappas 400 80 000' 200 Pillay (1966)

Prokopas 500 16 000 32 West Peloponnesus Belloc (1948)

Prokopas 1 00 1 4600"' 146 Pillay (1966)

Kotichi 1 200 40 000' 33 West Peloponnesus Belloc (1948)

Kotichi 750 51 257' 68 Pillay (1966)

Kotichi -- 41 024' 55 Pillay (1966)

Mouria' 341 60 710' 1 78 West Peloponnesus Pillay (1966)

Agoulinitisau 2 250- 1 000 000 444-666 West Peloponnesus Belloc (1948) 1 500

Agoulinitisa 996 109 200' 110 Pillay (1966) a/ Yield in 1945 when conditions were not good b/ Yield for 1963/64 c/ Yield before the second world war d/ Yield for 1961/62 e/ Yield for 1962/63 f/ Now drained - 90 -

In one of the latest, and presumably most authentic, reports directly available to the author (Greece/EIFAC, 1979) the principal lagoons of Greece were listed as follows:

Hectares

Vistonida (Porto-Lago area, Thrace) 5 500 Nestu (several lagoons) (Macedonia) 2 400 Tsoukalia (Ionian Sea) 4 000 Logaru (Ionian Sea) 5 000 Messolongion (Ionian Sea) 1 8 000 Rodopis (several lagoons) 800

This same source stated that the total area of Greek lagoons was about 40 000 ha.

Amanieu and Laserre (1981) gave a total area of 27 591 ha for the Greek lagoons: 7 400 in Macedonia, 17 000 in Epirus, and 3 191 in the Peloponnesus.

Mistakidis (1982) quotes the Greek Deputy Minister of Agriculture as saying that Greek lagoons cover 53 000 ha, and the Greek Ambassador to Italy saying that they cover 60 000 ha, but in another section of this report states that the total area of Greek lagoons, normally State property, amounts to 34 000 ha.

Finally, a report by Kotsonias (1984) of the Greek Fisheries Department says that there are 72 lagoons in Greece covering 55 000 ha.

We thus have, over a period of years, individual estimates of both the size of individual lagoons and their total area which differ widely. Disregarding the estimate of Van Noort (1975) - possibly a misprint or lapsus calumi - we have quoted estimates of their total area in Greece ranging from 24 500 to 60 000 ha. Considering all the evidence, a figure of around 40 000 ha seems reasonable to the author. Nonetheless, variance in reported measurements of individual lagoons (and later total compilations) is not surprising. As has been pointed out above, such variance may depend upon one's definition of a "lagoon", e.g., whether it is merely an embayment or a very separate water body. It is also dependent upon whether the named lagoon is classified as an entity or merely part of a larger complex. It may depend upon whether its area was determined at low or high water: in such shallow waters a slight rise or fall in level makes a considerable difference in measured area. It may also depend upon whether either natural or man-made changes have occurred since earlier surveys. Similarly, catch statistics for lagoons may vary for a variety of reasons, including especially the validity of the fishermen's reports (see sections 7 and 9.1).

All of the lagoons are part of the public domain, and are rented out by the State to individuals or cooperatives for fishing. The State will also construct weirs or other installations needed for lagoon culture. Circa 1978, there were about 50 leases for lagoons or marine fish farms. Ninety percent were leased to cooperatives and ten percent to individuals. Some are not yet rented, and others are in poor condition for such a practice.

It should be noted - despite many statements to that effect - that the primary lagoon fishery in Greece is not true aquaculture or even "valliculture" as practiced in Italy on the Adriatic lagoons. It is primarily a capture fishery of fish allowed to enter from the sea when attracted by fresh water in the spring and (generally) caught as they migrate out in autumn of the same year. The process varies, depending upon the lagoon, the seasons, and local practice, for example, fish may enter as early as February and March, the lagoon will then be closed, and fishing may start in July. When caught at fixed installations, such as reed enclosures or metal fences, the process is sometimes termed "traditional pisciculture". In other cases movable nets and other gear, such as longlines are used (see section 7.1). - 91 -

6. LAND AND WATER USE

Table 5

Pattern of land use in Greece, 1986

Percent

Arable and permanent crops 30

Permanent pasture 40

Forests and woodland 20

Other land 9.4

Inland water 0.86

Total 100.0

Source: 1987 FAO Prod.Yearb., 41 (Publ. 1988)

Agriculture, still the base of Greek economy (although about 65 percent of the country is considered urban), suffers from mountainous terrain, poor soils, droughts, and erosion, the latter caused in part by deforestation and overgrazing. Nevertheless, Greece's very small holdings produce a large quantity of cereals, tobacco, sugar beets, cotton, olives, and other fruits. Animal husbandry is primarily pastoral in nature. Irrigation, of over 28 percent of the cultivable land, or over 8 percent of the total land (1986) is indispensable for successful agriculture, thus creating a severe demand for water. About 1/80 of the average runoff of the major rivers is used for irrigation, and some of the lakes are also used for this purpose. Fertilization is not widely practised, being at about the bottom of the European practise.

Land reclamation has long been practised in Greece. There has been considerable drainage of lakes and marshes to extend the area of cultivated land and to promote controlled irrigation. In the course of this process, some major aquatic areas have been destroyed. The karstic Lake Copais in central Greece was drained at the end of the Nineteenth Century to provide 20 000 ha to produce cotton. Lake Yiannitsa in the Axios floodplain and Lake Tachinos in the Strymon drainage have been drained for farmland, and about one- third of the shallow Lake loannion, largest lake in the Epirus, was drained for agriculture in 1958. Lagoons have also been affected. For example, both Mouria and Agoulinitisa in the Peloponnesus have now been drained and devoted to agriculture. The 341-ha Mouria once produced over 60 t of fish annually, and Agoulinitisa, formerly a marsh transformed by sand dunes into a lagoon is reported to have produced 1 000 t of fish when its area varied between 1 500 and 3 000 ha, a remarkable yield of 444-666 kg/ha/year (Belloc, 1948). Even at the smaller size of 996 ha in 1963/64, it produced 109.2 t or a yield of 110 kg/ha/year (Pillay, 1966).

Forestry is unimportant in Greece, where roundwood production is almost the lowest of any European country, and firewood and secondary products are the principal forest derivatives. Afforestation may aid the water supply, but it will be a long process. Much of Greece has been denuded of vegetation both through overgrazing and intensive use of wood through the centuries.

Minerals are widely dispersed, although not abundant. Lignite (now approaching exhaustion), peat, iron ore, bauxite, nickel, magnesite and marble are important. There have been some recent offshore oil discoveries and there is some uranium.

Industry is increasing with emphasis on: food processing, metallurgy, chemicals, plastics, textiles, machinery, and rubber. It is still mainly concentrated near Athens and the inner Gulf of Salonika, and at - 92 -

Patras, Volos, and Heraklion. Some of these areas are badly polluted, but in general no large polluting effluents are produced except in these areas.

With respect to pollution in general, it can be noted that lack of sewer development in much of rural Greece has, in fact, kept the streams in better shape than they might be otherwise. However,- if the interior were more densely populated, severe pollution problems could occur during the hot dry summers.

In 1987, the total installed electrical power capacity of Greece was 10 198 000 kW of which 2 137 000 kW (21 percent) was hydroelectric. The rest was thermal (8 059 000 kW), using largely imported petroleum, and 2 000 kW were geothermal. There are important hydroelectric schemes on the Akheelos, Ladon, Loudhias, Louras and Megdovas. Most of the large reservoirs have been developed for hydroelectric production, but this has also improved stream regulation for irrigation, and increased fishery potential. Transport by rail and road (about 2 500 km) throughout most of the country is reasonably good, although the mountainous terrain makes road-building difficult, and road density is very low (only 0.38 km/km2 in 1989). Automobile ownership is amongst the lowest in Europe, only about 143 passenger cars per 1 000 in 1987. The inland waterway system consists of three coastal canals, e.g., Corinth and Levkas, each about 6 km long, and three unconnected rivers, providing a total navigable length of less than 80 km with little effect upon inland fisheries.

Although groundwater horizons are generally poor, most domestic water comes from this source, thus lessening demands upon rivers for this purpose.

In general, both marine and inland fisheries are used primarily as a source of food; the supply of fish per caput is about 17.8 kg/year. In 1978, the inland fishery catch represented about 7 percent by weight of the total Greek catch and more than 15 percent of its value (Greece/EIFAC, 1979). Fisheries in rivers are not very important except in their lower courses. Lakes and lagoons are used largely for commercial fisheries (see section 7).

Tourism based on a sunny climate and great history, is a highly important industry in Greece (over 8 million people in 1987), but inland fishing is not an important element of its attraction.

7. FISH AND FISHERIES

Inland fisheries in Greece include the use of fluvial, diadromous, and euryhaline species.

The most important of the fishes exploited commercially in Greek lakes are cyprinids, such as common carp (Cvprinus carpio), roach (Rutilus rutilus), barbel (Barbus barbus), bleak (Alburnus alburnus), and tench

(Tinca tinca), as well as the European perch (Perca fluviatilis), Pike (Esox lucius), and European eel (Anguilla anquilla). Both carp and tench are said to have been introduced into a number of the Greek lakes from Italy. Other exploited fish are chub (Leuciscus cephalus) and European catfish (Silurus alanis). The brown trout (SaImo trutta) is found in some of the colder waters, and certain lakes are stocked artificially with rainbow trout (Oncorhynchus mykiss). The crayfish (Astacus fluviatilis) is also of some importance as an export product.

In the lagoons, the major fishery is for species that enter from the sea: grey mullets ( Muail spp.), gilthead (Sparus auratus), sea bass (Dicentrarchus labrax), European eel and sole (Solea vulgar's). Other fishes, such as sturgeons, atherinids, and gobies may also enter the lagoons or lower courses of some rivers from the sea, and there may also be an influx of freshwater fish, such as carp and roach from above.

The giebel (Carassius auratus qibelio) (now common in the Romanian inland fishery) has been introduced into most of the northern lakes. Other introductions include the American pumpkinseed (Lepomis qibbosus), the Chinese silver carp (Hvpophthalmichthys molitrix), and a relative of Rutilus, Pseudorasbora parva from Asia. The presence of this species is probably a result of Albanian introduction into Limni Megali Prespa. - 93 -

7.1 Capture Fisheries

7.1.1 Commercial fishing

Commercial fishing in the inland waters of Greece is primarily confined to the lakes and lagoons.

Table 6 lists the catch statistics during the period of 1965-87 for the inland waters of Greece compiled by Alieia Fishing and by FAO. (No inland water fishing statistics for Greece seem to have been available to FAO until 1970.)

Unfortunately, the exact percentage of the "catches" listed in Table 5 attributable to commercial capture fisheries cannot be determined from the table. Some are attributable to production (primarily of trout) through aquaculture, and the only definite statistic on this subject available to the author is that of Greece/EIFAC (1979) stating that of a total production from the inland waters of Greece in 1978 of approximately 9 000 t, 2 500 t (28 percent) were derived from aquaculture li. This would mean that about 6 500 t (72 percent) resulted from the Greek capture fishery in that year (see also section 7.2).

The comparative catch over the years from freshwater lakes and brackishwater lagoons is also difficult to ascertain. As early as 1947, it was estimated that the inland water commercial fish catch for Greece for that year, i.e., 5 000 t, was composed of 3 000 t (60 percent) from fresh waters, and 2 000 t from lagoons or brackish waters (Howard, 1 950). Twenty three years later, the catch of 6 955 t from lakes and lagoons in 1 970 reported by Ananiadis (1972a), was composed of 4 920 t (70 percent) from lakes and 2 035 t (30 percent) from lagoons. Five years later he (Ananiadis, 1977) stated that the annual yield during the last eight years from more than 130 km2 of inland waters, in Greece, in which he included lakes, lagoons, rivers, swamps, and reservoirs, amounted to 8 000 t, consisting mainly of carp, roach, tench, pike, perch, and mullets. He further stated that this yield from inland waters constituted 7.3 percent of the total Greek production of marine and inland fish, and separated it from aquacultural production which he said amounted to 1 700 t annually (see section 7.2). In that report he made no distinction between the harvest from lagoons and other inland waters, but in an article seven years later (Ananiadis, 1984), writing only of lagoons, coastal "etangs", "embouchures", and estuaries, stated that the annual production from 61 lagoons or brackishwater fishing areas totalling 43 448 ha, was 2 052 t. (The year was not specified; it appeared to be circa 1 980.)

An ADCP (1979) Mission which visited Greece in 1978, estimated that the country's "annual production from lagoon culture includes: 1 00 t of sea bass, 300 t of sea bream, 1 1 00 t of mullet, 50 t of sole, and 600 t of eel", a total of 2 150 t21. Mistakidis (1982) also reported that Greek lagoon fisheries produced about the same amount, 2 100 t, from a total lagoon area of about 34 000 ha. On the other hand, Kotsonias (1984) said that Greek lagoons, totalling 55 000 ha, produced about 5 000-6 000 t of fish annually, and that one lagoon alone (Messolongion-Etolico) produces 1 300-1 500 t of fish annually. It is obvious that statistics on both total catch and yield from the inland waters of Greece vary widely.

1/ FAO's FISHDAB lists a figure of 9 595 t as Greece's total inland fish "catch" in that year

2/ The Mission said that the total area of Greece's lagoons had not yet been determined, but did make the rather surprising statement (in view of other reports in this European country survey) that "lagoon culture" was practised in only "about 29 000 ha of coastal lagoons bordering the (entire) Mediterranean." Since it pointed that out (in most cases part of the supply of the species mentioned is from capture fisheries and part from aquaculture) the Mission's report may have scaled down both the production and the area involved in their estimates of "aquacultural" production in these Mediterranean countries, including Greece - 94 -

Table 6

Nominal catches by species in the inland waters of Greece, 1965-87 (in tons)w ._ Year Freshwater fishes n.e.i.

1965 ...

1966 12 000

1967 10 500

1968 12 000 1969 9 000 1970 7 000

1971 6 000 1972 7 000

1973 8 000

1974 6 400

1975 8 271 1976 8 409

1977 9 262 1978 9 595

1979 8 985

1980 9 305

1981 9 483

1982 9 056

1983 9 173 1984 9 755

1985 8 526

1986 10 212

1987 10 292 a/ During the 1965-87 period, the FAO Yearbooks of Fishery Statistics also list catches of striped mullet or flathead grey (Muail cephalus) by Greece in Marine Statistical Fishing Area 37 (Mediterranean and Black Sea) ranging from 800 t in 1970 to 2 575 t in 1986, but it is believed that these do not represent a part of the Greek lagoon fishery. Data not available

Source: 1965-73 Alieia Fishing (Monthly Review of Greek Sea Resources), 260-332 1970-81 FAO Fish. Dept. Fishery Statistical Database (FISH DAB) 1982-87 Yearb.Fish.Stat.FAO, 64 (Publ. 1989) - 95 -

The exact composition of the catch is also difficult to determine. Belloc (1948) has some very extensive descriptions of the catch as reported to him at each of the lakes and lagoons he studied, but his figures are too old to repeat here. Unfortunately, there do not seem to be many easily obtainable recent figures on the proportion of different species caught in individual waters. Some of these are shown in Table 7. The variations in data by different authors illustrate some of the difficulties. It may also be noted that even within the report of a single author (on a number of Greek fisheries) quite different data may appear on different pages.

It will be seen, however, that the fishes listed in Table 7 are the major ones taken in Greek lagoons, especially grey mullets (of several species), eel and gilthead. With respect to eels, which are common in most fresh and brackish waters in Greece, Rigopolous (1971) stated that their annual catch in Greece was about 600 t of which about 90 percent was exported.

Various fishing methods are used in the lakes and lagoons, including the use of small boats (with or without outboard motors), gillnets, trammel nets, seines, fykes, various types of traps, longlines, and spears. Seines have, however, long been banned in the northern Greek lakes because of their presumed detrimental effect on the fish fauna. With specific reference to the Lagoon of Messolongion-Etolico, the largest and most important lagoon in Greece, Kotsonias (1984) discusses the two major methods of fish capture here. An area across the mouth of the lagoon is leased out by the State to a group of cooperatives who close the mouth with fences and then use traps to capture the fish. Meanwhile, another group of "independent" fishermen fish the non-leased section of the lagoon with longlines and spears; they are not allowed to use motor- powered boats and can only use lights during winter months. Although the cooperatives at Messolongion may trap fish as early as May, the usual lagoon practice is to trap them as they leave the lagoon for the sea in the autumn or winter, or at least not until July when the young-of-the-year attain a weight of about 100 g. Usually, all of the trapped fish are sold, regardless of size, and may be quite small. The weirs and traps are of various degrees of complexity, similar to those used in other Mediterranean countries, and the system, although sometimes called "pisciculture traditionelle", is generally a rather primitive one.

The species of fish caught in Greece's inland waters are used primarily as human food although two cyprinids, roach (Rutilus rutilus) and tsima (Paraphoxinus epiroticus) have been sold for trout food at hatcheries. In fact, there is now a ban on catching fish of various species less than 100 mm long to sell to trout farmers as fish food.

In 1970, the number of people fishing lakes in Greece was reported to be 2 000; the number fishing lagoons was about 750 (Ananiadis, 1972a). At present, there are said to be about 2 500 fishermen employed on the inland waters of Greece (Kotsonias, 1984 and OECD, 1985). The age of the professional lake fishermen is inceasing and the number of lake fishermen has decreased in the last 30 years by at least 50 percent (Crivelli, 1990).

7.1.2 Sport fishing

Little information on sport fishing in the inland waters of Greece is available to the author. Fodor and Curtis (1974) state .that freshwater angling is free all over Greece and that the principal catch is trout. They cite as "best regions": the Voidomatis, Kalamas, Louros, and Aoos rivers, and the artificial lake in Epirus; the Sperkhios, Tavropos, and Akheloos of Central Greece, and the Vouraikos, Alphios and Ladon of Peloponnesus.

A leaflet entitled "Hunting and Fishing in Greece", issued in 1980, states that: "There is such a wide variety of sea fishing.. .that river and lake fishing is not so popular among the local inhabitants." It goes on to specify the following fishing in the inland waters of Greece: trout fishing in Lake Tavropou (Karditsa) and Lake Ladonos (Tripolis); "white fish" (probably cyprinids) in the Vegoritis Lake (Pella); and "carp, eel, blenny, , crane-fish, and squad-fish" in Aghiou Vassiliou and Volvi lakes (Thessaloniki), Orestiada Lake (Castoria), Vegoritis Lake, Pamvotida Lake (loannion), Trichonis, Lyssimachia, Amvrakia, and Mikros Ozyris lakes (Aitoloakarnania), Mikri Prespa and Megali Prespa lakes (Florina), Doiranis and Kerkinitis lakes (Macedonia) (National Tourist Organization, August 1980). Table 7

Recent catches (total, yield and composition) in some representative inland waters of Greece'

Total Total Name of lagoon Area (ha) Period annual yield Carp Eel Mullet Gilthead Seabass Sole Others Source catch (t) kg/ha/yr

Keramoti, Aghiasma, 1 235 1967/68- 148.2 120 -- 7.4 74 11.4 3 - 4.2 ADCP (1979) Eratino, Vassova 1977/78

Messolongion-Etolico 10 500' "Present" 1 300- 133 -- 15.0 45 25.0" 8 - 7.0 Kotsonias (1984) 1 500

Messolongion-Etolico 15 500 Recent 780.0 50 -- 15.0 40 25.0 8 - 12.0 Ananiadis (1984) Gialova 250 "Today" 22.0 88 -- 14.0 38 15.0 15 - 18.0 Ananiadis (1984)

Logorou 3 000 Recent 45.0 15 - 14.0 47.3 28.0 0.5 6.1 4.1 Ananiadis (1984) Lafri, Lafrouda . . 1G0 1971-73 18.4 184 1.6 3.8 84 0.3 2.2 7.2 0.9 Ananiadis (1984)

Porto-Lago Laguna 10 000 1978-79 12.7 1.27 -- - 61 35.0 1.0 3.0 - Ananiadis (1984) Lake Vistonis 4 600 1978-79 198.5 43 10 50.0 31 - - - 9.0 Ananiadis (1984)

"Lake Vistonis or 4 000 "Current" 60+ 15+ 50 15.0 30 - - - 5.0 Mistakidis Porto-Lago Lagoon" (1982) a/ All of these waters are "lagoons" with the possible exception of Lake Vistonis, sensu-strictu, which has a connection with Porto-Lago Lagoon, and is classed as a 4 562-ha "lake" by the National Statistical Service of Greece (see Table 1). However, the name "Vistonis" or "Bourou" is sometimes applied to the lagoon proper. This may account for some of the differences shown in the table. b/ Area given as 16 500 ha, but only 10 500 ha were fished. c/ Specified merely as "sea bream", but certainly a sparid. - 97 -

According to Crivelli (1990) there is practically no recreational fishing on Greek lakes, and one of the few estimates of sport take is that of Riedel (1975). He estimated a sport fishing take on Lake loannion of about 5 000 kg, mainly tench, by 1 00 anglers fishing 1 00 days/year. Using his estimate of an area of 22 km' for the lake, this yield to the angler would be only 2.3 kg/ha/year, a very low figure (but see section 9.1 for the commercial yield).

7.2 Aouaculture v

Although some of the "catch" in lagoons may be considered "aquaculture", within the strictest meaning of the term, aquacultural production in Greece is based primarily on trout culture, predominantely of rainbow trout.

The Greek production of trout in 1 965 was 25 t which rose to 900 t in 1971 (Ananiadis, 1972a). Ananiadis (1973) gave the annual trout production in Epirus (where the bulk of Greece's trout farms are located) as 440 t from 64 fish farms. Hull (1975) stated that an unnamed source estimated trout production from 80 units in Epirus as 700-800 t (he indicated that the figure was too high), and Van Noort (1975) stated that there were between 60 and 80 farms in Epirus producing between 450 and 700 t of trout annually from an area of about 54 000 m2. Ananiadis (1977) stated that 1 392 t of trout are produced annually from 145 farms in Greece. FAO (1979) stated that the production of trout in Greece had risen from an estimated 1 000 t in 1976 to 1 600 t in 1978, However, the Greek Directorate of Fisheries (Greece/EIFAC, 1979) said that the cultivated trout production in Greece in 1978 was 2 500 t annually from a land area of 81 ha. White, Paiton and Leventis (1981) estimated that in 1 977 some 120 Greek trout farmers produced 1 600 t of trout. Mistakidis (1982) cited an annual Greek production of 2 000 t of rainbow trout, saying that it was the only species of fish cultivated intensively in Greece. Kotsonias (1984) said that Greece had 104 trout farms producing about 2 214 t/year, and International (1983) repeated the now six year-old figures of Ananiadis (1977) as though they were current. It is obvious that the reporting of these statistics leaves much to be desired.

Girin (1989) states that aquacultural production in Greece is shared between cooperatives and independent farmers, all small- to medium-scale enterprises. He says that in 1986 there were some 1 81 establishments with 312 permanent workers and that "presently" there are 233 establishments with 1 216 permanent and part-time workers according to governmental data provided to the OECD in 1988. How many of these statistics apply to inland fish is unknown to me.

Both Epirus and Edessa (central Macedonia) have some excellent trout rearing areas, but production has been limited by the methods of culture, especially the use of poor feeds, such as slaughterhouse wastes. Feedstuffs have, more recently, been imported from France and Italy. Water pollution has also been a problem.

In addition to trout culture, both common carp and eels have been raised. Eighty tons of carp from two farms and 3.8 t of eel from one farm are listed by Ananiadis (1977) and repeated by Fish Farming International in 1983. The possibilities of other cultures are suggested, and White, Paiton and Leventis (1981) described a farm, started in 1 979, where the following fish were being cultivated: all-male cichlid (Tilania) hybrids, mirror carp (Cyprinus carpio), mullets, bighead/silver hybrid carp (Aristichthys nobilis/ HyDonhthalmichthys molitrix), and grass carp (Ctenopharynoodon idella). Their effective growing season was said to be 180 days when the pond water was over 1 7°C (with a maximum range of 3° to 31°C). The farm, in the northwest Peloponnesus, using rainwater and water from drainage ditch and artesian supply, was based on the use of polyculture and intensive cultivation with fertilization and feeding as is done in Israel. Aiming at a production of 6 000 t/ha in the third year, it was an optimistic venture.

1/ Athough various statistics on "aquaculture" or "fish production" in Greece are given in publications of OECD (Organization for Economic Cooperation and Development), they are so varied in nature and often so nomenclaturally inexact that they have not even been cited in this report. (See the comment on OECD statistics on page 3 of EIFAC Technical Paper (52).) - 98 -

Traditional lagoon culture in Greece has already been described in section 7.1.1.

The best recent figures on aquacultural production in Greece available to the author are those in Table 8.

8. OWNERSHIP, ADMINISTRATION, MANAGEMENT, INVESTIGATION AND AGREEMENTS1/

8.1 Ownership

The inland waters, consisting primarily of lakes and lagoons are State property. In some lakes, fishing rights do not exist and anyone can fish without a license. However, most inland fishing areas are leased to private individuals or to fishermen's cooperatives'.

8.2 Administration and Management

The Department of Fisheries of the Ministry of Agriculture is responsible for administration of Greek fisheries, including aquaculture. Its general activities include:

(i) administration of fish production and aquaculture; (ii) protection and rational exploitation of fish resources; (iii) organization of the fisheries in both Greek and foreign waters, and (iv) processing and storage of .

However, in administrative agreement procedures for new aquacultural projects, other Ministries (Culture, Defense, Environment, Regional Planning, and Public Welfare) also play roles.

Local governments also have some powers. For example, in each Greek county (Nomarchia) there is a fishery officer, working for the agriculture department, who is in charge of organizing all aspects of fisheries. All the fishery data gathered in the 52 countries is transmitted to the Department of Fisheries of the National Ministry of Agriculture.

8.3 Investigation

Research related to fisheries and aquaculture is partly under the Ministry of National Education and the Ministry of Industry, Energy and Technology.

8.4 International Agreements

Greece has bilateral agreements concerning boundary streams with Bulgaria on water supply and irrigation, with Turkey on flood control and boundary stabilization, and former Yugoslavia concerning all uses.

It has a trilateral agreement concerning all uses of boundary streams with Bulgaria and Turkey.

1/ This section is derived from Van Noort (1975), ADCP (1979), Girin (1989), and Crivelli (1990)

2/ For example, at the Messolongion-Etolico Lagoon, the Governor of the Province has the right to lease out part or the whole of the lagoon to cooperatives or businessmen for a maximum of 10 years, and the lagoon is under the supervision of the Ministry of Agriculture. (Up to 1981, leases for lagoon exploitation were for only five years.) The cooperatives as throughout Greece have to pay 25 percent of the gross value of the catch; the businessmen pay a fixed amount of money annually. The local councils get most of the money. Fishing rights for the unleased portion of the lagoon accrue to independent fishermen on a no-fee basis, but subject to restrictions on fishing methods, gear and times (Kotsonias, 1984) - 99 -

Table 8

Production from aquaculture in the inland waters of Greece, 1986-89 (in tons)

1986 1987 1988 1989

Common carp (Cvorinus carPio) 130 270 300 300

Oreochromis ( =Tilaoia) sPP. ... 1 6 28 30'

Osteichthyes' 10' 30' 50' 50

European eel (Anguilla anguilla) 6 4 1 8 450

Coho salmo (Oncorhynchus kisutch) ... 3 11 50'

Rainbow trout (0. mykiss)bi 1 800 1 900 2 250 2 000

Sea bass (Dicentrarchus labrax) 90 70' 110' 300

Gilthead (Soarus auratus) ... 65' 220' 490

Not available FAO estimate a/ The original table listed statistics for two "Osteichthyes". I presume that the first one listed (see above) refers to fish from inland waters and probably refers primarily to cyprinids. The second "Osteichthyes" listed had a maximum listed FAO estimate (in 1989) of 150 t. b/ Listed originally as "Salmo spp.", this category probably refers primarily to rainbow trout.

Source: FAO Fish.Info.Data and Stat.Serv. (1991)

9. STATE OF THE FISHERY

If one accepts all the catch statistics shown in Table 6 at face value, then the inland fishery "catch" in Greece seems to have descended from 12 000 t in 1966 to a low of 6 000 t in 1971, with a resurgence to about 10 000 t in later years. The reasons for such fluctuation, especially since the figures include production from fish culture, are unknown.

With respect to yield per unit area, a number of figures can be derived which have a wide range of values depending upon the data selected as the basis for calculation. Examples follow.

9.1 Yield

Lakes. If we were to use the estimates by Ananiadis (1972a) of a total "productive" lake area of 40 000 ha with an annual harvest of 5 000 t, then the annual yield from Greek lakes would be 125 kg/ha. On the other hand, if we use the more recent figures furnished by Greece/EIFAC (1979) of a total lake area of 85 000 ha and an annual yield of 2 500 t, we obtain a yield of only 30 kg/ha/year. (See also the last paragraph of this sub-section.)

Only a few statistics on yield from individual Greek lakes are available to the author. Apostolski (1972) states that the yield from the former Yugoslavian portions of two lakes shared with Greece has been as follows for the last 20 years: 5-7 kg/ha/year from Lake Megali Prespa and 170-290 kg/ha/year from Lake Doiranis (see section on Yugoslavia). Van Noort (1975), obviously using figures based on Riedel (1975), says with respect to Greek lakes that: "No data are available on present catches or yields, except for Lake ..." He also states that the annual yield from lonannina is almost 140 kg/ha, and using this as a basis - 100 -

of conjecture estimates the total annual production average yield for Greek lakes (in his report having a total area of 655 km2) to be 80 kg/ha, thus leading to a total catch potential of 5 240 t".

The best recent statistics on Greek lake yield by commercial fishermen that I know of are those of Crivelli (1990) in Table 9. He further says that while the yield from Greek lakes fluctuates, the trend is mostly downward. Quoting some old figures, he states that the total commercial catches from 1928 to 1935 in Greek freshwater lakes provided a mean total yield of 3 698 t annually, but that the "...mean total yield of the last ten years of 17 Greek freshwater lakes ( = c. 95% of all Greek lakes with a commercial fishery) is 1 790 tonnes/yr."

Crivelli (1990) also states that: "The annual yield of Greek lakes has in the past been remarkably high for European freshwater lakes". Nevertheless, in view of the discrepancies in statistics for both catch and area, it is impossible to give really definite figures for lake yield in Greece.

Table 9

Total yield and carp yield (kg/ha/year) of lakes of northern Greece, by commercial fishermen

All species Carp

Lake Period Average Average yield in last Minimum Maximum yield in last Minimum Maximum 10 years yield yield 10 years yield yield

Megali Prespa 1973-87 35.6 3.3 73.5 0.1 0.01 1.4 (1986) (1977) (1977) (1973)

Mikri Prespa 1964-87 13.8 8.4 100.9 0.8 0.3 5.7 (1979) (1964) (1986) (1973)

Veggoritis 1964-87 6.5 3.2 13.0 1.4 0.4 3.8 (1983) (1974) (1986) (1974)

Petron 1972-87 14.2 6.6 20.1 1.0 0.06 7.9 (1984) (1972) (1985) (1973)

Zazari 1973-87 24.0 5.7 150.4 15.3 0.3 116.4 (1985) (1977) (1986) (1976)

Chimaditis 1973-87 1 4.5 1.4 54.2 5.2 0.1 53.8 (1978) (1975) (1981) (1975)

Kastoria 1960-87 68.0 1 2.5 148.3 8.1 0.9 26.4 (1985) (1964) (1973) (1963)

Koronia 1918-83 43.3 28.9 339.0 4.3 0.7 203.6 (1979) (1960) (1983) (1955)

Volvi 1964-82 48.5 26.4 91.4 1.2 0.4 2.3 (1982) (1971) (1975) (1968)

Kerkini 1967-87 79.6 12.6 174.7 no data no data no data (1978) (1984)

Vistonis 1 961-87 44.1 18.4 111.3 13.5 1.4 83.8 (1983) (1970) (1975) (1970) Source: Crivelli (1990)

1/ Riedel (1975) considered that the total commercial catch in this lake varied around 300 t annually to which he added 5 t, which he estimated were caught annually by sport fishermen. He also considered the area of the lake to be 22 km2 in making yield calculations - 1 0 1 -

Lagoons. Estimates of yield in the brackishwater lagoons also differ widely. Belloc's old survey (1948) reports annual yields from the lagoons that he considered to be the most important in Greece as follows: Messolongion, 15 kg/ha; Porto Lago, 50-80 kg/ha; Agoulinitisa, 444-666 kg/ha. Later statistics (see Table 4) agree closely with those for Porto Lago (50 and 80 kg/ha), but are quite different for Messolongion (51-71 and 56 kg/ha) and Agoulinitisa (110 kg/ha).

Using only the figures from 1960 through 1963/64 for the 11 lagoons listed in Table 4 for which both area and total annual harvest are available (range in yield 20-200 kg/ha/year), one derives a combined average yield of either 50 or 78 kg/ha/year depending upon whether one uses minimum or maximum areas and/or annual productions for the calculations. The yield calculated from more recent data for the 11 lagoons listed in Table 7 (range, 1.27 to 184 kg/ha/year), averages 54.6 kg/ha/year.

Shifting to other recent figures with respect to yields from combined lagoon fishing areas, we obtain additional figures. Amanieu and Laserre (1981) report the following annual yields, from a total Greek lagoon area of 27 590 ha, in terms of kilograms per hectare: 72 in Macedonia (year not given), 67 in Epirus (1971), and 94 in the Peloponnesus (1978). Mistakidis (1982) cites an estimated yield of 61.7 kg/ha/year from the total area of Greek lagoons, said to be 34 000 ha. Finally' in a survey by Ananiadis (1984) of 61 Greek lagoons of brackish fishing areas totalling 43 448 ha the range in yield of individual lagoons varied from 5 to 461 kg/ha/year, and their overall average yield was 47.2 kg/ha/year.

The variations cited above with respect to the annual yield of Greek lagoons, either individual or total, may be attributable to several factors:.

(i) the term "lagoon" included in the areas cited may include a great deal of unfishable or unfished (i.e., not rented out) water; (ii) management of portions of a lagoon, especially in the event of short-term rental, may be lacking, and (iii) the catches reported may well not, for reasons of profit, be valid'.

Levi and Troadec (1974) state that well-managed Greek lagoons produce about 200 kg/ha/year. This may well be true, but such an estimate is far above the average, judging from the above figures. Of the 61 lagoon areas listed by Ananiadis (1984) only 15 yielded over 100 kg/ha/year, and only 4 yielded 200 kg/ha/year or better'.

I conclude with a final estimate based upon information from Greece/EIFAC (1979). From the data they provide, the total harvest in 1978 from Greek inland waters not including aquaculture was about 6 500 t. Subtracting the harvest from Greek lakes, which they estimate at about 2 500 t, one is left with a harvest of 4 000 t which one must assume stems mainly from lagoons. If this is true, and the total lagoon area of 40 000 ha (also provided by the same source) is correct, then the annual yield per unit area from Greek lagoons in 1978 was 100 kg/he.

The same observation may be made with respect to catch statistics for Greek freshwater lakes. As has been pointed out by Crivelli (1990) not all of the lake catch statistics are reported and fishermen "consciously or unconsciously" misidentify species because of great differences in market value among fish species. Furthermore, often in the past, data on fish catches were recorded by the tax department rather than the National Fisheries Department

2/ With reference to Mediterranean lagoon culture in general, ADCP (1979) states that the yield is low, 10-200 kg/ha/year

3/ In passing, I note that Van Noort (1975) states that the potential yield from "lagoons and other brackishwater bodies" in Greece is 25 kg/ha/year. No evidence is given as to the validity of this figure. He then proceeds to derive a figure of 50 000 t/year as total sustainable yield for these basins based on an estimate of around 20 000 km2 for their total area. As has been noted in section 5.4, the latter figure, and therefore the entire estimate, is untenable - 102 -

9.2 Factors Affecting the Fishery

Among the factors conducive to good yield from the inland fisheries of Greece are: the climate which promotes a long growing season, limestone terrain, and comparative lack of widespread industrialization and water pollution. There are a fair number of large lakes, an extensive lagoon area offers scope for a considerable brackishwater fishery, there are protected deep-water bays suitable for pen or cage culture, and water supplies for trout culture are good in some northern areas.

On the other hand, stream fisheries are quite limited. The dissection of the country by its greatly indented and convoluted coastline, as well as the division of a considerable part into many small islands, means that its rivers must be short, cannot attain great volume, and hence can provide only small fisheries. Except in the north, they have a torrential regime, are silt-laden in spate and almost dry during the hot Mediterranean summers. Unfavourable distribution of precipjiation, mountainous relief and its geological consistency, and denudation of vegetation contribute to this process. Moreover, the needs of irrigation and its expansion create demands which further diminish fluvial fisheries, and even further demands are placed on streams by increases in their use for hydroelectric power. (At one time, most of the Greek powerhouses were fueled by lignite, but as these resources have decreased, both oil and hydro-resources have been substituted). It is possible, of course, that the construction of more reservoirs for both irrigation and power will increase the space available for inland fisheries, but it is doubtful if the latter will be major considerations here. This is especially true with irrigation impoundments which fluctuate considerably.

It is true that Greek rivers are still comparatively unpolluted. Lack of rural sewage, moderate use of fertilizers, and concentration of industry at a few points near the sea contribute to this situation. Nevertheless, over one-half of the total average annual runoff of 4 264 m3 pel caput is contributed by a few rivers that enter the country and have only limited drainages within Greece before discharging to the sea. The amount of runoff originating solely within Greece, only 1 983 m per_ caput provides a better indication of the inland waters vulnerability to pollution.

The situation with respect to lakes is much better for fish production, but even here over a period of years, land reclamation, including drainage and irrigation, has reduced their overall areas, as well as their spawning and nursery grounds. Furthermore, there is little or no limit on fishing effort, other regulations are often not enforced, and poaching is frequent.

The great variance reported in yields from lagoons is due to a variety of factors, some of which are difficult to control. They include "natural" causes such as the time of opening of channels to the sea, and fluctuations in volume, area, winter and summer temperatures, and salinity. They include diminution in lagoon area through reclamation. They also include social factors concerned with rental of the fishing rights, conflicts between different classes of fishermen, reporting of the catch and taxation. (Some of these factors also apply to lakes.)

Finally, the sea orientation of the people and lack of traditional aquaculture, especially for freshwater species, may have been general deterrents to inland fishery development initially. Nevertheless, Greece's local maritime resources are poor, the country does have a tradition of lagoon culture, and the Government is generally receptive to aquacultural development.

9.3 Prospect

Limited by small fishery resources in rivers, and with ever-increasing demands for irrigation and hydropower water, the future of inland fisheries in Greece is bound to its natural lakes, reservoirs and lagoons.

It is probable that management of natural lakes could be improved by regulation of their mixed fish populations, more emphasis on environmental stability, and some judicious stocking.. See, especially, Crivelli (1990) for some specific suggestions. In the case of Greece's international lakes, this may require cooperation with the users from other nations. - 103 -

Reservoir capacity will be increased as fossil fuel sources decrease, but both seepage and rapid runoff makes water storage difficult.

The harvests from lagoons could certainly be improved. Measures, incorporating adoption of the Italian system of valliculture, that would increase their yields include: better regulation of both influent and effluent water; control of silting, clearing, and deepening to permit over-wintering; division into more manageable units; use of a double-trapping system to separate large and small fish and returning undersized fish to the lagoon; allowing an additional summer's growth to produce larger fish; greater use of selective stocking; and cage culture. Improved social and economic management of these fisheries would also aid them.

Unfortunately, with respect to all fisheries there will be an extension of industrial and urban pollution under a Greek policy to extend industrialization away from its present concentrated areas.

Trout culture has received considerable attention in Greece, and it has been visualized that over 5 000 t can be produced annually. Better artificial feeds and broodstock and an increase in fingerling production are needed. Most trout cultivation has been limited to the Epirus and Edessa areas, and shortage of good sites may be a handicap.

Both FAO (1973) and Greece/EIFAC (1979) have suggested that more emphasis be placed on raising carp or other fish that do not require high protein food, and increased eel culture should also be important. Ananiadis (1977) suggested that over 9 000 ha of saline or alkaline uncultivated soil should be suitable for cypriniculture, and also suggested that an annual yield of 3 000 kg/ha could be obtained with fertilization and feeding. Undoubtedly, freshwater aquaculture of several other species could be developed and some steps have been taken in this direction (see section 7.2).

Although sport fishing is not as important in Greece as in many European countries, it should increase in time, but primarily as recreation for residents rather than for tourists.

10. REFERENCES

Ananiadis, C., 1966. Possibilites et perspectives de developpement de l'industrie de la peche en Grece. Peche Mariti., 20 decembre 1966. p. 870-80

, 1972. Une lagune de la Grece du nord. Les pecheries marines du Porto Lago (Thrace). Paper presented at the Symposium on Brackishwater Aquaculture, Athens, 2-4 March 1972. Held in conjunction with the 12th Session of GFCM. Rome, FAO, GFCM/AQ/72/29:9 p. (mimeo)

, 1972a. Quelques aspects de l'industrie de la !Ache en Grece. Athenes, 2 mars 1 972. 20 p. (mimeo)

, 1973. A detailed investigation of trends and development of trout farming in Epiros. Alieia (312):367-8

, 1977. Fish farming development prospects in Greece. Fish Farming Int., 4(3):16-7

, 1984. Quelques aspects du probleme d'amenagement des pecheries des lagunes et des etangs cetieres de Grece/Aspects of coastal lagoon and pond fishery management problems in Greece. Stud.Rev.GFCM /Etud .Rev.CG PM, (61) Vol.2:477-519

Baedeker, 1982(?). Baedeker's Greece. Englewood Cliffs, New Jersey, Prentice-Hall, Inc., 296 p.

Belloc, G., 1948. Inventory of the fishery resources of Greek waters. Washington, D.C., Fisheries Division, FAO, 135 p. + appendices of 78 p. (Typescript in files of Fisheries Department, FAO, Rome) - 104 -

Crivelli, A.J., 1990. Fisheries decline in the freshwater lakes of northern Greece with special attention for Lake Mikri Prespa. In Management of freshwater fisheries. Proceedings of a symposium organized by the European Inland Fisheries Advisory Commission, Goteborg, Sweden, 31 May-3 June 1988, edited by W.L.T. Densen, B. Steinmetz and R.H. Hughes. Pudoc.Wageningen, pp. 230-47

FAO, 1973. Report to the Government of Greece on survey of trout diseases. Based on the work of C.B. Carlson. Reo.FAO/UNDP(TA), (3230):7 p.

, 1975. Greece. Fishery Country Profile. Rome, FAO, FID/CP/GRE Rev. 1:4 p.

, 1979. Greece. Fishery Country Profile. Rome, FAO, FID/CP/GRE Rev. 2:4 p.

Fish Farming International, 1983. Scope for farming in the Mediterranean. EEC report looks to the potential in Greece, France and Italy. Fish Farming Int., 10(3):19

Fodor, E. and W. Curtis (eds), 1974. Fodor's Greece, 1974. New York, David McKay Co., Inc., 368 p.

Greece/EIFAC, 1979. Information on inland water fisheries in Greece. (Response to the EIFAC Secretariat revising Dill, 1976). (Unpubl.)

Greece, National Tourist Organization, 1980. Hunting and fishing in Greece. Athens, Information Department, National Tourist Organization, 4 p.

Hellenic Republic, 1988. National Statistical Service of Greece, Statistical Yearbook of Greece, 1987. Athens, National Statistical Service of Greece, 497 p.

Hull, M.F., 1975. Greece. Survey on trout culture. A report prepared for the study of fishery methods and requirements in the Epirus project. Rome, FAO, FI:GRE/72/010/2:9 p. (Unpubl.).

Keefe, E.J., et al., 1977. Area handbook for Greece. Washington, D.C., Superintendent of Documents, (DA PAM 5580-87):284 p. 2nd ed.

Kotsonias, G., 1984. The Messolonghi-Etolico lagoon of Greece: socio-economic and ecological interactions of cooperative and independent fishermen/La lagune Messolonghi-Etolico de Grece: interactions sociologiques, economiques et ecologiques des cooperatives et des pecheurs independants. Stud.Rev.GFCM/Etud.Rev.CGPM, (61) Vol.2:521-8

Mistakidis, M.N., 1982. Report of the Workshop on Mariculture Development in Greece, Mesolonghi, 15- 19 November and Study Tour 20-25 November 1982, 56 p. (Typescript in files of Fisheries Department, FAO, Rome)

Ondrias, J.C., 1971. A list of fresh and sea water fishes of Greece. Hellen.Oceanol.Limnol., 10:23-96

Pillay, T.V.R., 1966. A preliminary survey of the lagoon fisheries of the Western Peloponnesus, Greece, September 1964. In Economic survey of the Western Peloponnesus, Greece. Vol. 3. Agriculture. Rome, FAO, FAO/SF:8/GRE. Appendix 3, Part 5:207-24. Issued also as FAO Fish. Circ., (108) (1967) - 105 -

Riedel, D., 1975. Greece. A survey on carp and eel culture fisheries in Lake Ioannina. A report prepared for the study of fishery methods and requirements in Epirus Project. Rome, FAO, FUGRE/72/010/1, 1 6 p.

Rigopoulus, K.J., 1971. Eel fishing in Greece. EIFAC Tech.Pap./Doc.Tech.CECPI, (14):167-9

Van Noort, E.C.A., 1975. Task force report on the fisheries development prospects of Greece. Rome, FAO, Department of Fisheries/Investment Centre Joint Working Group. Task Force 7. Rome, FAO, 18 p.

White, P.G., M. Paiton and M. Leventis, 1981. Israeli advice helped Greek polyculture project. Fish Farming Inter., 8(2):8-9,11

- 107 -

I N PORTUGAL . •o° .-' ..74tco -- International boundary : 0 National capital c-V‘, 4:BRAG A • Cities . Tula ›-rs-- Rivers q, Ave r , 1:1 Reservoirs z.t (Barragem) PORTO 50 100 Dour

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Sta °Clara El

FARO OLHZ0 6u/ f of Cadiz - 108 -

PORTUGAL

Western-most country of continental Europe, the Portuguese Republic occupies the Atlantic front of the Iberian Peninsula. A humid and mountainous northern half is separated from the dry southern lowlands by the valley of the Tejo, longest river of the Peninsula. Portugal's long sandy coastline is indented only by the estuaries of its large westerly flowing rivers, and lacks islands.

Moderately densely populated, it is primarily an agricultural and seafaring nation, marked by production of wine, olive oil, cork, other forest products and marine fish.

The country's water resources are among the poorest in Europe. Its rivers are subject to great variations in flow, many are polluted, and they receive heavy use especially in their lower reaches. It is almost lacking in freshwater lakes although possessing some large brackish lagoons.

Traditionally, there is great emphasis on oceanic fisheries, and there is high fish consumption per caout. The importance of inland fisheries, either commercially or recreationally, is, however, minor. Aquaculture, which is not a traditional practice, is still in its formative stages.

1. AREA: 91 985 km2 (Continental Portugal: 88 944 km2) 1/

2. POPULATION: Total 10 304 700 (est. 1990) Continental Portugal 9 777 900 (est. 1988) Density: (Continental) 110 inh/km2 (1988)

3. PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY

Portugal, situated between 42°9'8" and 36°57'39"N latitudes and 6°11'10" and 9°29'45"W longitudes occupies about 15 percent of the Iberian Peninsula. Seventy percent of the country is, in fact, the western slope of the ancient block, the Meseta, the Peninsula's central tableland. The remainder is the coastal plain which lies at its feet.

Roughly rectangular, its greatest length (N-S) is 580 km, and its greatest breadth (E-W) is 225 km. Its attitudinal range is from sea level to 1 993 m. About 70 percent of its total area is less than 400 m in elevation, and less than 12 percent is over 700 m.

Portugal is bounded on the north and east by Spain for 1 215 km, and by the Atlantic Ocean on the west and south for 832 km21.

1/ In general, only continental Portugal is discussed here, although "Metropolitan Portugal" also includes the Azores and Madeira. The Azores are a group of nine major islands with an area of 2 247 km2, situated 1 280 km west of the mainland. Madeira, with an area of 794 km2, is 960 km to the southwest, off Africa. The two island groups had a combined population of 526 800 in 1988. The figures used here for areas and population are the official Portuguese figures (Portugal, Instituto Nacional de Estatistica, 1989). The area of Continental Portugal as given here does not include that of the estuaries of the Tejo and Sado rivers and the Ria (or Lagoon) de Aveiro, totalling 404.2 km2

2/ Length of boundaries from Portugal, Anuario Estatistico...1989 (Publ. 1989) - 109 -

With respect to relief, and also climate, Portugal can be divided into two major areas separated by the southwesterly flowing Tejo (Tagus) River:

(i) Northern Portugal. This is an area of rocky crystalline mountains and plateaux separated by narrow and deep river valleys with a general northeast-southwest trend. Most of the area exceeds 400 m, there are numerous serra 1 000 m or above, and the Serra da Estrela contains the highest mountains in the country. The highlands are primarily infertile schists, slates and granites, with mixed forest cover; the coastal forelands have low hills, swamps and dunes. Vineyards and small farms represent major land uses.

(ii) Southern Portugal. This is an area of rolling plains, low plateaux of sandstone and clays, and broad valleys. There are rare outcrops of hills and only one range over 1 000 m. Most of the area is below 200 m. Large-scale agriculture and grazing are dominant land uses as well as tree crops and marine fishing.

The 832-km coast of Portugal is generally low, level and straight except for river indentations where the best harbours are situated. The northern coast has a number of rocky bays or rias. The southern coast is fringed by lagoons and sandbanks.

With respect to plant cover, there is a mingling of Atlantic deciduous flora with Mediterranean evergreens. In general, there are three types of vegetation: (a) forests of oak, chestnut, and pine in the north and centre; (b) stands of cork oak and other evergreen oaks in the centre and south, and (c) dry, almost steppe like grasslands and evergreen brush or maquis in the south. Pines and eucalyptus are widely planted on the coastal plains.

There are two principal series of soils, each with little or no carbonate: (a) acid-humic soils covering most of the plateau area north of the Tejo, and (b) sandy or siallitic soils covering most of the rest of the country. In addition, there are calcareous soils in some areas, alluvial soils, and saline soils in the lower river areas. Less than 30 percent of the soils are well suited for agriculture.

4. CLIMATE

In the north, the climate is oceanic (cool summers and rainy winters) near the Atlantic, and continental (hot dry summers and hard winters) in the interior. In the extreme south, it is extra Mediterranean, with scanty rainfall, long hot summers, and even arid in some areas. The centre is a transitional area.

Mean temperatures in Portugal are about 4°C in January, 2°C in July, and 16°C annually. In the north it is about 6.2°C in January, 21.6°C in August, and 13.6°C annually. In the centre it is about 1 0.8°C in January, 22.5°C in August and 1 6.6°C annually. In the extreme south it is about 1 2.2°C in January, 24°C in August and 17.8°C annually.

The average annual rainfall in the country is about 865 mm. In the north, it is about 1 000 - 2 000 mm, and in the south about 400-800 mm. There is a marked seasonal distribution in precipitation which is similar for the entire country: a winter (November-March) maximum, and a summer (June-August) minimum.

Frost is almost unknown in the south. In the higher mountains, snow remains on the summits for several months between November and April.

5. HYDROGRAPHY AND LIMNOLOGY

Both the Portugal, Instituto Nacional de Estatistica (Europa, 1985) and Table 4 indicate that the total inland water area of Portugal is only 440 km' or about 0.48 percent of the country's total area, an exceedingly small figure. It seems possible that reservoir, estuarial, and lagoon areas have been at least partly neglected in the calculation (see footnote one to section 1 and the footnote to section 7.1.1). An earlier - 110 -

statement concerning Portugal (Cotta, 1937, page 93) speaks of the "...92 000 ha of its rivers, streams, estuaries and bays."

The average annual runoff from rainfall in Portugal is 224 mm or 20 000 million m3. An additional 1 7 000 million rre is received from rivers originating in Spain, resulting in a total annual river discharge of 37 000 million m3 leaving the country (Van der Leeden, 1975).

The entire drainage is Atlantic, to which all the major rivers flow in a generally westerly direction.

5.1 Rivers (Rios)

North of the Tejo, most Portuguese rivers flow northeast-southwest in narrow gorges. South of the Tejo, most rivers flow southeast-northwest through broad valleys. The Guadiana which turns southerly in its lower course is a marked exception.

There are 11 independent river systems in Portugal where the length of the main river within the country exceeds 60 km. The size of their basins and their extent within the country as well as their navigable length and mean annual flow are shown in Table 1. Total basin size as well as average monthly and annual flows of the three major international rivers (Douro, Tejo and Guadiana) and the Mondego are shown in Table 2.

The flows in Portuguese rivers are extremely irregular, with the ratio between minimum and maximum discharges 1 to 8 or 1 to 10 for northern rivers and 1 to 40 for southern and eastern rivers. In the winter, great floods occur and vast amounts of silt are carried downstream. Some rivers dry up almost completely in summer. The regime is very rapid in the hills but slow and sluggish nearer the coast. The major Portuguese rivers, from north to south, are described below.

The most northerly river of Portugal is the Minho which originates in Spain (as the Mifio) and forms a boundary stream for 75 km before entering the Atlantic at the end of its 338-km journey. Although it flows through deep and precipitous gorges, it is navigable in its lower reaches.

The Lima also originates in Spain (as the Limia or Antela). With a total length of 112 km, it runs for 65 km in Portugal of which 3.2 km is a border with Spain. See especially Valente (1990) for an account of the fishery in the Lima.

South of the Lima are two rivers confined to Portugal: the Cavado (118 km) and next the Ave (85 km) with navigation only near their mouths.

The Douro, with a total length of 895 km of which 322 km are in Portugal, originates in northcentral Spain as the Duero and flows generally westward to the Portuguese border. Here it forms a boundary of 126 km and then crosses the country to enter the Atlantic just south of Porto. Relatively even in mid-course, both its upper and lower reaches cut through gorges. Although the lower 200 km are navigable, they are subject to flood, and cataracts impede travel. Tributaries in Portugal which are shared with Spain are the Agueda (left) and Tamega (right). In addition to its use for navigation (including transport of Port wine) the Douro is used for irrigation and production of hydroelectric power.

South of the Douro is the Vouga River, rising in the Serra da Lapa of north-central Portugal, and flowing for 136 km to the Atlantic through the 64.2-km lagoon complex, the Rfa de Aveiro.

To its south is an even larger river, the Mondego, the longest river (220 km) flowing entirely within the confines of Portugal. Although subject to flash floods, it is navigable for 85 km.

Bisecting the country is the Tejo (Taio in Spanish, Tagus in English) River of the Iberian Peninsula. Rising in east-central Spain, it has a total length of about 1 007 km of which 275 km are in Portugal. It is a boundary stream between the countries for about 47 km. Navigation begins above the mouth of its largest tributary, the 210-km right bank affluent the Zazere, and continues downstream for 212 km to where it expands into a tidal lake or estuary, the 240-km2 Mar da Palha, the great harbour of Lisbon.

Table 1

Hydrologic data on the principal rivers of Portugal'

Navigable Basin Mean length area annual (km) (km2) flow m 3 /sec

Minho 75 46 792 363 Coura, Mouro

Lima 65 41 1 145 74 Laboreiro and Vez

Cavado 118 6 1 648 94 Homem and Rabagao

Ave 85 2 1 395 48 Este and Vizela

Douro 322 205 18 559 527 Sabor, Tua, Corgo, Tamega, Agueda, CCia, Tavora, Paiva

Vouga 136 52 3 656 67 Sul, Caima, Ul, Agueda

Mondego 220 88 6 772 117 Dã°, Alva, Ceira, Arunca

Tejo 275 212 24 913 453 Erges, Ponsul, Ocreza, Zazere, Sever, Sorraia, Almansor

Sado 175 71 7 628 27 Xarrama, Aleagovas, Marateca, Avalad, Ara°

Mira 130 31 1 781 9 Torto

Guadiana 260 70 11 541 185 Caia, Degebe, Cobro, Oeiras, Odeleite, Vasa°

a/ All with respect to Portuguese territory

Source: Portugal, Instituto Nacional de Estatistica (1984) and (1989) after Instituto Geografico e Cadastral e Direccao-Geral dos Recursos e Aproveitamentos Hidraulicos. - 112 -

Table 2

Discharge of four major rivers in Portugal

Mean monthly discharge, m3/s

Duoro, Regua Tagus Guadiana Mondego V.V. de Rodao Pub o do Lobo Coimbra

Basin area km2 91 491 59 167 60 883 4 957 January 998 540 350 173

February 1 070 694 530 193 March 1 020 656 511 134 April 786 392 234 126

May 516 217 90 72

June 297 110 40 35

July 151 44 17 11

August 114 28 14 3

September 131 40 15 6

October 204 118 51 26 November 468 307 135 78 December 707 535 293 143

Year 496 305 202 82 Period of record 1932-66 1905-66 1947-66 1921-66

Source: Van der Leeden (1975) after Unesco (1971)

South of the Tejo, the first rivers of importance are the 175-km Sado with an estuary of 100 km2 and the 130-km Mira. Flows are often low in both streams.

Last of the major rivers of Portugal is another international water, the Guadiana. With a total length of about 778 km from its source in Spain to its mouth in the Gulf of Cadiz, it flows for 260 km in Portugal, forming a boundary with Spain for 112 km of this course.

5.2 Lakes (Lagos)

Portugal is generally deficient in natural freshwater lakes. There are some small trout lakes (really reservoir) in the granitic Serra da Estrela in the north. - 113 -

5.3 Reservoirs (Barraaem)

There are a considerable number of impoundments in Portugal for production of hydroelectric power and to assist irrigation. Among the large reservoirs or barrages are the: Paradela, Salamonde, Canicada, Alto Rabagao and Venda Nova in the Cavado river drainage; Castelo do Bode, Bouca and Cabril on the Zazere; ldanha-a-Nova on the Ponsul; Aguieira and Raiva in the river Mondego; Crestuma, Carrapatelo, Regua, Valeira, Pocinho, Bemposta, Picote and Miranda on the Douro; Montargil in the Sorraia drainage; Maranhao on the Seda; Pego do Altar, Campilhas, Vale do Gaio and Odivelas in the Sado drainage; and Santa Clara on the Mira.

The morphometry of three of these reservoirs is shown in Table 3. These three warm monomictic reservoirs lie in a granite region in the north of Portugal. Maximum surface water temperatures attain 22°C in August and the minimum of 7-9°C is reached in February. They are all well oxygenated, have extremely low alkalinity and hardness, have a pH close to neutrality, and have a poor nutrient level. All have salmonid populations (Oliveira, et L. 1985). Portugal has over 20 of the highest dams in the world.

Table 3

Morphometry of three Portuguese reservoirs

Depth Volume Reservoir (million m°) Maximum Mean

Alto Rabagao 22.12 94 24 550

Venda Nova 4.0 96 23 95

Salamonde 2.42 74 20 57

Source: Oliveira et al. (1985)

5.4 Laaoons

There are a number of great lagoons along the coast, cut off from the sea by sandbars. Among these is the lagoon-canal complex of Aveiro (64 km') in the delta of the Vouga River, and Albuffeira, a brackish lake south of the Tejo near Sesimura. (See section 7.2.)

6. LAND AND WATER USE

Portugal, only about 37 percent urban and about 63 percent rural, has few natural resources. It is largely an agricultural country, although its yields are the poorest in Western Europe. Cereals, potatoes, olive oil, wine grapes, and fruit are principal crops. Livestock is of minor importance. Although rice has been grown in Portugal for about 700 years, the paddies have not been used for fish culture .

Most of the rivers flow in narrow valleys with floors far below the surface of the surrounding flatlands making it difficult to lift water for irrigation without impoundment. Hence, despite needs for irrigation especially in the south, where the dry season may last for four months of the year, it was not well developed for many years. Furthermore, the heavier precipitation in Portugal has not made irrigation as imperative a need as in neighbouring Spain. In recent years, however, irrigation has been emphasized, many schemes involving large impoundments have been developed, and in 1986 almost 7 percent of the country was irrigated. Fertilization is very low, however.

Much of Portugal is better suited for forestry than for agriculture, and some agricultural lands may be taken out of production. Although Portugal ranks only about fourteenth in European forest production, it leads the world as a producer of cork oaks. It also places emphasis on planting pines and eucalyptus. - 114 -

Table 4

Pattern of land use in Portugal, 1986

Percent

Arable and permanent crops 30.0

Permanent pasture 5.8

Forests and woodlands 39.5

Other lands 24.0

Inland water 0.48

Total 1 00.0

Source: 1987 FAO Prod.Yearb., 41 (Publ. 1988)

Only moderately rich in minerals, Portugal produces tin, wolframite, iron, uranium, copper pyrites, stone, and some coal. Most mining is concentrated in the north and minerals are not greatly exploited. Deficient in hydrocarbons, most of its fuels have to be imported. Sea salt is extracted from estuaries and lagoons.

Until 1945, only one third of Portugal's power was derived from hydroelectric plants, but following a national plan of 1944, it has now been developed extensively. Many dams have been constructed on streams such as the Lima, Cavado, Douro, Mondego, Tejo, Zezere, Ponsul and Sado. Development was slow until such impoundment, because even with good fall in the northern streams, their volume of flow was quite irregular. Hydroelectric impoundment is often combined with that for irrigation. In 1987, of a total installed capacity of 6 851 000 kW, hydroelectric power represented 46 percent (3 173 000 kW). The other 54 percent was thermal with most of its fuel imported. Most of the hydroelectric potentialities have now been achieved, the country is switching most of its generating capacity from oil to coal. Nuclear stations are not planned at this time.

Industrial development has been slow in Portugal, especially due to shortages of minerals and power, and has been primarily designed for home markets. Essentially light, it is concentrated on textiles, food processing (e.g., sardines, olive oil), wine, cement, chemicals, metals, domestic crafts, and small workshops. Major industries are concentrated in western and coastal areas such as the Porto Aveiro-Braga and Lisbon- Setubal areas, and most people live in centres with less than 2 000-3 000 inhabitants.

Systems of rail (3 588 km in 1986) and road transport are generally sufficient for the country's economy. On a European scale, road density is actually not high (only 0.22 km/km' in 1987). Furthermore, roads are often lacking along the higher river valleys and their deep narrow gorges. Private automobile ownership is low (166 per 1 000 in 1986), on the continent there is not much travel by the ordinary individual. There is navigation for small craft on a number of rivers (see Table 1).

There are good ground water supplies in Portugal, but river water is also used for domestic use, and supplies over 80 percent of all needs. With respect to overall water use Portugal is one of the few countries in Europe where agricultural use exceeds industrial use.'

1/ The others are Cyprus, Greece, Hungary, Malta and Spain - 115 -

Marine fisheries, together with agriculture and forestry, have long been mainstays of traditional Portuguese economy. They are fairly large, diversified, and include distant water fisheries. Overall, their contribution to the GNP (1978) was only about one percent, but their relative importance to the country was higher because fish products represent about 40 percent of the protein available to the population, and the caput consumption of fish is around 40 kg annually (FAO, 1978).

Tourism is an important industry in this picturesque country (16 million tourists in 1988), but attraction of tourists through inland fisheries is small.

7. FISH AND FISHERIES

The fish fauna of Portugal's inland waters, like that of Spain, is rather limited. Almaca (1965) lists only 33 species, including those which are introduced and some which are euryhaline. Portugal/EIFAC (1991) says there are about 43 species. Among the native fishes of importance are: lampreys (Petromyzonidae), sturgeon (Acipenser sturio), European eel (Anguilla anguilla), Allis shad (Alosa alosa), Twaite shad (A. fallax), brown trout (Salmo trutta), barbels (Barbus spp.), bows (Chondrostoma spp.), chub (Leuciscus cephalus), ruivacas (Rutilus spp.), tench (Tinca tinca), and grey mullets (Mimi! spp.). Introduced fishes include: rainbow trout (Oncorhynchus mykiss), common carp (Cyprinus carpio), goldfish (Carassius auratus), pike (Esox lucius), and largemouth black bass (Micropterus salmoides). The crayfishes, Procambarus clarkii and Astac spallidus, are also to be found in Portugal.

The Atlantic salmon (Salmo salar) is reported (Netboy, 1980) to have once ranged as far south as the Tejo, and Schwiebert (1975) states that the Douro's salmon runs once rivalled those of the Rhine but were eradicated in the early part of the nineteenth century. It is generally considered that the Minho now constitutes the southernmost limit of this species in Europe and Ernest Schwiebert (in a personal conversation with the author in 1 980) verifies this statement. However, Valente (1990) describes a small present day run of salmon in the Lima, and Muus and Dahlstrom (1975) say that salmon enter the Ave River sporadically.

7.1 Capture Fisheries

Fifty years ago, it was reported with respect to Portugal, that "Inland waters are fished almost to exhaustion while in many maritime districts farmers have one foot in sea and one on shore" (Great Britain, Naval Intelligence Division, 1942). This account went on to say that the freshwater fisheries were mainly confined to north and central Portugal as the rivers of the south were few and small. Stream fishes included trout, barbels, and boga (Chondrostoma). Overfishing had seriously depleted the stocks in many of the more famous trout rivers: Cavado, Mondego, and Zezere. Trout were said to be also found in the Minho and other northern mountain streams.

With respect to other inland species, it was stated that lampreys, eel, shad, salmon, mullet and "sole (Solho-rei)" visited the rivers periodically. The "Solho-rei" was probably a sturgeon (Acipenser) which is in danger of extinction today and confined to the Douro and Guadiana rivers.

The freshwater catch in 1934, shown in Table 5, was said to represent 1.5 percent of the total Portuguese fish catch for that year.

Shad was considered to be the most important freshwater fish. Running in the Tejo and the lower reaches of the northern rivers, they were caught at the mouths of rivers with seines. Fishing areas included the Minho for lampreys, eel, sea trout, salmon, mullet, the mouths of the Douro and Guadiana for "sole", and the Rfa de Aveiro for lamprey, eel, shad and "sole". Even at that time (1934-42), the Minho was said to be the only salmon stream in Portugal with a catch of 300-400 fish/year.

The picture of capture fisheries in more recent years is presented in the section below. - 116 -

Table 5

Freshwater catch in Portugal, 1934

Species Number Tons

Lampreias (lampreys) 10 446

Salmoes (salmon) 384

Saveis e savelhas (shad) 178 670

Other species 520

Source: Great Britain, Naval Intelligence Division (1942)

7.1.1 Commercial fishing

Table 6 which shows the catch in the inland waters of Portugal for the period 1965-87 as reported by the Government to FAO, illustrates the difficulty of obtaining useful catch statistics from the standard sources. Inclusion by FAO of the six species groups in its statistics indicates that there was at least some catch in inland waters of all of these fishes during the 1965-87 period. But the exclusion from the inland catch statistics of most of these groups after 1969 through 1977 is puzzling. Note, however, that in the Portuguese statistics for catches in the Northeast Atlantic (second section of Table 6), measurable catches of five of the same species-groups are recorded in most years of the 1974-87 period, and the same five groups are at least represented in the marine table from 1 970 on, although not for the 1965-69 period. One can speculate, therefore, that fish caught in Portugal's estuaries may have been formerly recorded as "inland water" catch but were later placed in the marine statistics.'

Lopes (1986) states that no valid statistics exist in Portugal for any commercial inland fishing, although there were (circa 1986) about 3 000 fishing licenses for inland commercial fishermen. Portugal/EIFAC (1991) corroborates the first statement. It is obvious that commercial fishing in Portugal's inland waters is now of minor importance, and is probably largely confined to estuaries. For example, although some eel are caught in rice culture irrigation channels, most of the eel fishing is carried out in the estuaries of the larger rivers.

7.1.2 Sport fishing

There is little published information on sport fishing in inland waters of Portugal. Popular books on the country (e.g., Campbell, 1957; Bridge and Lowndes, 1967; Lowndes and Moore, 1978) indicate that there is trout fishing in rivers like the Minho and Lima, smaller northern streams, and the lakes of the Serra da Estrela, as well as angling for eel, cyprinids and lagoon fishes.

1/ In support of this supposition, one notes that the FAO Yearbook of Fishery Statistics, Vol. 36, for the period 1970-73 lists the catch of the two shads under inland waters and not under marine waters as shown in Table 6. (I have not used this volume for catches after 1969 (1970-73) as FISHDAB is more accurate.) It should also be noted that in the current system of designating the area of continental Portugal (see section 1), the estuaries of the Tejo and Sado rivers and the Ria de Aveiro are not included. In other words, these now seem to be considered marine waters Table 6

Nominal catches by species in the inland waters of Portugal 1 965-87 (in tons)

Year Freshwater Sturgeons European eel Atlantic salmon Salrnonoids, Allis/Twaite shad Total fishes, n.e.i. (Acipenseridae) (Anguilla anguilla) (Salmo salar) n.e.i. Alosa alosa/A. fallax

1965 o o o o 400 200 600

1966 0 0 o o o 100 100

1967 o o o o 0 200 200

1968 o o o o 0 200 200

1969 0 o o o 0 200 200

1970 o o - - - -

1971 0 o - - - -

1972 200 100 - - - - 300

1973 100 100 - - - - 200

1974 100 100 _ - - - 200

1975 100 o - - - - 100

1976 100 0 - - - - 100

1977 1 00 o - - - 100

1978 o o - - - -

1979 0 0 - - - -

1980 0 0 - - - -

1981 0 0 - - - -

1982 0 0 - . - -

1983 0 0 - - - -

1984 ... - ... - - -

1985 ...... - - -

1986 1 165 - 590 - - - 1 755

1987 1 589 - 566 - - - 2 155 Table 6 (continued)

Nominal catch of freshwater and diadromous fishes in the Marine Statistical Fishing Area 27 (Northeast Atlantic) by Portugal, 1965-87 (in tons)

Year Freshwater Sturgeons : European eel Lampreys Atlantic salmon AijiqTwatte::000: Mullett: fishW n.iiii: (Acipenseridae) (Anouilla:anquilla) (Petrorriyzonidae) (Seim° salad (Aloeialoiiiik:fellax) : (Mugilidae)

1965 ------

1966 ------

1967 ------

1968 ------

1969 ------

1970 0 0 0 0 0 100 0

1 971 0 0 0 0 0 300 0

1972 0 0 0 0 0 100 0

1973 0 100 0 0 0 100 0

1974 0 143 42 o 17 68 0

1975 17 134 44 0 0 45 0

1976 18 127 38 0 0 58 0

1977 30 108 52 0 0 52 312

1978 6 0 44 3 0 28 352

1979 0 0 25 1 0 34 325

1980 0 0 32 1 6 60 314

1981 0 0 33 10 0 103 204

1982 0 0 1 4 6 0 127 210

1983 0 0 11 4 0 82 237

1984 0 0 20 4 0 39 436

1985 0 0 16 3 0 67 301

1986 0 0 43 8 2 79 849

. 1987 0 1 767 9 ... 51 1 185 is category not listed this year Not available Probably nil, negligible or insignificant; or less than 50 t during the 1965-87 period, or less than half a ton during later years

Source: 1965-69 Yearb.Fish.Stat.FAO, 36 (Pub!. 1974) 1970-83 FAO Fish. Dept. Fishery Statistical Div. (FISHDAB) 1984-87 Yearb.Fish.Stat.FAO, 64 (Publ. 1989) - 119 -

A booklet issued by the Portuguese National Tourist Office (Schmidt-Luchs, ca 1982) lists five species groups as providing freshwater sport fishing in continental Portugal. It describes barbel as found in all Portuguese rivers and streams, and common carp as found in most rivers in the centre and south. Largemouth black is listed for various reservoirs and rivers in the centre and south. Trout localities are given as streams from the Alge to the north, as well as lakes of the Serra da Estrela. Shad are listed as being taken on artificial lures in fresh water during the spring and early summer.

Lopes (1986) states that there were about 80 000 sport fishing licenses issued in Portugal circa 1986, but that there are no valid statistics for sport fish catch.

Both rainbow and brown trout, largemouth blackbass, tench and carp are stocked by the state in small quantities to provide sport fishing. (See section 7.2 below.)

7.2 Aquaculture

The culture of fish for food, is a recent development in Portugal. About 250 t of trout, mostly rainbow, were produced annually circa 1977 (Brown, 1983), the total production (by five private trout farms) had risen to 900 t by 1984, and to about 1 000 t (by six private farms) in 1985. The annual production remains at about 1 000 t today. The fish are reared in concrete raceways, silos, or cages, and fed on pelletized food. They are harvested at a size of 200-250 g and sold to domestic fish markets and restaurants. Average production time for trout in Portugal is 1 2-1 5 months. It is believed that all or most of the present production is absorbed by the internal market, although some years ago, trout from some of the southern areas were sold for export. The General Direction of Forests has also sold some trout for consumption, but its primary production of trout is for stocking northern streams and reservoirs. In 1990, about one million trout were produced for this purpose.

Some farms also rear eels, with a total estimated production of about 1 280 t today.

Recently, a new Atlantic salmon farm was installed with an estimated return of about 625 t annually.

A new private farm is producing cyprinid fingerlings for ornamental purposes with an estimated production of 6 720 000 annually.

The source of most of the information given above is from Lopes (1986) and Portugal/EIFAC (1991). Somewhat different inland water aquacultural production data for Portugal taken from FAO, Info., Data and Stat. Serv. (1990, 1991) follows (in tons):

1985 1986 1987 1988 1989

European eel 60 590 566 501 6

Rainbow trout 800 1 165 1 569 1 350 973

Atlantic salmon ...... 0 0

Brown trout ...... 300 300 (est)

Sea bass 42 52 52 (est) 52 5

Sparidae 210 - - - 1

Gilthead 45 67 67 (est) 69 1 9

Grey mullets 340 420 420 (est) 422 1 0 - 120 -

Only a few lagoons or marshlands appear to be sufficiently sheltered or otherwise possess requisite qualities for brackishwater aquaculture. Barahona-Fernandes (1981) discusses the possibilities of combining salt production and coastal aquaculture, citing the following areas as favourable for coastal aquaculture: the embayment of Mondego, the estuarial-lagoons of Aveiro, Tejo, Sado and Alvor and the Faro-Olhao lagoon complex. Under the Plano Nacional des Pescas, an extensive programme for fish farming, in 1985 there were 31 State authorized fish farm sites mainly on the Sado estuary and in the Algarve according to Fish Farm.Inter., 12(4) (1985). Fishes mentioned as suitable include: European eel, shad, grey mullets, gilthead (Soarus aurata), sea bass (Dicentrarchus labrax), and .

8. OWNERSHIP, ADMINISTRATION, MANAGEMENT, INVESTIGATION AND AGREEMENTS

8.1 Ownership

Commercial fishing and aquaculture are private activities in Portugal. However, there are three state owned industrial units in the north producing trout for retail.

8.2 Administration

The Ministry of Agriculture, Fisheries and Food has overall responsibility for inland fisheries in Portugal, under the jurisdiction of the General Direction of Forests (Direcgao-Geral das Florestas).

Administrative services conducted by the General Direction of Forests consist of:

(i) Central Services: Hunting, Apiculture, and Inland Fisheries Service;

(ii) Regional Services: Six Forest Circunscriptions;

(iii) Local Services: Forest Administrations dependent upon the respective Regional Services.

8.3 Investigative and Scientific Services

(i) Instituto Superior de Agronomia, in Lisbon conducts courses that include subjects in fisheries and aquaculture;

(ii) Faculdade de Ciencias de Lisboa (University of Lisbon) conducts courses in biological sciences;

(iii) Faculdade de Ciencias de Coimbra, conducts courses in biological sciences;

(iv) Faculdade de Ciencias do Porto, conducts courses in biological sciences and research in aquaculture, population dynamics and fish diseases;

(v) Instituto de Ciencias Biomedicas Abel Salazar, in Porto, conducts courses and research in aquaculture;

(vi) Universidade de Trds-os-Montes e Alto-Douro, in Vila Real, conducts courses of zootechnics and research on pelleted fish food, reproduction in fish farms and primary productivity;

(vii) Estagao Florestal Nacional, in Lisbon, conducts general research on inland waters;

(viii) LaboratOrio Nacional de Investigagao Veterinaria, in Lisbon, concerned with research on fish diseases. - 121 -

8.4 Other Concerned Agencies

The General Direction of Natural Resources (Direcgao-Geral dos Recursos Naturais), which, with regard to inland fisheries, approves the installation of industries which discharge effluents into inland waters and controls water quality;

(ii) Parks, Reserves and Nature Conservation Service (Servigo Nacional de Parques, Reservas e Conservacao da Natureza).

8.5 International Agreements

Portugal has a bilateral agreement with Spain concerning uses of their boundary or international streams with respect to hydropower, water supply, and water quality.

9. STATE OF THE FISHERY

9.1 Yield

The rounding of numbers in the earlier statistics reported by FAO and doubts of their validity make it impossible to infer any real trends in the catch from Portugal's inland waters shown in Table 6. One can only say that the reported catches are among the lowest from reporting European countries. These and future statistics require considerable revision before they can indicate the state of exploitation and maintenance of the fishery.

9.2 Factors Affecting the Fishery

The hydrography and climate of Portugal provide good keys to the present and future of its inland fisheries. Its mountain streams of steep gradient and rapid flow cannot provide large populations of fish, and even lower streams which fluctuate widely in volume, carry large amounts of silt, and go nearly dry in summer, do not provide good fish habitat. "It is probable that the degree of flow variation is as great as anywhere in the world" (Key, 1956). Furthermore, the general rock and soil types in Portugal are not indicative of potential high productivity. It can also be noted that the gorge-like character of many streams makes access for fishing difficult.

Lakes are so few in number and small in size that they can support only small fisheries. Lagoons do not appear to have as much use for fisheries as is accorded in other southern European countries. Reservoirs are used both for commercial and sport fishing throughout the country and are utilized for cage culture in some northern areas.

Unfortunately, water pollution is a major problem in Portugal. All of the major rivers are polluted with domestic and industrial wastes, often of high organic content. Many of the small streams which flow through inhabited areas tend to become toxic during the summer months simply because their flow is inadequate to provide sufficient diluting power. Furthermore, sudden surface water pollution which comes with the rain following drought adds to the problem. Effluents from paper and pulp factories, distilleries and plants for recovery of vegetable oils, tanneries, food processing plants, chemical factories, and other industries are rarely treated. It has been stated (Holden and Lloyd, 1972) that treatment of effluents from small olive oil producers and distillers is reported as simply too costly for the industry to bear. Nevertheless, laws for pollution control are being -promulgated.

In addition, some rivers have been completely sterilized by mining wastes. Furthermore, the largest rivers of the country originate in Spain and thus transport the effluents of that country into Portugal. Nevertheless, in contrast to the situation in much of Europe, Portugal's oligotrophic lakes are high in the - 122 -

mountains in non-agricultural areas thus escaping eutrophication from agricultural chemicals. At present, Portugal uses very little fertilizer. In 1973, Spain used 20 percent more per hectare, Greece and Italy almost twice as much, France 4.4 times as much, and the Netherlands ten times as much (Baytelman, 1979).

In estimating the extent to which water quality can be maintained through fluvial dilution, one notes that the average runoff per caput in continental Portugal from all sources is 3 784 m3 annually, although only 2 045 m3 annually from rainfall confined to the country.

Anadromous fisheries, particularly for Atlantic salmon, have been borderline for years. The construction of barrages on rivers as well as water pollution has affected them adversely.

Lastly, the use of inland fisheries either for commerce or as sport has not been a tradition in Portugal as in many other European countries. There has been some effort to promote angling by tourists (especially for big-game species) in Portugal's marine waters, but little with respect to freshwater species until lately.

9.3 Prospect

Further development of capture fisheries cannot be anticipated except in areas not subject to water diminishment and pollution. Possibly, better management of mountain streams will improve sport fishing as will multiple use of Portugal's reservoirs. It is anticipated that Portugal will more than double its reservoir capacity by 2000 (ECE, 1978). Aquaculture in fresh and brackish waters offers some opportunity.

1 0. REFERENCES

Almaca, C., 1965. Contribution a la connaissance des poissons des eaux interieures du Portugal. Rev.Faculd.Cienc.Lisboa, 2, Serie -C-Vol. XIII-Fasc.2°, pp. 225-62

Barahona-Fernandes, M.H., 1981. Les salines et leur usage eventuel pour l'aquaculture. Stud.Rev.GFCM, (58):257-64

Baytelman, D., 1979. Agriculture. In Employment and basic needs in Portugal. Geneva, ILO, pp. 121-45

Bridge, A. and S. Lowndes, 1967. The selective traveller in Portugal. New York, McGraw-Hill Book Co.,

292 P.

Campbell, R., 1957. Portugal. London, Max Reinhardt, 206 p.

Comite Portugais de l'Organisation des Nations Unies pour l'Alimentation et l'Agriculture (FA), 1974. Rapport, 1973-74,107 p.

Cotta, F., 1937. Economic planning in corporative Portugal. London, P.S. King and Son, Ltd., 188 p.

FAO, 1978. Portugal. FAO Fishery Country Profile. Rome, FAO, FID/CP/POR, Rev. 1:4 p.

Fish Farming International, 1985. Portugal puts hopes into aquaculture. Fish Farmina Int., 12(4):3

Great Britain Naval Intelligence Division, 1942. Spain and Portugal, Vol. 2. Portugal. Oxford, University Press, Geographical handbook series, BR 502A:405 p.

Great Britain, Overseas Development Council, 1949. Portugal, economic and commercial conditions in Portugal (1948) with annexes on Madeira and the Azores. London, HMSD, Overseas Economic Surveys, 135 p.

Keefe, E.K., 1977. Area handbook for Portugal. Washington, D.C., Superintendent of Documents, (DA PAM 550-181 ):456 p. - 123 -

Lopes, S., 1986. Portugal. EIFAC Occ.Pao./Doc.Occas.CECPI, (16):105-14

Lowndes, S. and R. Moore (eds), 1978. Fodor's Portugal 1978. New York, David McKay Co., Inc., 320 p.

Nobre, A., 1931. Peixes das aguas doces de Portugal. Bol.Minist.Aaric.,Madr.(1 Ser.), 13(2):73-112

Oliveira, R., et al., 1985. A mine waste discharge rich in copper, an example of effects on planktonic communities. Verhint.Ver.Theor.Anoewlimnol., 22(4):2395-404

Portugal, Instituto Nacional de Estatistica, 1983. Annuaire statistique, Continent Agores et Madere/Anuario EstatIstico Continente Agores e Madeira, 1981. Lisboa, Imprensa Nacional, 406 p.

, 1984. Annuaire statistique, Continent Acores et Madore/Anuario Estatistico Continente Agores e Madeira, 1982. Lisboa, Imprensa Nacional, 292 p.

, 1989. Annuaire statistique, Continent Acores et Madere/Anuario Estatistico Continente Acores e Madeira, 1989. Lisboa, Imprensa Nacional, 330 p.

Portugal/EIFAC, 1991. Information on inland fisheries in Portugal. (Response to the EIFAC Secretariat.) Unpubl.

Ramas, M.A., 1982. Atlantic salmon ranching in Portugal. In Sea ranching of Atlantic salmon, edited by G. Erikson, M. Ferrani and P.O. Larsson. Workshop Proceedings, Commission of the European Community, Brussels, pp. 109-25

Schmidt-Luchs, C.W., 1982. Line fishing in Portuguese waters. a guide for fishermen on holiday. Lisbon, Office of the Direcgao-Geral do Turismo, 22 p.

Stanislawski, D., 1959. The individuality of Portugal: a study in historical-political geography. Austin, University of Texas Press, 248 p.

Valente, A.C.N., 1990. Trout populations in the Lima Basin, North Portugal. In Management of freshwater fisheries. Proceedings of a symposium organized by the European Inland Fisheries Advisory Commission, Goteborg, Sweden, 31 May - 3 June 1988, edited by W.L.T. Densen, B. Steinmetz and R.H. Hughes. Wageningen, Pudoc. pp. 437-46 - 125 -

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idrar G ALATI 1VI p Arm 01 eser- Nero VOIf — • • BRA ILA TuLcEA • Razelm*: Sfintu Lagoon • Georghe W a I chia iwoinita Arm - 3 Sinoe • Golov ita-Z me ica Lagoon 1 CU OBUCHARES Lag Bloc 4000,, De, Sec 9 • Danube o .), ■■•••••• e. CONS ANTA • ef N.■1 ROMANIA C) ° -- International boundary BULG AR I A ® Notional capital • Cities

0 SO 100 150 200

Km - 126 -

ROMANIA

Romania, in southeastern Europe, with strong links to the Balkan region, has a core of high forested mountains, ringed by a zone of hills and plateaux above lowland plains which slope toward the Danube River and its great deltaic debouchement into the Black Sea. Moderately densely populated, this once predominantly agricultural, forested and mining country, has, under controlled economy, developed a burgeoning heavy industry and ever-increasing demands for water.

Despite the tremendous flow in the Danube itself, many of the streams fluctuate severely, the oligotrophic lakes are small in size and fishing in the eutrophic lakes subject to conflict with other land and water uses. Reservoirs are numerous and used extensively for fish production.

The Romanian inland fishery ranges from sport fishing for salmon ids in the mountains to commercial fishing for warmwater species in overflow and deltaic areas and brackish water lagoons. The harvest from the Romanian inland fishery constitutes over 80 percent of the country's take from all of its freshwater, brackish, and marine territorial waters. Carp culture, which is traditional, is increasing in importance and is being supplemented by an ensemble of other species.

1. AREA: 237 500 km2

2. POPULATION: 23 816 000 (est. 1 990) Density: 100 inh/km2

3. PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY

Romania is situated between 48°15' and 43°37'N latitudes and 20°15' and 29°41'E longitudes in southeastern Europe.

Its extreme length is 789 km (E-W) and its greatest breadth is 475 km (N-S). Its altitudinal range is from 3.5 m below sea level to 2 545 m.

Romania is bounded on the north and northeast by the former USSR (Ukraine and Moldava) for 1 329 km, on the south by Bulgaria for 591 km, on the southwest by former Yugoslavia for 557 km, and on the northwest by Hungary for 442 km. It has an eastern coastline of 245 km on the Black Sea. The Danube River, forming major boundaries with Bulgaria and former Yugoslavia, flows for 1 074 km in Romanian territory; and the Prut River constitutes a boundary of 704 km with the former USSR.

Topographically, Romania consists of three major elements, each constituting about one third of the total area: a central range of mountains (over 800 m in elevation and averaging 1 200 m) surrounded by a succession of hills and plateaux (200-800 m), and a fringe of lowlands or plains (under 200 m). The central range, the Carpathians, enters from the north and swings southeast as the Eastern Carpathians, and then westward in a great arc as the Southern Carpathians or Transylvanian Alps. Within the arc is the Transylvanian Basin and an isolated massif, part of the Western Carpathians. East of the arc is the Moldavian Plain, south of the arc is the Walachian Plain, and west of the massif is the Western Plain. The Walachian Plain merges into the floodplain of the Danube and the latter grades into the Danube Delta, the third largest delta in Europe, on the Black Sea. Lastly, confined between the Danube and the Black Sea is the Dobrogea, mostly steppe land but with a series of lagoons on its seaward side.

Alpine meadows and tundra occupy the highest elevations, but below about 1 800 m the mountains and hills are well forested with conifers (spruce and fir) and deciduous trees (beech and oaks). The treeless plain above the Danube is a waterless steppe-like grassland, now cultivated. The lowlands of the river contain old channels, lakes, and riparian vegetation, including willows, alders, poplars, and great reed beds. The Black Sea coast is sandy, well-indented and characterized by the presence of lagoons and littoral lakes. - 127 -

The folded Carpathians are a medley of crystalline, sandstone, limestone, conglomerate and volcanics. Soils in Romania range from the stony skeletal soils of the high mountains to the chernozems of the plains. Their percentage values are: forest soils (56 percent), steppe and sylvo-steppe (31 percent), floodland soils (9 percent), marshy and saline (4 percent). The floodplains of the Danube, its delta and other bottom lands have a tendency toward salinization and water-logging.

4. CLIMATE

Transitional between temperate and continental, the climate is greatly affected by altitude. West of the Carpathians, the climate is milder than that of the east and south which is subject to scorching summers and winter blizzards.

0 The average annual temperature ranges from 1 0 to 11°C in the plains zone, 7° to 1 0°C in the hill zone, and below 60°C in the mountains. The average summer temperature is 21°C; the average winter temperature is -2°C. Extremes are 44° to -38°C. In the mountains, freezing begins in September and lasts over 200 days; in Transylvania it begins in October and lasts 100-150 days. The growing season is 180-210 days.

The average annual precipitation is about 670 mm, but ranges from 350-600 mm on the plains, 600- 800 mm in the hills, and 800-1 400 mm in the mountains. The rainiest months are May-June; the driest is February.

The average depth of snowfall is 600-650 mm on the plains and low hills and about 2 m in the mountains. Snow cover lasts for about a month in the Danube Valley and three months in the mountains.

The lower Danube may freeze in some years; the probability of its advent in the Delta being 68 percent. At the head of the Delta it averages 43 days, at sea edge in Sulina it is 21 days (Vagin, 1970).

5. HYDROGRAPHY AND LIMNOLOGY

According to Morariu, Cucu and Velcea (1969, p.142) the inland waters of Romania total more than 7 000 km', thus agreeing with the estimate in Table 5 that they total about 7 160 km' or about 3 percent of the total area of Romania. The first reference also indicates (p.49) that the 2 500 Romanian "lakes" (including reservoirs and lagoons) do not appear to constitute more than 1 percent of the country's area. Europa (1988) states that inland waters constitute 8 600 km' or 3.6 percent of the country.

The approximate annual runoff is 190 mm or 37 000 million m3. Added to this is about 155 000 million rn3 received from upstream countries, resulting in a total annual river discharge leaving the country of 192 000 million m3 (Van der Leeden, 1975; ECE, 1978; Blaga, Filotti and Rusu, 1978).

5.1 Rivers (Riu)

Almost all the rivers of Romania belong to the Danube (Dunarea in Romanian) catchment area draining outward from the Carpathian arc to the south and east - to flow directly into the Danube within the confines of Romania. The exceptions include a few northern and western rivers (e.g., Some and Mures) which reach the Danube indirectly through the Tisza in Hungary, and some minor Dobrogean streams that drain directly into the Black Sea. The lengths of the principal Romanian rivers are listed in Table 1.

The flow of the Danube is relatively stable, i.e., more so than that of the Romanian inland rivers. The latter have an uneven distribution on the area, and have great variations in runoff from year to year and within the year. The majority have a torrential flow regime: thus their maximum flows may reach several hundred or even 1 000 times that of their minimum flows. Within the country as a whole, spring is the season with the largest flow, with 40-60 percent of the total volume of flow occurring at that time. There are frequent floods as a result. The discharge of the Danube as measured near its entrance into Romania (Iron Gate) and near its mouth, as well as the discharges of other principal Romanian rivers is shown in Table 2. - 128 -

OR/

Table 1

Principal rivers of Romania

Length (km) Length (km) Name within Romania Total Name within Total Romania

Danube 1 074 2 860 Tirnava 219 249 Mare

Prut 701 . 953 Birlad 217 217

Mure§ 718 756 Vedra 213 213

Siret 592 726 Crisul Alb 226 238

Olt 699 699 Moldova 205 205

lalomita 411 411 Bega 1 69 202

Some§ 316 316 Saharul 198 198

Jim 319 319 Tirnava 191 1 91 Miea

Timis 211 316 Nealov 1 88 1 88

Arges 310 310 Oltei 181 181

Buzan 334 334 Teleorman 178 178

Jijia 283 283 Prahova 169 1 69

Bistrita 279 279 Aries 1 61 1 61

D'imbovita 266 266 Calmatui , 155 155

Source: Rumanian People's Republic Central Statistical Board (1965)

The waters differ in their physico-chemical characteristics according to lithologic variations in their geographical zones. Thus, in the mountain zones formed by crystalline and eruptive rocks and rather insoluble limestones, the waters contain few mineral and organic compounds; their dissolved solids rarely exceed 200 mg/I. Rivers of the hills and plateaux with more sedimentary rocks range up to 500 mg/I, and on the plains their salt concentrations exceed 500 mg/I. Romanian rivers are predominantly bicarbonate, although the lower courses of a number of streams (especially in the southeast) are characterized by chlorides and sulphates. Organic loading rises during rains simultaneously with the bed loads transported from agricultural fields, and the mean value of suspended load transport for Romania is 1.88 t/ha/year.

Water temperatures, which follow the air temperatures closely, are lowest in December-January and highest in July-August. They are very high in some of the smaller lower streams during summer. Table 2 Discharge of major rivers in Romania

Basin Mean monthly discharge, ms/sec Period River and Station area Year of km' Jan. Feb. Mar. Apr. May June July Aug. Sept. Oct. Nov. Dec. record

Danube, Orsova 576232 4464 4714 6403 7698 7632 6627 5533 4518 3911 3910 4762 4953 5427 1938-65

Danube, Ceatal lzmail 807000 5713 5768 6246 8437 8798 8330 7026 5356 4405 4147 5017 5758 6250 1928-65

Somas, Satu Mare 15000 86.5 166 214 241 150 124 86 55.6 35.7 38.4 60.4 107 114 1950-67

Crisul Alb, Chisinea Cris 3580 26.1 44.0 42.6 38.7 27.0 20.3 9.3 5.6 3.4 4.0 9.1 27.0 21.4 1950-67

Aries, Turda 2399 17.4 23.4 36.0 53.2 40.8 28.2 18.7 1 2.8 8.8 9.0 12.5 21.0 23.5 1950-67

Tirnava Mare, Blaj 3650 7.9 15.7 22.9 29.4 20.2 15.6 11.6 8.3 4.4 4.5 6.4 8.6 1 3.0 1950-67

Tirnava Mica, Tirnaveni 1 468 5.7 9.4 14.1 1 8.8 12.1 9.3 7.4 5.9 2.9 3.2 4.3 6.4 8.3 1 950-67

Mures, Arad 27056 1 07 151 209 319 294 221 138 1 05 63.6 61.4 74.7 112 154 1950-67

Timis, Lugoj 2706 30.6 42.4 44.6 61.9 63.1 44.2 24.6 19.5 1 0.9 11.4 17.5 30.1 33.4 1950-67

Jiu, Podari 9253 79.1 . 101 145 165 142 117 49.4 37.4 28.5 31.1 65.7 81.4 86.8 1950-67

Olt, lzbiceni 24203 101 104 238 251 300 236 122 93.4 68.3 97.2 108 97 151 1950-67

Vedea, Cervenia - 1 4.8 17.8 30.3 21.2 10.7 11.7 4.7 3.5 2.9 2.6 5.2 9.4 11.2 1950-67

Teleorman, Pielea-Teleorman 1 272 3.8 4.7 7.3 5.9 2.9 2.7 1.5 1.3 1.2 1.2 1.9 2.8 3.1 1950-67

Arges, Budesti 9229 40.5 45.0 65.8 90.6 106 91.7 41.5 26.8 14.3 15.3 27.0 33.0 49.7 1950-67

Dimbovita, Contesti 1 093 7.0 8.3 10.9 17.0 23.4 20.9 12.0 1 0.0 5.5 5.4 7.3 7.0 11.2 1950-67

lalomita, Sluhozia 9154 35.0 38.9 55.7 69.9 64.2 57.2 30.6 22.3 1 6.1 16.8 26.2 29.0 38.5 1950-67

Prahova, Adincata 3682 19.7 22.7 30.2 42.8 39.2 34.1 21.5 15.8 11.3 11.7 18.2 17.5 23.8 1950-67

Siret, Lungoci 36083 62.3 93.4 1 72 327 295 260 158 1 48 92.2 75.0 79.4 76.0 153 1950-67

Moldova, Roman-Tupilati 4028 9.1 11.4 23.3 52.8 50.0 46.0 33.1 39.7 17.8 12.3 11.4 10.2 26.2 1950-67

Bistrita, Cimu-Bicaz - 1 6.8 20.0 28.0 77.3 87.0 63.0 46.4 40.8 26.6 22.8 21.4 21.2 39.3 1950-67

Bided, Tecuci 6778 4.3 9.9 18.0 1 3.2 6.0 8.6 3.2 2.6 1.7 1.9 3.5 3.5 6.4 1950-67

Buzau, Sageata-Banita 3980 1 6.4 25.2 33.0 57.5 47.6 38.2 22.2 14.4 11.0 8.4 17.0 15.0 225.4 1950-67

Prut, Ungheni 15620 32.3 50.7 85.7 152 127 103 81.3 77.2 49.6 37.6 35.6 39.4 772.5 1950-67

Jijia, arpiti-Victoria 3350 1.6 4.7 10.1 9.9 3.0 4.7 1.7 1.5 1.2 0.9 1.2 1.1 3.5 1950-67

Source: Danube discharges from Van der Leeden (1975) after Unesco (1971). Discharges of other rivers from Diaconu (1971) - 130 -

The mountain rivers typically have almost linear courses down steep slopes with rapid flow and sometimes through gorges. Clear and cold, they are primarily trout and grayling waters and secondarily cyprinid. Rivers of the hills and plains, more winding often shallow, silty, and subject to great variations in flow and temperature, also harbour cyprinids, as well as pike (Esox lucius) and European catfish (Silurus planis). The rivers of the plains which are very meandered, often dry out into strings of small ponds (mostiste) in the summer, and many small dams are built to hold water (see section 5.3). Many of the streams tributary to the Danube are fringed with marshes and lakes in their lower courses. •

5.1.1 The Danube River and its Delta

The Danube River has a total length of 1 074 km in Romania. Of this length, 297 km forms. a boundary with former Yugoslavia and 453 km a boundary with Bulgaria. A smaller portion of the main Danube and one of its distributaries (Chilia) separates Romania from the former USSR. In addition to its major channel, the Danube has a number of arms over 700 km in length, and its entire surface area within Romania is over 50 000 ha.

The upper part of the Romanian Danube is narrow. Above the Iron Gate it flows between 3.5- 18 km/h. It then flows across a wide plain where its velocity varies from 1.6 to 4 km/h, its width from 40 to 1 210 m, and its depth from 1.5 to 9 m. On the Bulgarian side, there are undercut bluffs and hills, but on the lower Romanian side the braided river parallels the low plain from which it is separated by dams, lakes and swamps. From the point where it turns north from the Bulgarian border to Braila, it has two main arms enclosing great dammed areas. Near Tulcea, it starts to spread and finally empties into the Black Sea through three distributaries: (i) the northern Chilia arm, 1 00 km long and carrying 65 percent of the flow; the central Sulina arm, 83 km long carrying only 1 4 percent of the flow, but dredged to 7 m for navigation, and (iii) the southern Sfintu Gheorghe arm, 1 20 km long with 22 percent of the flow.

The Danube also has a zone of innundation of more than 9 000 km2 within Romania. About half of this area which lies upstream is termed the "Lunca" or "Balta"; more than 90 percent of this area is diked. The rest lies downstream in the Delta proper. There is both a natural fishing zone and a number of lakes and diked ponds where fish are reared, and most of the delta is kept in a natural state for wildlife.

The Romanian Danube reaches a summer temperature of 22-24°C and can be classed as a cyprinid zone.

The Delta proper, starting about 150 km from the Black Sea at Galati, has an area of about 3 430 km2 in Romania. Supplied by an annual load of about 57 million ri.13 of silt, the Chilia and Sulina are growing seaward at a rate of about 25 m annually. Never more than 6 m above sea level, and with a considerable portion below sea level, it is a complex of reed-filled marshes (62 percent), streams and ponds (25 percent) and sandbanks (13 percent). Many secondary branches, streams and canals link the river with numerous lake complexes and marshes. The largest lakes are: Gorgova, Fortuna, Matita, Merheiul, lsacova and Rosu. (See also section 5.2.) Some 100 000 ha are given over to areas of partly floating plant material.

The entire deltaic area, which holds an average of about 2 230 million m3 of water, is constantly changing with variations in flow, water level, and siltation. Most of the area, which averages only 0.54 m in elevation, is inundated during the period of maximum discharge in late spring and early summer. The most important inland fisheries of Romania are centred here.

Based upon the size of the deltaic area concerned with each use, fisheries use 67.7 percent inclusive of the Razelm-Sinoe complex, reed exploitation 7.2 percent, agriculture 7.2 percent, forestry 5.2 percent, grasslands 6.8 percent and other uses 5.9 percent.

In addition to the Delta proper, there is a lagoon area, the Razelm-Sinoe complex, of 990 additional km2 fed by the Danube (see section 5.2). -131 -

5.1.2 Other Rivers

In addition to the dominating Danube, Romania has over 4 000 rivers having watersheds larger than 1 0 km2 and a total length exceeding 60 000 km. These rivers can be separated into six groups of hydrographic systems:

(i) Northern. This group includes small streams such as the Viseu, lza and Tur, which form part of a drainage culminating in the main Tisza in Hungary.

(ii) Western. Included here are the much larger river systems, the Somes, forks of the Cris, Mures and Bega, all of which originate in Romania but join the main Tisza in Hungary.

(iii) Southwest. The Timis, which joins the Danube in former Yugoslavia and the Cares, Nera and Cerna, which join the Danube in Romania, form this group.

(iv) South. Draining out of the South Carpathians across the Walachian Plain are the large rivers, the Jui and the Olt, the Vedea, Arges, its tributary the Dimbovita, and the lalomita and its tributary the Prahova. Some of the eastern Walachian streams lose much water in the summer and may even disappear.

(v) Eastern. The Siret and its tributaries, Suceava, Moldova, Bistrita, Birlad and Buzau, furnish most of the silt that builds the Danube Delta. The Prut, shared with the former USSR, and navigable for about 322 km, has only one large tributary, the Jijia.

(vi) Dobroqean. Some of these small streams (e.g., Cocargea and Topolog) drain into the Danube; others (e.g., Telita, Casimcea) join the Black Sea directly.

5.2 Lakes and Lagoons (Lacs)

There are said to be about 2 500 "lakes" in Romania but this figure apparently includes the brackishwater lagoons as well as reservoirs (see section 5.3). They do not appear to constitute more than one percent of the country's total area, and few exceed 50 km2 in area. A list of the principal natural lakes and lagoons of Romania appears in Table 3.

In depth, these waters range from deltaic lakes of only 2 or 3 m to Alpine lakes more than 20 m deep (e.g., Zanoaga and Taul Negru).

The mountain lakes are mostly glacial, oligotrophic and of small size; there are over 150 cirque lakes mostly in the Southern and Eastern Carpathians. The largest mountain lake is Bucura (10 ha). There are also some landslide lakes (e.g., Lacu Rosa and Balatau) and one crater lake, Sfinta-Ana, in the mountains.

Most of the lakes on the plateaux are artificial reservoirs. Some have also formed in natural or man- made excavations in salt-deposit regions.

There are numerous lakes on the floodplains of the larger rivers (especially the Danube) or at the mouths of some rivers ("fluvial estuaries"), or in hollows resulting from subsidence. These are eutrophic and often have abundant aquatic vegetation.

Finally, there are the large coastal or lagoon lakes - products of both fluvial and marine action some primarily fresh and some quite saline. These lagoons generally have a good deal of free water and their emergent vegetation is limited to the shores. Separated by dunes from the sea, some may be open to it at times. Adjacent to the Delta proper is the large Razelm-Sinoe complex of about 990 km2 with several divisions: Razelm, Sinoe, Zmeica, Golovita, Babadag and Tuzla. Razelm, considered the largest "lake" in - 132 -

Romania, is only 3 m deep. Fed by canals from the Danube (see section 5.4). South of this network are other areas of static water, some fresh (Tasaul, Siutghiol), some brackish (Mangalia) and some saline (Techirghiol).

Table 3

Principal natural lakes and lagoons of Romania'

Lake Type Location Area km3

RazeIm Sea lagoon Tulcea 415.0

Sinoe Sea lagoon Constantza 1 71 .0

Zmeica Sea lagoon Tulcea 54.0

Babadag River and sea lagoon Tulcea 25.0

Mostistea River lagoon Cal5rasi 20.0

Siutghiol Sea lagoon Constantza 20.0

Dranov Water meadow Tulcea 20.0

Tasaul River and sea lagoon Constantza 1 8.0

Techirghiol River and sea lagoon Constantza 12.0

Snagov River lagoon Bucharest 5.8

Amara-Slobozia River lagoon lalomita 1.5

Sfinta-Ana Crater lake Harghita 0.22

Lacu-Rosa Landslide lake Harghita 0.12

Bucura Glacial lake Hunedoara 0.10

a/ Some of the other lakes listed in the source as "water meadow" lakes are now used for agriculture and fishponds and are not listed here.

Source: Rumanian People's Republic, Central Statistical Board (1986)

5.3 Reservoirs (laz)

It is believed that reservoirs for water storage were contructed in Romania as long ago as Roman times (second century A.D.), and there is documentary evidence of artificial lakes in the 15th century. Their present distribution was determined not only by the individualities of the hydrographic network, but by the development of industrial potential equalization.

Table 4 shows the artificial lakes (including controlled natural lakes) in Romania as of 1968. They totalled 1 192 in number, had a surface area of 47 548 ha and a capacity of 2 477.5 million m3.

The greater number of these (about 1 100) were reservoirs especially dammed for irrigation and fish culture and also used for flood control. Most reservoirs in this group had areas of only 1 to 50 ha; a few were as large as 400 ha. They are found mainly in the plateau and plain areas, but on the floodplains of the - 133 -

large rivers, diking of overflow zones and the drying up of natural lakes has resulted in the development of reservoirs for the same purposes.

There were also about 50 reservoirs, mostly in mountain areas, developed for hydroelectric power and drinking and industrial water. Some of these have become important tourist centres and support fisheries. The largest of these is Lake lzvorul Muntelui on the Bistrita River; it is 35 km long, has an area of 3 250 ha, is 90 m in depth, and has a capacity of 1 230 million rn3. Below it are eight smaller reservoirs with a combined storage of 52.4 thousand m3. Another large reservoir is Lake Vidaru on the Arges River with a dam 1 67 m high, an area of 865 ha and a capacity of 465 million rn3. There are a number of smaller associated reservoirs in the same drainage basin.

The most important reservoir development in recent years (1972) was completion of the Djerdap High Dam on the Danube at Iron Gate to create a reservoir over 150 km in length and the downstream Iron Gate II dam which impounded a 8 000 ha reservoir about 80 km long. The scope was to develop power shared by Romania and former Yugoslavia. Romania and Bulgaria are proposing the construction of another barrage on the Danube below the mouth of the Olt (Turnu-Wgurele/Nikopol), but because of economic difficulties construction has been postponed.

Most of the above information, including Table 4, is taken from Gastescu and Breier (1973), and (as has been explained before) about 1 100 of the 1 192 artificial lakes they listed are small reservoirs in valleys dammed for the purpose of fish culture and agriculture. In a more restricted classification, Blaga, Filotti and Rusu (1978) listed the number and capacity of the greater reservoirs on Romanian inland rivers as follows:

1 975 1 980 1990 Long-term

Number of reservoirs 1 00 1 70 550 1 400

Capacity (million m3) 3 700 6 900 22 000 34 000

They went on to say that from the total long-term value of 34 000 million m3, 24 000 million m3 would be the volume allocated to water demands of users, yield hydroelectric power and create water levels for navigation and fish breeding. The other 1 0 000 million m3 would be used for flood damping. In order to accomplish this, interconnexion of large water courses and water transfer between basins would be necessary. In 1975, there were only about 1 00 km of canals, galleries, and drains, but 2 000 km of conduits would be necessary under the long-term plan to transfer over 3 000 million rn3 of water to water-deficient areas. They also envisioned an emphasis on "fish-breeding" with establishment under a national programme of new fisheries in small ponds, lakes and nurseries with a total surface of 1 40 000 ha, and piscicultural operation of water bodies created by reservoirs of permanent capacity reaching 230 000 ha. They also pointed out that the large reservoirs built to meet user's demands would also be used for fish production although water-level fluctuation would not permit intensive use.

In 1990 the surface of Romanian fished reservoirs was 53 137 ha. The area under fish culture was hatcheries 15 145 ha; ponds 75 428 ha, of which 7 158 ha and 42 133 ha respectively are in the delta'.

Gastescu and Breier (1973) distinguish between "reservoirs (iaz in Romanian)" as lakes formed by the construction of a dam across a valley, and "fish ponds (elesteu in Romanian)" as basins, regardless of their size, constructed in flat areas and encircled by dams. But both are apparently held by them to be "artificial lakes". Similar terms are not defined by the other authors.

1 / Some 10 000 km of this surface will be opened to the Danube water because, at present, their bottoms are unsuitable for ponds Table 4

Artificial lakes in Romania grouped according to hydrographic basins (1968)

Lakes for hydropowe generation Lakes for fish culture and agriculture Lakes for other uses' Total (irrigation) Basin No. Area, ha Volume No. Area, ha Volume No. Area, ha Volume No. Area, ha Volume million m3 million m3 million m3 million m3

Upper Tisa 1 0.12 ... 1 0.12 ...

Somes-Crasna 7 291.60 3.5 1 1 31.0 17.6 8 422.60 21.1

Crisuri-Bereteu 17 1515.10 28.7 17 1515.10 28.7

Mures-Aranca 1 2.0 0.15 17 378.95 6.6 1 261.0 43.5 19 641.95 50.25

Bega-Timis-Caras 2 71.0 11.90 19 474.75 7.8 5 1113.6 15.0 26 659.35 34.7

Nera-Cerna 2 1.01 0.1 2 1.01 0.1

Jiu 10 22.20 1.8 2 2000.0 1 00.8 12 2022.20 102.6

Olt 2 39.0 6.5 25 245.95 8.3 7 25.0 1.3 34 309.95 16.1

Vedea 123 1 388.00 25.0 123 1388.00 25.0

Arges 3 946.0 473.8 133 3453.00 34.6 10 1500.0 44.0 146 5899.00 552.4

lalomita 1 21.0 0.55 91 1 649.70 33.2 1 6.0 0.8 93 1676.70 34.55

Siret 8 4545.0 1282.0 104 4184.00 26.1 2 360.0 18.2 114 9089.00 1326.3

Prut 281 9374.00 91.4 6 722.0 16.0 287 10096.00 107.4

Danube 255 1 0069.00 108.0 42 1 060.0 25.3 297 11129.00 1 33.3

Coastal 13 2698.00 45.0 13 2698.00 45.0

Total 17 5624.0 1774.90 1098 35745.38 420.10 77 6178.6 282.5 1192 47547.98 2477.50 a/ Including water supply, flood control and recreation Source: Gastescu and Breier (1973) - 135 -

5.4 Canals

Aside from the irrigation canals, canalized natural rivers, and connexions between the Danube and various arms and lakes, the most important canal in Romania is the Danube-Black Sea Canal which was officially opened in May 1984. This 64-km canal from Cernavoda to Constanta lessens the journey down the Danube to the Black Sea by several hundred kilometres. It will accommodate ships, power from stations at its two locks, and contribute to the irrigation of 220 000 ha (Economist, 1984). A Danube-Bucharest Canal was under construction in 1987 (Europa, 1988).

5.5 Coastal Waters

The Black Sea which borders for 245 km on Romania is the largest meromictic basin in the world. With a permanent halocline, it is filled with stagnate anoxic water containing hydrogen sulphide below a depth of 80 to 200 m. Hence its productivity is limited. See the section on Turkey, and especially Zenkevitch (1963) for a description.

The coastal waters of the Romanian sector of the Black Sea are characterized by having a lower salinity than that of the main Black Sea, and by rapid changes in both temperature and salinity dependent upon wind direction. The salinity may vary from 10 to 20 ppt within a few days. Near the coast, the mean annual surface temperature is about 12.5°C. In summer, it often rises to 25°C and in winter the Sea may freeze for several kilometres offshore.

Freshwater fish are found at times along the coast, especially in summer, as far south as Bulgaria (where the salinity is higher), being influenced by winds from the north which bring warm water of low salt content. Conversely, marine fishes may at times arrive at the Delta and penetrate the lagoons (e.g., Zatonus Mare).

6. LAND AND WATER USE

Table 5

Pattern of land use in Romania, 1987

Percent

Arable and permanent crops 45.0

Permanent pasture 1 8.6

Forests and woodland 27.6

Other land 5.3

Inland water 3.5

Total 1 00.0

Source: 1 988 Annuar.Statistic.al R.S.Romania, Dir.Centr.de Statistics

The economy of Romania, and therefore the use of land and water, is partly socialized. The State has owned all natural resources other than collective and private farm lands, and a great part of agricultural land is held by cooperative and State farms. - 136 -

Formerly based on agriculture, forestry and oil production, the economy is now dominated by mostly nationalized industry. Nevertheless, Romania's land use is still largely agricultural, and the country is about 28.6 percent rural (1988 Annuar Stat.). Romania is a great granary for cereals; sugar beets, vines and fruits are important crops. There is also sheep grazing and a considerable cattle industry.

The low precipitations of summer and their uneven distribution during the growing season, low humidity and frequent strong winds are all factors demanding irrigation on the tablelands and plains. A shift to the use of large holdings and intensive agriculture, including fertilization (although still well below the European average), has further increased the use of irrigation. By 1987, the irrigated area (3.37 million ha) represented about 33 percent of the cultivated area, i.e., about 12.6 percent of the entire country. About 50 percent of the farming area requires irrigation, and it is planned to irrigate 5.1 million ha. Pump and gravity flow will supply this water, and a network of small dams is rapidly covering the eastern and southern areas of the country.

Large-scale irrigation is comparatively new, but large drainage systems have existed since the 18th century on the Western Plain. Circa 1969, an area of 2.8 million ha or 20 percent of the farming land was served by drainage works, and about 1.3 million ha had been drained. The areas have been developed by complex embankments and most of the water is removed by pumping. Many fish producing areas have thus been destroyed.

The Danube's floodplain was kept under a natural flood regime up to the end of the last century used primarily for fishing and secondarily for grazing, timber production and farming. Following an extensive programme of diking, reed removal and drainage, a permanent water area of about 60 000 ha had been restricted to about 8 200 ha for fish production. Framji and Mahajan (1969) claim that the total fish output remained the same.

Forestry and timber processing continue to be large industries, roundwood production being about the fifth highest in Europe. Most of the forests are high-montane (conifers) but deciduous trees are also harvested. In the Delta there was a great reed-growing area of over 270 000 ha where the reeds (Phraornites communis) were cut for cellulose during the low-water periods, sometimes in connexion with fishing operations. The surface area of the reeds has been drastically reduced. At one time, a considerable number of small ponds (hait) were constructed along mountain rivers to furnish water for the transport of log rafts. Road construction has made them obsolete, although logs are still floated on some rivers such as the Mures. Forests, generally, have decreased in Romania but there is a reforestation programme partly to improve watersheds.

Mining is also an old industry in Romania. There is coal, iron, various non-ferrous minerals, natural gas and a large oil production. Some of the earliest man-made lakes in the mountains were built for ore separation.

Industry, which is now concentrated on its heavy elements, includes iron, steel and machine manufacturing, metallurgy and chemicals. The newer, larger dams in Romania are constructed especially to provide water and power for these industries.

Mining, oil and the chemical industry are major sources of water pollution and localized areas may be found throughout the country where severe conditions exist. The main Danube has water of reasonably good quality except in areas of industry (e.g., steel, cellulose). Groundwater has limited use (about 8 percent) in Romania, thus increasing the demands on surface water for all uses.

In 1987 the total installed electrical capacity of Romania was 74 079 000 kW of which 11 209 000 kW (15 percent) was hydroelectric. Most of the hydroelectric dams have been constructed since 1950 and many more projects are planned for mountain rivers. Those of the south, the Olt and Siret, have considerable potential. It has been estimated that at least 71 rivers are suitable for hydroelectric plants (Bossy, 1957). The use of thermal power (gas and coal) is also increasing, and there is some nuclear power in project. Romania shares a power grid with Bulgaria, Czechoslovakia and former Yugoslavia. - 137 -

Auto roads have a low density in Romania, only 0.31 km/km' in 1 985, and passenger car ownership is extremely low, only about 1 0 per 1 000 people (1979). Aside from a network of railways about 11 300 km, there are about 2 400 km of navigable streams in the country. The Danube and the lower Prut rivers are the most important, and the lower Mures, part of the Siret, and the Bega (Canal), which runs into former Yugoslavia, are also navigable. Ice stops the Danube traffic for about one month in most years. Dredging is necessary to maintain navigation; and pollution from river craft may affect fisheries adversely. An International Danube Commission, formed in 1948, ensures free navigation and management from the mouth of the River to Ulm in Germany.

Fisheries and fish culture have long been recognized as important uses of the country's waters, being the most important branch of food production next to agriculture (Motley, 1970). Romania's commercial fishery on the Danube far exceeds that of the other Danubian countries and its inland fisheries exceed its Black Sea fisheries. For direct human consumption, the per caput supply of fish is about 9 kg/year (1982-84). Sport fishing is achieving importance as both tourism and industry grows (see section 7).

With respect to overall water use, both industry and agriculture use large quantities in this relatively water-deficient country. Circa 1968, when the total water consumption in Romania was only about 5 400 million m' annually, industry used 65 percent of the supply, irrigation 20 percent, and domestic supply 1 5 percent (Chiriac, 1968). Over one half of the groundwater is already used, and water demands (which will obviously be answered primarily from surface resources) are calculated to rise from 22 400 million m' in 1980 to 46 000 million m' in the long term (Blaga, Filotti and Rusu, 1978).

Tourism is moderate: about 6 million people visited Romania in 1985.

7. FISH AND FISHERIES

Romania has about 77 species of fresh- and brackishwater fishes (Banarescu, 1967), of which

76 species are found in the Romanian sector of the Danube and its lagoons (Bacalbasa et L. 1984). Busnita (1967) lists 66 full species of fish belonging to 1 9 families from the Romanian Danube. There is a large variety: strictly freshwater mountain species such as the brown trout (Salmo trutta) and grayling (Thvmallus thvmallus), a large assemblage of cyprinids, a good many percids, six species of sturgeons (of which two are no longer caught), and euryhaline fishes such as shad (Alosa spp.), Gingirica (Clupeonella cultriventris), and the grey mullets. In addition to the native fishes, a number of others have been imported to be cultivated for food or stocked for angling. (See Bacalbasa-Dobrovici, 1984, for an account of introductions into Romania, including the unwanted American pumpkinseed (Lepomis oibbosus) and brown bullhead (Ictalurus nebulosus), and some coregonids (Coreoonus spp.) The fishes of major importance will be discussed in the sections that follow.

Table 6 illustrates the commercial catch from the inland waters sensu strictu of Romania as reported to FAO by the Government during the period 1965-85. Table 7, from the same source, shows the Romanian inland catches during the 1981-88 period. The catches for these last seven years have been separated from those of previous years because they show a new and major breakdown of species not shown in earlier statistics. To complete the picture, by showing the catch in coastal waters of fishes that tolerate both fresh and salt water, Table 8 is included to show the Romanian catch during 1 965-87 of euryhaline and diadromous fishes in marine statistical area 37, Mediterranean and Black Sea, in this case only the Black Sea.

Unfortunately, here as for many other countries, the lumping in FAO statistics of several wild species, as well as the inclusion of cultivated fish with wild fish lessens the usefulness of these tables. The overall importance of inland fisheries in Romania is, however, easily seen by noting the catch figures in Table 7 for 1981. In that year, the commercial "catch" in inland waters constituted 85 percent of the Romanian catch in all of its fresh, brackish, and contiguous marine (Black Sea) waters, and 29 percent of the entire catch by the country, including that by its distant water fleet. - 138 -

Table 6

Nominal catches in the inland waters of Romania, 1965-85 (in tons)

Year Common Freshwater Sturgeon Trout Pontic Total Crayfish Frog Total carp& fish n.e.i. shad finfish n.e.i.

1965 ... 21 200 - ... 0 21 200 ...... 21 200

1966 ... 22300 - ... 0 22 300 ...... 22 300 1967 ... 33700 - ... 0 33 700 ...... 33 700

1968 ... 27900 - ... 0 27 900 ...... 27 900

1969 ... 28 200 0 200 400 28 800 300 200 29 300

1970 12 900 19 800 0 200 300 33 200 200 400 33 800 1971 16 000 14 500 0 200 500 31 200 0 0 31 200

1972 23 700 9 400 0 200 400 33 700 0 0 33 700

1973 20 700 19 500 0 200 600 41 000 200 100 41 300 1974 25 944 13 666 20 210 2 001 41 841 72 82 41 995

1975 22 891 21 459 0 200 1 989 46 539 53 166 46 758 1976 28 323 19 527 6 100 2 200 50 156 57 71 50 284 1977 25 264 27 681 31 178 1 566 54 720 55 78 54 853

1978 23 740 20 956 0 140 988 45 824 19 78 45 951 1979 21 081 26 890 7 120 1 392 49 490 29 67 49 586

1980 20 316 31 137 7 160 1 008 52 628 37 69 52 734 1981 23 496 30 960 16 150 608 55 230 58 77 55 365

1982 25 141 32 537 16 260 1 372 59 316 32 75 59 423 1983 15 257 37 770 35 230 923 51 215 62 56 51 333 1984 21 060 33 965 81 1 383 56 489 18 33 56 540

1985 19 008 38 345 56 452 1 066 58 927 25 27 58 979

a/ Included with freshwater fishes, n.e.i., 1965-69 Data not available 0 Probably nil, negligible, or insignificant; or less than 50 t during the 1965-73 period, or less than half a ton during later years. This category not listed this year n.e.i. Not elsewhere included

Source: 1965-69 - Yearb.Fish.Stat.FAO, 36 (Publ. 1974) 1970-83 - FAO Fish. Dept. Fishery Statistical Database (FISHDAB) 1984-85 - FAO Yearb.Fish.Stat., 66 (Publ. 1990) - 139 -

Table 7

Nominal catches in the inland waters of Romania, 1981-87 (in tons)

1981 1982 1983 1984 1985 1986 1987

Freshwater bream (Abramis brama) 1 244 2 246 2 072 2 054 1 223 1 580 2 515

Common carp (Cyprinus carpio) 23 496 25 141 15 257 21 060 19 008 19 582 17 828

Tench (Tinca tinca) 251 104 27 3 6 32 35

Crucian carp (Carassius carassius) 107 51 2 - - - 1

Goldfish (C. auratuS) 13 490 12 571 11 848 11 069 18 925 17 690 14 278

Roaches (Rutilus spp.) 2 069 2 222 1 394 1 663 1 812 2 079 2 326

Bighead (Aristichthys nobilisj 3 425 1 773 1 000 478 1 939 6 323 7 283

Grass carp (Ctenopharynoodon 2 974 3 028 36 9 540 1 736 1 218 3 011 idella)

Silver carp (Hypophthalmichthys 3 350 6 055 164 4 534 9 092 10 870 12 977 molitrix)

Cyprinids, n.e.i. 0 0 16 191 1 618 ... 1 858 1 078

Pike (Esox lucius) 680 266 115 116 190 347 222

European catfish (Silurus planis) 432 393 366 267 277 285 330

European perch (Perca fluviatilis) 364 353 347 368 326 501 530

Pike-perch (Stizostedion lucioperca) 502 464 569 381 606 487 332

Freshwater fishes, n.e.i. 2 065 2 970 624 1 473 1 862 2 065 3 123

Sturgeons (Acipenseridae) 16 16 35 81 56 42 40

Trouts, n.e.i. (Salmo spp.) 150 260 230 - 452 453 561

Allis shad and Twaite shad (Alosa 2 6 0 3 - - spp.)

Pontic shad (Alosa pontica) 608 1 372 923 1 047 926 314 395

Grey mullets (Mugilidae) 5 25 15 18 2 - -

Total finfish 55 230 59 316 51 215 55 770 58 441 65 726 66 865

Crayfishes (Cambarus and Astacus 58 32 62 18 25 30 11 spp.)

Frogs (Rana spp.) 77 75 56 33 27 37 29

Total 55 365 59 423 51 333 55 821 58 493 65 793 66 905

n.e.i. not elsewhere indicated not available not represented

Source: 1981-83 - FAO Fish. Dept. Fishery Statistical Database (FISHDAB) 1984-87 - Yearb.Fish.Stat.FAO, 64 (Publ. 1989) - 140 -

Table 8

Nominal catches of diadromous and euryhaline species in Marine Statistical Fishing Area 37 (Black Sea only) by Romania, 1965-87 (in tons)

Year Sturgeons Pontic Shads or Grey Azov tyulka shad Allis and mullets (Clugeonella Total Twaite shad cultriventris)

1965 300 500 - 0 1 500 2 300

1966 200 300 _ 0 1 000 1 500 1967 200 300 - 0 1 100 1 600 1968 200 200 - 0 200 600

1969 200 500 - 0 0 700

1970 100 200 100 0 200 600

1971 200 400 100 0 0 700

1972 200 300 100 0 100 700

1973 200 700 200 0 100 1 200 1974 142 878 219 1 77 1 317

1975 120 2 158 540 1 253 3 072 1976 109 534 451 5 77 1 176

1977 104 640 161 2 79 986 1978 65 247 137 2 6 457

1979 54 471 0 1 3 529

1980 32 392 0 1 27 452

1981 54 251 332 15 2 654

1982 48 82 194 2 18 344 1983 51 230 128 0 82 491

1984 56 336 401 0 - 793

1985 37 140 348 0 - 525

1986 31 0 1 137 2 - 1 170

1987 32 0 1 137 0 - 1 169

0 Probably nil, negligible or insignificant; or less than 50 t during the 1965-73 period, or less than half a ton during later years This category not listed this year

Source: 1965-69 - Yearb.Fish.Stat.FAO, 36 (Publ. 1974 1970-83 - FAO Fish. Dept. Fishery Statistical Database (FISHDAB) 1984-87 - Yearb.Fish.Stat.FAO, 64 (Publ. 1989) - 141 -

7.1 Capture Fisheries

7.1.1 Commercial fishing

The major commercial fisheries are centred on the Danube and its overflow areas, the Delta and some of its former lagoons. About seven families of the almost 70 species found here are of commercial importance.

In the main channel of the Danube and its arms, the major species taken are: Pontic or Black Sea shad (Alosa pontica), several species of sturgeon (Huso and Acipenser), common carp (Cyprinus carpio), European catfish (Silurus olanis), and pike-perch (Stizostedion lucioperca). Bacalbasa (1970) states that about 1 000 t of these and other species are taken annually from the main river and about 1 0 500 t of fish from the natural areas of inundation above the Delta. But by about 1979, only about 1 500 t were taken from the latter areas (pers. comm. from Bacalbasa-Dobrovici, 1989). At low water there was also a fishery for mussels (Unio and Anodonta) whose shells were used for buttons.

In the Delta itself, the most important fish in recent years is a subspecies of the goldfish, the "giebel" or silver crucian carp, known in Romania as caras-arqintui (Carassius auratus), which now ranks second in Romania's inland water "catch" (the latter including aquacultural production). Other important fish in this area are pike-perch, European catfish, common carp, bream (Abramis brama), and at low water, pike (Esox lucius), roach (Rutilus sp.) and rudd (Scardinius erythrophthalmus). Pontic shad enter the river mouths during the spring. In years of high water, favourable to the development of common carp, the catch in the Delta may rise to about 12 000 t of which the most valuable are the carp and pike-perch. Frogs (Rana) and crayfish are also taken in the Delta, mostly for export trade.

There was also some commercial fishing in the hill and plateau areas of other rivers where the principal fishes taken are the: nase (Chondrostoma nasus), barbels (Barbus barbus and B. meridionalis), moruna (Vimba vimba), dace (Leuciscus cephalus), breams (Abramis spp.), pike and European catfish. The yield is about 25 kg/km (Bacalbasa, 1970). Some of these rivers are stocked artificially with barbels, Vimba dace, common carp, crucian carp, pike-perch and pike, which are currently expoited by sport fishermen.

There is also some commercial fishing in reservoir lakes. It has been slow to develop in those at high elevations because of the newness of most of them. In lower reservoirs there is a fishery which was producing over 300 kg/ha annually circa 1970, and the reservoir Iron Gate I was producing some 150 t circa 1979. The new reservoir Iron Gate II is smaller (8 000 ha) and with a similar production per hectar (Bacalbasa-Dobrovici, pers.comm., 1979).

Like the floodplain fisheries of other Danube countries, some very specialized fishing gear using local materials, such as wood and reeds, has heen developed. It is now being supplanted by more modern gear, including pond nets often made of synthetic material. Methods differ depending upon the species sought, season and hydrographic conditions. Seines are customary gear for shallow lakes. Hoopnets, traps, trammel and gillnets, trawls, seines and hook and line are all employed, and some devices, such as fish barriers in the Danube lakes are installed on a semi-permanent basis. Shad and sturgeons are also fished in the Black Sea (see Bacalbasa 1970 for further details).

7.1.2 Sport fishing

The mountain rivers are reserved almost exclusively for sport fishing. Brown trout (Salmo trutta) occupy about 65 percent of their extent and grayling (Thvmallus ) about 6 percent. Other resident salmonids are the Danube salmon (Hucho hucho), the introduced rainbow trout (Oncorhynchus mykiss) and the American brook trout or char (Salvelinus fontinalis).

About 20 percent of the mountain rivers are populated by cyprinids, especially dace, barbels and nase, which compete with the salmonids and in some areas are being removed as a measure to improve sport fishing. - 142 -

The mountain lakes and reservoirs containing salmonids are also used primarily for sport fishing.

The streams of the tablelands and plains are also used mainly for sport fishing although they are dominated by cyprinids. Dace, barbels, nase, Vimba, European catfish and pike are the major species; common and crucian carp and pike-perch are also residents. Natural propagation in both streams and lakes is supplemented by stocking.

There is also sport fishing in the Delta where people are increasingly attracted by its unique scenery and wildlife populations.

The number of sport fishermen in 1990 exceeded 200 000, representing about 1 percent of the total population. They are organized and directed by the General Association of Hunters and Sport Fishermen which is also occupied with the systematic stocking of fishing waters (see section 8.2).

7.2 Aouaculture

Aquaculture has a long history in Romania especially as practised on the Transylvanian and Moldavian plains in ponds used for watermills. Lakes for this dual purpose still exist in large numbers in these areas, and the diking of overflow zones and drying up of natural lakes has hastened the development of aquaculture in floodplain areas.

Circa 1970, there were about 12 ha of trout ponds in the mountainous areas of Romania which produced more than 20 t of trout annually (Bacalbasa, 1970). Salmonid fry were also raised to repopulate natural waters. Since 1969, the "catch" of trout in Romania has been reported by FAO (Tables 6 and 7) as varying between 100 t in 1976 and 561 t in 1987. More than 90 percent of the total is from aquaculture in gorges and ponds.

Numercially, the majority of the Romanian fish-culture ponds are, however, located in the hill zones and until recently were devoted primarily to production of common carp. They are of two types: diked ponds, and those situated behind dams in natural water courses. Most of the diked ponds, which circa 1970 had a total area of over 2 000 ha, are more than 20 ha in size. A number are over 100 ha and one of the oldest, Cefa on the Western Plain, covers 668 ha. Large ponds include: Tamasda (210 ha), lnand (170 ha), lneu (160 ha) and Homorog (105 ha). With a natural productivity of about 300-500 kg/ha annually, when the fish in these ponds are fed the annual production exceeds 1 000 kg/ha and attains 3 000 kg/ha annually in the better ponds.

Simple ponds in natural watercourses have existed in Romania since the 12th century. The majority of these are in Moldavia and Walachia. Their total extent, circa 1970, exceeded 16 000 ha. According to Bacalbasa (1970) they had a mean annual yield of more than 400 kg/ha, and he believed that this yield could be doubled or even tripled.

The overflow areas of the Danube also support pondfish culture whose yield greatly exceeds that of its natural waters. In some areas, the deepest portions of the old lakes are managed as fish hatcheries and ponds. For example, a fish pond of 2 000 ha has been laid out in the old lake of Brates (originally 7 400 ha) and in other old lakes such as Jijila, Suhaia and Bistret, whose surface areas attain 8 000 ha.

The deltaic region of the Danube also supports pondfish culture to repopulate fishing areas. The ponds of Stipoc (more than 1 400 ha) produce an annual crop of 1 500 kg/ha. The Delta ponds presently extend over more than 30 000 ha.

Much of the above information on aquaculture has been derived from Bacalbasa (1970) and information which he furnished me in 1979. Negoescu (1984) has a considerable discussion of the most recent status of aquaculture in Romania; some of his major points are summarized below. He indicates that decided attempts are being made to intensify aquacultural production through research in three regional centres dependent administratively on the Ministry of Agriculture and Food Industry and scientifically on the - 143 -

Academy of Agriculture and Forest Sciences (see section 8). Principal objects of piscicultural research include: genetic selection, introduction of exotic species, culturing of some local species not used extensively before, increased use of polyculture, use of cages, use of hot water from industry and thermal areas, feeding, mechanization and intensification of cultivation in reservoirs.

Selected strains of common carp have produced first-year fish of 1 5-1 50 g, second-year fish of 800- 1 500 g, and monocultural yields of 2 000-3 000 kg/ha. Research on Romanian hill reservoirs (see section 5.3) with polyculture (using mixtures where 60 percent of the fish were consumers of phytoplankton) produced annual yields of 1 000 kg/ha for unfed fish and yields of 1 500-2 000 kg/ha with feeding.

In addition to the traditionally cultivated common carp, Romania has imported four species of Chinese carp: the bighead (Aristichthvs nobilis), grass carp (Ctenooharynaodon idella), silver carp (Hvpopthalmichthys molitrix) and the black or snail carp (Mylooharvnaodon piceus). These carps have been stocked and captured in open waters. Since 1986 both bighead and silver carp have been observed to in the Danube (Bacalbasa-Dobrovici, pers. comm.). Romania has also imported the American channel catfish (Ictalurus punctatus) and the American buffalo-fishes (Ictiobus cvorinellus, I. bubalus and I. niaer). Native fishes added to the list of those cultured are the tench, European catfish and pike-perch. Sturgeon have also been cultivated at Sf. Gheorghearm in the Delta and in Galati.

The latest information on aquaculture in Romania available to the author comes from: (i) Ackefors (1989) who estimated that the country had 60 000 ha of fish ponds, and (ii) the production shown in Table 9.

Table 9

Production from aquaculture in Romania, 1986-89 (in tons)

Species 1986 1987 1988 1 989

Osteichthyes 38 000' 38 000' 40 000' 38 000'

Crayfish (Astacus spp., 30 11 - 0 Cambarus spp.)

F - FAO estimate

Source: FAO Info.Data and Stat.Serv. (1991)

8. OWNERSHIP, ADMINISTRATION, MANAGEMENT, INVESTIGATION AND AGREEMENTS'

8.1 Ownership

In Romania, the fisheries are state property. Most of the fishermen are paid a fixed salary or one depending upon the size of the job. Some of the fish ponds, lakes and small reservoirs on the plains belong to agricultural cooperatives, others to cities.

1/ Based primarily on Gaudet (1974) plus a revision received by EIFAC from Romania in 1979. This section is probably not up-to-date - 144 -

8.2 Administration, Manaoement and Investioation

The Ministry of Agriculture and Food Industry is responsible for coordinating all fishery activities in Romania.

The Ministry of the Environment is concerned with some of the smaller parts of the fishery programme.

8.2.1 The administration of inland fisheries is divided into three general sectors:

(i) Inland Fisheries except the Delta. These are divided into about 30 joint-stock companies which are involved in construction, fish culture, management, canning, fishing regulations and protection. The Scientific Research Section of Nucet (region of Dimbovita) was (in 1979) concerned with fishery science and aquaculture for all the area. The Research Station of Nucet is one of the four regional centres in Romania conducting research on fish production. The two others are the Station of Research and Fish Production of Podu-lloaiei (region of Iasi), the station of Piatra-Neamt (region of Neamt), and the Centre of Research and Production for fish culture, fishing and industrialization (Galati). These stations are loosely coordianted by a small unit in the Department of Food Industries.

(ii) The Biosphere Reservation Danube Delta. This is coordinated by a Governor who also coordinates a Research and Fish Culture Projects Institute which undertakes the preparation for all Delta ecological fish management and ecological fish culture projects. A Project Preparation Section looks after the Delta and the former lagoons. A Scientific Research Section is concerned with hydrochemistry, biology, fishery science and aquaculture for the Delta and the former lagoons as well as with fishing methods and gear. Exploitation of the Delta is carried out by joint stock (at present 8) companies coordinated through the Tulcea prefecture.

(iii) Research sector. In addition to the research carried out as described above, technical research on food with respect to fisheries is carried out by the Fish Industrialization Laboratory of the Ministry's Institute for Food Research.

The Oceanic Fisheries Sector is also concerned with fishing nets. There is also collaboration in research with the Universities of Galati and Iasi.

8.2.2 The following agencies also have a share in fishery activities:

(i) Ministry of the Environment. This Ministry through its Forestry Department, is in charge of trout culture in mountain streams, lakes and reservoirs. It coordinates and supervises all activities relating to salmoniculture and sport fishing throughout the country, and coordinates the activities of the General Association of Hunters and Sport Fishermen.

(ii) The Water Department. This Department of the Ministry of the Environment administers the reservoirs for water supply and the artificial regularization lakes.

(iii) Prefectures. The Prefectures are concerned with the administration and funding of local agricultural and industrial resources and the local enterprises that run fish culture units. They collaborate with pertinent agencies in the Ministry of Agriculture and Food Industry and the Ministry of the Environment.

(iv) Ministry of Public Instruction and Science. This Ministry is concerned with fishery education and partly with scientific research.

8.2.3 There is at least one journal devoted exclusively to fisheries. - 145 -

8.3 International Agreements

Romania has a bilateral agreement with Hungary concerning uses of their boundary streams, one with former Yugoslavia concerning its boundary streams, another with Bulgaria concerning the Danube and agreement with the Republics of Moldavia and Ukraine concerning flood control on boundary streams and technical cooperation concerning the Danube and Prut rivers.

It has a quinque-lateral agreement concerning the Tisza River with Czechoslovakia, Hungary, Ukraine and former Yugoslavia.

Romania also belongs to the international Danube Commission which deals with navigation and related problems on the Danube River and has participants from all the Danube countries.

In 1958 it signed the Convention on Fisheries of the Danube to take joint action to protect the river's fish stocks; other adherents are Bulgaria, Czechoslovakia, Hungary, Ukraine and former Yugoslavia.

The International Association of the Research of the Danube (affiliated with the International Association of Theoretical and Applied Limnology) was formed in 1956 as a non-governmental organization of all riparian countries.

9. STATE OF THE FISHERY

9.1 Yield

Tables 6 and 7 show a steadily increasing total yield of finfish captured from Romania's inland waters or produced through aquaculture: from 21 200 t in 1965 to 66 865 t in 1987. Although the relative roles of these two sources cannot be distinguished in these statistics, it is evident that common carp and goldfish (both wild and cultivated) now account for the greater part of the total harvest, 75 percent in 1988.

The yields from natural waters or low-lying reservoirs appear to be reasonable ones. Carp pond culture yields are not exceptional but measure up well for waters of Central or Eastern Europe.

Bacalbasa (1970) stated that the annual yield in the lower reservoirs was then about 300 kg/ha and that the commercial fishery (primarily of valued species) was 20 kg/ha/year in the main Danube and about 22 kg/ha/year in its overflow area. In the Delta in 1986, 32 685 ha of ponds were in use and produced 11 038 t of fish at an average yield of 338 kg/ha. This is approximately ten times greater than the yield of the capture fishery of the open delta. It has been determined that small polyculture ponds, without supplementary feeding can produce upto 900 kg/ha. With supplementary feeding these ponds could achieve yields in excess of 1 500 kg/ha (Bacalbasa-Dobrovici, 1990).

He also reported that yields in diked carp ponds were about 300-500 kg/ha/year and with feeding increased to 1 000 and sometimes to 2 000 kg/ha/year. Experimental work in Romania mentioned by Negoescu (1982) indicate that much larger yields can be attained: 2 000-3 000 kg/ha/year for fed carp and 1 500-2 000 kg/ha/year for fed fish in polycultures.

If we assume for Romania that the estimate of fish pond area (60 000 ha circa 1989) by Ackefors (1989) and FAO's estimate (Table 9) of an aquacultural production of about 40 000 t are both accurate (and we have no good reason to assume that this is true), then they aquacultural yield of finfish circa 1 989 in Romania was about 666 kg/ha/year.

9.2 Factors Affecting the Fishery

The climatic and hydrographic conditions in Romania provide a wide variety of fishes from the salmonids of clear cold mountain streams to the silt and warm-water tolerant fishes of the Delta and a small complement of brackishwater species. However, aside from the abundance of fishing waters in the Danube, - 146 -

its overflow plain and the Delta, most Romanian rivers do not offer great opportunities for food fish production. The mountain streams where water quality is good are also small and used primarily for sport fishing. The lower streams are subject to great fluctuation and are often silty. The topography does not lend itself to navigation canals. Natural mountain lakes are few in number and small. Fish production in reservoirs is, therefore, more important in Romania than in many other European countries.

The water courses of the country have, in general, a high self-purification capacity because of their turbulent flow, high velocity, shallow depth and the prevailing climate. And even on the major river, the Danube, the retardation of industrial development over its entire basin has minimized water pollution until recently. However, the level of eutrophication is high and conditions are not favourable with respect to fish production as determined by water quality. The total annual runoff of about 192 000 million m3 amounts to an average runoff per caput per year of about 8 369 m3. Used as a measure of possible effluent dilution, however, this is a very misleading figure since most of this flow is represented by that of the main Danube. If one considers only the runoff originating in Romania (37 000 million m3 annually), the average runoff per caput per year is only about 1 613 m3. When one further considers that population is rather evenly distributed throughout Romania, and that for social reasons the Government dispersed new industries widely, the opportunity for dilution of pollution load is slight. Vita (1990) states that 65 percent of the river water is unfit for drinking, this does not, however, make it unsuitable for fish production.

The necessity for irrigation in Romania makes great claims on water, and most of the conduits, many of which are underground or concrete, do not lend themselves to fishing. Fortunately, many of the irrigation reservoirs are also used for fish production. Similarly, although drainage, revetments, diking, etc., have had severe effects on the natural fisheries, they have been compensated for to some extent by utilization of remaining areas for fish culture.

Coupled with the use of the new large reservoirs in the mountains for fish production as well as hydropower, Romanian reservoir development has probably aided rather than hindered fishery development. An exception is made with respect to the sturgeon fishery which was in decline and the construction of barrages (e.g., the 24-m dam at Iron Gate I) in the Danube drainage accelerated the depletion of these stocks.

Economic conditions as well as lack of facilities for transport lessens the mobility of anglers in Romania. Hence their opportunities are minimized and their fishing tends to be rather localized. Fishing for food fish in inland waters and fish culture have both been traditional activities in the country, and their progression has been aided by active governmental interest.

9.3 Prospect

Through possession of its great deltaic area, the Danubian fisheries of Romania have a greater chance of survival than those of the upper Danube countries, and it is in the Delta and other areas of inundation that the greatest potentialities for Romania's inland capture fisheries still lie. Furthermore, the critical condition of the Black Sea fisheries and the lessening opportunities for expansion of Romania's distant-water marine fishery operations forces continued attention on its fresh water fisheries.

Part of this is due to the Government's interest in obtaining self-sufficiency in fish supplies to reduce the need for costly imports. This is being accomplished in part by introducing new gear and techniques to replace the traditional reed and wooden traps, and training scientists and technicians. If such means can be coupled with maintenance of stream and lake levels and provision of water of good quality, the prospect is favourable.

In the past, hydroelectric development in Romania has been relatively slow because of its initial expense and the country's abundance of fossil fuels. But the total potential for hydropower is high and as more mountain reservoirs are constructed, there will be increased fish production even with the elimination of some stream fishing. It is anticipated that Romania will increase its reservoir storage by five times (ECE, 1978). With additional reservoir construction for flood control and irrigation on Romanian rivers with uneven flow, and especially when associated with aquaculture, fish production will also increase. - 147 -

Aquaculture is now in a vigorous stage, and its development in Romania will increase with emphasis on modernity, such as a change from monoculture to polyculture, in its application.

Development of sport fishing is not envisioned to be high but, as in other European countries whether western or eastern - it will grow as a principal outdoor activity.

10. REFERENCES

Bacalba§a, N., 1970. Les pecheries de la Roumanie et la Oche Roumaine. Doc.Occas.CECPI, (4):14 p.

Bacalba§a-Dobrovici, N., 1984. Introduction de nouvelles especes de poissons dans les pecheries d'eau douce de la Roumanie. EIFAC Tech.Pao./Doc.Tech.CECPI, (42)Suppl.Vol.2:458-65

Bacalbap-Dobrovici, N., C. Nicolau and M. Nitu, 1990. Fisheries management and the hydraulic regime in the Danube Delta. In Management of freshwater fisheries. Edited by W.T. van Densen, B. Steinmetz and R.H. Hugues. FAO, EIFAC. Pudoc Wageningen, pp. 447-61

Banarescu, P., 1967. Analiza zoogeografica a faunei di sectorul romanesc. In Limnologia sectorului romanesc al Dunarii. Studiu monografic. Bucharest, Academia Republicii Socialiste Romania, pp. 473-99

Blaga, 0., A. Filotti and S. Rusu, 1978. The long-term national programme for river basin development, basis of the water management policy in Romania. In Water development and management. Proceedings of the United Nations Water Conference, Mar del Plata, Argentina, March 1977, edited by A.K. Biswas. Oxford, Pergamon Press, Vol. 1, Part 4, pp. 1 887-98

Bossy, G.H., 1957. Agriculture. In Romania, edited by S. Fischer-Galati. New York, Frederick A. Praeger, pp. 196-231

, 1957a. Industry. In Romania, edited by S. Fischer-Galati. New York, Frederick A. Praeger, pp. 270-320

, 1957b. Transportation and communications. In Romania, edited by S. Fischer-Galati. New York, Frederick A. Praeger, pp. 321-42

Cadere, R., 1970. Mode d'accumulation des mineraux lourds des alluvions du delta du Danube. In Hydrology of deltas. Proceedings of the Bucharest Symposium, 6-14 May 1969. Unesco Stud.Rep.Hydrol./Etud.Rapo.Hydrol., (9) Vol.1:44-9

Chiriac, V., 1968. Water quality protection in Romania. Schweiz, Z.Hydrol., 30:274-82

Clark, C.U., 1971. United Roumania. New York, Arno Press and the New York Times, 418 p.

Diaconu, C. (ed.), 1971. Riurile Romaniei. Monografie hidrologica, Bucuresti. Ihstitutal de Meteorologie si Hidrologie, 750 p.

Diaconu, C. and V.A. Stanescu, 1970. Characteristics of the water flow inside the Danube Delta. In Hydrology of deltas. Proceedings of the Bucharest Symposium, 6-14 May 1969. Unesco Stud.Rep. Hydrol./Etud.Raop.Hydrol., (9) Vol.1:220-38

Economist, 1984. Danube-Black Sea canal. Economist, 291(7341):79

FAO, 1979. Romania. Fishery Country Profile. Rome, FAO, FID/CP/ROM. Rev. 1:4 p. - 148 -

Forter, N.L. and D.B. Rostorsky, 1971. The Roumanian handbook. New York, Arno Press and the New York Times. 320 p.

G4tescu, P., 1970. Les caracteristiques morphologiques et hydrologiques des lacs du delta du Danube. In Hydrology of deltas. Proceedings of the Bucharest Symposium, 6-14 May 1969. Unesco Stud. Re0.11vdrol./Etud.Raoo.Hydrol., (9) Vol.1:172-81

G4tescu, P. and A. Breier, 1973. Artificial lakes of Romania. In Man-made lakes: their problems and environmental effects, edited by W.C. Ackermann, et al. Geoohvs.Monor.Am.Geoohvs.Union, (17):50-5

Giurescu, C.C., 1964. lstoria pescuitului §i a pisciculturii In Rominia. Vol. 1. Bucure§ti, Editura Academiei Republicii Populare Romine, 389 pp.

Hancu, S. and D. Duma, 1970. Problemes hydrauliques poses par l'amenagement du delta du Danube. In Hydrology of deltas. Proceedings of the Bucharest Symposium, 6-14 May 1969. Unesco Stud. Rep.HydrollEtud.Rapo.Hvdrol., (9) Vol.2:453-66

Keefe, E.K. et al., 1972. Area handbook for Romania. Washington, D.C., U.S. Government Printing Office, 319 p.

Melezin, A., 1957. The land. In Romania, edited by S. Fischer-Galati. New York, Frederick A. Praeger, pp. 14-34

Morariu, T., V. Cucu and I. Velcea, 1966. Geographie de la Roumanie. Bucharest, Publications Meridiane, 147 p.

, 1969. The geography of Romania. Bucharest, Meridiane Publishing House, 155 p. 2nd ed.

Motley, I.M., 1970. Romania. A people. New York, Praeger Publishers, 292 p.

Negoescu, P., 1982. Romania. In Country reports of EIFAC member-countries for intersessional period 1980-82, edited by K. Tiews. (Meeting paper) EIFAC/X11/82/16:67-73

, 1984. Rapport de la Roumanie sur les resultats des recherches effectuees dans le domaine de la pisciculture dans les eaux interieures au cours de la periode entre la douzieme et la treizieme session de la CECPI. In National reports for the intersessional period 1982-84/Rapports nationaux pour la periode inter-sessions 1 982-84, edited by the (EIFAC) Secretariat/Edites par le (CECP1) Secretariat. (Meeting paper) Rome, FAO, EIFAC/X111/84/Inf.4:68-71 (mimeo)

Romania, Republica Socialista, 1987. Anuaral statistic al Republicii Socialiste Romania, Bucharesti, Directa Centraia de Statistica, 128 p.

Romanian Socialistic Republic, Central Satistical Board, 1986. Romanian statistical pocket book, 1 986. Bucharest, Central Statistical Board, 395 p.

, 1988. Romanian statistical pocket book, 1 988. Bucharest, Central Statistical Board, 127 p.

Rumanian People's Republic, Central Statistical Board, 1965. Rumanian statistical pocket book, 1965. Bucharest, Central Statistical Board, 294 p.

Teaci, D. and N. Popp, 1970. Les sols et les conditions ecologiques generales du Delta du Danube. In Hydrology of deltas. Proceedings of the Bucharest Symposium, 6-14 May 1969. Unesco Stud.Rep,Hydrol./Etud.RamHydrol., (9) Vol.1: 198-208 - 149 -

Vagin, N.F., 1970. The laws of ice processes in deltas. In Hydrology of deltas. Proceedings of the Bucharest Symposium, 6-14 May 1969. Unesco Stud.Rep.Hydrol./Etud.Rapp.Hydrol., (9) Vol.2:296-- 304 - 151 -

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IBRALTAR SPAIN -- International boundary ® National capital MOROCCO • Cities Rivers — Canal 0 Reservoirs (Embalse) 0 100 200 Km - 152 -

SPAIN

The Spanish State, the second largest country in Western Europe, occupies 85 percent of the Iberian Peninsula which it shares with its western neighbour, Portugal. It is cut off from, the rest of Europe by the towering Pyrenees on its French border. On the north and northwest is the Atlantic; its southern and eastern shores front on the Mediterranean. Most of Spain's great interior is occupied by a high and arid plateau, the Meseta, compartmentalized by mountain ranges and river valleys.

Only moderately densely populated, Spain is primarily an agricultural country greatly dependent upon irrigation. This has reduced its stream area for fish, but the construction of many reservoirs for both irrigation and hydroelectric use has increased its static water areas. Spain is almost lacking in freshwater lakes except for some high mountain tarns. Its streams are subject to great variations in flow, thus lessening potential for inland fishing. Nevertheless, northern Spain possesses a number of rivers which provide the southernmost Atlantic salmon fishing in Europe.

A strong tradition for marine fish consumption, as well as basically unfavourable water conditions have lessened development of its inland fisheries. Trout aquaculture has, however, increased of late, promotion of its inland sport fisheries for both warm and cold-water fishes continues, and efforts are being made to improve its brackishwater production through intensive aquaculture.

1. AREA: 504 750 km2 (Continental Spain: 492 463 km2)1'

2. POPULATION: 39 748 000 (est. 1990) Density: (total) 79 inh/km2

3. PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY

Spain, situated between 43°47' and 36°N latitudes and 3°19'E and 9°30'W longitudes, occupies about 85 percent of the Iberian Peninsula. Its greatest east-west extent is 1 075 km, its greatest north-south extent is 866 km. Ranging in elevation from sea level to 3 478 m, its mean altitude is 610 m, higher than that of any other European state except Switzerland. Rising sharply from the sea, about 60 percent of Spain is over 600 m, and only 11 percent under 200 m (the official Spanish designation for hills).

Spain is bounded on the north for 867 km by the Cantabrican coast (the Atlantic Ocean's Bay of Biscay), and by a border (the Pyrenees Mountains) of 712 km with France, on the east and south by the Mediterranean Sea (1 670 km), and on the west by the Atlantic Ocean (1 367 km), and a border of 1 232 km with Portugal'. The minute principality of Andorra is on the Spanish-French border (see Andorra), and there is a 1-km boundary with the enclave of Gibraltar (a British self-governing dependency) at the entrance to the Mediterranean Sea. At this point, Spain is separated from Africa by a strait only 15 km wide.

Physiographically, Spain consists primarily of: (i) a massive crystalline block or plateau, the Meseta: (ii) two great river valleys, the Ebro and Guadalquivir, bordering the Meseta; OW a large series of peripheral mountains, and (iv) a generally narrow coastal zone lacking islands.

1/ Only continental Spain is described here, although "Metropolitan Spain" also includes the Balearic and Canary islands, as well as five small enclaves on the coast of North Africa. The five main Balearics occupy 5 014 km2 in the western Mediterranean; the 7 273 km2 of the Canaries (7 main islands) are in the Atlantic west of Morocco

2/ Length of boundaries from Anuario Estadfstico de Espana, 1 989 - 153 -

(i) The Meseta. Occupying about one-half of Spain, and averaging 670 m in elevation, the Meseta consists mainly of a series of barren, hot and often arid plains, tilted generally to the west. It is crossed by a Central Sierra of granites and schists, tending northeast to southwest, which reaches 2 100 m, and divides the entire area into the higher northern tablelands of Leon and Old Castile and the much larger, but lower, New Castile which is bounded on the south by the uptilted edge of the Meseta, the Sierra Merena. Meseta rivers in general flow sluggishly across it and may be reduced to trickles within broad flood areas. The three largest, the Tajo, Duero, and Guadiana originate in the east and flow westwardly across the plateau to the Atlantic (see section 5.1).

(ii) The Ebro and Baetic Depressions. Bordering the Meseta on the northeast is a great transverse depression forming a deep ravine between the tableland and the Pyrenees. It is now occupied by the Ebro River flanked on the southwest by the high and barren Iberian Mountains. Fresh water is scarce and the springs have a high mineral content. The Baetic, an even greater depression, lies to the south of the Meseta. Its bed, deeply eroded by the Guadalquivir River, forms the fertile valley of Andalusia before emptying into the Mediterranean. This is the only important lowland area in Spain communicating directly with the sea.

Peripheral Mountains. Outside the border of the Meseta are the following great mountains:

(a) Pyrenees. These form a continuous wall, 420 km long and 100 km wide, between Spain and France. With an average altitude (of about 1 500 m) higher than the Alps, they range to 3 406 m. Both crystalline and limestone, they have a few small glaciers and lakes, and their streams cut deep gorges.

(b) Cantabrians. Almost as impressive as the Pyrenees are their western extension, the limestone Cantabrian Mountains which parallel the northern coast of Spain and merge eastwardly into the lower Galician Mountains of schists, slates and granites.

(c) Iberian Mountains. Continuing down from the Cantabrians as far as the Mediterranean coast, the folded Iberians form the eastern rim of the Meseta and separate it from the Ebro depression to its east.

(d) Catalonian Range. The seaward end of the Ebro basin is almost closed by a series of ridges, the Catalonians, through which the Ebro River has cut a passage to the Mediterranean.

(e) Ponibaetic System. To the southeast of the Meseta is the Baetic Cordillera, consisting of a northern limestone and a southern crystalline belt. The highest peak in Spain (3 478 m) is part of this system. The Sierra Nevada part of this system is completely Alpine with glacial cirques, lakes, and moraines. Rock types vary from limestone and sandstone to igneous intrusions.

(iv) Coastal Regions. The 3 904-km coast of Peninsular Spain, generally narrow except in the north and northwest, rises sharply from the sea. The northern coast extends for 867 km from France to the extreme northwest where it is characterized by its rias, the mouths of submerged river valleys. The Mediterranean side of Spain consists of a series of isolated beaches and a few bays, with its mountains rising close to the sea. There are some lagoons (see section 5.4) but many of these have silted up or become marsh land.

Broadly speaking, Spain has two main types of contrasting surface deposits: (i) siliceous or crystalline rocks (granites, schists, quartzite), in the west, and (ii) limestone, clay and sand in the east. These characteristics are reflected in two general limnological zones, the eastern waters having a higher mineral content. Shallow silty soils are found over most of the Meseta, podsols in pluviose (northern) Spain, and pedocals in the drier and warmer areas.

About half of Spain is semi-arid. Mattoral (thorny bushes or evergreen plants) is a characteristic feature of the natural vegetation especially of the central tablelands, and steppes also occupy broad areas. Although about one-quarter of the country is forested, in the arid plateau the forest is mainly confined to watercourses and the wetter mountain slopes. Most of the forests are pine, and deciduous trees (oaks, - 154 -

beech, birch, ash) are practically confined to the pluviose zone of the north and northwest. Subalpine vegetation is found at the highest elevations. Thus, due to the wide climatic range, the natural vegetation ranges from central European and Alpine to African, while cultivated vegetation such as citrus is often luxuriant in the southern irrigated areas known as huertas.

4. CLIMATE

Basically Spain has three types of climate corresponding with three general geographical zones: (i) temperate pluviose climate in the northwest and north with moderate temperatures and year-round abundant rain; (ii) arid (locally generated) continental climate of the interior with cold winters, hot dry summers and irregular rainfall, and (iii) Mediterranean climate of the south and east coasts and Andalusian lowlands with mild moist winters and very hot dry summers and sometimes torrential rainfall.

The north coast has an average annual temperature of about 14°C (range about 9°-18°C). Madrid as an example of the interior (where the climate is also sometimes termed "sub-Mediterranean") has an average annual temperature of about 13°C but a seasonal average ranging from 4.4°C (December-January) to 25°C (July-August) with extremes of -10° and 39°C. In Seville (southwestern Spain) the average annual temperature is about the average seasonal range is and the extremes and 20°C 11°-30°C 0 -2.7° 50°C. Valencia on the Mediterranean coast has an average seasonal range of 10 to 25°C.

The rainfall throughout Spain is even more variable. The total annual average rainfall over the entire country is 682 mm but over half of the country has an annual average less than 500 mm and only 20 percent averages more than 1 000 mm per year. Annual rainfall in part of the pluviose northwest coastal region is to On the central plateau it is about In one of the drier areas (southern 1 600 2 400 mm. li 350-750 mm. coast) it is only 150 mm . North of a line extending from Lisbon to Madrid and Tortosa snow falls most winters and the Meseta may have 10 to 30 days of snow. South of this line snowfall is almost unknown on the coast. There is perpetual snow on the high peaks and the highest passes in the Pyrenees are open only four months of the year.

5. HYDROGRAPHY AND LIMNOLOGY 2 Table 5 indicates that the total inland water area of Spain is only 5 340 km or 1.06 percent of the country's total area. The original basis of this figure is unknown but it is certain that the total amount of Spain's surface water is very small. Europa basing its information on Spain's Nacional de (1988) 2 lnstituto Estadistica says that Spain's inland water covers 5 240 km or 1.04 percent of the total country. The predominant inland waters are rivers and their man-made lakes or reservoirs. There are also a number of small natural mountain lakes, many salt ponds and a few large coastal lagoons.

3 The average annual run-off from rainfall in Spain is 153 mm or 76 000 million m . Almost no runoff is received from upstream countries (there is some from Andorra) so the total annual river discharge from this 3 source leaving Spain is still only about 76 000 million ril (Van der Leeden, 1975; ECE, 1978) 2/.

1/ If one were to set aside the humid northern basin (about 10 percent of the territory but with 22 percent of the rainfall and 42 percent of the surface run-off) one gets about 580 mm of rainfall and 22 percent average run-off for the remaining 90 percent of the country (Espana Secana) 3 2/ There is an additional groundwater discharge into streams of 18 150 million m according to Van der Leeden (1975) - 155 -

The drainage is primarily Atlantic and secondarily Mediterranean. Rivers in the north drain directly to the Atlantic. The tableland and interior slopes of its peripheral mountains drain west and south to the Atlantic as does the plain of Andalusia. Thus the main watershed is the Iberian Mountains and the Ebro which drains to the Mediterranean collecting water from the Pyrenees. Table 1 illustrates the major hydrographic basins in Spain.

Table 1

The ten major hydrographic basins of Spain

River basin Basin area Annual rainfall Average annual (km') (mm) surface runoff (million m') .....

Atlantic drainage

Northern and northwest 54 430 1 360 32 000

Duero 79 330 610 8 150 Tajo 56 750 640 7 525

Guadiana 60 270 530 3 895

Guadalquivir 61 060 600 4 800

Mediterranean drainage

South coastal 20 860 500 1 900 Segura 16 160 430 580 Jucar 43 090 510 2 250

Ebro 86 000 600 14 000 Catalan (Pyrenees 16 500 740 1 200 Orientale)

Total or average 493 500 670 76 300

Source: Van der Leeden (1975) after Llamas (1967) and Direcci6n General de Obras Hidraulicas (1971)

5.1 Rivers (Rios)

Spain is reported to have about 1 800 rivers and streams, all but 90 are less than 160 km in length and many of them are dry at least in part most of the year. There are about 72 000 km of permanent rivers (Spain/EIFAC, 1977) a statement probably based on the 70000-75 000 km cited by De Rada (1954).

The principal rivers of Spain are tabulated in Table 2, and the mean monthly discharges of four major rivers are shown in Table 3.

The pattern of seasonal rainfall (see section 4) coupled with a high evaporative rate in the summer and rapid run-off from steep, often barren, slopes makes the flow of Spanish rivers extremely irregular. The average ratio of maximum and minimum flows varies from two to eight, but often the differences are much larger. For example, in the Ebro, the flow is generally 45 times as great in January as in August, and the ratio between the absolute maximum and absolute minimum is in excess of 1 000 to 1. Following heavy showers - 156 -

Table 2

Principal rivers in Spain'

Basin and river Length (km) Basin and river Length (km)

1. Northern (Cantabrian) basin 7. Guadalquivir basin Bidasoa 67 Guadalquivir 657 NerviOn 69 Guadiana Menor 94 Sella 56 Guadaioz 114 Nal6n 129 Genii 337 Navia 159 Guadaira 89 Eo 79 Guadalimar 167

2. Northwest (Galician) basin Ulla 1 26 Tambre 134 8. South Coastal basin Min° 310 Almeria or Andarax 62 Si) (trib. to Milio) 225 Adra or Grande 47 Guadalfeo 72 3. Duero basin Guadalhorce 154 Duero 895 Guadiaro 79 Adaja 163 Tormes 247 9. Levantine basin Pisuerga 275 Mijares 156 Esla 275 or Guadalaviar 280 Jticar 498 4. Tajo basin Segura 325 Tajo 1 007 Almanzora or Guadalmanzor 1 05 Jarana 194 Alberche 182 1 0. Ebro basin Tietar 170 Ebro 910 Alagon 201 Arag6n 197 Gallego 149 5. Guadiana basin Segro 261 Guadiana 778 Alhama 79 Jabal6n 153 Jalon 224 Matachel 1 24 Huerva 135 Ardila 116 Martin 98 Giguela 194 Guadalope 182 Zujar 210 Zdncara 168 11. Catalan (Pyrenees orientale) basin Fluvia 98 6. Other Western Atlantic basins Ter 209 Odiel 121 Tordera 50 Tinto 93 Llobregat 157 Guadelete 79 Francoli 58

a/ The basins are listed counter-clockwise from north to east. Basin Nos. 1-7 are Atlantic drainage; Nos. 8-11 are Mediterranean. In some classifications, Nos. 2-7 are termed "Western"; No. 8 "South"; and Nos. 9-11 "East". The Almanzora is sometimes classed as a "South Coastal" river, the Segura is sometimes listed separately, and the ..1Licar and Tuna combined.

Source: Spain, Ministerio de Economfa y Comercio, Instituto Nacional de Estadfstica (1989). - 157 -

in some northern brooks, the flow per second has been higher than the average hourly flow per year. As a third example, floods come in late winter and spring followed by low water. Thus the Tajo at Aranjuez diminishes from 2 094 m3/sec to 85 m3/sec.

Most of the major rivers flow rapidly near their source, but much more slowly in their lower reaches where they often follow a meandering or braided course. Steep and tortuous canyons are also characteristic of many of the central and northern streams, and, in general, the rivers reach the coast by rapids or gorges. Similarly, the lesser Spanish rivers are swift and torrential, have an irregular flow with small volume during the summer, are deeply incised, and steep-sided. Even those draining to the Atlantic might be called "Mediterranean rivers".

In general, there are four types of rivers in Spain: (i) those which are long and well developed, e.g., the Ebro, Tajo, Duero, Guadiana, and Guadalquivir; (ii) short, but swift rivers of the north coast, usually with high flows; WO the Mediterranean streams of the south, and (iv) aeretic or inland waters that break through the mountains and end up in marsh, salt pans, or seep underground.

Table 3

Discharge of four major Spanish rivers

Duero, Guadalquivir, Jucar, Masia Ebro, Ebro, Villachica Alcala del Rio del Mompo Zaragoza Tortosa

Basin area km' 41 856 46 995 17 876 40 434 84 230

January 696 359 56 412 723

February 267 441 68 444 776

March 271 454 68 437 888

April 225 273 58 337 741

May 160 139 56 247 700

June 100 57 50 151 586

July 50 34 41 57 266

August 28 30 37 28 149

September 35 40 41 45 193

October 56 75 44 117 334

November 111 154 49 225 552

December 195 209 52 386 720

Year 183 189 52 240 552

Period of 1920-65 1931-65 1911-65 1913-65 1913-65 record

Source: Van der Leeden (1975) after Unesco (1971) - 158 -

The major rivers of Spain are further described below, proceeding generally counter-clockwise:

Atlantic drainage

Northern rivers (Cantabrian slope). These streams occupy a zone about 400 km long and 55 km wide. They are mostly short and swift, have a large volume, and a constant flow. Their waterfalls are used for power. With cold and well oxygenated water, they furnish good habitat for both trout and salmon.

Northern (Galician) rivers. The major Galician river is the Mirlo which originates in Laguna de Fuente Mina and flows for about 310 km to the Atlantic, forming a border with Portugal (known there as the Minho) for 75 km. It has a volume equal to or exceeding that of the Ebro although its basin is only one-fifth its area and its course less than half as long. Its flow is more constant than that of any other Spanish river. Flowing through deep gorges, it is navigable in its lower reaches. The Mino has about 75 tributaries of which the Sil (225 km) is the most important. Other streams in this major drainage include the Ulla (126 km) and Tambre (134 km).

Many of the northwest streams encounter the sea through rias; these are submerged rivers in a deep estuary.

Western Atlantic drainage

Duero basin. The Duero (895 km) originates in northcentral Spain and flows westerly to the Portuguese border as it drains the northern tableland. It is a border stream for about 126 km before continuing through Portugal (where it is called the Duoro) to the Atlantic. Cutting through gorges in its upper reaches, it becomes more even below.

Ta'o basin. With a total length of 1 007 km, the Tajo River rises in east-central Spain and drains its southern tableland. Flowing through Spain for 780 km, it is a boundary stream with Portugal for 43 km and then crosses Portugal (known there as the Tejo) to Lisbon. It is the longest river of the Iberian Peninsula and has the greatest annual average flow, although its drainage basin is exceeded in size by four others. With generally steep barren banks, most of its left bank tributaries are intermittent.

Guadiana basin. Rising in a group of small lakes, the Lagunas de Ruidea, the Guadina flows for 778 km to its mouth in the Gulf of Cadiz. It has a generally tortuous course and vast stretches of sandbanks. It flows for 260 km in Portugal, having a boundary with Spain in two sections for 112 km of this course.

Minor Western Atlantic rivers. Southeast of the Guadiana, three minor rivers flow independently into the Atlantic, the Odiel, Tinto and Guadelete.

Guadalquivir basin. The 657 km Guadalquivir River arises in the Sierras del Pozo y Cazoria, passes through Seville, and debouches in the Gulf of Cadiz. With 806 affluents, it stays more constant than most Spanish rivers, being influenced by snowmelt. Navigable for 80 km to Seville, below the city it is tidal and flows through extensive marshes. It is the only Spanish river with a large coastal plain.

Mediterranean Drainage

South Coastal basin. Rivers in this complex are generally short streams dropping steeply from mountains close to the littoral, e.g., the Guadalhorce drops 2 440 m in 64 km.

Levantine basin. Levantine rivers, which are generally Mediterranean types, are sometimes deprived of water before reaching the sea.

Ebro basin. With the largest drainage basin in Spain, the second longest and only major Spanish river reaching the Mediterranean, the 910-km Ebro flows through the great depression between the Meseta and the Pyrenees to reach the sea. Draining one-sixth of the country, it is outstanding for its volume, averaging - 159 -

about 600 m3/sec annually, having a flow greater and more regular than any of the Meseta rivers. Fed in part by snowmelt, it has about 222 tributaries including many from the Pyrenees. Its tributary, the Segre, is joined by the Valira from Andorra. The Ebro delta has a sub-aerial area of 390 km2 with some lagoons.

Catalan (Pyrenees Orientale) rivers. Some are dry most of the year but can become torrential. With many rapids, falls, and floods they have use for power.

5.2 Lakes (Laaos)11

Although there are a considerable number of small, high, mountain lakes or tarns in Spain, there are almost no sizeable natural lakes. De Rada (1954) indicates that Spain has 4 000 laws and laminas with a freshwater (aqua dulce) area of 18 000 ha and brackishwater (aqua salobre) area of 65 000 ha.

The lakes of the country can be classed as follows:

(i) glacially formed lakes, usually of small size, and sometimes forming chains, e.g., the laquitos in the Pyrenees and sierras. For example, there are about 50 small ones in the Sierra Nevada above 2 500 m. These vary in length from a few metres to about 200 m and lack aquatic vertebrates;

(ii) tectonic lakes, some rather deep, e.g., the lakes of Somiedo and the Lago de Barolas (Gerona);

(iii) steppe lakes or salinas, with high salt content, e.g., those on the Meseta;

(iv) crater lakes, usually small and circular, e.g., the little lakes of Campo de Calatrava (Ciudad Real), and

(v) river-formed lakes, e.g., the Laguna de Chinchon (Madrid).

5.3 Reservoirs (Embalses)

There are about 700 reservoirs (embalses or pantanos) on the rivers with a combined capacity of 42 800 million fri2 (in 1988), and a shore development approximating the length of the Peninsular coasts. Over half of this storage was on three river systems: the Tajo (10 826 million m3), the Duero (6 505 million m3), and the Ebro (6 304 million m2) (Spain, Ministerio de Economia y Comercio, lnstituto Nacional de Estadisticas, 1989).

These reservoirs were constructed primarily to provide irrigation water and generate hydroelectricity. They are also used for flood control.

It may be noted that the Spanish reservoir capacity more than doubled in the 10 years between 1960 (17 314 million m3) and 1970 (36 628 million m3) and that 3 896 million rn2 of storage were added in the following ten years. A list of the high dams of the world compiled in 1963 showed that even at that time 52 or a fifth of all the high dams in Europe were in Spain (Mandzhavidze and Mamradze, 1 963)21.

Among 1 04 "major dams" in the world in a list compiled in 1969, five were in Spain. The Almendra (Villarino) Dam on the Tormes River, for example, is 198 m high.

Margalef et al. (1976) listed 45 Spanish reservoirs over 1 000 ha in area. Of these, Table 4 provides some pertinent data on the 1 7 Spanish reservoirs exceeding 2 000 ha in area at the time.

11 Pardo (1948) compiled a catalogue of Spanish lakes and ponds, but it has not been available to the author. Pardo lists 2 500 lakes, but about 80 of these are said to be salt lakes mostly in arid or semi- arid zones

2/ On a comparative basis, only 32 high dams were listed for the then USSR and 1 77 for the USA - 160 -

Further demonstration of the magnitude of reservoir development in Spain is afforded by some examples in the Tajo drainage which has over 60 dams. Two of these, Buendia and Entrepetias, with a combined capacity of 2 411 million rre, form the Sea of Castilla, a reservoir of 11 400 ha. The Embalse de Alcantara, with a length of 91 km and an area of 10 400 ha is one of the greatest man-made lakes in Europe.

The tremendous reservoir development in Spain has had a great influence on both anadromous and resident fisheries. Some have created barriers to migration, but their major effect has been in affecting stream flow below the dams, and in providing vast areas of hitherto unrealized fishing water. Their sites have been especially planted with trees, predominately conifers, to reduce erosion and to add amenity. Factors affecting the reservoir fisheries, other than stock composition and fishing, include their morphological features, water chemistry, and fluctuation. Those in the siliceous zones of the west are less fertile than those in the calcic east, and they are subject to various degrees of eutrophication, largely man-made. About 15 percent have little eutrophication, about 50 percent are moderately eutrophicated, and about 35 percent considerably eutrophicated (Margalef et al., 1976). Fluctuation in surface water elevation is very strong in Spanish reservoirs. Of the reservoirs listed in Table 4 for which data is available, 16 had an average annual fluctuation of almost 20 m (range 3.04 to 39.2 m). An example of extreme fluctuation is that of the 463-ha Susqueda reservoir with a depth of 129 m and a fluctuation of 50 m.

Most Spanish reservoirs are relatively new and their fisheries are still changing. In 1976, Margalef et al., pointed out that one-half were less than 15 years old and three-quarters less than 25 years of age.

Table 4

2 Reservoirs in Spain over 2 000 km in area

Reservoir Altitude Area Depth Volume Age 2 3 (m) (km ) (m) (million rn ) Alcantara 323 10 400 120 3 237 1969 Almendra 732 8 661 190 2 500 1970 Almendra II 732 8 661 190 22 500 1974 Buendia 714 8 000 70 1 520 1957 Mequinenza 124 7 720 60 1 530 1965 Valdecatias 317 7 300 90 1 443 1965 AlarcOn 814 6 480 47 1 112 1955 Ebro 215 6 242 30 540 1945 Orellano 320 5 530 48 834 1961 Ricobayo 684 5 395 85 1 048 1934 Gabriel y Galan 388 4 750 67 924 1961 Bornos 108 4 690 50 260 1061 Zujar 320 4 520 46 723 1964 Entreperias 723 3 400 68 891 1956 Sotoneva 420 2 757 29 189 1961 Iznajar 426 2 500 90 980 1969 Santa Teresa 887 2 200 53 496.1 1960

Source: Margalef et al. (1976) - 161 -

5.4 Lagc•izins_ (Laminas)

The term lagoons as used here and elsewhere in this review refers to areas of static water along the coast in permanent or intermittent connexion with the sea. Generally brackish, their salinity may vary from oligohaline to hyperhaline, and euryhaline fishes often enter them. In Spain, lagoons may be known as laaunas, litorales, penilaaos or albuferas.

Although the fisheries of the lagoons of Italy and Greece receive more attention than those of Spain, there are a considerable number of Spanish lagoons which produce aquatic crops. Only finfish are considered here although shellfish may also be harvested. There is a large lagoon, the Laguna de la Janda on the Atlantic coast south of Cadiz, but most of Spain's lagoon area lies along the Mediterranean coast north of Cabo de Gata; there are almost none westerly between this cape and Gibraltar. The major Mediterranean lagoons are Mar Menor de Murcia near Cartagena, La Albufera near Valencia, and a number of smaller ones on the delta of the Ebro. Many other former lagoons have silted up, become impregnated with salt, or become marsh.

Mar Menor, with an area of 17 000 ha, has a maximum depth of 8 m, and summer temperatures ranging between 21° and 30°C. It is hyperhaline, with a salinity between 40 and 50 pot due primarily to wind-driven communication from the Mediterranean. It supports, molluscs, crustaceans and commercial finfishes such as: atherinids, grey mullets (Mugilidae), eel (Anauilla anquilla), sparids such as gilthead (Sparus auratus) and striped sea bream (Lithoanathus mormvrus), sea bass (Dicentrarchus labrax) and sole (Solea vulaaris). The connecting canals are barred by weirs (encanizadas) and the fish taken in traps. During the 1968-70 period, the principal fish taken were atherinids, mullet and eel, an average total of 426.35 t annually or a yield of 25 kg/ha/year.

The Albufera, about 1 0 km south of Valencia, covered about 5 000 ha in 1898 but had decreased to 3 114 ha by 1920 due to alluvial deposits and the incursion of rice culture (San Feliu, 1973). This lagoon, only 2 m at its deepest, connects with the sea through two canals fitted with sluices. It is primarily a freshwater lagoon, with its surface area determined by the level needed for rice cultivation, but due to occasional opening of the sluices, salt water also enters it. It has, therefore, a mixed fauna, freshwater fishes such as common carp (Cyprinus carpio), barbel (Barbus barbus), chub (Leuciscus cephalus) and largemouth black bass (Micropterus salmoides), and euryhaline fishes such as atherinids, eel, grey mullets and some sea bass. The fish are trapped at weirs and elvers are taken in the canals. During the 1950-51 period the commercial catch came to 341 t annually, declining to an average of 253.2 t during the 1967-70 period or a yield of 81 kg/ha/year (San Feliu, 1973). Amanieu and Lasserre (1981) state that the catch in 1978 was 260 t when the lagoon had an area of 3 100 ha, a yield of 84 kg/ha/year.

Perhaps of next importance are the lagoons on the 390-km delta of the Ebro, the major Spanish river entering the Mediterranean. Four lagoons varying in average depth from 0.7 to 1.5 m, furnished most of the fishing: Encanizada, Canal Vell, Tancada, and 011es or Goleta. San Feliu (1973) states that the total catch of finfish during the 1970/71 season was 334.9 t and using a total area of 1 216 ha for the four lagoons gives the yield at 275 kg/ha/year. Demestre gal. (1977) using an area of 1 171 ha, gives an average annual catch for four lagoons as 200 t during the 1966-76 period, a yield of 171 kg/ha/year. Arte et al. (1981), who may be including only the first three lagoons, says the catch is about 200 t per year with a yield of 1 60 kg/ha/year. One of the highest yields of finfish recorded here was the 471 kg/ha/year in the 1 79 ha Tancada in 1970/71. The fish taken in the largest quantities since 1 966 in these lagoons have been eel and mullets. Gilthead and sea bass have also been of importance, and carp and goldfish (Carassius auratus) are also taken. The lagoons are fished during the autumn and spring for about eight months, with a variety of gear: collecting weirs, trammel nets, seines, etc. There is some clearing of weeds and reeds during the off- season, but there is no feeding. The production of the Ebro lagoons is reported to have declined since 1970, primarily due to pollution from industry and agricultural pesticides.

There are other lagoons of lesser size along the Spanish Mediterranean coast, e.g., the Albufera of Elche (Alicante) and opportunities for either capture fisheries or culture in the brackish water of various rivers. - 162 -

5.5 Canals (Canal)

The Imperial Canal runs along the Ebro for about 145 km; it is used by factories and also for irrigation. Canals for navigation are virtually non-existent in Spain.

6. LAND AND WATER USE

Spain is traditionally an agricultural and grazing country and large areas are uninhabitable thus belying its overall population density. About half the crops are cereals such as wheat, maize and (in irrigated areas) rice. Sugar beets, olives, citrus fruit, vegetables and vines are other dominant crops. The rate of fertilizer use is very low. Extremes of temperature plus the extensive mountain system make much of the land marginal or unsuitable and dry farming (secano cultivation) has long been practised in many areas. However, the low rainfall and its unpredictability make irrigation necessary along much of the eastern and southern coast in the Aragon lowland and over a large part of the Meseta.

Table 5

Pattern of land use in Spain 1986

Percent

Arable and permanent crops 40.5

Permanent pasture 20.4

Forests and woodlands 31.0

Other land 7.1

Inland water 1.06

Total 1 00.00

Source: 1987 FAO.Prod.Yearb., 41 (Published 1988)

Irrigation has a long history in Spain beginning with the Romans and practised systematically since the eleventh century. Today, Spain ranks very high among European countries in the use of irrigation. About 16 percent of its cultivated land (6 percent of the entire country) was irrigated in 1986 and half the water in Spain is used for this purpose. Irrigation is given priority by law over use of water for hydropower.

Sheep are the most important stock animals in Spain with pigs and cattle second.

Drainage of aquatic habitat has been comparatively little practised in Spain, although some brackishwater lagoons have been converted into salt pans and rice areas created by draining marshes.

Timber, cork and resin are the most important forest products in Spain and Spain ranks about tenth in roundwood production in Europe. Much of the country was deforested by uncontrolled cutting for firewood and timber or to form pasture. Intensive reforestation is in progress but success is not easy in this often arid land which is also subject to grazing. Most of the woodlands are tree plantations using fast-growing trees such as eucalyptus, poplars and pines. - 163 -

Although much of the mineral resource has been used up, mining is still important in Spain's economy and is being intensified. Some of the mining has caused severe water pollution'. For example, the Odiel and Tinto rivers tributaries to the Mediterranean have been badly contaminated; the Odiel now contains no fish. Lead, lignite, potash, mercury, sulphur, silver, tungsten, salt, zinc and uranium are all important minerals and there is some coal and iron. There is very little oil.

Water is used extensively for the production of hydroelectric power, a principal source of energy in Spain. As early as 1962 Spain was said to have more power dams than any other European country. In 1987, of a total installed capacity of 36 044 000 kW, hydroelectric power represented 40 percent (14 453 000 kW). Thermal power represented 42 percent and nuclear power 18 percent.

Industry is the second largest consumer of water, using about one-third of the supply. As in most countries, industry is intensifying in Spain, with Government encouragement providing many centres around Barcelona, Madrid, Valencia and Seville, on the north coast and in the mineral-rich southwest. Textiles, shipbuilding, chemicals, food, steel and paper are among the most important industries. These, as well as the coal mines in the north and mining and metallurgical industries in Andalusia not only use water but produce polluting effluents to the detriment of fisheries.

Individual passenger car ownership was only about 250 to 1 000 persons (1986) and road density was only 0.63 km/km' (1986). Nevertheless, there is a network of highways in Spain, which - radiating from Madrid - make access fairly easy to most parts of the country and ensure them a supply of freshly caught marine fish. With the exception of the lower Guadalquivir, few inland waters are even marginally navigable. Perhaps 1 040 km in all, including canalized rivers and canals built to the sides of streams such as the Duero and Ebro for seasonal use, can be considered as inland waterways. Spanish railways are relatively short, hampered by the terrain and use of non-standard gauges; they totalled 13 572 km in 1982.

Public water supply ranks third in use of water (about 10 percent). Demands for its use are growing not only with increased urbanization - Spain is now about 78 percent urban - but with greater frequency of use domestically. Furthermore, most public water supply is obtained from rivers rather than from groundwater. On the other hand, sewerage has been slower to develop in Spain than in northern Europe so rivers have not been used as much for this purpose. Sewage is also added to irrigation systems.

Marine fisheries have long been an important industry in Spain which is classed among the leading fishing countries of the world, eighteenth in 1987. Its use of marine fish for food is one of the highest in Europe - about 90 percent of the production (1975) and the per caout consumption of fish is around 34.2 kg annually (Girin, 1989).

The use of water for inland fisheries and aquaculture is described in section 7. Tourism is high in Spain (47 million tourists in 1986). Most of it is concentrated on recreational areas of the Mediterranean and inland fishing has not been a major attraction to tourists.

7. FISH AND FISHERIES

The fish fauna of Spain's inland waters, like that of Portugal, is poorer in both genera and species than in the rest of continental Europe. Some of the most characteristic fishes of Europe, are absent, for example: coregonids, pike, Alburnus spp., Scardinius spp., and European perch (Perca fluviatilis). It is characterized by an abundance of cyprinids such as Barbus and Chondrostoma but not of abundant populations - especially because of fluctuations in river flow and its subsidence in volume during the summer. However, within its confines there is a distinction between the northern regions where cool water temperatures support not only salmonids but a group of cyprinids which differ from those of southern Spain.

1/ Siltation of Spain's southern coast was recorded by Pliny and the mineral resources were being exploited in Roman times - 164 -

Native fluvial and diadromous fishes include: lampreys (Petromysonidae), sturgeon (Acipenser sturio), European eel (Anguilla anquilla), Allis shad (Alosa alosa), Twaite shad (A. fallax), Atlantic salmon (Salmo salar), brown trout and sea trout (Salmo trutta), barbels (Barbus spp.), bogas (Chondrostoma spp.), chub or cacho (Leuciscus cephalus), tench (Tinca tinca) and grey mullets (Mugilidae).

Introduced fishes include: rainbow trout (Oncorhynchus mvkiss), American brook trout or char (Salvelinus fontinalis), huchen (Hucho hucho), common carp (Cvprinus caroio), crucian carp (Carassius carassius), gudgeon (), pike (Esox lucius) and largemouth black bass (Micropterus salmoides).

Crayfish (congrego), Astacus and Cambarus sp., are also an important aquatic species in Spain. They are sometimes called "river crabs" in Spanish publications written in English.

Brown trout are perhaps the most widely distributed species in Spain, although obviously confined to cold waters especially those of northern streams, mountain areas and the upper areas of the rivers.

The northern coast of Spain contains a number of fine salmon rivers, and the Min° is the approximate natural southern extent of this species (Muus and Dahlstrom, 1975). Spain once had about 50 fine salmon streams but after the tenth century the runs became heavily exploited through the use of weirs and fish traps. Grist mills of the nineteenth century and water diversions followed by the construction of hydroelectric dams, further decimated the stocks as did illegal fishing, overfishing (e.g., in estuaries), and water pollution. By the early part of this century, salmon had almost vanished from the Miño, and the following Spanish Civil War (ca 1939) contributed to the decline, confining salmon to about 20 streams.

In 1942, when salmon fishing in Spain had declined to catches of only about 2 000-3 000 per year, nets were banned from rivers and estuaries. Spain is now the only European country that has completely banned netting in its rivers and turned them over completely to angling. However, professional (commercial) fishing using rod and reel is allowed in some areas and only salmon from "free" areas can be sold. The rivers are divided into cotos (preserves) and free waters. Cotos are divided into beats and permits are necessary. Riparian rights prevail on free waters.

7.1 Capture Fisheries

Table 6 illustrates the catch from Spain's inland waters during the 1965-87 period as compiled for FAO's Yearbook of Fishery Statistics.

The Yearbook's statistics are not intended to include "recreational" catches. Nevertheless, following a review of the Yearbook's 1965-74 figures, Spain/EIFAC (1 977) stated that during this period, the following percentages of these fish were taken by angling: cyprinids, 75 percent; eel, 5 percent; Atlantic salmon and trout, 1 00 percent'. It also provided the material for Table 7, which shows the official governmental statistics for Spain's Atlantic salmon catch. A comparison of these with the figures in Table 6 demonstrates some of the difficulties in accepting the FAO yearbook statistics, especially those for the early years when FAO reduced small catches, even if reported by the countries, to categories such as "negligible" or "insignificant".

It is also obvious that most of the trout "catch" in Table 6 is aquacultural production (see section 7.2).

1/ Commercial (professional) fishing for Atlantic salmon is, however, by "angling", i.e., with rod and line, normally a recreational or sporting activity - 165 -

Table 6

Nominal catches by species in the inland waters of Spain 1965-87 (in tons)

Cyprinids European Atlantic Trouts Total Miscell. Grand n,e.i. eel salmon (Salmo/Oncorhvnchus finfish freshwater total (Anouilla (Salmo sPP.) crustaceans anouilla) salar)

1965 9 000 1 200 0 1 800 12 000 400 12 400

1966 9 000 1 200 0 1 800 12 000 400 12 400

1967 9 000 1 200 0 1 800 12 000 400 12 400

1968 9 000 1 200 0 2 000 12 200 500 12 700

1969 9 000 1 200 0 2 500 12 700 500 13 200

1970 10 200 1 000 - 3 100 14 300 1 100 15 400

1971 11 400 1 000 - 3 800 16 200 1 800 18 000

1972 9 000 1 000 - 3 100 13 100 500 13 600

1973 9 500 700 - 3 300 13 500 500 14 000

1974 8 000 600 - 5 500 14 100 0 14 100

1975 7 600 570 - 6 000 14 170 0 14 170

1976 10 000 610 - 7 000 17 610 0 17 610

1977 9 500 600 8 200 18 300 800 19 100

1978 9 500 600 - 9 000 19 100 1 000 20 100

1979 12 000 300 - 12 000 24 300 730 25 030

1980 17 000 300 - 15 000 32 300 600 32 900

1981 12 000 250 - 17 000 29 250 500 29 750

1982 10 000 200 - 18 000 28 200 400 28 600

1983 4 000 150 18 000 22 150 870 23 020

1984 5 000 150 - 18 000 23 150 900 24 050

1985 5 000 200 - 17 000 22 200 4 000 26 200

1986 5 000 200 - 18 000 23 200 4 000 27 200

1987 5 000 200 - 18 500 23 700 5 000 28 700

0 Probably nil, negligible or insignificant; or less than 50 t during the 1965-73 period, or less than half a ton during later years This category not listed this year

Source: 1965-69: Yearb.Fish.Stat.FAO, 36 (Publ. 1974) 1970-83: FAO Fish.Dept.Fishery Statistical Database (FISHDAB) 1984-87: Yearb.Fish.Stat.FAO, 64 (Publ. 1989) - 166 -

7.1.1 Commercial fishing

In addition to the catches from inland waters recorded in Tables 6 and 7, two other tables (8 and 9) are provided to show the catches by Spain in two marine statistical areas of fishes found in both fresh and saline waters: European eel, shads and grey mullets.

No data other than those provided above are available to the author on the subject of commercial fishing in inland waters of Spain but from all indications, it appears to be a very small industry.

Table 7

Catches (by angling) of Atlantic salmon in the inland waters of Spain 1965-76

Number tons

1965 7 375 36.8 1966 7 233 36.1 1967 7 497 37.5 1968 6 579 32.9 1969 9 326 46.6 1970 7 791 38.9 1971 2 714 13.6 1972 7 026 35.1 1973 4 169 20.8 1974 2 750 13.7 1975 4 616 23.1 1976 3 626 18.1

Source: Spain/EIFAC (1977)

7.1.2 Sport fishing

Fishing in Spain for Atlantic salmon - a principal attraction for foreign anglers - is now primarily confined to 14 principal salmon streams. Almost all of these originate in the Cantabrian Cordillera and flow north, mostly as short, swift rivers, to the Atlantic Ocean: the Ason, Deva-Cares, Canero, Eo Lerez, Masma, Narcea, Navia, Pas, Sella and Ulla. The Bidasoa, shared with France, and the Mitio, shared with Portugal, are also salmon streams. Collectively, they produce about 4 000 salmon annually.

Salmon can be taken only by angling, but the methods include the use of natural baits (minnow, worm and prawn) and artificial lures including flies. There are a considerable number of rules concerning catch.

Trout fishing includes angling for resident brown and anadromous sea trout (Salmo trutta) and the introduced rainbow trout. The introduced huchen and American brook trout or char also provide limited trout angling. Huchen, for example, introduced from Czechoslovakia in 1968, provides some trophy fishing in the Tormes River. In northern Spain there are about 75 main trout rivers offering over 15 000 km of water but there are isolated trout rivers even in southern Spain. Among the better trout rivers are all the salmon rivers (see above), the Esla and tributaries, the Ucero, Pisuerga, Iregua, Najenilla, Cega, Adaja, Alberche, Segre, Ter, Gallego, Tietar, Ega and Duratom. The construction of access roads and fishing huts rrefugios"), employment of stream guards and maintenance of a hatchery system facilitate this angling.

Cyprinids are also utilized as sport fish, especially in middle and lower stream courses and in static waters: barbels, "bogas", chub or "cachos", common carp and tench. Pike and largemouth bass are also fished, especially in lakes and reservoirs.

The lower parts of some rivers and brackish waters provide sport fishing for: lampreys, European eel, shad (especially in the Mifio) and grey mullets. - 167 -

Crayfish (conareqos) are also utilized by sport fishermen. In 1976, the number of permits issued by ICONA for trout and crayfish fishing was almost equal to the number of permits issued for trout and salmon fishing.

There is a good deal of managed water in Spain for sport fishing, including the system of cotos which allows regulated angling on a permit basis. As of 1976, there were 736 cotos in Spain: 98 for Atlantic salmon and trout, 430 for trout, 97 for trout and crayfish, 32 for crayfish and 79 for other species. By 1980, there were 791 cotos in Spain. Of these, 572 were directed by the National Institute for the Conservation of Nature (ICONA), 197 with the collaboration of recreational societies, 9 were leased to the Secretariat of State for Tourism, and 13 were concessions to syndicates of professional fishermen.

The number of sport fishermen (licensed anglers) more than tripled between 1966 and 1976, i.e., from 224 005 to 706 545. (About 504 000 of the latter number were for salmonids.) Despite this gain, the total number of licensed sport fishermen constituted only about 2.1 percent of Spain's total population. By 1979 the number was 764 517 and in 1 980 the number was only 709 534.

The economic importance of angling is well recognized in Spain and the Spanish Directorate for the Promotion of Tourism promotes angling for foreigners.

7.2 Aquaculture

As pointed out in section 5.4, the Spanish lagoon fisheries are primarily capture fisheries, although the construction of barrages to permit the assembly of fry and descent of adults may be considered a primitive type of aquaculture. There have also been attempts to convert old salt pans near Cadiz to the pond culture of euryhaline fishes (ADCP, 1979).

Extensive polyculture has been practised here: gilthead (soarus auratus), sea bass (Dicentrarchus labrax), eel, sole (Solea vuloaris) and grey mullets (Muoil spp.). Fry raising begins with the natural capture of fry in tides entering through sluicegates during the winter and early spring. During the second phase, lasting about seven months, the fish eat natural food in the esteros or rearing ponds, and are then fished during the winter by emptying the ponds (Arias, Drake and Rodriguez, 1984).

Rice field fish culture was also tried out in some parts of Spain, presumably using carp, but was apparently abandoned (Coche, 1967).

There is some culture of tench according to FAO, Fish, Info., Data and Stat. Serv. (1991).

Eel culture is carried out on the Ebro delta and on the Bay of Cadiz with eels raised in tanks (San Feliu, 1973). There has also been some experimental culture of Atlantic salmon, produced in fresh water to be grown out in saltwater pens, and culture of Coho salmon (Oncorhynchus kisutch). There is also a small crayfish farming industry in Spain.

Intensive culture of fish for food in Spain is, however, concentrated on rainbow trout, and has been strongly developed only since 1965. See Table 1 0 for Spanish production of table trout since 1974. By 1976, there were 118 private trout hatcheries (Spain/EIFAC, 1977) with an annual production of 6 000 t. By 1982, there were 1 69 private trout farms producing 11 000 t (Richards, 1982). Most of the Spanish trout farms are in the northern part of the country and both spring and river water are used. The trout, which spawn during the October-March period, are grown out in concrete raceways or earthen ponds. Fed on pellets, the majority are harvested at an age of about 1 5 months at a size of 200 g, although a few are raised to two or three kg to be smoked. Most of the fish are sold in the round, packed in ice, and sold to fish markets. Little or no fee fishing exists (Brown, 1 983). There are some specialized manufacturers of fish feeding and aquacultural equipment. - 168 -

Table 8

Nominal catches of diadromous fishes and grey mullets in Marine Statistical Fishing Area 27 (Northeast Atlantic) by Spain 1965-87 (in tons)

European eel Allis shad Mullets (Anguilla (Alosa alosa) spp.) anquilla) and Twaite shad (A. fallax)

1965 200 400 100 1966 200 200 100 1967 100 200 200 1968 100 200 100 1969 100 300 100 1970 100 100 1971 100 100 1972 500 500 1973 500 0 1974 2 923 0 1975 0 221 1976 0 258 1977 0 271 1978 0 194 1979 66 182 1980 44 240 1981 0 204 1982 69 0 1983 38 0 1984 20 - 219 1985 15 40 1986 26 0 1987 26 0

0: Probably nil negligible or insignificant; or less than 50 t during the 1965-73 period or less than half a ton during later years

This category not listed this year

Sources: 1965-69: Yearb.Fish.Stat.FAO, 36 (Publ. 1974) 1970-83: FAO Fish.Dept.Fishery Statistical Database (FISHDAB) 1984-87: Yearb.Fish.Stat.FAO, 64 (Publ. 1989)

The latest figures available to the author of inland aquacultural production in Spain are shown in Table 11.

In addition to this commercial production for food, ICONA had 36 fish hatcheries in 1980 to restock open waters. The restocking programme has comprised the following species: Atlantic salmon, brown trout, American brook trout or char, black bass, pike and tench. - 169 -

Table 9

Nominal catches of diadromous fishes and grey mullets in Marine Statistical Fishing Area 37 (Mediterranean) by Spain 1965-87 (in tons)

European eel Mullets (Anguilla ((■/ i g spp.) anauilla)

1965 200 400 1966 200 300 1967 200 300 1968 100 400 1969 200 400 1970 100 300 1971 100 300 1972 0 0 1973 0 0 1974 700 800 1975 0 858 1976 65 837 1977 66 613 1978 55 800 1979 94 940 1980 0 540 1981 0 511 1982 0 368 1983 0 510 1984 0 480 1985 0 642 1986 0 0 1987 63 0

0: Probably nil negligible or insignificant; or less than 50 t during the 1965-73 period or less than half a ton during later years

This category not listed this year

Sources: 1965-69: Yearb.Fish.Stat.FAO, 36 (Publ. 1974) 1970-83: FAO Fish.Dept.Fishery Statistical Database (FISHDAB) 1984-87: Yearb.Fish.Stat.FAO, 64 (Publ. 1989) Table 10

Estimated production of cultivated trout in Spain 1974-89 (in tons) w

Source 1974 1975 1 976 1977 1978 1979 1980 1 981 1 982 1 983 1 984 1985 1986 1987 1988 1989

Giorgetti & Ceschia 4000 5000 6000 7000 7500 ------(1982)b1

Brown (1983) - 5000- - - - 9000 - - _ - - - - - 6000

Lewis (1981) - - - 7800 9000 ------

Shaw, Shaw & - - 6000 6500 7800 9000 10300 1 2000 ------Thomas (1981)

Fish Farm.Int., - - - - 7500 9000 10300 11000 11000 ------9(10):2(Pub1.1982)

Fish Farm.Int. - . ------1 2500 ------11171:16(Publ.1984)

Girin (1989) ------1 3812 11594 14100 - - -

FES (1986)(1989) ------1 4150 1 4700 - 1 5800 16000'

FAO, Fish.info. Data ------14100 11459 16000 1 5000 & Stat. Serv. (1991)

a/ Listed either as "trout", "table trout", "rainbow", or "portion-sized trout" b/ Information from Associazione Piscicoltori Italiani, Bolletino di Informazioni (6), Giugno 1978 - 171 -

Table 11

Production from aquaculture of inland species in Spain, 1986-89 (in tons)

1986 1987 1988 1989

Tench (Tinca tinca) 300F 350F 450 463

European eel (Anguilla anguilla) 25 37 32 57

Coho salmon (Oncorhynchus 4 1 2 0 0 kisutch)

Oncorhvnchus spp. ... 325 0 0

Rainbow trout (0. mvkiss) 1 4 100 11 459 1 6 000 1 5 000

Atlantic salmon (Salmo salar) 150 1 50 0 0

Salmo spp...... 36 36

Sea bass (Dicentrarchus labrax)' 31 38 29 31

Gilthead (Sparus auratus)8i 137 1 09 153 241 75F Grey mullets (Mugilidae) i 165 90 64

Crayfish (Procambarus clarkii) ... 3 100 2 689 2 690

at brackish water fish not available 0 more than zero but less than half a ton FAO estimate

Source: FAO, Fish.Info.,Data & Stat.Serv., (1991)

8. OWNERSHIP, ADMINISTRATION, MANAGEMENT, INVESTIGATION AND AGREEMENTS'

8.1 Ownership

Under Spanish law, and as a rule, all flowing waters, whatever their importance, form part of the Public Domain from their source until they discharge into another stream or the sea. Public waters are considered common property insofar as use is made thereof for essential vital needs such as drinking or washing. Private waters make up an insignificant percentage in Spain.

8.1.1 Public waters. In general, these include: (i) "watercourses" and other natural beds, i.e., large streams whether permanent or temporary; (ii) perennial or intermittent water of springs and small streams (arroyos) and their natural beds; (iii) perennial or intermittent waters with sources on land of Public Domain; (iv) permanent or intermittent waters after they have left the land on which they have their source, and (v) lakes and lagoons and their flood zones formed naturally on public domain.

1/ This section is derived primarily from Arrieta (1979), Gaudet (1974), material received by EIFAC from Spain in 1979, and Secretaria de Estado de Turismo (1980). It may not be up to date - 172 -

8.1.2 Private waters. In general, these include: (i) perennial and intermittent springs arising on private lands as long as they continue to flow thereon; (ii) lakes and lagoons and their flood zones naturally formed on private lands, and (Hi) perennial and intermittent streams fed from rainwater and small streams flowing on non- public land.

8.1.3 Aauatic flora and fauna. As with most inland waters in Spain, the flora and fauna also belong to the Public Domain.

8.2 Use and Availability of Water

8.2.1 In granting public use concessions, the following order of priority is applied: (i) city water supply; (ii) railway supply; (iii) irrigation; (iv) navigation canals; (v) industrial uses and river crossings, and (vi) reservoirs for stock watering and fish breeding. Under Spanish law a distinction is made between common and special uses of water. Common uses include fishing, domestic and household use, small navigation and floating.

8.2.2 Fishing. There are two general types of fishing waters: (i) those submitted to general fishing regulations, and (ii) those such as preserves or private waters, which are under special control.

The basic principle governing fishing in public watercourses is that access thereto is free, providing that laws and regulations are respected and there is no interference with navigation and floating. Access to public canals, ditches and aqueducts is also free for fishing unless the concession holders have duly reserved their own fishing right in terms of the concession. Fishing is limited to legal methods.

8.2.3 Fish breeding. Authorization to use public waters for fish breeding may be granted only if no harm is caused thereby to public health or any other prior downstream use.

8.3 Administration

The Ministry of Agriculture has overall responsibility for conservation and development of inland fisheries in Spain. Within this Ministry, the National Institute for the Conservation of National Resources (ICONA), which is specifically charged with conservation and development of Spain's inland fisheries, contains several bodies concerned with inland fisheries.

The Division of Renewable Natural Resources, vested with the direction of inland fisheries, includes: (i) a National Fisheries Inspectorate, and (ii) an Inland Fisheries Section.

The Nature Protection Division is occupied with the technical application of investigation (see section 8.5).

The executive functions of ICONA are carried out by 50 Provincial Chiefs, and there are 11 Regional Inspectorates.

8.4 Manaaement

The Administration is not only responsible for conservation and development of public waters but also controls the exploitation of private waters that can affect public waters.

In order to fish in inland waters, whether public or private, a regional or national licence must be obtained from ICONA through its Provincial Chiefs. Aside from this, the Administration requires additional permits for fishing in certain stretches of rivers or waters that it controls. A licence is necessary to fish any type of water: general or special. It is necessary to obtain authority to fish from the owners if the property is private, or for reserves from ICONA or, in some cases, from the Tourist Administration. Licences may be issued either to residents or foreigners. - 173 -

ICONA promulgates various regulations, directs cotos (see section 7.1.2) and owns installations to restock fishing waters (section 7.2).

8.5 Investigation

Although a decree-law of 1971 entrusted pure scientific research of the Ministry of Agriculture to the National Agricultural Research Institute (INIA), applied technical work, investigation and control were left to the Nature Protection Division of ICONA, which has an Ecology Section.

Research and development with respect to aquaculture in coastal lagoons are conducted by the Instituto de Investigaciones Pesqueras (IIP) of the Ministry of Education and Science and the lnstituto Espanol de Oceanograffa (1E0) of the Ministry of Commerce.

8.6 Training

Various colleges and vocational schools offer training in fisheries and aquaculture, and there is also liaison with other countries.

8.7 International Agreements

Spain has a bilateral agreement with Portugal concerning uses of their boundary or common streams with respect to hydropower, water supply and water quality.

9. STATE OF THE FISHERY

9.1 Yield

According to FAO's inland water catch statistics for Spain in Table 6, during the period from 1965 to 1987, the catch of cyprinids almost doubled (from 9 000 to 17 000 t in 1980), and then declined to only about 5 000 t. Meanwhile the trout "catch" became ten times greater (from 1 800 to over 18 000 t) and the catch of European eel fell to one-eighth (150 t) of its 1 200-t catch in 1965. One must view all these apparent changes with caution, especially in consideration of the statements made by Spain/EIFAC (1977) concerning the percentages of these fish taken by angling (section 7.1). The author's surmise is that - aside from inaccuracies and differences in reporting methods and sources - cyprinid catch may have first increased with reservoir construction, and it is well known that the increased trout "catch" actually represents in large part the addition of cultivated fish (see section 7.2). Why the reported catch of eel declined is unknown.

There is no question but that the catch of salmon in Spain has fallen drastically. A century ago there was an annual catch of perhaps 30 000-50 000 salmon annually, and even during the period of 1965-76 the catch was halved in both numbers and weight (Table 7).

Yields from individual freshwater bodies in Spain are not at hand. In brackishwater lagoons, they seem low in large lagoons such as the 17 000-ha Mar Menor, where yields of only 25 kg/ha/year or less of finfishes are recorded in recent years, or in the 3 114-ha Albufera at Valencia, where the finfish yield is only about 81-83 kg/ha/year. In the smaller Ebro delta lagoons, the average yield of finfishes was 275 kg/ha/year in 1970-71 and 171 kg/ha/year during the 1966-76 period. One of the highest lagoonal yields was that of 471 kg/ha/year in the 179-ha Tancada in 1970-71.

9.2 Factors Affecting the Fishery

About one half of Spain is actually semi-arid and only the north and northwest have pluviose climates. The total average run-off from rainfall is quite small, virtually no water is contributed by the contiguous countries, and the evaporative rate is generally high. The total water resources of Spain are, therefore, not large with respect to the size of the country and its requirements. - 174 -

Furthermore, the total inland water area is very small: only about one percent of the country's total area. Spain is sorely lacking in natural lakes, except for some high mountain tarns and has few extensive estuaries. The fluvial inland fisheries are, therefore, confined primarily to rivers and reservoirs. Unfortunately, most of the rivers are subject to great fluctuation in volume but the reservoirs are gaining in importance.

Spain has a more limited freshwater fish fauna than most of continental Europe and populations under natural conditions are not abundant. Salmon populations, due both to overexploitation and reduction of favourable habitat, are now only marginal and confined to a few northern rivers. Trout populations under controlled management are more persistent and the native brown trout has been supplemented by other species. Similarly, the introduced pike and black bass provide a greater variety of fishing than once existed. Lack of water is still more important in determining Spain's fishing than is lack of species.

The general fertility of the waters, especially in eastern Spain, is reasonably good, and there is a relatively long growing season for fish. Except in the high mountains most waters are accessible for fishing throughout the year and year-round fishing is permitted for most species. (The legal seasons for trout and salmon are quite restricted, however.)

As in Portugal, dynamiting and other illegal methods of taking fish have harmed the stocks in some areas.

Spain's scarce water resources have received heavy use for many years - albeit, originally with rather primitive methods, e.g., in some areas such as Catalonia water mills were once so common that long stretches of river bed were practically waterless. Today irrigation places severe demands on streams and hydroelectric dams and diversions have also affected fish populations. Industrial and domestic use of water is ever-increasing.

Pollution-from a variety of sources is a serious problem in Spain. Circa 1970, 37 percent of the total river length in Spain was reported to be polluted to the extent that the fisheries were affected and 7 000 km had been rendered fishless (Holden and Lloyd, 1972). A later report by ICONA stated that of the 72 000 km of permanent streams in Spain, 8.3 percent (6 000 km) were very contaminated, 15.3 percent (11 000 km) were moderately contaminated, and 76.4 percent (55 000 km) were little or not contaminated (Spain/EIFAC, 1 977). Inadequate treatment accounts for some of the problem. Climatic conditions are also conducive to sudden outbursts of pollution. The first heavy rainfalls after drought wash a large amount of land and road- accumulated polluting material into the rivers.

The average annual surface run-off from rainfall of about 1 912 m3 of caout is well below the European average, and does not afford a high degree of effluent dilution. This figure is based on a surface run-off of 76 000 million m3 but even if one includes the groundwater discharge into streams to raise the total run-off to 94 150 million m3, the annual run-off per caout is still only 2 369 m3.

Freshwater fish consumption has not been traditionally high in Spain. Only in the north and northwest were there originally runs of the anadromous salmon, and their common use as food declined many years ago. Lack of natural lakes has also accounted for the small commercial fisheries in Spain's inland waters. Spain has also comparatively few anglers as compared with northern European countries and automobile ownership for their transport is low.

Fish culture does not possess a long tradition of use in Spain which, despite its continental character, has a high per caout consumption of marine fish. Not only is Spain a leading producer of marine fish but about one-half of its sea catch is marketed fresh or chilled and transported throughout the country. Thus, the sea fisheries and even marine aquaculture, especially for mussels, have been more important than freshwater fishing or fish culture in Spain. Only the culture of rainbow trout has increased decidedly in the last years. - 175 -

Finally, with respect to capture fisheries, it should be noted that the Min°, Guadiana, Duero and Tajo are international rivers shared between Spain and Portugal, subject through treaty to their joint use, and with access to the upper stretches of the two latter streams controlled by the lower riparian country.

9.3 Prospect

Spain's mountainous terrain indicates that the country is well suited for hydroelectric development and one might infer that this would insure further construction of reservoirs suitable for fishing. However, low rainfall restricts the capacity of Spain's reservoirs, most of the profitable hydroelectric capacity has been developed, and the use of water for irrigation is awarded priority over that of hydropower. The country, which possesses a source of uranium, is therefore turning to nuclear power.

Although this will slow down the continued effect of hydroelectric construction (both favourable and unfavourable) on fisheries, the control of surface water for various uses will still continue particularly since really good aquifers are non-existent in Spain and groundwater cannot be expected to greatly supplement surface flows for future needs. Thus, it is estimated that the 37 480 million m3 of water controlled in 1967 can be increased to 70 500 million m3 (Heras, 1970). Furthermore, transbasin transfers of water are planned to overcome so-called water deficits for drinking water, irrigation and industry. Much of the transfer is being done by development on smaller rivers and includes development of marginal hydroelectric resources together with pumped storage. These transfers, primarily north to south and east to west, will involve complex structures that will obviously affect the fisheries. There will be transfers of stocks and possible losses at diversion or exchange points. Among the transfers are: Tajo River to Segura River, and Ebro River to the Jticar and Pyrenees Orientale drainages. However, given opportunities for water regulation which will aid fish production and institution of improved forms of management, reservoir fisheries can undoubtedly be developed to a far greater extent.

Management, including restoration of trout and salmon waters, offers great dividends. Rental of salmon beats, although limited to a few anglers, can be lucrative.

Trout culture will be limited by facilities for hatcheries. Brown (1983) suggested that an annual production of 1 0 000-12 000 t could be obtained and that there might be some commercial salmoniculture. Such a production has already been obtained and it is certain that it will be increased.

The Government's aim is to increase fish farming not only for trout but in brackish water for euryhaline species. Until recently, coastal aquaculture in Spain has been dominated by mussel culture in which Spain has been a leader. Indications are that culture of euryhaline finfish as well as invertebrates will be augmented in future (see especially ADCP, 1979). Pond culture and use of closed circuits may make up for the high price of coastal lands and ecological degradation of brackish waters.

To a large extent, the future of inland fisheries in Spain depends upon a greater consideration of their value in making use of the country's limited water resources.

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Pardo, L., 1948. Cat6logo de los lagos de Espana. Inst.For.Invest.Exp. Biologia de las aguas continentales, VI, Madrid Ministerio de Agricultura, 522 P.

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Pliego, J.M., J.M. Pazos and J. Pardo, 1968. Spain. In Water for peace. Vol. 1. International Conference on Water for Peace, 23-31 May 1967. Washington, D.C:, U.S. Government Printing Office, pp.500-9

Richards, R., 1982. Spain's fish farms could plug supply gap. Fish Farmino Int., 9(7):2

San Feliu, J.-M., 1973. Present state of aquaculture in the Mediterranean and south Atlantic coasts of Spain. Stud.Rev. GFCM, (52):1-24

Spain, Secretaria de Estado de Turismo, 1980. Fishing Spain. Vitoria, Secretaria de Estado de Turismo, 10 p.

Spain, Ministerio de Economia y Comercio, Instituto Nacional de Estadisticas, 1980. Anuario estadistico de Espana. An° LV, 1980, Madrid, Ministerio de Economia y Comercio, 808 p.

, 1981. Anuario estadistico de Espana. Arlo LVI, 1981, Madrid, Ministerio de Economia y Comercio, 790 p.

, 1989. Anuario estadistico de Espana. Ano LXIV, 1989, Madrid, Ministerio de Economfa y Comercio, 895 p.

Spain/EIFAC, 1977. Information on inland fisheries production in Spain. (Response to the EIFAC Secretariat). Unpublished. - 179 -

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SWEDEN

The Kingdom of Sweden, the third largest country in Western Europe, shares the Scandinavian Peninsula with Norway. Sloping generally east toward the Baltic coastal plain, its terrain ranges from frozen tundra and ice-clad mountains in the north to farmland in the south. Almost 60 percent of the country is forested, and almost 9 percent is occupied by inland waters: swift rivers in the north, smaller and slower streams in the south, and almost 100 000 lakes, of which four constitute a fourth of the lake area.

In addition to mining and forestry, Sweden is primarily an industrial nation. However, with most of its population concentrated in the south, large areas remain thinly populated and in relatively untouched state. Hydroelectric development has, nevertheless, had severe effects on the anadromous salmonoid fisheries, placing dependence upon heavy stocking to maintain them. Growing problems of pollution, including that by acid rain, affect all the inland fisheries.

Marine fisheries are minor in Sweden, and its commercial fishing for inland fishes is practised primarily in its Great Lakes and the brackish Baltic Sea. Aquaculture for trout is a minor industry. The proportion of sport fishermen to total population is one of the highest in Europe. With concentration on percids, pike and salmonids, recreational fishing has already surpassed the inland commercial fishery in importance.

1. AREA: 486 661 km21/

2. POPULATION: 8 305 000 (1990) Density: 18 inh/km2

3. PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY

Sweden, which shares the Scandinavian Peninsula with Norway, lies between 55°20' and 69°4'N latitudes and 10°58' and 24°10'E longitudes. Fifteen percent of the country is above the Arctic Circle. Its extreme length is 1 574 km, and its greatest breadth is 499 km. Its altitudinal range is from sea level to 2 111 m, with a mean elevation of about 300 m.

It is bounded on the northeast by Finland for 586 km, and by Norway on the northwest and west for 1 619 km'. Its moderately indented territorial coastline, bounded by the Skagerrak and Kattegat to the southwest and by the Baltic Sea and its northern arm, the Gulf of Bothnia, to the east, and including the islands of Gotland and Oland, totals 2 862 km in length. The shore itself measures 7 264 km, and if one were to include all the little indentations, it could be said to total 14 000 km in length.

Sweden has three territorial regions. , the great northern region, occupies 55 percent of the country. Central Svealand occupies 20 percent, and southern Gotaland 25 percent. It can also be described as having four major physical divisions:

1/ This figure for total area taken from Sveriges Officiella Statistik (1983, 1984 and 1989) differs from those given in most standard references (such as the Unesco Statistical Yearbook 1984) which agree or are generally close to the 449 964 km2 listed in Sveriges Officiella Statistik (1990) as total area, and the land and inland water area listed in Sveriges Officiella Statistik (1983, 1984 and 1989). The Swedish Consulate General's office in New York (comm. of 21 June 1983) states that on 1 July 1979 the territorial waters of Sweden were changed from 4 to 12 nautical miles, thus accounting for the difference in total area given in the newer Swedish statistical abstracts. As will be seen in section 5, such a change, particularly inclusion of marine territorial waters in the reported area of a country may change one's calculation of the extent of inland waters decidedly

2/ These boundaries are taken from Sveriges Officiella Statistik (1990) -181 -

(i) the northern mountain and lake region district which also includes a relatively level forested moraine, marsh and bog belt, and a region of sandy and clayey coastal plains incised by rivers;

the lowlands (mean elevation 300 m) or lake depression of central Sweden, arable, fertile, and dominated by great lakes;

the Smaland highlands in the south and southeast, mantled with sandy and gravelly till, forested, and with peat bogs.

(iv) the plains of Skane in the extreme south, part of the Great European Plain. With lime-rich fertile soil, it is largely agricultural.

Norrland, occupying over half of Sweden (from about 60°N to the northern boundary), slopes from the summit of the "KY:Hen" Mountains, along the Norway frontier, east and southeasterly to the Baltic coastal plain in a series of steps crossed by parallel rivers in deeply cut valleys. These rivers, which rise in mountains exceeding 1 500 m in height, are linked with long narrow high level lakes formed mostly by moraines.

The down-faulted lowlands of central Sweden, although interrupted by blocks of higher land, are generally low. In the detached highland area of Smaland, the general elevation exceeds 100 m and there are some areas over 350 m.

The natural vegetation ranges from Arctic-Alpine types (e.g., mosses, lichens and dwarf birch) in the north and in the high mountains, through coniferous forests (especially spruce and Scots pine) over most of the country, to some deciduous forest (oak-beech) in the south. About 60 percent of the entire country is forested, and of this, about 85 percent is coniferous.

About three-quarters of Sweden forms part of the Pre-Cambrian Baltic shield mostly of gneisses and granites, making its waters particularly vulnerable to acid rain (see section 9.2). Soil types vary in response to the bedrock and to an uneven cover of glacial drift, marine deposits and alluvium. Generally speaking, especially in the north, soil is thin and acid and often absent.

The coast is partly rocky, fringed with hundreds of little islands or skerries. In places the coast is indented by broad "fjards" cut by preglacial streams but widened out and without steep sides.

In addition to the mainland and small islands, Sweden has two large islands off its east coast: Gotland (3 001 km2) and Oland (1 344 km2).

4. CLIMATE

The overall climate is cold temperate. Warmed by Atlantic winds it has higher temperatures than its latitude would suggest but the maritime influence is reduced by the high mountains on its western border.

In the north, the winters last about seven months and summers less than three; in the south, winters are less than two months long and summers over four. Near the extreme north (70°N) there may be about 73 days of continuous daylight but the winters are dark. In the south, mid-summer days last 17 hours, winter days 6.5 hours.

In northern Sweden, the mean annual temperature is -2.7°C, the mean monthly range is -14.6°C to 1 2.2°C. At Lund (extreme south), the mean annual temperature is 7.2°C, the mean monthly range is 0.5°C to 16.6°C.

The growing season in Sweden (i.e., the average period with air temperatures above 3°C) ranges from about 250 to 90 days from south to north. In the Swedish central lowlands it is about 190-210 days. - 182 -

The average annual precipitation for the entire country is about 700 mm, varying from about 500 mm in the southeast to 2 000 mm in the northwest mountains. The maximum rainfall is in July and August. Early spring is the season of least precipitation but it is also a period of thaw, melt-water and river flooding. Much precipitation is in the form of snow, from 9 percent in the extreme south to 36 percent in the far north. Snow cover varies between about 50 days (south) to 200 days (north), and the snowline varies from 1 335 to 880 m in the far north.

Ice cover on the lakes averages 90 days in southern Sweden, 150 days in central Sweden and over 200 days in the north". Owing to high latitude and low salinity, the northern part of the Gulf of Bothnia may be frozen from 110 to 210 days of the year.

The mean evaporative rate is about 300 mm (450-150 mm).

5. HYDROGRAPHY AND LIMNOLOGY

The total area of inland water in Sweden as given in or calculated from data in numerous publications throughout the 1957-88 period, ranges from about 30 017 to 40 477 km2, or roughly from 6.8 to 8.9 percent of the country's total area as given in the same publications'. When such calculations have been made by the author, he has simply subtracted "land area" from "total area" to achieve a remainder representing "inland water area". (This is the same method outlined in the FAO Production Yearbook.) It is obvious, however, that if Sweden's Statistical Abstract (Statistisk arsbok for Sverige) includes territorial marine waters in its "total area" (see section 1) that such a calculation cannot be made for this country using only such data. Otherwise, without any increase in "land area" (said to be 411 615 km2 in both the 1978 and 1982/83 Swedish Abstracts) the inland water area would have leaped from 38 349 km2 in 1 978 to 75 046 km2 in 1982/83 or from 8.5 to 15.4 percent of "total area". In 1983 it was suggested to the Government that a country's statistics on land and water areas would be clearer were they presented as follows: total area, land (meaning non-water) area, territorial marine water area, inland (fresh and in some cases brackish) water area. The Statistical Abstracts for 1984 (published 1983) and 1 985 (published 1984) and subsequent editions do make this clear in saying that Sweden's land and inland water area is 449 964 km2 as the inland water area. This is 8.5 percent of the strictly continental area. Meanwhile, one concludes that the inland waters of Sweden total about 40 000 km2 or - as the Swedish Institute (1981) puts it - "Some 100 000 lakes cover more than 38 000 km2 ... or about one-eleventh of the land area, i.e., six times the lake density of the world

1/ The great lakes of Vattern, Malaren and Hjalmaren have an ice-cover during December-April

2/ Some of the difficulties encountered in this paper in obtaining accurate information from respected but secondary sources are shown by the following examples concerning the area or percentage of inland water in Sweden. O'Dell (1957) says that 8 percent of Sweden is inland water. Bergsten (1961) says that lakes cover 8.5 percent of the total area. Worldmark (1971) says that the total area is 449 749 km2 of which the land area is 402 279 km2 and the water area 40 477 km2 including rivers and some 96 000 lakes. But, five years later, Worldmark (1976) increased the total area to 449 964 km2, and the land area to 411 407 km2 and reduced the water area to 38 557 km2 or 8.6 percent. And in 1 988 (Worldmark, 1988), it further reduced the inland water area to 38 349 km2 or 8.5 percent of the total area (given as 449 964 km2) including some 96 000 lakes. Meanwhile, the Encyclopaedia Britannica (1974), claiming to use "official" governmental figures, gives the total area as 449 750 km2, land area as 411 479 km2 and inland water area as 38 271 km2. Hanson (1978) says that Swedish lakes alone cover 40 000 km2. FAO (1988), the source of Table 6, probably using figures obtained from Sweden, indicates a total area of 449 996 km2, a land area of 411 620 km2 and a calculated inland water area of 38 040 km2 or 8.5 percent of total area. Europa (1985), citing Statistics Sweden as its source, gives the total area of Sweden as 448 661 km2 and its extent of inland water as 37 155 km2 or 8.3 percent of the country, but Europa (1988), citing the same source, presents the following relevant figures: 440 945 km2 total area, and extent of inland waters 30 017 km2, or 6.8 percent of total area - 183 -

continents." WillOn (1984) expresses it this way: "In Sweden there are about 100 000 lakes occupying nearly 9 percent of the total land area".

The areas of the major drainage basins of Sweden are shown in Table 1.

Table 1

Major drainage basins of Sweden

Basin Total area Area inside km2 Sweden km2

Vanern - G6ta alv 50 200 42 800

Tornealven 40 200 25 300

Angermanalven 31 900 30 400

Dalalven 29 000 27 900

Umealven 26 700 26 500 Indalsalven 26 700 24 700

Lulea!yen 25 200 24 500

Malaren - Norrstrom 22 600 -

Ljusnan 19 800 - Kalixalven 17 900 -

Vattern - Motala str6m 15 500 - Ljungan 12 900 -

Skelleftealven 11 600 - Pitealven 11 200 -

Lagan 6 440 -

Helge a 4 780 - Eman 4 460 -

Source: Statistisk arsbok for Sverige, 1990

The drainage pattern in Sweden is greatly influenced by the general inclination of the land surface of the northern and central parts, i.e., the land slopes toward the east and southeast from the "KOlen" Mountains where the largest rivers have their sources.

The approximate annual runoff in Sweden is 400 mm or 180 000 million m3. Upstream countries contribute 3 000 million m3, so the total annual river discharge leaving the country is 183 000 million rre (Van der Leeden, 1975; ECE, 1978). - 184 -

5.1 Rivers (Floder, Alv)

The total length of Sweden's rivers is about 60 000 km. There are ten rivers with lengths of over 400 km and 27 in all which are longer than 100 km. Table 2 lists the major rivers of Sweden and their lengths.

Table 2

Principal rivers of Sweden&

River Total Length length km inside Sweden km

Klaralven - Gota alv 720 520

Muonioalven - Tornealven 570 -

Dalalven 520 -

Umealven 460 450

Lulea!yen 450 440

Angermanalven 450 440

Kalixalven 430 -

Ljusnan 430 -

Jarpstrommen - Indalsalven 420 -

Skelleftealven 410 -

Pitealven 370 -

Ljungan 350 -

Toftaan - Lagan 270 -

Atran 230 a/ The Klaralven flows southerly out of Norway (where it is known as the Trysilelva) to enter Lake Vanern which is drained to the Kattegat (Atlantic) by the Gota alv. The Muonioalven-Tornealven, which flows generally south to the Gulf of Bothnia, forms part of the Swedish/Finnish boundary. Below it, and proceeding to the Gulf of Bothnia/Baltic, from north to south in this order are the following: Kalixalven, Lulealven, Pita!yen, Skelleftealven, Umealven, Angermanalven, Indalsalven, Ljungan, Ljusnan, Dalalven and Eman. The Toftaan-Lagan and Atran are tributary to the Kattegat

Source: Statistisk arsbok far Sverige, 1990

The discharge of seven of Sweden's principal rivers is shown in Table 3. Table 3

Discharge of seven major Swedish rivers. Mean monthly discharge, m3/sec

Vanern Muonioalven Dalalven Umealven Lulealven Anger- ...... Indalsalven Gtita alv Tornealven manalven

January 604 - - - 284 420 -

February 645 - - - 288 438 -

March 641 - - - 276 409 -

April 574 - - - 259 353 -

May 447 - - - 507 561 -

June 332 - - - 911 586 -

July 304 - - - 870 473 -

August 392 - - - 731 504 -

September 471 - - - 609 398 -

October 506 - - - 456 378 -

November 566 - - - 337 419 -

December 583 - - - 284 423 -

Year 505 350 370 450 486 448 460

Period of record 1938-66 ca 1969 ca 1969 ca 1969 1 941-66 1954-66 ca 1969

Regulated Vanersborg - - - Boden works Solleftea - station

Source: Vanern-Gota alv, Lulea!yen and Angermanalven from Van der Leeden (1975). Others from Framji and Mahajan (1969) - 186 -

There are four major types of Swedish rivers, their characteristics generally linked with their latitudinal and altitudinal positions.

(i) Mountain rivers. With a great store of snow and ice, their low winter flow is transformed with snow- melt into a prolonged spring flood. The great variations in flow have required much regulation in order to use these rivers for hydroelectric production. Examples are the LuleaIvan with a mean annual flow of about 510 m3/sec (mean range, 82-1 910 m3/sec) and the Dalaven with a mean annual flow of 370 m (mean range, 95-1 150 m3/sec). The principal mountain rivers of the Norrland slopes are linked to long narrow lakes and flow swiftly southeasterly toward the Gulf of Bothnia over many falls and cataracts. Few falls are found in the flail or upland area. Most are found in the middle or lower reaches, and there is a definite falls line (so-called Glint line) in the lower course of the northern rivers above the flat coastal land. Both the steep slope and the bare rock characteristic of most of these drainages contribute to the rapid runoff. However, the lakes aid materially in holding back the total flow.

(ii) Central lowland streams. These small rivers have a short spring flood and a rapid run-off over a long plain. An example is the Nykopisan with a mean annual flow of 23 m3/sec (mean range, 9-55 m3 /sec).

(iii) South Swedish highland streams. With smaller snowpack, there is a less marked spring flood and the major run-off is during autumn, the wettest season. Examples are the Atran twest side of Sweden) with a mean annual flow of 50 m3/sec (range, 12-165 m3/sec), and Eman (east side) with a mean flow of 30 m3/sec (range, 7-100 m3/sec).

(iv) Outlets of large lakes. These usually have a very uniform run-off, being stabilized by the lake. An example is the Gota alv with a mean annual flow of 575 m3/sec (mean range, 510-660 m3/sec).

Domination of both length and volume is clearly evident in the characteristics of Sweden's northern mountain rivers. The maximum flow in at least six of these exceeds 1 700 m3/sec. By contrast, many small rivers of southern Sweden have low flows, and some are sluggish and silty. Minimum flow in many of these is almost zero.

5.2 Lakes (Sioar)

Like its northern neighbours, Sweden has a large number of natural lakes, estimated variously as from 96 000 to 100 000 in number, and from about 38 340 km2 to 40 000 km2 in total area. Using the largest round numbers, there are about 100 000 lakes with a total area of 40 000 km2 and total estimated volume of 600 000 million m3 (Hanson, 1 978). Table 4 lists the names and areas of Sweden's largest lakes.

The four largest lakes (see below) take up about one-fourth of the entire lake area. A further 4 000 lakes are larger than one km2; the remainder, accounting for about 20 percent of the total lake area, are smaller.

Most of the many mountain lakes are narrow "string" or "finger" lakes, lying close to the same elevation (300-400 m), and formed by moraines. Some of these lakes are over 160 km in length, but most are only 5-6 km in width. Although they help contain the swift flow of the rivers, flow-through in the northern lakes is very rapid and their productivity is also lessened by the prevailing bare and acid terrain. - 187 -

Table 4

Principal lakes of Sweden

Lake Area (km

Vanern 5 585 Vattern 1 912 Malaren 1 140 Hjalmaren 484 Storsjon i Jamtland 456 with Insjon and Orsasjon 354 Tornetrask 322 230-280 Uddjaure 190-250 Bolmen 184 Strams Vattudal 154-183 Stora Lulevatten 165 Storavan 150-175 Kallsjon 155 Asnen 150 Dellensjoarna 132 Sommen 132 Skagern 131 Stora Le and Foxen 131 Storuman 120-165 Suorvajaure 32-210 Flasjon 105-114 Virihaure 108 Frykensjoarna 102 Glafsfjorden 102 Torran 84-103 Malgomaj 70-105

Source: Statistisk arsbok for Sverige, 1990

The most extensive lake area is in the central lowlands which contains Sweden's four largest lakes: the tectonic-glacial Vanern, 5 585 km2, 140 km long and 75 km wide; Vattern, a graben lake, 1 912 km2 in area, 130 km long and 31 km wide; Malaren, once a bay of the Baltic and now a series of basins with narrow sounds, 1 140 km2 in area, 115 km long and 66 km wide; and Hjalmaren, 484 km2 in area, 60 km long and 20 km wide. Among the largest lakes in Europe (exclusive of the former USSR), Vanern ranks as the largest and Vattern as the second largest. Of these four lakes, only Vattern is still completely oligotrophic. Vanern although still oligotrophic is on its way to a mesotrophic state and the others are on the eutrophic side. Other characteristics of these lakes as well as of the Baltic Sea - which provides considerable fishing for freshwater fishes - are shown in Table 5, and catches in the four largest lakes in Sweden are shown in Table 14.

There are also hundreds of lakes in the lowlands. Many of these, especially in the southwest, are turning into peat bogs and have a low productivity.

There is thus a range in waters - from the highly oligotrophic waters of the north, through the eutrophic waters of the lower, more settled regions, to dystrophic waters in the Smaland highlands. - 188 -

Table 5

Characteristics of the four largest lakes in Sweden and the Baltic Sea

Parameter Unit Lake Lake Lake Lake .. Baltic Sea Vanern Vattern tVlalaren Hjalrnaren

Elevation m 44 88.5 0.3 21.9 0

Area km2 5 585 1 912 1 140 484 372 730' Basin area km2 46 830 4 447 21 483 4 053 1 649 550 Volume km3 151.6 74 14 2.9 20917"

Basin area in relation to lake km2/km3 309 61 1 534 1 398 79 volume

Mean depth m 27 39 12.8 6.1 50-60

Maximum depth m 100 128 61 20 459

Flow-through m3/sec 544 35 168 - 14 100 Retention time years 8.8 58 2.4 3.7 35-40

Mean pH - - 7.6-7.8 7.5 7.5 -

Alkalinity meq 1-1 - 0.5 - - - Conductivity pS cm-1 - 110 139 193 -

Population in million 0.7 0.175 1.3 - 20 the basin ca 1970

Annual load per year ca 1970 Phosphorus kg/ha 3 1 7 - 0.36 Nitrogen kg/ha 22 10 90 - -

2 3 at Excluding estuary area. With estuarial area: 415 125 km and 21 714 km

Source: A composite based on (varying) data from: Milway (1970), Van der Leeden (1975) after Falkenmar, Swedish IHD Committee (1973), Falkenmark and Mikulski (1975), Rundberg (1977), Willer, (1984), and Essvig (1990)

Owing to the prevailing bedrock of slowly weathering granite, gneisses and porphyries, the majority of the Swedish lakes have soft and low-buffered waters with a natural alkalinity of 0.1-0.2 mekv/I or less and a pH of 6-711. There are, however, limestone or lime-rich areas in Sweden and here the water may have a bicarbonate content often of the order of 0.5-2 mekv/I. This natural state has, however, altered sharply in recent years, tending toward greater acidification (see section 9.2).

1/ Dickson (1978) says that in remote mountain areas of Sweden there are still lakes with a conductivity of less than 1 m/Sm - 189 -

Retention time in Swedish lakes varies from one to two years in most lakes to several decades in some.

5.3 Reservoirs (Reservoar/Konstaiorda bassinoer/Sioar)

Most of the larger lakes in northern Sweden have been impounded or regulated to further the production of hydroelectric power. For example, the regulation of Lake Hjalmaren at the end of the nineteenth century was the most extensive project of its kind in Sweden. In fact, the largest volume of water in Europe is stored in the reservoirs of Sweden and Spain. The dams raise the natural levels in summer and autumn and lower it below normal levels in winter and spring. Such drawdowns (e.g., to 35 m) affect the fishery adversely by decreasing the bottom fauna, altering spawning grounds, and otherwise affecting the fish stocks. Generally speaking, such changes have been more detrimental to trout (Salmo) than to chars (Salvelinus). Since 1976, efforts to improve reservoir fishing have included stocking with fish and food organisms, and improvement of biotopes.

5.4 Canals (Kanaler)

There are several major ship canals in Sweden, of which the Gota, completed in 1832, is the best known. This series of waterways with 58 locks connects G6teborg on the Kattegat to Stockholm on the Baltic, a distance of about 620 km. Mostly river and a series of lakes, only 82 km of the "canal" are artificial. The canal proper is 14 m wide and 3 m deep.

Most of the smaller Swedish canals have now been closed to traffic.

5.5 Coastal Areas

Although the salinity on the small west coast of Sweden is about 20 ppt, the salinity off the remainder of the Swedish coast, as with other areas of the brackish Baltic basin, is low. Ackefors (1986) considers that about 5 700 km of a 7 600-km coast is brackish. River runoff to the Baltic Sea amounts to about 1 000 mm yearly when averaged over the whole of the area. The Sea is characterized by a positive freshwater balance and its water is brackish. The eastern coast of Sweden lies along the Gulf of Bothnia (the northern part called the Bothnian Bay, the southern part the Bothnian Sea) and the main Basin of the Baltic. Its southern tip abuts on the western Baltic through which there is hydraulic contact with the North Sea over shallow threshholds in the Danish straits. Basically, the Baltic water mass consists of an upper layer with a continuous flow- through of freshwater from the rivers discharging into the Baltic and a lower layer of water of higher salinity which is renewed in an oscillatory manner through irregular saline intrusions. Stagnant conditions may develop in some of the basins of the Baltic proper with oxygen exhaustion and formation of H2S the bottom water but the Gulf of Bothnia supports populations of both marine and freshwater fish. The salinity off the south coast of Sweden is about 11 ppt, and in the Baltic the range is between 10 and 7 ppt. The Gulf of Bothnia does not exceed 6 ppt and at its head drops to as low as 1 or 2 ppt. Freezing occurs in the Gulf as a consequence. (For other information on the Baltic, see Table 5 and also the review of Finland).

6. LAND AND WATER USE

The climate, poor soil, extensive forests and abundant hydroelectric and iron ore resources (which have made industry paramount) have been the major determinants of Sweden's land and water use and distribution of its population - with their consequent effects on inland fisheries. Sweden is now considered about 84 percent urban and 16 percent rural, and 90 percent of its population is concentrated in the south, which is also the centre for agriculture and manufacturing.

Livestock raising is a large part of agricultural production. Hay leads all other field crops, using about one half the cultivated land, followed by oats, wheat, rye and potatoes. Only about 1.6 percent of the small cultivated area (0.11 percent of the entire country) is irrigated - mainly as drought insurance. Irrigation has, therefore, little effect on fisheries, using only about 50 million rre annually or less than 0.03 percent of the total run-off. Extensive bog areas have, however, been drained for pasture and even some lake areas have - 190 -

been drained to increase farmland, e.g., 18 000 ha of Lake Hjalmaren. This drainage has had some effect on fisheries as has the heavy liming of soils, and the growing use of chemical fertilizers, which is still less, however, than the European average.

Table 6

Pattern of land use in Sweden, 1987

Percent

Arable and permanent crops 6.6

Permanent pasture 1.3

Forest and woodland 58.7

Other land 24.9

Inland water 8.5

Total 100.0

Source: 1 987 FAO Prod.Yearb., 47 (Publ. 1988)

The forests of Sweden and Finland are the largest in Europe. Sweden has the highest roundwood production in Europe (Finland is second) and is a very high producer of wood pulp and cellulose for export. Its pulp and paper companies are big vertically integrated businesses, which own a quarter of all the forests. Swedish streams have been used for many years to float timber during high water and such rafting has often been detrimental to salmonoid populations, in part through destruction of streambeds. Although some recent reports describe extremely high use of rivers for floating logs (e.g., Europa, 1974, reports 32 000 km of Swedish streams used to float timber rafts), the official Governmental statistics (Sveriges Officiella Statistik, 1978) say that the floatways in 1976 totalled 6 200 km of which only 3 147 km were used, and the amount of timber transported by truck in 1980 was 35 times that using floatways (Sveriges Officiella Statistik, 1982). Timber roads and all-year trucking are now replacing the use of rivers in Sweden as log carriers. The forest industries continue, however, to produce water pollution through release of waste fibres and liquors. More than 90 percent of the discharge of organic material into the Gulf of Bothnia comes from the forest industry (Bengtsson, 1982).

Sweden lacks almost any coal and oil, but has high-grade deposits of iron, zinc, and lead, and Western Europe's largest deposit of uranium - destined under its national plan for production of nuclear energy (see below).

Major industries, aside from mining and forest products such as wood pulp and paper, include iron and steel, precision equipment, food and motor vehicles. Industries use about 80 percent of Sweden's water, and contribute largely to its water pollution.

In addition to pollution from forestry products, major sources include mines, smelters, plating, textiles, beet sugar manufacture, dairies and milk products, and sewage. Circa 1971, 86 percent of the oxygen- consuming matter discharged to rivers and coastal waters in Sweden came from industry and 14 percent from sewage (Johnson and Brown, 1976). Most of the water pollution is concentrated along the coast and in the south. Public sewerage is increasing rapidly and, generally speaking, river pollution in Sweden is far below that of other heavily industrialized European nations (see section 9.2 concerning eutrophication and acidification). - 191 -

Sweden has a very high use of electric power, and until recently most of this was hydroelectrical originating from Norrland's rivers. Most of this is low head power derived from streams having a long gradual descent of rapids rather than high falls. The earlier power stations were constructed at "steps" but as these sites were used up, dams and reservoirs were required to stabilize flows and create artificial heads. Thus, in addition to creating more barriers to fish migration, long areas of good spawning and feeding grounds were dried out or turned into deep basins of still water with severe implications for the fisheries. For these reasons, as well as the decision to turn to artificial propagation of Atlantic salmon and sea trout (see section 7), few fishways have been built lately and many old ones have been removed.

In 1987, the total installed electrical capacity in Sweden was 33 455 000 kW of which 50 percent (16 700 000 kW) was hydroelectric, 22 percent thermal, 28 percent nuclear, and 5 000 kW geothermal. Good hydroelectric development is almost complete. An excellent electrical grid system permits well dispersed industry, which, of course, increases the opportunities of more wide-spread water pollution.

Road density in Sweden is low, only about 0.5 km/km2, but passenger car ownership is one of the highest in Europe, 420 automobiles per 1 000 people (1989). There is a rail system of 12 323 km (1983). Although the rivers are rarely navigable, except for Gota alv in the south, the larger lakes are navigable except during the January-March period, and a canal system has modified the original drainage patterns of the south and opened Lakes Vanern and Kaaren to seagoing craft. In 1978, there were about 1 165 km of inland waterways, and some water pollution results from their use.

Flood control has also had an effect on the fisheries, e.g., a decrease in the pike (Esox lucius) fishery at Lake Malaren has been attributed to reduced water levels during the spawning period (Rundberg, 1977).

The marine fishing industry is only a marginal sector in the highly industrialized Swedish economy. Most of the country faces on the brackish Baltic rather than on the more productive Atlantic side. With a marine catch in 1987 of 210 728 t, Sweden ranked 49th in total world fish catch. Inland commercial fisheries are of even lesser importance in Sweden, but both commercial and subsistence inland fishing are practised in Sweden and - as in Finland - some farmers make part of their living through fishing. Fur farming (where fish are used for food) is also a Swedish industry. Despite the relatively low production of fish caught commercially, fish is important in the Swedish diet, accounting for some 15 percent of animal protein and 10 percent of total protein supply. Import accounts for a substantial proportion of the total fish supply. Per caout fish consumption is high, about 29.4 kg/year.

Sweden has reasonably good groundwater sources, and its surface water supply is excellent. Domestic and industrial supply account for about two percent of the total precipitation. Fifty-five percent of urban water use is from the surface, and major industries use almost 100 percent surface water - the highest use being in the cellulose, paper, mining and metal industries. Circa 1974, it was estimated that 3.5 percent of the total national surface flow was required for cooling, and these requirements would increase to 80 percent by the year 2000.

7. FISH AND FISHERIES

Like its western neighbour, Norway, Sweden has a limited freshwater fish fauna. There are only about 40 indigenous freshwater species. High mountain lakes may have from only one to a half dozen species while the largest southern lakes have some 20 to 34 species. There is also an altitudinal distribution from a lesser number to a greater number of species. For example, in northern Sweden there is a relatively simple zonation of species from the Arctic highlands to the boreal coniferous forest areas and the Baltic coast region. The sequence is roughly: barren trout lakes, allopatric trout or char lakes, sympatric trout or char lakes, whitefish lakes (mostly with several other species), lakes with pike, perch and cyprinids (Nilson and Pejler, 1973).

Characteristic native forms are the resident brown trout (Salmo trutta), char (Salvelinus alpinus), various coregones or whitefishes (Coreqonus spp.), grayling (Thymallus thvmallus) and the anadromous - 192 -

Atlantic salmon (Salmo salar) and sea trout (a. trutta)11. Salmon are fished commercially and for sport, and are the result of both natural propagation and stocking. For example, the salmon stock in Lake Vattern is absolutely dependent upon artificial rearing; nevertheless, a salmon of 19.6 kg was taken there in 1991 (Andersson, 1991). The largest salmon taken in Sweden, from the Fax River, weighed 36 kg. The largest brown trout taken in Sweden (Lake Vattern) weighed 23 kg (personal communication from K. Andersson, 1992).

The most widely distributed fish in Sweden is, however, the European perch (Perca fluviatilis), and pike (Esox lucius) is second. The pike-perch (Stizostedion lucioperca) has a more limited distribution in the warm eutrophic lakes, but ranks high in catches. Sweden is also an important area for the European eel (Anguilla anguilla), especially in the central and southern part of the country. In a sample of 1 670 lakes in these areas, eels were recorded in 73 percent (Svardson, 1976a). The lampern or river lamprey (Lampetra fluviatilis) is also widely distributed along the Swedish coast, annual catches ranged from 4.7 to 27.3 t during the 1914-23 and 1937-79 periods (Sjoberg, 1980). Cyprinids such as bream (Abramis) and roach (Rutilus) and the burbot (Lota Iota), are lesser elements in the fishery. The European smelt (Osmerus eperlanus) is also taken commercially but is primarily a .

The most successful introduced fishes have been from North America: the rainbow trout (Oncorhynchus mvkiss) which is largely used for fishculture, the Eastern brook trout or char (Salvelinus fontinalis) also used in a minor way for aquaculture, and another char, the lake trout (S. namavcush). See also Section 9.2.

Table 7 illustrates the catch from Swedish inland waters sensu strictu as compiled by FAO from statistics furnished by the Government of Sweden for the period of 1965-86. There are no total statistics for the catch of fish in Sweden's inland waters according to the National Board of Fisheries (communications to EIFAC in 1979) the Swedish Institute (1981), and the dogmatic statement of Holmberg (1986), the EIFAC National Correspondent, and Head of Section, National Board of Fisheries, G6teborg: "For the inland fisheries [of Sweden] there are no statistics". Consequently this abridged table furnishes only an approximation of minimum reported total commercial catch in Sweden's fresh waters, although there has been some refinement of catch statistics in recent years as is shown in Table 8. At best, these tables can only offer indications of the principal fishes taken and are of little value in indicating the relative composition of the catch. (Note the sudden appearance of reported catches of salmon and rainbow trout in 1982.)

For these reasons, it is desirable to include Table 9, showing the catch in Sweden's four largest lakes (almost one-quarter of the country's lake area) in 1976 and Table 10, which provides information on the catch of Atlantic salmon and trout in some of the country's larger rivers.

As in Finland, there is a considerable catch of freshwater or fluvial fishes (e.g., pike) in the brackish waters of the Baltic Sea - some of which are almost fresh. Two other tables are, therefore, included. Table 11 shows the 1965-87 Swedish catches of freshwater and diadromous species in Marine Statistical Fishing Area 27, which includes the Baltic. (One assumes that all of its statistics relating to freshwater fishes apply only to the Baltic.) An additional table (Table 12) shows the Swedish catch in the Gulf of Bothnia only during the 1976-78 period. It should be noted that in 1978, the value of the Swedish Bothnian catch of whitefishes or coregonids was 29 percent of the total catch and that of Atlantic salmon 26 percent of the total (Andreasson and Petersson, 1982).

1/ A true (and native) landlocked form of salmon is also found in Sweden. Laird and Needham (1988) call this landlocked form "Blanklox", but Kent Andersson (personal communication of 16 August 1991) tells me that the popular Swedish name is blanklax and that it is applied to bright silvery fresh- run anadromous salmon. According to Andersson, only the older people in Sweden apply this name to landlocked salmon alone. Two stocks of landlocked salmon live in Lake Vanern. Landlocked salmon were originally found in Europe in only a few lakes: Sweden (1), Finland (2), Norway (4). Both these landlocked forms and the anadromous ones are Salmo salar (Behnke, 1988) - 193 -

Table 7

Nominal catches in the inland waters of Sweden, 1965-86 (in tons)

Freshwater Other Freshwater Salmonoids Other a/ fishes, species'' fishes, n.e.i. species n.e.i. n. e i

1965 11 000 1976 10 400 0 0

1966 11 000 1 977 9 900 0 0 1967 11 000 1 978 10 200 0 0

1968 11 000 1979 10 000 0 0

1969 10 200 1980 10 000 0 0

1970 10 600 0 0 1981 10 000 0 1971 10 500 0 0 1982 7 550 2 450' 0

1972 10 600 0 0 1983 10 000 0 0 1973 10 600 0 0 1984 10 000 934' 0 1974 10 500 0 0 1985 2 000 766' 0

1975 10 200 0 0 1986 2 000 1 141" 59" a/ In the original tables, these are listed separately as follows: freshwater breams, n.e.i. (Abramis spp.), roaches (Rutilus spp.), cyprinids, n.e.i. (Cyprinidae), pike (Esox lucius), European perch (Perca fluviatilis), pike-perch (Stizostedion lucioperca), European eel (Anguilla anguilla), European whitefish (Coreoonus albula), or pollan (C. lavaretus), Atlantic salmon (Salmo salar), trouts, n.e.i. (Salmo spp.). The catch of pike, perch and pike-perch for 1965-72 was said to have been included with that of the "freshwater fishes, n.e.i." b/ Listed as 50 t of Atlantic salmon and 2 400 t of rainbow trout c/ Listed as 933 t of rainbow trout, 1 t of lake trout, and 0 t of "Salmonoids n.e.i." d/ Listed as 760 t of rainbow trout, 5 t of lake trout, and 1 t of "trout" e/ Listed as 1 171 t of rainbow trout, 22 t of lake trout, and 2 t of "trout" f/ Listed as 59 t of eel and 0 t of carp

Data not available 0 Probably nil, negligible or insignificant; or less than 50 t during the 1965-73 period, or less than half a ton during later years n.e.i. not elsewhere included

Source: 1965-69 Yearb.Fish.Stat.FAO, 36 (Publ. 1974) 1970-83 FAO Fish. Dept. Fishery Statistical Database (FISHDAB) 1984-86 Yearb.Fish.Stat.FAO, 62 (Publ. 1988) - 194 -

Table 8

Nominal catches in the inland waters of Sweden, 1987 (in tons)

Freshwater breams (Abramis spp.) 3

Common carp (Cvorinus caroio) 0

Roaches (Rutilus spp.) 1

Pike (Esox lucius) 196

European perch (Perca fluviatilis) 122

Pike-perch (Stizostedion luciogerca) 378

Freshwater fishes n.e.i. (Osteichthyes) 330

European eel (Anguilla anguilla) 193

European whitefish (Coreaonus albula) 705

Powan or Pollan (C. lavaretus) 199

Rainbow trout (Oncorhvnchus mvkiss) 1 554

Trouts n.e.i. (SaImo spp.) 43

Lake trout (Salvelinus namavcush) 27

Salmonoids n.e.i. () 58

0 Probably nil, negligible or insignificant, or less than half a ton n.e.i. not elsewhere included

Source: Yearb.Fish.Stat.FAO, 64 (Publ. 1989)

Certain cyprinids are also caught in limited numbers in Baltic waters, e.g., the orfe or (Leuciscus idus), bleak (Alburnus alburnus), tench (Tinca tinca), common carp (Cvorinus caroio), and crucian carp (Carassius carassius). In all about 25 inland fishes are caught in the Gulf of Bothnia. An interesting phenomenon in this Gulf area is that many fish species normally considered as stationary freshwater forms migrate from the brackish Gulf waters to spawn in its tributary streams. Examples include the grayling, pike, European perch and several species of cyprinids.

A considerable quantity of the native crayfish (Astacus astacus) is also taken in Swedish inland waters. However, it has suffered heavy losses through the crayfish plague (Aohanomvces astaci), habitat loss and acidification of waters (see section 9.2). At the beginning of this century, the total crayfish catch in Sweden was about 200 t and in 1905, 90 t were exported. The crayfish plague, which appeared in 1907 speedily ravaged the Swedish populations. By 1908, crayfish export had dropped to 30 t and it has been estimated that at least 50 percent of the native Swedish crayfish population has been devastated (Brinck, 1975). As consumption of crayfish is high in Sweden, imports, especially Astacus leotodactvlus from Turkey, have been substituted for the market and there have been attempts to alleviate the condition of the native stocks, including liming which has not been very effective.

The major method to restore crayfish populations in Sweden has been the importation and subsequent rearing of new resistant stocks of the signal crayfish (Pacifastacus leninsculus) from the United States. The first introduction was made in 1960 and large numbers were brought in in 1969. Further introductions of - 195 -

live crayfish have been prohibited for fear of diseases and parasites, and the signal crayfish stock has been perpetuated through aquaculture and stocking in Swedish waters.

Stocked in 260 Swedish lakes and rivers by 1982, breeding populations have been established and it is being exploited commercially. In several cases, its yield is even better than that of Astacus astacus. Sweden is also being used as a base for restoration of crayfish populations in other European countries (see: Abrahamsson, 1973; Karlsson, 1977; Westman, 1982; Anon./Sweden, 1984, and Furst, 1984).

7.1 Caature Fisheries

7.1.1 Commercial fishing

Tables 7 and 11 show that the greatest tonnage of commercially taken freshwater and diadromous fishes in Sweden is derived from inland waters. However, despite the statistics in Table 7 for the 1965-84 period which showed an annual catch of about 10 000 t of freshwater fishes in Sweden, the total annual commercial catch in Sweden's fresh waters was estimated by the National Board of Fisheries (communication to EIFAC in 1979) as only 2 400 t, having a value of S.Kr. 12.5 million. Note also the drop shown in Table 7 of the catch of these fish in 1985 and 1986. The discrepancies cannot be explained by the author.

Accepting the figures around 2 400 t as the most valid, it is obvious that most of this freshwater catch comes from the great lakes of Sweden. Table 9 shows the catch in the four largest lakes in 1976. The preponderance of pike-perch (32.1 percent) in their total classified catch is clearly evident, followed among the identified fish by European whitefish (15 percent), pike (10.2 percent), powan (8.6 percent) and European perch (6.4 percent).

Special attention is called to the catches of Atlantic salmon (Tables 10 and 11)1/. Salmon is an important import in Sweden and was once an important fish in about 50 Swedish streams, most of them entering the Baltic, but today less than half of these carry only a token population. Circa 1980, spawning occurred naturally in only about 15 large Swedish rivers, among them: Gota alv, Atran, Morrumsan, Vindelalven, Ljungan, Pitealven, Kalixalven and Tornealven - the latter shared with Finland, where it is also known as the Tornionioki. Table 10 shows the salmon catch in some of Sweden's rivers. (Surprisingly, these figures do not appear in the FAO Fishery Yearbook's statistics, Tables 7 and 8.) The Swedish offshore catch in the main Baltic and Gulf of Bothnia has varied between 323 and 471 t annually during the 1969-78 period (Larsson, 1980). With respect to capture methods, seines are now the most important gear used in rivers and traps are also used, but only a small part of the catch is now made here. In the main basin of the Baltic, Sweden uses longlines and drift nets, while fyke nets, bag nets, drift nets, longlines and other gear are used in the Gulf of Bothnia.

It has been estimated that Sweden's natural smolt recruitment for the Baltic was 4 million individuals in 1900. Larsson (1980) estimated that the natural production fell to 1.4 million smolts by 1970. As with other Baltic stocks of salmon, hydroelectric dams, log transport and pollution were major reasons for this decline. Determined to have both fish and power, Sweden now has an efficient "sea-ranching" programme of rearing and releasing salmon and sea trout to compensate for the deleterious effects of hydroelectric projects on anadromous fishes and to supplement the salmonoid stocks of the Baltic. Circa 1972, the Swedish power industry operated 18 salmon-rearing stations, mostly built between 1955 and 1962. Their output in 1970 amounted to 1.7 million salmon smolts and 140 000 sea trout smolts, reared from eggs taken from upstream migrants (Johansson, 1973). By 1979, the number of salmon smolts from about 20 fish farms was 2 177 833, and it was considered that every second salmon caught in the Baltic was artifically produced

1/ The stock of Swedish salmon (Salmo salar) is generally divided into two groups: the "true" Atlantic salmon, which spawns in rivers of the west coast and has its feeding grounds in the North Atlantic, and the more important Baltic group, which spawn in rivers on the Swedish east coast. The Atlantic stock, badly damaged by dams and pollution, is now very small Table 9

Commercial catch in the four largest Swedish lakes, 1976 (in tons)

Vanern Vattern Malaren lijalmaren Total Species t A t t t t Pike (Esox lucius) 117.7 14.2 10.8 4.3 22.5 7.5 1 9.0 6.6 170.0 10.2

European perch (Perca 42.8 5.1 35.1 14.1 8.0 2.6 21.5 7.4 107.4 6.4 fluviatilis)

Pike-perch (Stizostedion 156.6 18.9 - - 1 40.0 46.5 240.0 83.1 536.6 32.1 lucioperca)

European eel (Anauilla 1 2.1 1.4 0.9 0.4 5.9 2.0 4.5 1.6 23.4 1.4 anauilla)

European whitefish 96.0 11.6 35.8 14.4 118.0 39.1 - - 249.8 15.0 (Coreaonus albula)

Powan (C. lavaretus) 60.6 7.3 83.2 33.4 - - 0.9 0.3 144.7 8.6

Trout and salmon 14.6 1.7 15.6 6.2 - - - - 30.2 1.8 (Salmo spp.)

Char (Salvelinus alpinus) - - 44.1 17.7 - - - - 44.1 2.6 Grayling (Thvmallus - - 1.2 0.5 - - - - 1.2 0.07 thvmallus)

European smelt 12.8 1.5 ------12.8 0.76 (Osmerus eperlanus)

Burbot (Lota Iota) 79.9 9.6 2.7 1.1 7.0 2.3 3.0 1.0 92.6 5.5

Miscellaneous fishes 237.2 28.6 19.6 7.8 - - - - 256.8 15.4

Total 830.2 100.0 249.0 100.0 301.4 100.0 288.9 100.0 1 669.6 100.0

Source: National Board of Fisheries, through Sweden/EIFAC (1979) Table 10

Catches of salmon and trout in some Swedish rivers, 1972-76 (in kg)

Salmon (Salmo salar) Trout (Salmo spp.) River 1972 1973 1 974 1975 1976 1972 1 973 1974 1975 1976

Morrumsan 1 502 3 184 2 909 2 520 1 090 2 868 3 005 3 255 3 306 3 385

Klaralven 395 481 706 2 313 953 - - - - -

Dalalven 2 823 2 710 4 085 6 950 2 451 11 822 10 653 14 945 21 250 17 133

Ljusnan 2 924 3 708 5 410 5 856 2 958 - - - - -

Ljungan 1 818 1 759 1 538 1 400 904 248 155 276 200 108

Indalsalven 7 956 30 173 34 020 21 991 17 975 18 370 17 027 9 701 5 693 4 205

Angermanalven 10 528 23 447 32 1 84 33 1 63 20 749 3 550 6 807 6 421 5 593 7 615

[Aide 5Iv 102 117 - - 50 414 377 - - 145

Ore 5Iv - 70 134 67 26 63 84 73 92 38

Umealven 812 3 427 2 605 1 512 1 891 1 172 1 662 3 001 2 417 3 521

Vindelalven 2 864 4 145 3 119 1 432 1 171 1 705 1 679 1 334 1 082 1 068

Skellefte 5Iv 1 840 4 317 3 577 3 263 3 898 668 349 309 429 296

Lulealven 7 948 8 777 17 286 11 560 6 397 3 998 8 087 5 873 2 807 375

Kalixalven 7 205 11 189 5 938 3 810 3 125 2 013 1 309 876 887 933

Tornealven 5 122 7 772 4 818 2 678 1 520 401 659 704 568 726

Source: National Board of Fisheries, through Sweden/EIFAC (1979) Table 11

Nominal catches of freshwater and diadromous species in Marine Statistical Fishing Area 27, Northeast Atlantic by Sweden, 1965, 1970, 1975, 1980-87 (in tons)

Species 1965 1970 1975 1980 1981 1982 1983 1984 1985 1986 1987

Freshwater breams n.e.i. 100 0 10 7 1 2 1 2 7 15 12 13 12 (Abramis spp,)

Roaches (Rutilus spp.) o o 9 1 2 2 2 1 4 2 2

Cyprinids n.e.i. (Cyprinidae) 0 0 1 0 1 o 0 0 0 0 0

Pike (E. lucius) 300 300 374 304 249 284 295 401 446 411 375

European perch (P. fluviatilis) 200 200 187 175 117 119 116 169 225 157 129 Pike-perch (S. lucioperca) 0 0 58 101 172 131 99 140 124 1 28 120

Freshwater fishes n.e.i. 100 200 43 40 30 22 16 22 16 24 2

European eel (A. anouilla) 1 800 1 200 1 399 1 112 887 1 161 1 199 1 073 1 118 830 703

European whitefish (C. albula) 200 300 1 239 1 195 716 958 381 576 891 1 162 1 148

Powan (Pollan) (C. lavaretus) 400 400 554 508 315 375 309 338 316 367 433

Atlantic salmon (S. salar) 600 600 644 599 482 549 447 794 1 090 1 110 1 215

Trouts (SaImo spp.) 100 100 106 67 7 39 16 62 62 45 49

Salmonids, n.e.i. (Salmonidae) 0 100 1 o 0 0 6 8 7 9 14 - Rainbow trout (Oncorhynchus - _ _ - . - - 916 1 778 2 673 2 834 r2...*iss)

Total 3 800 3 400 4 625 4 109 2 990 3 652 2 893 4 515 6 089 6 931 7 036

' 0 Probably nil, negligible or insignificant; or less than 50 t during the 1965-73 period, or less than 0.5 t during later years Not represented . n.e.i. Not elsewhere included Source: 1965 Yearb.Fish.Stat.FAO, 36 (Publ. 1974) 1970-83 FAO Fisheries Department Statistical Database (FISH DAB) 1984-87 Yearb.Fish.Stat.FAO, 64 (Publ. 1989) - 199 -

(Lindroth, Larsson and Bertmar, 1982). The spawning migrants are caught in rivers using seines, gill nets, traps and electro-fishing, and retained for stripping usually in October and November. Dry pelleted feed is used, mortality is relatively low and the rearing period is one or two years as against the two to four years of the wild smolts.

Stocked in Baltic and west coast rivers, there has been an average return (based on tagging) to the commercial fishery in the Baltic area of about 10-12 percent, or 400 kg for 1 000 released fish. According to Lindroth (1972) this was highly profitable from an all-Baltic view, say at least US$ 1.60 in the fishery for each US$ 1.00 cost, but "... the return to Sweden, who pays the price, is just around the point of unprofitableness". Since then, other Baltic countries are aiding in defraying the coasts of smolt production (see, for example, the review on Finland).

In Sweden, eels are both imported and exported. The Swedish eel fishery is mainly an inshore one carried out all along Swedish coasts except the northern part of the east coast. However, stocking of lakes in Sweden with eels was done as early as the eighteenth century, and the number of naturally migrating elvers coming to Sweden during the last few years has decreased, stressing the need to restock the inland waters. Restocking with yellow eel (10-100 g) caught in the sea or cultured has been followed, and since 1976 elvers have been imported from France and Great Britain. Fear of introduction of infectious pancreatic necrosis (IPN) virus stopped this traffic but it was resumed following quarantine. The commercial catch of silver eel in the Baltic in 1 984 was 1 047 t which was similar to the last 10-year average (Holmberg, 1986). Fyke nets, eel pots and pound nets are all used.

Commercial gear for other inland fishes varies in Sweden. At Lake Vattern, where some 30 commercial fishermen are employed (1988), gill and trap nets are mainly employed and the fleet uses hydro- acoustic equipment, radar, and telecommunications. The commercial gear used for pike-perch includes gill and trap nets in lakes Malaren and Hjalmaren and trawls in the latter. Gill nets take about 75 percent of their catch. Fyke nets are used for pike during the spawning season; gill nets the rest of the year. On Lake Vanern there were about 200 commercial fishermen on the lake, half of whom made fishing their full occupation (1988). Large by-catches of lesser fish such as bream (Abramis brama), white bream (Blicca bioerkna) and roach (Rutilus sp.) hinder the use of trawls. European perch are a of the commercial fishery for pike- perch and eel. In 1976, the number of professional fishermen in the fresh waters of Sweden amounted to 570 part-time fishermen.

7.1.2 Sport fishing

As nets are permitted for some types of sport fishing in Sweden, the term "angling" is not synonymous with "sport fishing" in this country, where concepts such as "household fishing" or "free-time fishing" - as opposed to "commercial fishing" further confuse the issue. For example, during 1986 about 3 900 persons fished in Lake Vanern using 41 000 nets. This was considered "household fishing".

Pike, European perch and pike-perch are the main sport fish. Others include: brown trout and sea trout, char, grayling, Atlantic salmon and the introduced salmonids, the American rainbow trout and lake trout. The world's record brown trout (17 kg) caught by sport fishing methods was taken in Sweden in 1991 (Andersson, 1991a).

Swedish anglers claim that trout are their preferred sport fish and coarse fishing, i.e., for cyprinids, occurs only sparingly, although there is some advertisement of areas where they can be fished (e.g., for bream in the Stockholm area). Unlike the situation in Norway or Iceland, rod fishing for salmon is very limited in Sweden. Two of the best salmon streams, which are also flyfishing waters, are the Morrum on the south coast and Atran on the west coast. The River Morrum is a famous sea trout and salmon stream. An average fly-caught sea trout weighs about 3.6 kg and a fly-caught salmon of 22.9 kg was taken in 1991. Licenses for such fishing are not cheap; for example, in 1990 a license for the first day of the season costs S.Kr. 900 or about US$ 160, and the lowest price during the season was S.Kr. 105 or about US$ 20. The largest - 200 -

salmon (26 kg) taken by sport fishing methods in Sweden came from the river Dal in 1990. (Personal communications from K. Andersson, January 1992, and Salo, 1991.)

Table 12

Catch of Swedish fisheries in the Gulf of Bothnia, 1976-78 (in tons)

..... Species 1976 1977 1978

Pike (Esox lucius) 29 26 27

European perch (Perca fluviatilis) 30 25 28

Pike-perch (Stizostedion - - 2 lucioperca)

Burbot (Lota Iota) 11 8 8

Other freshwater fishes 3 28 28

European eel (Anguilla anquilla) 10 8 10

European whitefish (Coreaonus 1 249 1 092 1 050 albula)

Powan (pollan) (C. lavaretus) 360 347 296

Atlantic salmon (Salmo salar) 235 293 222

Sea trout (S. trutta) 50 62 44

Flounder (Platichthys flesus) 1 2 3

Cod (Gadus morhua) 41 73 312

Baltic (Cluma harenqus) 6 329 5 893 5 725

European whitefish 107 83 91

Fish for reduction 103 240 193

Total 8 558 8 180 8 039

Source: Andreasson and Petersson (1982) after Swedish Yearbook of Fishery Statistics 1977-79

A survey of the 15-74 age group in Sweden reported by Johansson and Norling (1980) showed that 2 million Swedes, i.e., 24 percent of the total population, were sport fishermen. This is the highest such proportion in Europe. Twenty percent of this group owned fishing rights. Seventy percent used only rod and line. Twenty-eight percent used nets as well or nets exclusively (4 percent). The Swedish sport fishing catch was estimated at 7 500-11 500 t annually by Sweden/EIFAC (1979). Note that even the lesser figure was three times the commercial catch as estimated by the same source. Confirmation of the importance of the sport fishing catch is afforded by Rundberg (1977) who estimates the total angler catch in Lakes Malaren and Hjalmaren to be at least twice that of their commercial fishery. Similarly, Paulson and Stetson (1983) in a study of the River Dalalven found that sport fishermen valued the salmon as sixteen times higher than the commercial fisherman's price. - 201 -

Even in Sweden's largest lake, Lake Vanern, the ultimate goal now seems to be to develop a recreational fishery "with an all-round service of high quality in different price ranges for both Swedish and foreign tourists" (Petersson, 1990). Andreasson, Ask and Bengtsson (1990) summed it up by saying, "Professional freshwater fisheries are, in the main, of little importance (in Sweden) but there is extensive recreational fishing and this is increasing all the time. Official reports suggest that out of a total population of 8 million people, 2 570 fish at least once a year, while 12 percent fish more than twenty times a year".

7.2 Aquaculture

According to Cedrins (1987), aquaculture in Sweden has had two different types of development: (i) small-scale production run by a single family, and (ii) large-scale cultures in industrial plants. Small-scale culture includes production of rainbow trout and salmon in net cages, and European crayfish and signal crayfish in ponds. Large-scale productions consist mainly of eel, flatfish, and giant river prawns produced in heated effluents. Most fish farms concentrate on producing fish of more than 2 kg, for which the best market prices are obtained. There is a very small amount of aquaculture of cyprinids but emphasis is on the other species mentioned.

Since the cultivation of fish for consumption did not develop rapidly, and is still not common, many of the statistics (especially the past ones) are confusing.

Sweden/EIFAC (1979) stated that the annual Swedish aquaculture production was then about 200 t of rainbow trout.

There were more than 500 fish farms in the country in 1979, but most of them were very small, mainly private farms which raised fish for stocking inland waters. About 25 of these produced 40 percent of the fish: rainbow trout, brown trout, char (Salvelinus aloinus), and American Eastern brook trout (char). Brown (1977, 1983) provided different figures, stating - without giving dates - that both rainbow trout and Atlantic salmon are cultivated for food here, there are about 100 private farms raising fish and about 300 t of rainbow trout and 100 t of Atlantic salmon are raised. However, the same figure in each of his papers shows a production of 390 t of rainbow trout in 1972. Fish Farming International (1984) says that Sweden produced 400 t of trout in 1983. However, Anon./Sweden (1984) said that in 1984 the number of fish farms in Sweden for rainbow trout in fresh, brackish and salt water was about 300 and that the production in 1982 was about 2 000 t, mostly in net cages. Cedrins (1984) states that in 1982, Swedish fish farms produced about 2 400 t of fish.

Holmberg (1986) said that in 1984, the total yield of Swedish aquaculture for consumption was 1 631 t of fish which converted to a round fish production of 1 925 t. The dominant species produced was rainbow trout, 1 844 t. He gave the total value of Swedish aquacultural production in 1984 as S.Kr. 52 million. He also reported that the number of aquacultural enterprises in Sweden in 1984 was 637, of which 156 produced fish for consumption and 168 cultivated fry for stocking.

The most recent figures on aquacultural production of inland species in Sweden are shown in Table 13.

At one time Sweden imported trout eggs and live fish from Denmark, Finland and Norway but this is now illegal. There are a number of Swedish companies which supply fish foods. - 202 -

Table 13

Production from aquaculture of inland species in Sweden, 1986-89 (in tons)

1986 1987 1988 1989

Common carp (Cvprinus carDio) ...... 0 0

European eel (Anguilla anguilla) 59 193 233 190

Rainbow trout (Oncorhvnchus mvkiss) 3 785 4 388 6 783 6 634

Atantic salmon (Salmo salar) 160 224 363 771

Brown trout (Salmo trutta) 2 2' 0 0

Chars (Salvelinus spp.) 22 27 77 98

Crayfishes (Astacus spp., Cambarus spp.) 1 1 3 4

not available 0 more than zero but less than half a ton at estimated

Source: FAO, Fishinfo., Data & Stat.Serv., (1991)

The present development in cage culture has caused some conflicts in Sweden due to nutrient loading. The P-loading falls in the range of 10-15 kg Pit of fish produced in a season and, in some cases, cages placed in oligotrophic lakes have created mesotrophic or even eutrophic conditions. Methods to reduce both phosphorus and nitrogen loading are underway in order to meet the conditions stated in Sweden's Environmental Protection Act. Fish farms larger than 10 t for finfish must pass the regulations of this Act and make full applications to the authorities. As there are 15 to 20 authorities in Sweden, the procedure is complicated (Ackefors, 1989).

As in Norway, sites with aquacultural potential have been reviewed so that administrators in charge of land planning and development can help avoid conflicts with industrial sectors and pollution.

8. OWNERSHIP, ADMINISTRATION, MANAGEMENT, INVESTIGATION AND AGREEMENTS1/

8.1 Ownership

Ownership of both water and fishing rights are private. Owners generally have fishing rights, however, only on their own small sections of the water body. These are called "divided water rights". In joint ownership, however, fishing rights over the entire water body are enjoyed by all of the owners in common. These are called "undivided fishing rights". In the first case, an owner may use or manage his part of the water however he likes, without respect of the views of the owners of other parts. Consequently, if the separate owners do not agree on goals, proper management of the water and its fishery is impossible. In the second case, undivided water rights, the individual owners have no right to act independently (for example, to stock fish) and all owners must agree as to the use and management of the water body.

1/ Based on Gaudet (1974), Wendt (1982), and Andreasson, Ask and Bengtsson (1990). This entire description may not be up-to-date - 203 -

With such situations, conflicts of interest are frequent, and it has been necessary, therefore, to have the organization of "fishery management units". Such units are probably exclusive to Sweden. Although there is no national policy as to the size and structure of these units, efforts are made to joint biologically homogeneous areas. In some counties with many small lakes, there may be many small units each comprising only one or a few lakes. In others, the aim has been to include all water courses or lakes within extensive areas. There were about 800 units in 1988 and it has been estimated that the final number will be close to 1 650 (Andreasson, Ask and Bengtsson, 1990).

The Government and municipalities also grant public use of some areas. Among the perhaps 40 000 km' of lake area, more than 2 000 areas are reserved for licensed fishing where the public is allowed to fish at a fee paid to the landowner. In the five largest lakes, some areas are open to public use; these are the only public fresh waters. Swedish citizens may fish in these with hooks, rods and gill nets generally. Special permission is required from the counties to fish with pound nets and traps in public waters on the coast and in the five major lakes.

8.2 Administration and Management

The administration of inland fisheries in Sweden falls within the competence of the Ministry of Agriculture, although having a large degree of independence.

8.2.1 The State fishery administration consists of three central boards:

(i) National Swedish Board of Fisheries. This board, which is concerned with commercial and sport fishing and aquaculture, consists of a Director-in-Chief and six members appointed by the King. When scientific matters are dealt with, there are four members appointed by the King. The Board is organized into: (a) an Administrative Bureau dealing with laws, statutes, administration, finance, staffing, etc.; (b) a Freshwater Fishery Bureau dealing with those aspects of fishery and water laws, statutes and local fishery administration to the extent that these questions are not handled by the Administrative Bureau, as well as with the sport fishery, education of fishery workers, conservation, etc.; (c) an Institute of Freshwater Research (see section 8.3); (d) a Marine Fishery Bureau, and (e) a Marine Laboratory .

(ii) The State Agriculture Marketing Board deals with price regulations and support, and import/export problems.

(iii) Board of Agriculture, the chief authority of the Country Agricultural Board.

8.2.2 Local administration

(i) Sweden is divided into seven districts: two are marine, four are freshwater, and the most northern district includes both freshwater and marine (brackishwater) fisheries. The freshwater district boundaries follow those of the watersheds. A fishery inspector in each district works with country agricultural boards and their fishery consultants to develop and conserve fisheries, counteract water pollution, and give expert advice. A fishery engineer, dealing with fishways, hatcheries, ponds and other construction is also attached to local administration. Fishery assistants head the hatcheries.

(ii) County Agricultural Boards may be assigned to the local administraton although they and their fishery consultants fall under direction of the Board of Agriculture. Each board has a fishery committee with representatives of different fishermen. In accordance with the water law, these boards and their consultants are responsible for fishery conservation work within their area. They collect fishery statistics, organize training courses for fishermen, and regulate potential environmental issues. - 204 -

8.3 Scientific and Research Services

The scientific and research activities under the Board of Fisheries are carried out by the "Sotvattenslaboratoriet" (Institute of Freshwater Research) at Drottningholm. The Institute carries out investigations on freshwater fishes and their food organisms, water pollution, stream and lake regulation, trials of fishing gear, etc.

Limnological and environmental studies allied to fisheries are carried out at the institutes of limnology at the University of Uppsala and University of Lund.

There is also a Salmon Research Institute at Alvarleby concerned with the biology of salmon, conservation of stocks, the influence of water projects on salmon, breeding, stocking and disease control - especially in connexion with the rearing of salmon and trout financed by hydroelectric power companies.

The National Veterinary Institute is generally responsible for fish disease control.

In addition to these institutions, research is carried out at various other institutes such as the Swedish University of Agricultural Sciences and the Swedish Hydropower Board.

8.4 Other Agencies

The Swedish Angler's Association, the only nation-wide angler's association in Sweden, had about 100 000 members, and about 60 000 of these belonged to sport fishing clubs in 1980.

In each of Sweden's 24 counties, there is a regional body coordinating the club's work and activating non-club members.

8.5 International Agreements

Sweden and Finland established a joint Swedish-Finnish Boundary-River Commission for the drainage basin of the Tornealven (Tornionioki in Finnish) in 1971, including monitoring and joint salmon cultivation. There is also an agreement between Sweden and Finland on water quality in the Gulf of Bothnia.

Sweden also has a bilateral agreement with Norway concerning uses of the Trysilelva-Klaralven-Gota 5Iv system.

9. STATE OF THE FISHERY

9.1 Yield

The average annual yield per hectare in inland waters (lakes) in Norway has been estimated to be only about 2-4 kg/ha. The average annual yield from Sweden's inland waters is about the same or somewhat higher (Sweden/EIFAC, 1979).

The average, maximum and minimum annual yields over a period of years in four of Sweden's largest lakes are shown in Table 14. It would appear from these calculations as well as from the full range of the original data that the catch per hectare has declined severely in at least two of these lakes.

The statistics shown in Tables 7 and 8 are of little value in indicating changes in the Swedish inland fishery. It is known, however, with respect to Atlantic salmon that the size and mean age of returned fish has decreased (Carlin, 1969). It also appears from some catch records that there has been a decline in the eel population along the Baltic coast since about 1940 (Svardson, 1976a). - 205 -

9.2 Factors Affecting the Fishery

Not only does Sweden have a generally large water area with respect to its land mass, but an extremely large number of well distributed lakes and streams. It thus provides for a wide distribution of aquatic resources, as well as many (and large) areas for fishing.

The original quality of these waters was high, on the oligotrophic side, of course, and favourable factors in this respect lie in the rapidity of stream flow, large areas of water subject to oxygenation and the situation of much of the industry near the mouths of rivers. Furthermore, Sweden's runoff, 22 035 m2 caput annually, provides a large volume of water for the dilution of effluents. However, as in Finland, this runoff figure is somewhat misleading, since the heavily populated and industrial areas have much less water caput for effluent dilution. For example, the runoff per caput in Norrland is about ten times that of the more populated Svealand and GRaland.

The harmful effects of pollution, especially from the wood industry, have been mentioned before, and for some years the nutrient level, derived from a variety of sources, in Swedish lakes has continued to rise. This was particularly noticeable in the large lakes in settled areas. For example, about 40 percent of the P and N in Lake Malaren came from urban areas and about 30 percent of its input of N from chemical industries (Ahl, 1970). Although Vanern, Vattern and the deeper parts of Malaren were originally oligotrophic, they have become progressively more eutrophic following the rapid growth of cities with industrial development. Thanks to increased purification of waste water and sewage during the last decades the eutrophication has diminished to a large extent and in some lakes there is even a growing oligotrophication instead, e.g., in Vattern. The situation, in fact, does appear to be improving (see section 9.3). Nevertheless, Sweden estimated that it would take Lake Vanern 30 years to respond to the present-day reduction of industrial pollution (ECE, 1978).

Unfortunately, many streams and lakes in Sweden are being acidified because of the increase in acidic air-borne emissions: sulphur and nitrogen oxides from industry in Western Europe. Originating at considerable distances, and therefore beyond the immediate control of Sweden and other affected countries, this phenomenon has been intensified by SO2 emissions from increased power production. Circa 1975, the total number of Swedish lakes acidified to below pH 6 was probably around 10 000, and those acidified below a pH of 5.5 total about 5 000 (Dickson, 1975). Holmberg (1982) said that about 9 000 Swedish lakes were affected by acidification, amounting to about 10 percent of the country's lakes and about 10 percent of the total lake area. At times when snow is melting, Sweden has about 20 000 lakes, which can achieve critically low pH values, i.e., less than 5.5 (Sweden/EIFAC, 1979). Such changes, accompanied by decreases in phytoplankton and increases in heavy metals, not only lower aquatic productivity, but cause fish kills and alter fish population structures. The most sensitive fish species are roach and minnow (Phoxinus phoxinus). Salmonids are less sensitive and the most tolerant are pike, perch and especially eel.

Allied perhaps with acifidification is an increase in mercury content in fish, especially pike, in the forest lakes of southern and central Sweden. These concentrations have increased sharply during this century and about 40 000 lakes larger than 0.01 km2 are now affected by these elevated mercury levels (Johansson, 1985).

The great variations in natural stream flow in Sweden have necessitated the elaboration of many new hydrological systems, including new lake systems, in order to develop hydroelectric power. The deleterious effects of both hydroelectric and logging on anadromous fishes in Sweden have already been mentioned, as have the attempts to compensate for such effects. Fortunately, Swedish power law has demanded that positive steps must be taken to prevent and mitigate damages to fisheries by power development. Hatchery production and the methods of fish stocking used to sustain such stocks have been quite successful (see section 7.1). Other factors, however, such as offshore fishing by other nations obviously lessens the supply of sea-run salmonids returning to the Swedish fishery. - 206 -

Table 14

Catches and yield in four large Swedish lakes

Record Yield period kg/ha/year

Vanern 1914-86 5 585 Maximum 1985 995.0 1.78 Minimum 1962-71 516.0 0.92

Vattern 1970-77 1 912 281.6 1.47 Maximum 1972 332.7 1.74 Minimum 1975 242.0 1.26 Vattern 1986 245.8 1.28

Malaren 1964-76 1 140 375.1 3.29 Maximum 1964 490.0 4.29 Minimum 1970 268.0 2.35

Hjalmaren 1966-76 484 226.5 4.68 Maximum 1966 326.5 6.74 Minimum 1972 150.0 3.1

Source: Vanern - Petersson (1990) Vattern 1986 - Essvik (1990) Vattern (1970-77), Malaren and Hjalmaren, National Board of Fisheries, through Sweden/EIFAC (1979)

Aside from blocking migration, hydroelectric development has cut down stream habitat and changed lake levels, thereby affecting both spawning and food production. The present swing toward nuclear power generation creates another problem for fish, thermal heating of water courses.

There has also been some damage to fisheries through other types of water use. For example, through ditching and canalization, the surface water of the Kavlivy River has disappeared over a 150-year period.

Although the wide distribution of aquatic resources provides a safeguard to otherwise somewhat limited native stocks, several changes have been engendered by the introduction of exotic species. In Norrland, for example, the original ecosystems of many lakes were quite simple, containing only one, two or three fish species or even being barren. A common sequence as regards the history of these lakes has been: (i) introduction of either brown trout or char into the barren lakes; (ii) addition of another species (trout or char) to produce a two-species system, and (iii) finally addition of a third or even more species such as whitefish, burbot or pike (Nilson and Pejler, 1973).

In addition to fish species, attempts have been made to improve yield by stocking new invertebrate food organisms in impounded waters, e.g., Mvsis relicta, Pallasea auadrisoinosa and Gammaracanthus lacustris.

Transfer of fish between waters and introduction into new lakes has been popular among Scandinavian fishing right owners since time immemorial (Svardson, 1976), but it is now illegal to move live - 207 -

fish from one water to another without a license. These transfers, including changes due to competition (as well as various limnological changes already described) have altered and continue to alter the Swedish fish populations and thus both the quality and quantity of the yield.

For example, the North American lake trout (Salvelinus namavcush) has been introduced into some 70 Swedish waters since 1959 to enhance fishing in lakes subject to hydroelectric development, reduce dwarfed populations of coregonids and fill a vacant niche in large lakes with a cold-water hypolimnion (Gonczi and Nilsson, 1984). Another species, the pike-perch, has increased decidedly in certain waters apparently as a result of cultural eutrophication; conversely European perch have decreased in these waters for the same cause as well as by the increase in pike-perch. In new reservoirs, roach often take over, but the stress of acidification affects them sooner than several other species, pH values of around 5.5 seem critical to their reproduction. Lastly, the selective fishing action of the growing body of sport fishermen - with their preference for predator species, such as pike - may also affect population structure.

Factors other than manmade influences also limit the yield from Swedish inland fisheries. The waters are generally cold, are deficient in minerals and there is a short growing season for aquatic organisms. For example, in northern Sweden, where the "growing" or "vegetative" period is about 90 days, the growing season for salmon smolts (water temperatures above 10°C) is only 90-120 days. As in Finland and Norway the yield from fishing is further limited because of the long period of ice cover, although the growing use of snow-mobiles is increasing winter fishing.

With the exception of some of the larger lakes as well as some important parts of the coastal waters, fishing rights belong exclusively to the riparian owner. It is difficult, therefore, to manage all of them either for the highest yield or for all classes of users. There have been conflicts in use between commercial fishermen and sport fishermen - a major one being the practice of some of the non-professional fishermen of using nets and in some cases selling their catch. In the past, the fishery laws have been generally formulated to support commercial fisheries. Changes in this concept were outlined by Johansson and Norling (1980).

The use of public funds for the development of fisheries, especially in remote or depressed areas, has also been practised in Sweden.

9.3 Prospect

As in all countries, increased water use will place further demands upon an already decreasing fish habitat. The Swedish IHD Committee (1973) estimated that the demands for industrial and urban use in Sweden would increase to 8 700 million rn3 annually by the year 2000. Such an amount from all sources would still be equivalent to less than 5 percent of the entire surface runoff. Although their supply in some areas would obviously be diminished, fisheries would still have large quantities of water. Furthermore, according to ECE (1978) the "present" demand in Sweden from industry is only half of what was forecast ten years ago, and there has been a decline in water needed for both basic industry and thermal cooling.

The prospect for diminished acidification of waters is not, however, a happy one. Trends indicate that

"... if the present development continues, in less than 50 yearsh/ about 50 percent of our [Swedish] lakes and rivers may have pH values of 5.5 or even 5.0" (Anon., 1971) . There is a tendency, therefore, for already soft waters of western Sweden to become more acidic like those of central Sweden. Some of the most exposed and valuable waters are being limed to offset acidity. Sweden has increased its expenditures for this purpose sixfold between 1 978/7 9 and 1983/84 and by 1983 had limed about 1 500 of 18 000 totally acidified lakes (Gahnstrohm, 1984) but this procedure is expensive and only a stop-gap. Sweden has also set introduced emission controls, removed sulphur from flue gases, and set limits for sulphur content in the

1 / Reference seen but not relocated - 208 -

fossil fuels it uses, and is working on international agreements to limit sulphur discharge'.

Despite the eutrophication of lakes in southern Sweden during the first part of this century, improved sewage treatment especially since 1969-70 has greatly improved the situation. In 1976, all communities with populations larger than 200 were to have sewage treated to 90 percent phosphorus reduction (Ahl, 1975).

Albeit damage to the aquatic environment through man's use, Sweden has nevertheless made a decided effort to overcome these ill effects and it is expected that this will continue. The water laws in Sweden (unlike those in many countries) have been generally helpful in indicating that remedial steps should be taken or compensation provided in case of damage through use. There has also been a growing resistance to dam construction, and industries have been encouraged to locate in areas least sensitive to pollution. The high population of active sports fishermen aids such efforts as do new environmental laws regulating pollution.

Unlike many of the other maritime nations, Sweden's sea fisheries have never gained large importance, and the country's fishery scientists have been more active in research on inland waters. They have also been more active than the scientists of many European nations in establishing modern forms of fish management. Appraisal of waters, the use of chemicals to eradicate undesirable populations of fish, calcination of lakes and streams and the introduction of exotic organisms are among the country's continued efforts to maintain and increase fish populations. Stocking, of several species of fish, is one of the major measures of fish management, and hatchery development of salmonoid stocks has reached a high level. The output is high and will increase in brackish and salt water. Sweden has, however, been cognizant of the protection of natural genetic resources, and - at least in some instances - made attempts to prevent stocked fish from mixing with wild populations and thus diluting their beneficial characteristics. There is also a growing interest in crayfish and eel aquaculture.

Such a foundation, coupled with Sweden's wealth of waters and relatively low population density even in an industrialized country presages continuance of a good inland fishery.

A study submitted to the National Board of Fisheries in 1976 estimated the total optimal yield of fish of commercial interest in Swedish lakes and reservoirs at some 16 000 t. It also stated that if the fishery were aimed at an exploitation of available protein resources, it would seem possible to harvest a total of some 33 000 t.

It seems apparent, however, that recreational fisheries already dominate the picture, and may be changing the composition of the commercial catch through concentration on particular species. Restrictions on the use of gear such as nets by sports fishermen have already been placed in some areas, and it seems entirely possible that only angling will be allowed on most or all waters at some time in the future. Similarly, there will be less discrimination between foreign and Swedish sportsmen, and an increase in the use of license fees to manage fisheries.

Sport fishing is one of the most extensive outdoor activities in Sweden and with the expected good resource management will continue at a high level.

1/ Not only have lakes and streams been affected. About one-tenth of the trees in southern Sweden have also been damaged. The pulp and paper companies of Sweden have reduced their own sulphur emission from 103 000 t in 1975 to around 30 000 t in 1983 (Economist, 1984) - 209 -

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Willen, E., 1984. The large lakes of Sweden: Vanern, Vattern, Malaren and Hjalmaren. In Ecosystems of the world 23. Lakes and reservoirs, edited by F.B. Taub, Amsterdam, Elsevier Science Publishers B.V., pp. 107-34

Willen, T., 1970. II. The biological section. In Uppsala Symposium. Eutrophication in large lakes and impoundments/L'eutrophisation dans les grands lacs et les retenues d'eau, compiled by C.P. Milway. Paris, Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development, pp. 197-224

, 1972. Biological aspects on the large lakes in South Sweden. Verhint.Ver.Theor.Anoew. Limnol., 18:370-8

, 1975. Biological long-term investigations of Swedish lakes. Verhint.Ver.Theor.Anoew. Limnol., 19(Part2):1117-24

Anon., 1984. Sweden. National report. (Prepared for the inter-sessional period of 1982-84 for the 13th Session of EIFAC, Aarhus, Denmark, 23-30 May 1984):3 p. (mimeo) - 213 -

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UNITED KINGDOM International boundary -- Other boundary Notional capital • Cities Wight Is. Rivers 0 50 100 175 Km Chan el Is 0 - 214 -

UNITED KINGDOM"

The United Kingdom (UK) of Great Britain and Northern Ireland, commonly known as Britain, constitutes the greater part of the British Isles lying off the northwest coast of continental Europe. It is composed of four major political divisions: England, Scotland, and Wales on the island of Great Britain, and Northern Ireland on the island of Ireland.

Moderately temperate climate, including adequate rainfall, a well situated maritime position and a complex geological structure including great resources of coal, have made it one of the world's great industrial and trading nations while sustaining intensive agriculture.

A wealth of rivers, including large estuarine areas, as well as extensive lake area in the north, provide considerable water for inland fishing. Despite setbacks from development associated with land and water use, especially pollution, commercial fishing for salmon continues to yield a rich harvest, and angling for coarse fish or trout is found throughout the country. Freshwater aquaculture primarily for salmonids is now well in progress. Angling, however, which has long been a very important element in British recreation and tourism, continues to be dominant.

1. AREA

Table 1

Area of the United Kingdom

Total area Land area Inland water' km2 km2 Area km2 Percent of total United Kingdom 244 100 240 882 3 218 1.32 Great Britain 229 979 227 399 2 580 1.12

England and Wales 151 207 150 319 888 0.59

England 130 439 129 681 758 0.58

Wales 20 768 20 638 130 0.62

Scotland 78 772 77 080 1 692 2.15

Northern Ireland' 14 121 13 483 638 4.50 a/ Excluding tidal waters b/ Excluding certain tidal waters that are part of statutory areas Source: Dennis (1991)

if Some of the descriptions of the UK are presented in more detail than those for other countries in this report. In some cases this is due to difficulties in presenting generalized statements covering all of its somewhat autonomous components. In others it is due to difficultibs in compilation. "British" statistics are often presented rather loosely even by governmental bodies, and one must be careful to note whether they refer to the entire UK, to the island of Great Britain, to only England and Wales (often considered together), or to one of the other components. The nearby Channel Islands (197 km2) and the Isle of Man (588 km2) which are Crown dependencies and not part of the UK, are not considered in this survey - 215 -

2. POPULATION

Table 2

Population of the United Kingdom

1988ai Density (inh/krre

United Kingdom 57 065 000' 234

England 47 536 000 364

Wales 2 857 000 138

Scotland 5 094 000 65

Northern Ireland 1 578 000 112 a/ Mid-1988 estimate b/ UN (1986) estimates the population of the UK in 1990 as 56 190 000 (a density of 230 inh/km2)

Source: Britain (1990)

3. PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY

The UK lies between 50° and 60°N latitudes and 1°45'E and 8'W longitudes.

Great Britain. The largest of the British Isles is Great Britain, an island on the northwest coast of Europe between the Atlantic Ocean on the north and the North Sea on the east. It is separated by 35 km from France by the Strait of Dover and the English Channel (France's La Manche), and by 21 km by the North Channel, Irish Sea and St. George's Channel from the island of Ireland.

Great Britain has an overall length of 965 km and a breadth of 508 km. Its altitudinal range is from just below sea level to 1 342 m. Lowland is considered to be the area from 0 to 105 m, low hills 105 210 m, uplands 210-600 m, and mountains above 600 m.

Its deeply furrowed coastline, excluding many small islands, totals 8 045 km. It varies from the steep cliffs at Dover to the low-lying estuarial coast of eastern England. Submerged river valleys or rias are characteristic of the southwest coast. The west coast of Scotland has long deep inlets or sea-lochs similar to the fiords of Norway, i.e., submerged glacial troughs, making its length alone about 1 600 km.

Great Britain comprises three political sub-divisions, often termed "countries": Scotland in the north, England to its south, and Wales to the west of England.

Geographers, however, often divide Great Britain into Highland Britain and Lowland Britain, and, after making some adjustments for the Central Lowlands of Scotland, the division is generally a valid one for both the terrain and the inland waters. (The irregular boundary, really a zone of transition, runs southwestward from the mouth of the (Hartlepool) to the River Exe (Torquay).) Highland Britain comprises Scotland, most of Wales, the broad central uplands, Pennines, and Lake District of England. This hilly or mountainous area, above 305 m in elevation, with thin, poor soils, much of it moorland, is characterized by outcrops of old and erosive-resistant rocks such as granites and schists. Conversely, the newer and softer rocks, such as claystones, sandstones and chalk, covered with rich vegetation, lie in Lowland Britain. This latter area, midland, southern and eastern England, is mostly gently rolling, cultivated, and settled country below 305 m. Even climatically, the two areas are different, the upland, being subject to maritime influence, is wetter and milder than the eastern lowland subject to continental effects. Only about eight percent of - 216 -

Great Britain is now wooded; there has been progressive loss of forests since Neolithic times. Oak, once dominant in the heavier soils is now largely replaced by beech and ash in the limestone and pine and birch in sandy soils and heathlands. Above 520 m there are few trees and Arctic-Alpine vegetation predominates above 610 m.

The leached and acidic podsols on granites and schists of Upland Britain are thin and poor. Less leached and more productive brown forests soils are more representative of the east and south. The soils of the two regions have a decided influence on their respective waters (see section 5).

England. Constituting 57 percent of Great Britain, England lies to the south of Scotland, bounded partly by Wales on its west, and otherwise bordered by the sea. It includes the whole of Lowland Britain, and with the exception of a few patches of heath and forest almost all of this area has been cultivated. Farmland generally covers the area except in urban and industrial settlements.

About one-quarter of England is mountainous, principally: (i) the Lake District of the northwest, with a radial pattern of glaciated troughs occupied by large ribbon lakes and many mountain tarns; (ii) the Pennine Chain of mountains, footlands and moors, stretching south from the Scottish border to central England, and (iii) the hill masses of the southwestern peninsula of Devon and .

Making up about three-quarters of England is the southern and eastern mass, a lowland of undulating downs and some flat plains. The harder chalk and limestone formations stand out as ranges of low grass- covered hills separated by rich vales of farm land.

Owing to tidal scour, which sweeps away much of the sediment, the English rivers do not form deltas, but empty into estuaries forming good ports. There are many such openings, some deep and some shallow. The east coast between the Humber and Thames estuaries is lowlying and protected by embankments.

Much of Great Britain's population is concentrated in England as is its agriculture and industrial heart (see Section 6).

Wales. This principality, considered together with England for various administrative matters, occupies nine percent of Great Britain. It is about 220 km in length (N-S) and 153 km (E-W).

A great upland massif, its highest portion, to the northwest, culminates in Mount Snowdon (1 086 m). The remainder of the massif, which lies between 183 and 610 m, is moorland country with grass cover and peaty surfaces. Much of the area is bleak pasture land. The valleys are deep and the coastal plain narrow. The north coast is relatively smooth with an estuary at the mouth of the Conway. In the south, rias are well developed with straight stretches of spit-dependent marshlands fronting the high mountains.

Agriculture, which occupies about 70 percent of the land area, is mainly concerned with sheep and cattle grazing and the dairy industry. Coal mining, electrical production, and water resources are important, and new industries are developing. Most of the settlement is in the south.

Scotland. Occupying 34 percent of Great Britain, Scotland occupies three parallel zones:

The Highlands, in the north, a glaciated crystalline plateau dissected by glens (narrow valleys) and wider straths, occupies three-fifths of Scotland. It contains hundreds of peaks over 900 m including Ben Nevis, the highest point in the British Isles (1 347 m) and has extensive rocky and moorland areas. Rivers and streams are present in all areas and there is an extensive system of large lakes (lochs) in ice-scoured valleys, as well as many smaller tarns. The Highlands are divided by a northeast-southwest depression, the Great Glen, occupied by lochs connected by canals which connect the North Sea with the Irish Sea (see section 5.4). The Highlands and the many associated islands are thinly populated. They depend mainly on fishing, fish farming, sheep farming, whisky production, forestry and tourism. - 217 -

(ii) The Central Lowlands, averaging 150 m, is a great rift valley with some small hills, deeply penetrated by inlets. The heart of Scotland, it contains most of its resources and most of its population. It has good farming land but is primarily industrial and has the country's largest cities.

(iii) The Southern Uplands, to the south, rises again (to 843 m), although most of the area is below 460 m. Consisting of smooth rounded or rolling moorland cut by many important rivers, it is primarily agricultural, fitted for sheep raising, and has some forests. It is separated from England on its south by the Tweed River, Cheviot Hills and Solway Firth.

The coast of mainland Scotland is very irregular, deeply indented by numerous narrow sea-lochs and wider funnel-shaped inlets called firths. There are 789 islands, mostly on the west coast, excluding rock skerries.

With one-third of Britain's agricultural land, about 75 percent of Scotland consists of unimproved grazing. The soils are generally young. It accounts for about one-half of the forest land, and has large supplies of unpolluted water. Some of its traditional industries (e.g., coal, steel, textiles, ship-building) have declined, but a new offshore oil industry has provided growth in other areas: engineering, electronics, etc.

Northern Ireland. Constituting 5.8 percent of the UK, Northern Ireland occupies the northeastern portion of the island of Ireland. It is bordered on the northwest and south by the Republic of Ireland for 412 km, and is separated from Scotland to its east by only 21 km across the North Channel. Its highest point is 852 m, but most of its area is lowland and the average elevation is only 91 m. Topographically, it can be considered to be a saucer centred on Lough Neagh (the largest lake in the UK), the rim constituting its highland and rising to over 600 m. Much of Northern Ireland is moorland, its varied soils include peat and earth soils. The coast is deeply indented by sea-loughs (inlets).

Lacking many mineral or energy resources (coal and oil are imported), agriculture, mainly livestikk and their products, is the most important single industry, Northern Ireland is still predominantly rural, and one-third of its population is concentrated into two cities.

4. CLIMATE

The climate of the UK, generally warmer than average for its latitude, is usually mild and temperate, being determined by its southwesterly winds and the North Atlantic Drift. Cold and dry continental weather may, however, persist for weeks during the winter.

Average temperatures in the UK, north to south, range from about 4°C to 6°C in the winter and from 11.6°C to 17°C in the summer. Mean daily air temperatures in °C at sea level during the 1951-80 period are shown below (Dennis, 1991).

January July Annual

England and Wales 4.0 16.0 9.8

Scotland 3.5 13.9 8.5

Northern Ireland 4.0 14.4 9.0

The growing season, based on acceptance of a system whereby a monthly mean temperature of 6°C is a valid index, varies from as little as four months in the higher part of the Highlands and Snowdonia (Wales) to between 9 and 12 months along the western and southern coastal areas of Wales and southwest England. Over most of Upland Britain it lasts 5 or 6 months and over most of the lowlands 7 or 8 months. - 218 -

The rainfall in the UK averages about 1 100 mm annually. During 1941-70, it averaged 912 mm annually in England and Wales, 1 431 mm in Scotland, and 1 095 mm in Northern Ireland. It is distributed fairly evenly throughout the year, although heaviest in October-January and lowest in March-June. Geographically, rainfall has an east-west gradient; the mountainous areas of the west and north have far more precipitation than the lowlands of the south and east. Within isolated areas, the mean ranges from about 5 000 mm on some high grounds in Wales, Scotland and the Lake District to less than 500 mm annually in southeast England. The streamflow response to rainfall is rapid.

Only in limited areas will snow cover last over 50 days, and annual snow depths exceed 300 mm only in the north. There are a few snowmelt floods during the spring. None of the mountains in the UK are quite high enough to support permanent snows or icebeds. There is an annual range in evapotranspiration of from 356 mm in the Shetlands to 584 mm in the extreme southwest. Eighty percent of this occurs in June- August. Over most of England, more than 50 percent of the precipitation is lost in evaporation, but this may fall to less than 25 percent in Wales and parts of Scotland.

From May to June the mean daily duration of sunshine in the UK varies from 5 hours in northern Scotland to 8 hours in southeast England. During the November-January period, sunshine averages only half an hour a day in some areas of northern Scotland and two hours a day in the south of England.

5. HYDROGRAPHY AND LIMNOLOGY

A recent (1991) official estimate of the extent of inland waters in the United Kingdom and its major divisions is given in Table 1. Following this Table, the UK as a whole has 3 218 km2 of inland waters, i.e., only 1.3 percent of its total area (see Table 15 which is in essential agreement). Inland water constitutes only 0.58 percent of the total area of England, 0.62 percent of the total area of Wales, 2.15 percent of Scotland's total area, and 4.5 percent of Northern Ireland. In an earlier paper, Smith and Lyle (1979) presented, for the waters of Great Britain only, somewhat different figures (see Table 3). They do, however, agree generally with those in Table 111.

Table 3

Water surface areas in Great Britain

All inland waters Lakes and reservoirs Total area 2 2 km2 Area km % total Area km % inland area water area Great Britain 229 915 2 404 1.04 1 924.3 80.0 England and Wales 151 141 800 0.53 396.4 49.5 England 130 375 675 0.52 322.5 47.8 Wales 20 766 125 0.60 73.9 59.0 Scotland 78 774 1 604 2.04 1 527.9 95.3

Source: Smith and Lyle (1979)

1/ Scotland (1990) also differs somewhat in claiming for Scotland a total area of 78 783 km2 including 1 703 km2 of inland waters (2.16 percent of the total) - 219 -

Van der Leeden (1975) gives the approximate annual runoff in the UK as 508 mm, and both he and ECE (1978) list the total discharge of the UK rivers as 122 thousand million m3 annually. During the period of 1916-50, when the average annual runoff for the UK was 128 778 million m3, the runoff from Scotland was 70 231 million m3 (54 percent of the entire UK), that from England and Wales was 50 thousand million m3 (39 percent), and that from Northern Ireland, 8 547 million m3 (7 percent) according to Central Water Planning Unit, Department of the Environment (1978).

Some relationships between rainfall, runoff, and discharge in major river basins of the UK are shown in Table 4.

Table 4

Relationship of rainfall to runoff and discharge in 14 major river basins in the UK

Basin Areal Run-off Average Min. Max. River Station area rainfall mm discharge daily daily km2 mm m3/s mean mean m3/s m3/s

England and Wales

Thames Teddington 9 868 735 236 74 0.889 1 060

Severn Saxons 6 850 825 415 90 13.9 800 Lode/Upton

Tyne Bywell 2 175 1 044 638 44 3.3 991

Trent Colwick 7 486 785 350 83 - 815

Wye Cadora 4 040 1 040 554 71 6.9 893

Lune Halton 995 1 577 1 109 35 1.5 787

Towy Ty Castel! 1 090 1 572 1 099 38 1.2 488

Ouse Skelton 3 314 - 428 45 - 456

Scotland

Tay Ballathie 4 587 1 500 1 045 152 11.5 1 223

Tweed Norham 4 377 1 024 540 75 2.85 1 042

Clyde Blairston 1 704 1 222 722 39 4.5 461

Spey Boat 0 Brig 2 861 1 310 694 63 9.3 1 089

Leven Linnbrane 784 - 1 609 40 5.2 146

Northern Ireland

Bann Movanagher 5 360 889 - 82 6.22 260

Source: UK/EIFAC (1975, 1979)

As noted in section 3, the waters of Highland and Lowland Britain differ generally in their physico- chemical characteristics which in turn determine their biological attributes. Thus, for example, upland streams draining moorlands may have a pH of 6 or less and a total hardness below 20 mg/I is likely. On the other hand, a typical chalk water in the lowlands may have a pH of 8 or over and perhaps 40 mg/I total hardness - 220 -

(Smith, 1972). Table 5 illustrates some of these differing characteristics, generally, and Table 6 illustrates some of the chemical differences specifically.

Table 5

Some characteristics of "Highland" and "Lowland" waters

Highland Water Lowland Water

Low nutrient status (oligotrophic) High nutrient status (eutrophic) Low conductivity High conductivity Mostly unpolluted because far from towns Often influenced by sewage or industrial effluents

Rivers Rivers

Fast flowing Slow flowing Subject to spates Spates often controlled Course shallow, "natural" Course often artificially constructed, deep Bed with rocks or pebbles Bed often muddy

Lakes Lakes

Mostly deep Mostly shallow

Flora and Fauna Flora and Fauna

Few weeds or algae Many weeds and/or algae unless treated Mainly salmon and trout Mainly trout and coarse fish Low productivity High productivity

Source: Natural Environment Research Council (1972)

5.1 Rivers

As would be expected, estimates of the number and length of rivers in the UK vary widely, being dependent not only upon the scale of map or aerial photo used for the calculation, or the assiduity of the field observer, but upon the presentation of such statistics by different authors or agencies. Thus, Holden and Lloyd (1972) list the length of the rivers in the UK as 42 800 km. The Travis Commission (1980) states that the UK has 35 950 km of non-tidal rivers with a dry weather flow of at least 4 550 m3/day and another 2 870 km of tidal rivers, a total of 38 820 km. Ward (1981) estimates a total river length in Great Britain of 58 380 km. UK/EIFAC (1979) says that the rivers of Scotland alone can be estimated at 47 772 km. Tombleson (1982) states that in England and Wales alone there are 40 000 km of non-tidal rivers and 3 200 km of tidal rivers, and that in Northern Ireland there are approximately 2 112 km of rivers. With respect to numbers, Smith and Lyle (1979) have estimated that in Great Britain alone there are 1 445 river systems, each draining about 159 km2, and a total of 194 674 individual streams.

Regardless of such estimates, it is apparent that while the UK is drained by many rivers, its size and dimensions preclude the existence of many that are long, have large catchments, or have high flows. Table 7 shows the major British rivers ranked in terms of these dimensions. It will be noted that this Table from a recent definitive work has some figures which differ quite a bit from those given by other authors. For example, a number of other authorities list the three longest rivers in England as the Severn, Thames and - 221 -

Trent, and claim the Tay as the longest river in Scotland with the Spey and Clyde almost tied for second place. (The general size of these rivers is well known; it is futile to spend time here analysing the reasons for such differences in opinion.)

Table 6

Examples of water quality in Great Britain

Lowland Highland

Limestone/chalk Midland Pennine stream river reservoir

pH 7.9-8.7 7.2-7.9 6.0-6.9

Temperature °C 8.0-15.0 4.0-24.0 4-18

Dissolved oxygen (mgt.') 10-12.6 7.6-12.2 Saturated

Conductivity (micro-siemens) 380-500 640-1090 99-119

BOD (mgr' as 02) 0.7-4.2 2.0-6.7 1.0-2.8 Chlorides (mg1-1 as Cl) 35-42 50-130 9-14

Nitrates (mgrl as N) 8.5-9.8 5.2-10.3 0.5-1.2

Ammonia (mgr' as N) 0.1-0.5 0.1-0.8 0.001-0.06

Hardness (mgr' as calcium 165-210 233-445 32-41 carbonate)

Suspended solids (mgrl ) 0-5.0 7-94 2-8

Source: Table 1 of Templeton (1984)

Despite their relatively small size, a number of British rivers have large concentrations of water in their estuaries. Tidal scour in the UK makes for estuaries rather than deltas, and navigability is also a feature of many British rivers. Because of the higher land mass towards the west, most of the longer rivers of Great Britain flow eastward into the North Sea. They are more sluggish than those flowing westward, of which only the Wye, Severn and Clyde have a considerable length.

In Great Britain, proceeding clockwise from the north, the principal rivers or drainages are listed below. On the east coast in Scotland, the Spey, Deveron, Don, Dee, Tay (with its tributaries, the Garry and Tummel), Forth and Tweed (part of the boundary with England) are all fast-flowing rivers, coursing over impenetrable rocks and responsive to rain.

Farther south, the Tyne, Wear and Tees run eastward from the Pennines to the North Sea. Below these is the most northerly of the major estuarine groupings, the Swale, Ure, Nidd, Wharfe, Aire, Calder and Don, all of which ultimately reach the Humber through the Ouse. The Humber is also joined from the south by the chief river of the Midlands, the Trent, whose tributaries include the Tame, Dove (lzaak Waltons' stream), Derwent, Soar, Erewash, Devon and Idle. This group represents about 25 000 km2 or about one-fifth of England's watershed.

Next south are a number of drainages, including the Witham, Welland, Nene and Great Ouse, which descend into the Fens (low-lying drained country), and then pass into the drowned plain of the Wash, a shallow estuarine inlet of the North Sea. - 222 -

Table 7

Major British rivers ranked in terms of length, basin area and discharge

Length Area Discharge Rank on River m'is Rank E ranks km rank km2 rank

Thames 239 1 9 950 1 67.40 6 1

Trent 149 5 7 490 2 82.21 2 2

Wye 225 2 4 040 6 71.41 5 3

Tweed 140 6 4 390 4 73.85 4 4 Severn 206 3 4 330 5 62.70 7 5

Tay 110 12 4 590 3 152.21 1 6

Spey 137 7 2 650 9 55.86 8 7

Ness 107 13 1 840 13 76.60 3 8 Ouse 117 9 3 320 7 40.45 13 9

Aire 114 11 1 930 12 36.89 17 10 Tummel 90 22 1 720 14 54.89 9 11

Clyde 105 14 1 700 15 37.40 16 12

Tyne 89 23 2 180 11 43.45 11 13

Dee 116 10 1 370 21 35.70 18 14 Eden 102 16 1 370 22 31.02 22 15

Ribble 94 20 1 140 28 31.72 20 16

Gt Ouse 1 84 4 3 030 8 14.16 62 17 Avon 125 8 2 210 10 14.43 59 18

Tywi 82 31 1 090 32 38.34 15 19

Tees 103 15 1 260 25 19.46 39 20

Source: Table 1.1 of Ward (1981)

The last large river on the eastern coast of Great Britain is the Thames'. Dominating the southeast of England, and forming the port of London, it is England's principal river, the longest in Great Britain and the one with the largest drainage basin.

1/ Although the Thames ranks as the greatest river in Great Britain, it ranks far below such great rivers of Europe as the Danube (2 740 km long, drainage basin of 816 000 km2, and mean annual flow of 7 000 m3/sec), or the Rhine (1 320 km long, drainage basin of 160 000 km2, and a mean annual flow of 2 000 m3/sec) - 223 -

Tributaries include the Lea, Wey, Mole, and Kennet, and its estuarine or tidal portion is about 150 km long. The total fall of the Thames in 239 km is only 113 m, but in the last century the river was provided with many weirs and locks, at intervals of about 5 km, to maintain a constant depth of water (minimum 2 m) for navigation. With a catchment containing much chalk and limestone, the river water is hard. It has a calcium content of about 100 mg/I and has high productivity (see section 9.1). The Thames is an excellent example of a British river subjected to the demands of millions of people. At one time it was so grossly polluted by sewage and industrial effluent that its formerly abundant estuarine and migratory fishes were decimated. Circa 1964, it was reported that the river for at least 50km was completely anerobic from surface to bottom for at least one month in summer. However, estuarine conditions have been so improved by rigorous pollution control that it can again support salmon (Mann, 1972). The Thames also supports more angling and pleasure boating than any other river in the UK. Recently a new barrier system has been erected at Woolwich, to prevent flooding in London at times when equinoctial spring tides may coincide with a tidal surge in the North Sea. This barrier normally lies on the bottom of the river to be raised only in time of emergency, but aside from the tidal factor, London and the southeast of England are sinking at a rate of about one-third of a centimetre per year, and there have been pressures to make such a barrier permanent. Should this be done, it might augment river heat, siltation and pollution, and prevent fish migration according to Wheeler (1979).

The southern coast of England borders the English Channel. Most of the rivers entering here are short, independent streams. Proceeding clockwise, they include the: Rother, Arun, ltchen, Test, Hampshire, Avon, Stour, Exe, Dart and Tamar. The Test and Itchen are two of England's most famous chalk streams, well steeped in angling lore.

On the west coast of Great Britain, the largest drainage complex is that containing the Severn and Wye, covering about three-quarters of Wales and part of England. The Severn, Teme and Warwickshire Avon are the major rivers of its upper basin, while the Wye, Usk, Bristol Avon, and Parrett flow into the estuary or Bristol Channel. The Severn is connected by canals with the Thames, Mersey and Trent.

With the exception of this complex, most of the other west coast rivers are short streams which reach the Atlantic quickly.

There are only a few other major western rivers: the Tywi and Dee in Wales; the Mersey, Ribble and Lune in England; and the Nith and Clyde in Scotland. These, generally, complete the "clockwise" complement of rivers in Great Britain.

In Northern Ireland, again proceeding clockwise from the north, the principal streams are as follows. The Erne, rising in Lough Gowna, flows 135 km to Donegal Bay in the Republic of Ireland through Upper and Lower Lough Ernes. Draining western North Ireland is the Foyle system. The Foyle, formed by the union of the 40-km Finn from the Republic of Ireland to the west and the northerly flowing Mourne, flows 26 km to Lough Foyle, as 32-km inlet of the Atlantic. Draining the centre of Northern Ireland is the Bann/Lough Neagh system. The Upper Bann River flows north 64 km to enter Lough Neagh, and as its outlet, the Lower Bann continues north for another 64 km to debouch in the Atlantic. Other principal streams feeding Lough Neagh are the Moyola, Ballinderry, Blackwater and Main.

Tables 4, 7 and 8 show the discharge of some of UK's principal rivers. (The UK with its abundant water resources, had a later start in establishment of flow-gauging stations than several of the continental countries. In 1935-36, Great Britain had only 27 gauging stations. By 1974, it had 1 205 stations (Ward, 1 981).)

In the UK, where rainfall is rather consistent from month to month, the flow regime is generally a simple one. The maximum discharge is during the winter when evaporation is low and soil moisture and ground water high; the minimum flow is during summer when the opposite characteristics prevail. Within this broad pattern most of the northern and western streams have a maximum flow in December while central and eastern English streams have a peak in January and February. In parts of Scotland there may be a secondary maximum from snowmelt in March or April. Table 8

Discharge of twelve major rivers in the UK'

Mean mon hly discharge, m Period River and Station Year of Oct. Nov. Dec. Jan. Feb. Mar. Apr. May Jun. Jul. Aug. Sep. record

Spey, Boat o Brig 66.3 71.6 81.4 75.3 69.3 75.5 69.2 62.5 42.1 38.4 61.1 53.3 63.9 1959-70

Tweed, Norham 93.2 122.4 115.3 103.3 100.5 108.6 71.6 69.1 40.7 37.8 68.5 80.7 84.3 1962-70

Clyde, Blairston 51.0 58.6 64.0 53.1 44.0 39.9 30.7 27.2 17.1 17.2 28.4 38.1 39.1 1958-70

Tyne, Bywell 51.8 63.6 70.5 69.0 58.5 54.5 44.2 28.7 17.7 23.0 36.4 42.1 46.7 1956-70

Trent, Colwick 77.5 92.1 140.6 136.8 111.9 90.9 83.7 66.4 43.5 44.7 43.1 60.3 82.6 1958-68

Nene, Orton 4.3 9.7 13.1 17.3 18.7 16.3 9.8 6.4 3.8 3.6 3.3 3.2 9.1 1940-70

Avon, Bath 15.1 25.3 32.8 36.3 31.5 24.5 20.2 13.1 11.5 8.1 7.9 9.6 19.6 1953-66

Wye, Cadora 61.7 112.2 166.0 132.6 121.9 89.1 63.2 46.3 36.6 27.6 31.9 46.6 78.0 1937-69

Usk, Chain Bridge 35.2 41.9 57.9 54.1 43.9 31.1 27.4 21.2 11.8 9.9 11.1 18.1 30.3 1957-70

Lune, Halton 45.4 48.0 55.5 44.8 32.9 34.1 36.5 27.1 17.6 20.3 32.7 40.9 36.3 1960-70

Thames, 45.5 94.1 114.0 131.0 142.0 117.0 85.0 57.8 43.6 30.8 29.3 32.6 76.9 1937-64 Teddington

Severn, Bewdley 52.4 92.6 99.0 110.0 107.0 69.9 51.5 34.7 28.2 22.4 29.1 42.0 61.5 1937-64 a/ Not represented here is the Tay, in Scotland, the UK river with the largest mean annual flow, 152.2 rre/s up to about 1981

Source: Van der Leeden (1975) after Unesco (1971), and A. Willis (1973), data on discharge of principal rivers, Water Resources Board, Reading (private communication) - 225 -

Those rivers having their source high in the hills are generally quite variable in flow; those originating in springs are more constant. However, the installation of impoundments on many hill streams has reduced the amount of maximum flow and provided compensation water to increase the flow at times of drought. Conversely, some spring-fed streams have been subject to increased maximum flows due to the greater extent of contiguous paved areas.

Water temperature is also more variable, both diurnally and annually, in the streams having a high source, while spring-fed waters have a remarkably even temperature. Generally speaking, the water temperatures of the larger rivers (and lakes) are neither very low nor very high, and throughout Britain are generally suitable for salmonoid fishes. River temperatures in the UK rarely exceed 25°C under natural conditions, and the upper limit is normally about 16-22°C depending upon latitude and altitude (Walling and Webb, 1981). Most are usually below 6°C in winter, and even a chalk stream such as the Test has varied from 2.2°C to 19.5°C. Typical characteristics of the thermal pattern of British rivers are shown in Table 9. Both impoundment and the entrance of hot water from cooling systems have, however, altered water temperatures, e.g., by as much as 10°C.

Water clarity varies from that of crystalline small hill streams to that of the large low-lying tidal rivers (e.g., Severn, Wash and Humber) which carry large quantities, of sediment.

British streams have been classified in various ways according to their elevation, gradient, substratum, vegetation and fish or invertebrate fauna. (Emphasis in this review is on fish and fisheries, hence the examples of stream classification selected. For a classification of running water sites in Great Britain using macro-invertebrates, see Wright et al., 1984.) An old but rather widely accepted classification based on the dominant fish species (Carpenter, 1928) divides a typical river into the following zones:

(i) "Headstream" or "highland brook" - small, often torrential, and without fish or with salmon and trout parr only;

(ii) "Troutbeck" - larger, more constant but still torrential, rocky, with trout as the only permanent residents of open water but with bullheads (Cottus pobio) among the stones;

(iii) "Minnow reach" - fairly swift, silt and mud in a few places, some rooted plants, and trout, salmon and minnows (Phoxinus phoxinus) common;

(iv) "Lowland reach" - slow moving, muddy bottom with vegetation, and with coarse fish (primarily cyprinids) present.

Table 9

Characteristics typical of the thermal regimes of British rivers

Characteristics Streams Rivers

Annual maximum 25°C 20°C

Annual minimum 0°C 1°C

Diurnal range (winter) 2°C less than 1°C

Diurnal range (summer) 1 0-22°C 3°C

Maximum rate of 3°C/hour 0.5-1.0°C/hour change

Source: Smith (1979) - 226 -

Obviously, not every river possesses each of these zones. Some do not rise in hills, and others have alternating riffles and pools or even reversed stretches. The first two zones are typical of the mountains and moorlands of Scotland, Wales and northern and western England. The two latter zones are found typically in the Midlands and south of England.

To these four types of stream, one might add a fifth, the famous spring-fed chalk streams, with rather constant flow and temperature, calcareous, with abundant vegetation and good populations of trout (e.g., Test, Hampshire, Avon and Itchen).

Similar classifications have been made of continental streams, especially by Huet (1949, 1954) whose "grayling zone" corresponds to Carpenter's "minnow reach, and his "barbel" and "bream" zones to the "lowland reach" (see section 5.1 of the reviews of Belgium and France). Hawkes (1975), while retaining Huet's general classification, has included some alternative fishes as more suitable key species for British streams. His system in abbreviated and somewhat modified form follows:

(i) "Trout zone" - salmonids, bullheads, minnow;

(ii) "Minnow or grayling zone" - mixed fauna with salmonids dominant plus rhaeophilic cyprinids (e.g., chub and barbel);

(Hi) "Chub or barbel zone" - mixed fauna with cyprinids dominant, including rhaeophilic cyprinids plus roach, rudd and dace;

(iv) "Bream zone" - cyprinids, especially limnophilic forms such as bream, carp and dace, plus predators such as pike, perch and eel.

5.2 Lakes

Smith and Lyle (1979) have made a count of 5 502 lakes and reservoirs in Great Britain, calculating their total area as 1 924.3 km2 or 80 percent of the island's inland water area. See Table 3 for their estimates of lake area. They further state that there are 3 778 lochs in Scotland alone, but that 78 percent of them are less than 0.25 km2 in area.

With respect to Scotland alone, Maitland (1981) states that it possesses about 3 800 lakes (lochs) over 4 ha in area, representing 69 percent of the British total, and that a comparable figure for England and Wales is 1 700 lakes. There are at least 25 lochs in Scotland with a surface area exceeding 8 km2. Scotland also possesses the largest number of very small static water bodies in the UK. Some authors consider that it may have as many as 10 000 lochs, lochans and tarns. By contrast, England and Wales have relatively few lakes (Ilyns in Wales) and about 52 km2 of these are concentrated in England's Lake District. Northern Ireland has over 200 small lakes and a number of large ones (called loughs).

Most of the lakes in the UK are products of glaciation. Some of these are only a few hectares in extent, e.g., the little rock or moraine tarns of Upland Britain, nestled in cirques (the corries of the Highlands or cwms of Wales). Many are of far greater extent: the ribbon lakes of the Lake District and the deep glen lochs of Scotland's highlands, also excavated by glaciers in rock basins. There are also some lowland lakes such as the shallow Loch Leven lying in the hollows of glacial debris. Gorham (1958) states that of 399 lakes in Scotland examined by a survey in 1897-1909, 262 represent rock basins and 137 are basins lying in or at least dammed by glacial drift. A few lakes in the UK are at least partially tectonic in origin. Loch Ness, with a mean depth (132 m) greater than that of any other British lake, appears to be a glacier-excavated and tectonically depressed lake. On the other hand, Lough Neagh in Northern Ireland, with a mean depth of only 11.5 m, is a partial product of sagging and faulting. Finally, another large expanse of static water (12 km2), the Norfolk Broads, apparently represents an area of flooded medieval peat diggings.

Most of the natural lakes in Scotland, Ireland, and the Lake District, being affected by the oceanic climate, are warm monomictic, i.e., with a winter circulation at or above 4°C and direct stratification in the - 227 -

summer. Gorham (1958) states that in Scotland the lakes are beginning to warm up and stratify by April, with the smallest and shallowest lochans reaching temperatures of 7-10°C while the largest and deepest lochs remain at about 5°C. From June to August the small lochans maintain their surface temperatures a little above 13°C while the big lochs warm up gradually to this temperature. Bottom temperatures at this time are only slightly lower in the shallow lochans (mean depth about 1.5 m) while in the deepest lochs (mean depth greater than 76 m) they remain around 4-5°C. By October, surface temperatures are falling in all the lakes while those up to about 1.3 km2 and 15 m mean depth are nearly isothermal. Many of the Scottish lochs become ice-covered for short periods, though few large ones are iced over for long. Laird and Needham (1988) say that any small loch (i.e., no greater in area than about 15 ha) in northern Scotland can expect ice- cover which will last one to four months.

The deep lakes generally lie in upland or mountainous country, have rocky shores, and populations of brown trout (Salmo trutta) and char (Salvelinus aloinus). Those at lower elevations with more littoral areas contain mixed fish populations including pike (Esox lucius) and European perch (Perca fluviatilis). Lakes in the lowlands surrounded by agricultural areas are shallow and have cyprinid stocks.

Some of the better known lakes in the UK are mentioned below.

Scotland. A bathymetrical survey of Scotland's freshwater lochs initiated by Sir John Murray in 1897 (Murray and Pullar, 1910) is considered a classic of limnology. The morphometry of 20 of the largest of these lochs, based primarily on their data, is shown in Table 10.

Loch Lomond, 36.4 m long, 8 km wide and 71.1 km2 in extent, is the largest lake in area in Great Britain. However, Loch Ness, 56.4 km2 in area, and forming about two-fifth's of the Caledonian Canal (see section 5.4), is the island's largest lake in volume, 7 452 million m3, and with a maximum depth of 229.8 m is its second deepest lake. In fact, Loch Ness contains more water than all the lakes and reservoirs in England and Wales put together. Loch Morar, with a maximum depth of 310.3 m is its deepest lake. It is also the seventh deepest in Europe and seventeenth deepest in the world. The longest lake in Great Britain is Loch Awe, 41 km long but only about 1 km in breadth in most places. All of these lakes are temperate dimictic, oligotrophic, and nutrient-poor. Differing from these Highland or glen lochs is the productive, polymictic Loch Leven, 13.7 km2 in area, with a maximum depth of 25 m and a mean depth of only 4.5 m. The fish fauna in these large lakes ranges from only five species in Loch Morar and Shiel to 15 species in Loch Lomond.

England and Wales. By far the largest group of natural lakes in either England or Wales are the 15 that lie in the Lake District in northwest England. Thirteen of these total 51.77 km2 in area. Table 11 shows their morphometry. Data for the first 10 lakes in this table is from Mill (1895), a classical limnological study made from a rowboat. The largest of these lakes, Windermere, with an area of 14.8 km2 and volume of 347 million rn3 is also the largest lake in England. The deepest lake in the District is Wastwater, with a maximum depth of 78.6 m and average depth of 41.0 m. These lakes seldom freeze, and all are monomictic except Esthwaite Water and Blelham Tarn which are occasionally dimictic, and the polymictic Bassenthwaite Water. Some of their characteristics are shown in Table 12. They are generally soft-water lakes; e.g., using Ca as an indicator, the highest in the district is Esthwaite (8.3 mg/I), the lowest is Thirlmere (3.3 mg/1), and the average is 4.5 mg/I. Thirlmere and Haweswater have been modified by dams for water supply for about 80 years. The fish fauna of these lakes is a small one. Some of the principal species are brown trout, char, pike, perch and the minnow (Phoxinus phoxinus), salmon also run through some of the lakes. See especially Macan (1970, 1984) for detailed descriptions. - 228 -

Table 10

Morphometry of the twenty largest lakes in Scotland

Depth (m) Volume Name Area (km3) Length (km) (million m3 Maximum Mean

Lomond 71.1 36.4 189.9 37.0 2 628.0

Ness 56.4 39.0 229.8 132.0 7 452.0

Awe 38.5 41.0 93.6 32.0 1 230.4

Maree 28.6 21.7 111.9 38.2 1 091.3

Morar 26.7 18.8 310.3 86.6 2307.3

Tay 26.4 23.4 154.8 60.7 1 601.3

Shin 22.5 27.7 49.0 16.0 350.6

Shiel 19.6 28.0 128.0 40.5 792.5

Rannoch 19.1 15.6 134.1 51.0 973.7

Ericht 18.7 23.3 156.0 57.7 1 076.8

Arkaig 16.2 19.3 109.4 46.5 752.5

Lochy 15.3 15.7 161.8 69.8 1 068.3

Leven 13.7 - 25.0 4.5 -

Katrine 12.4 12.9 150.9 60.7 772.3

Earn 10.1 10.4 87.5 42.0 408.4

Harray 9.8 - - - -

Fannich 9.3 11.1 86.0 33.2 309.2

Fionn 9.1 - - - 160.5

Langavat 8.9 12.6 - - -

Assynt 8.0 10.2 86.0 - 247.2

Source: Maitland (1981) for almost all figures Table 11

Morphometry of the English lakes

Width m Depth m Volume Basin

Name Length Elevation Area million3 area km Max. Mean Max. Mean m km2 m km2 Windermere 17.0 1475 869 66.8 23.8 39.6 14.79 347.0 230.5 Ullswater 11.8 1005 756 62.5 25.3 145.0 8.94 223.0 145.5 Wastwater 4.8 805 595 78.6 41.0 61.0 2.91 117.0 48.5 Coniston 8.7 795 549 56.1 24.1 43.5 4.91 113.3 60.7 Crummock 4.0 914 640 43.9 26.7 98.0 2.52 66.4 43.6 Ennerdale 3.8 914 732 45.1 18.9 112.5 2.91 56.0 44.1 Bassenthwaite 6.2 1190 869 21.3 5.5 68.0 5.35 29.0 237.9' Derwentwater 4.6 1950 1160 22.0 5.5 74.5 5.35 29.0 82.7

Haweswaterai 3.7 549 370 31.4 12.0 211.5 1.40 16.7 29.1 Buttermere 2.0 613 567 28.6 16.6 101.0 0.94 15.2 16.9 Esthwaite 2.5 604 405 15.5 6.4 65.5 1.00 6.4 14.0 Loweswater 1.8 539 357 16.0 8.4 120.0 0.64 5.4 6.5 Blelham 0.8 317 133 15.1 6.6 44.2 0.11 0.7 2.3 at Before it became a reservoir b/ Does not include the drainage areas of Derwestwater and Thirlmere

Source: Macan (1970) Table 12

Characteristics of selected lakes in the English Lake District

L, km Depth Drainage Thermocline Typical max Approx. Winter (summer) nutrients, Lake 8, km 'max basin area depth (min) surface period of pg liter' A, km2 (2), m km2 m temp., thermal NO Si0 °C stratification .. 3 0 2

Windermere' 17 67 231 5-20(N) 17 May-end 300 3.0 600 Nov.

1.5 (24) 5-20(S) (3-5) (100) (0.5) (200) 15

Wastwater 4.8 79 • 49 15-20 15 June-Dec. >140

0.8 (41) ( <4) ( -100) 2.9

Ennerdale 3.8 45 44 15-25 19 May-Oct. >140

0.9 (19) ( <4) (50)

2.9

Esthwaite 2.5 16 14 9-12 20 Apr.-mid- 400 2-4 1000 Sept.

0.6 (6.4) (2) (100) (0.5) (100)

1.0

Blelham 0.8 15 2.3 8-10 20 Apr.-end 600 4 1000 Sept.

0.3 (6.6) (3.5) (200) (0.5) (200) 0.11

Bassenthwaite 6.2 21 238 P 21 Irregular —250

1.2 (5.5) ( <4)

5.4 . a/ Windermere has North and South basins Source: Goldman and Home (1983) after Macan (1970) and Heron (1961) - 231 -

There are no large natural lakes in the English lowlands; most are man-made. One of the most remarkable of these complexes is the Norfolk Broads, a group of 40 small, shallow (1-2 m) lakes from 10 to 120 ha in size, connected by channels to the rivers. The basins were excavated by man some few hundred years prior to the fourteenth and fifteenth centuries in order to obtain peat. Subsequently flooded, they formed static waters, and digging continued to connect the basins with rivers (Lambert et al., 1960). Heavy nutrification from sewage and aquatic birds has caused severe changes since the 1930s: turbidity, loss of macrophytes and fish kills by the brackishwater flagellate Prvmnesium parvum (Moss, 1978).

Highland Wales has a number of lake areas but some have been greatly modified for water supply. The largest natural lake in Wales is the 1.7-km2 Llyn Bala or Tegid on the Dee.

Table 13 shows the extent of lake and reservoir waters in England and Wales.

Table 13

Areas of inland waters in England and Wales

Existing waters Possible additions by 2000 A.

2 km2

Static Regulating and pump 160 storage reservoirs Reservoirs 152

Lake District 52 Estuary barrage 376 schemes

Wet gravel pits 28 New gravel pits 144

Broads 12

Others 192

Total 436

Rivers 400

Total 836 Total 680

Source: National Environment Research Council (1972)

Northern Ireland. With a catchment that is 32 percent of Northern Ireland, Lough Neagh is by far the largest lake in the British Isles. With an area of 388.5 km2, it is more than twice as large as the Republic of Ireland's largest lake, Lake Corrib (168.5 m2), about five times the size of Loch Lomond, and 25 times the size of Windermere. Although the temperature rarely rises above 20°C, this is an extremely rich, almost hypereutrophic lake, unusual in being well mixed and well oxygenated at all levels. Highly nutrified it is rich in both plankton and bottom fauna. Some of its characteristics are shown in Table 14. Lough Neagh supports a mixed fish fauna of salmonids and "coarse" fishes, augmented by runs of salmon (Salmo salar) and European eel (Anguilla anguilla) from the sea through its outlet the River Bann. Of particular interest is its abundant population of the pollan, lately termed Coregonus autumnalis pollan by Ferguson, Himberg, and Svardson (1978), and apparently unique in being the only coregonine of the cisco group in Western Europe'.

1 / O'Grady (1988) calls this pollan C. alba [probably C. albula] - 232 -

Table 14

Characteristics of Lough Neagh, Northern Ireland

Basin area km2 4 465

Elevation m 15

Area km2 388.5

Perimeter km 125

Length km 26

Width km 19.3

Mean depth m 11.5

Maximum depth m 31

Volume km2 3.6

Retention time years 1.5

pH mean 8.2 max. 9.4

Alkalinity mgCaCO3/1 84-100

Dissolved solids mg/I 165-175

Conductivity S/1 8°C mean 237 max. 285

Nutrient load tons/year N 2 400 P 600

Source: Milway (1970), Govt. of Northern Ireland (1970)

Brown trout also form a commercial fishery and salmon are important in the drainage. The most valuable modern fishery, however, is the eel caught both in the lake and in its outlet (see section 7.1.1). There are also abundant supplies of bream (Abramis brama), gudgeon (Gobio oobio), perch and pike. Aside from fishing, the lake is used for sewage and industrial disposal and water extraction.

The Upper and Lower Lough Ernes, totalling 140 km2, are other large Northern Ireland lakes; they also contain "pollen" as do the Shannon Lakes of the Republic of Ireland (Wilson and Pitcher, 1983).

5.3 Reservoirs

Table 13 shows that circa 1972 there were 152 km2 of reservoirs and 28 km2 of wet gravel pits in England and Wales alone. The Travis Commission (1980) said that in 1977 a survey recognized 537 reservoirs of 2 ha or more in England and Wales with a total surface area of over 202.5 km2. The Commission also estimated that there were about 750 gravel pits of 2 ha or over in England and Wales. Tombleson (1982) says that England and Wales possess 220 km2 of water system reservoirs. These include the 12.5 km2 Rutland Water, then the largest reservoir in the UK, which opened to trout fishing in 1976 and sold 33 000 day-permits in 1979. Since then, the Kielder Reservoir in the UK has been filled to become one - 233 -

of Europe's largest reservoirs. Separate area figures for reservoirs in Scotland and Northern Ireland are not available to the author. However, in Scotland reservoirs are included with natural lakes used for water supply, and Mills (1980) states that up to 1971 Scotland had a total of 380 reservoirs and lochs developed for water resources for public supply. In Wales much of the lotic water is man-made or has been modified for use as power or water supply, and the Welsh Dee with three large upland storage reservoirs is among the most comprehensively regulated rivers in Britain. Natural lakes in England have also been modified for water use, e.g., Haweswater was enlarged to furnish water to Manchester. Circa 1973, the quantity of water stored in the English and Welsh reservoirs represented about two percent of an average year's runoff. Offstream reservoirs are generally preferred, and the trend is to increase their size. The general sentiment, however, is to use reservoirs to regulate rivers (i.e., use them as aqueducts) rather than for direct supply, and - at least in England and Wales - not to use natural lakes for storage.

Reservoirs in the UK are used primarily for public water supply, the production of hydroelectric power, and the provision of "compensation water" to maintain residual stream flows at a prescribed level. Even the production of artificial spates to attract salmon into a river, distribute them upstream, and provide good flows for angling has been a feature of recent reservoir schemes. In addition to the ordinary impounding and regulating reservoirs, there are also a number of pumped-storage reservoirs in the UK, that is, basins which have water pumped from other catchments, especially by electrical power during off-peak periods.

During the latter part of the Nineteenth Century, there was a widespread establishment of upland reservoirs to provide urban water. Initially, most authorities prohibited access to the gathering grounds for sanitary reasons, and there was considerable opposition in some areas to damming natural lakes. Today, in view of advances in water treatment, as well as public demand, the tendency is to allow public access to UK reservoirs. In fact, as early as 1948 the Central Advisory Water Committee declared itself in favour of public access to gathering grounds, the Countryside Act of 1968 required water undertakings to allow public recreation on their new reservoirs as far as possible, and today the authorization for most new reservoirs includes recreational clauses dealing with fishing. Along with use for such pastimes as sailing and bird- watching, new reservoirs may now include hatcheries, tackle shops, and fish-cleaning facilities.

In the lowland reservoirs of England and Wales, put-and-take trout fisheries are the general rule. Ten of these studied by Crisp and Mann (1977) varied in size from 49 to 635 ha, and with one exception had maximum depths less than 22 m. There are also a number of upland reservoirs (over 200 m in elevation) where trout are indigenous and stocking is not believed generally useful.

5.4 Canals

Developed in the UK for commercial use at an early time, its canal era was 1760-1830, today its canals are used primarily for recreation, including fishing, although they continue to carry some freight and are important for land drainage and water supply. Some large rivers have been canalized in their lower stretches or where they pass through cities, and canals connect quite a few of the rivers (see also section 6).

Figures on the extent of the canal system vary depending upon the source and method of presentation. Thus, according to the National Environment Research Council (1972), the navigable inland waterways of England and Wales alone total 4 645 km: 2 340 km of British Waterway Board canals, and 2 305 km of other canals and rivers. The Inland Waterways Amenity Advisory Council (1975) says that with a "national network" of 1 771 km of "cruising" waterways and 966 km of "remainder" waterways a leisure canal is readily accessible to some 25 million people. The Travis Commission (1980) says that there are 4 830 km of canals in England and Wales of which 628 km are not navigable but still contain water, and that the British Waterway Board controls 2 415 km of navigable canal. The Economist (1981) says that the inland waterways of the UK as a whole total only 1 147 km. Stabler (1982) says that virtually the whole of the canal network in the UK with a total length of 3 200 km is under one national authority, the British Waterways Board. Tombleson (1982) says there are 4 800 km of canals in England and Wales. Britain (1981) says that the British Waterways Board controls 3 219 km of canal and river navigation of which only 547 km are maintained as commercial waterways or use by freight-carrying vessels. It also says that the Board maintains about 1 760 km of cruising waterways for navigation and about 1 450 km of other - 234 -

waterways. Worldmark (1984), Europa (1989), Pygott, O'Hara and Eaton (1990), and Britain (1990) are all in essential agreement that Great Britain has about 3 200 km of navigable waterways.

In Scotland, there are 195 km of canals according to UK/EIFAC (1979), or 298 km according to the Travis Commission (1980). Scotland's "Caledonian Canal" which connects the North Sea with the Irish Sea is 97 km of inland waterway of which 35 km is artificial canal. Opened in 1 847, it runs along the Great Glen linking Moray Firth with Loch Ness, Oich, Lochy, and the sea-loch Linnhe (see Lindsay, 1968).

Whatever the correct length of the canal system in the UK, it furnishes a great deal of space for anglers (over 0.75 million adult anglers in Great Britain in 1984) especially in areas where water quality is poor, and has been instrumental in the dissemination of different species. An up-to-date discussion of the subject will be found in Pygott, O'Hara and Eaton (1990).

6. LAND AND WATER USE

Table 15

Pattern of land use in the UK, 1986

Percent

Arable and permanent crops 28.7

Permanent pasture 45.4

Forest and woodland 9.4

Other land 15.2

Inland water 1.3

Total 100.0

Source: 1987 FAO Prod. Yearbook, 41 (Publ. 1988)

The UK is one of the most highly developed industrial and trading nations in the world, with huge conurbations holding much of its population. Five great urban areas in England hold about 35 percent of its population, and about 35 percent of Scotland's population lives in the Glasgow-Clydesdale area and all in all the UK is about 92 percent urban. Nevertheless, agriculture still constitutes an important use of its land. The chief crops are fodder cereals, beets, and potatoes, but livestock raising is the largest facet of the farming industry. Owing to the intensive nature of agriculture in some sections, runoff from fertilizers, pesticides, silage and animal wastes contribute to water pollution, and may have been largely responsible for increases in solute concentrations of British streams. For example, of 708 incidents of pollution reported in Northern Ireland in 1988, 249 were caused by silage and 229 described as general farm pollution (Morrison, 1990).

The climatic conditions have generally precluded a need for irrigation except for market garden crops. In 1986, only about 155 000 ha (0.06 percent) of the UK were irrigated, although it is estimated that this will rise, especially in eastern England where from April to October evaporative loss exceeds its rainfall.

Extensive land drainage has, however, long been a practice in both highland and lowland areas to control soil moisture. Starting in the Thirteenth Century, by 1927 about one-seventh of the agricultural area of England and Wales depended upon drainage for its fertility and this area contains over 300 000 km of drainage ditches. Drainage has had many ill effects upon fisheries (see section 9.2), but some drainage channels have become well established as coarse fisheries, usually let to local clubs. - 235 -

With less than ten percent of its area forested, the UK ranks very low in the European scale of forest development, only Iceland, Malta and the Netherlands being lower. Upland forests started to succumb to agriculture and grazing centuries ago, often being replaced by bog mosses, and their decline continued through use for charcoal and shipbuilding. The introduction of sheep into Scotland in 1740 was especially hard on soils and forests. Furthermore, some recent afforestation programmes have been opposed by sheep farmers and those who do not wish to see land turned into "biologically sterile tree farms" (LaBastille, 1983). Present practices of forestry, primarily planting of conifers, are controlled with general benefit to surface waters. However, in some areas adverse effects on fish populations may result from increased acidity in streams, reduced flows, and erosion causing siltation of spawning beds. Aerial application of phosphate fertilizer to forests may also have increased the productivity of otherwise oligotrophic waters.

Mining once played a very important role in the UK: Great Britain was once described as "an island of coal". But its production declined and the ore-bearing districts of Upland Britain (e.g., for copper, tin and lead) reached their peak in 1820-70. Mining continues, however, and products such as coal, iron, and china clay are locally important as sources of water pollution. In some cases, the deposit of mining wastes on land has killed vegetation and thus accelerated channel activity. In other cases they have been deposited directly on stream banks. North Sea gas and oil resources, where production began in 1975, do not directly affect inland fisheries, although pipeline installations to carry their products have had a harmful effect on some Scottish streams (Mills, 1976, 1989). Sand and gravel pits when flooded are used for recreation in areas such as the Thames, Great Ouse and Trent.

Iron and steel, engineering, chemicals, electronics, motor vehicles, textiles and clothing are among the major industries in the UK. Industry here not only makes direct use of large quantities of water (e.g., for the manufacture of textiles and paper), but also creates large quantities of effluent. The major industries producing liquid effluents are metallurgy, chemicals, textiles and food processing. The discharge of effluents from gas-works and cooling water from electrical generating plants is common. Fortunately for stream fisheries, most of the large intakes are sited on estuaries rather than upstream sites, and industry is concentrated into a few highly populated areas, e.g., London, Birmingham, Lancashire and the West Riding of , Newcastle, central and southern Scotland, and South Wales. Although increasing the pollution problems in such areas, this also means that there are a considerable number of rivers comparatively free of heavy concentrations of industrial effluents.

Public sewerage is high in the UK. More than 90 percent of the British population is provided with main drainage and public treatment serves more than 80 percent of the population.

In 1987, the total installed electrical capacity of the UK was 64 772 thousand kW. Most of this power is thermal (87 percent) and only 2.2 percent (1 409 thousand kW) was hydroelectric. Nuclear power (7 184 thousand kW in 1987) well exceeds the use of hydro for electric power, and uses vast quantities of cooling water. Generally speaking, except in Scotland and Wales, hydroelectric production is unimportant, and has therefore not affected fishery resources to the extent that it has, in say, Scandanavian countries. For example, Scottish hydroelectric schemes mostly include special provisions to avoid as far as possible damage to fisheries and the stock of salmon (see Mills, 1989).

Although economically small in national terms, the marine fishing industry has long been highly developed in the UK. No place in Britain is over 120 km from tidal water and it has been easy to provide ocean fish to most inland areas. The per caput supply of fish (1979) was 16.7 kg/year. With the exception of the anadromous salmonids and catadromous eel, the commercial value of freshwater fishing in the UK has, therefore, had minor importance. Conversely, the use of its inland waters for recreational fishing has had a long and important history, including the development of recreational and methods used throughout the world. (An account of this development with special reference to the UK will be found in Dill, 1978.) In Scotland, Wales, Northern Ireland and southwest England, game fishing is an important element of tourism.

There are also other recreational uses of the inland waters, some of which may compete with angling; there were, for example, about 700 000 boaters and 75 000 water skiers in England and Wales circa 1972. - 236 -

Ground water sources in 1972 accounted for only about 25 percent of the licensed water withdrawals in England and Wales and less than one percent in Scotland.

Total water use in the UK in 1972 was distributed as follows: population (domestic) 24 percent, industry 75 percent, and agriculture 1 percent. All but 15 percent of this use came from surface supply (ECE, 1978). In England and Wales in 1987 there was a demand of 16.85 million m3/day, 62 percent was used by industry, the bulk of it as cooling water. Public water supply and agriculture took the remainder.

The UK has an extensive system of much-used railways (density about 0.075 km/km2). Great Britain had an automobile road density of about 1.5 km/km2 and passenger car ownership of about 346 per 1 000 people (in 1989) which enable good access to most of the country. In 1980, about 75 percent of the coarse and game anglers in England and Wales used automobiles to reach their fishing areas. Some rivers are used for navigation, e.g., the Trent is navigable for over 150 km, and the lower 80 km is the longest stretch of natural navigable water in the UK. However, few tidal rivers in the UK have been used for inland shipping since the advent of canal-building (see section 5.4). Although developed for commercial use, the inland waterways now carry less than one percent of UK's freight traffic. The canal system suffers from narrow cross-section, the difficulty of establishing adequate catchment basins to replace water loss, and the need for many locks to cross hilly country. For example, the Grand Union Canal between London and Birmingham has 159 locks in 216 km. Even during the late Nineteenth Century, railways carried anglers by the hundreds from industrial cities to fish canals, and in 1974 it was estimated (Stabler, 1982) that 170 000 anglers in England and Wales used the canals.

The UK has a large number of important ports. Situated on estuaries of major rivers, their traffic and pollution have an effect on fisheries.

Tourism is high in the UK with about 1 250 000 overseas visitors in 1988 to Scotland alone. Angling attracts some of them.

7. FISH AND FISHERIES

Due mainly to its long period of ice-cover, the British Isles have a depauperate fish fauna as compared with that of mainland Europe. There are only about 55 species of fluvial and diadromous fishes in the British Isles, of which about 42 are indigenous (Maitland, 1972; Moss, 1980). Forty of these species are known to occur in Scotland, the remainder being restricted to England, particularly in the southeast (Maitland, 1977). The island of Ireland has even less species, only about 35 (see section on the Republic of Ireland).

Among the most important of the inland fisheries of the UK for commercial, food and recreational use are: European eel (Anguilla anguilla), Atlantic salmon (Salmo salar), brown and sea trout (S. trutta), the introduced rainbow trout (Oncorhynchus mvkiss), char or chair (Salvelinus alpinus), whitefishes or coregonids (Coregonus spp.), grayling (Thvmallus thymallus), pike (Esox lucius), common carp (Cyprinus carpio), bream (Abramis brama), barbel (Barbus barbus), gudgeon (Gobio gobio), chub (Leuciscus cephalus), dace (L. leuciscus), roach (Rutilus rutilus), rudd (Scardinius erythrophthalmus), tench (Tinca tinca), and European perch (Perca fluviatilus). There are also lampreys (Petromyzonidae), and some essentially brackish water such as the occasional sturgeon (Acipenser sturio), shads (Alosa spp.), smelt ( Osmerus eperlanus), sea bass (Dicentrarchus labrax), grey mullets ( Mugil spp.) and flounder (Platichthvs flesus).

Unlike the situation in many other northern countries, coregonids are relatively scarce in the waters of the UK. Their scientific nomenclature has been quite varied, and their common names have varied with the author, time and locality. According to Bagenal (1970), the British species fall generally into the Coregonus lavaretus group or C. albula group. Coregonid distribution is quite discontinuous in the UK, for example, in Scotland, the "powan" (C. lavaretus) is found only in Lochs Lomond and Eck (Maitland, Swain and Adair, 1981). In the English lakes, C. lavaretus is found only in Ullswater, Haweswater and Red Tarn, - 237 -

where it is known as the "schelly", and in Wales, where it is known as the "gwyniad", is found in Llyn Tegid or Bala Lake (Bagenal, 1970). In the UK as a whole, coregonids are important economically only in Northern Ireland (see section 5.2).

Chars have a limited role in the UK, although Maitland, et al. (1984) state that there are over 200 lakes in the British Isles containing char populations: the majority in Scotland, a considerable number in Ireland, about 12 in the Lake District and three in Wales. The burbot (Lota Iota) is exceedingly rare. Generally speaking, the distribution patterns of the native fishes of the UK have been as follows: (i) those of the upland north and west such as salmon, char and whitefish; (ii) those distributed over much of the area, e.g., trout, pike, minnow (Phoxinus phoxinus), eel and perch; (Hi) those in southern and eastern (lowland) England (typically cyprinids); and (iv) predominately marine-type species with a coastal distribution, e.g., the flounder (Platichthvs flesus) and burbot.

Of the fishes introduced directly by man, a number such as the European catfish or wels (Silurus olanis) and some of the American centrarchids have such limited distribution as to be unimportant. The pike- perch or (Stizostedion lucioperca), introduced to England from Germany in 1878, has a much wider distribution but is still not well utilized. The American brook trout, a char (Salvelinus fontinalis), has had some success in acid waters in Scotland and has been considered for aquaculture. The Pacific coho salmon (Oncorhynchus kisutch) has been brought to Scotland for aquaculture, and the Pacific pink or humpback salmon (0. aorbuscha) has strayed to the coasts of the UK from the northern seas where it was introduced by the former USSR. The Chinese grass carp (Ctenopharynoodon idella) was brought into the UK in 1974 for weed control, and later considered as an angling fish. To date, the common carp, probably introduced from the Continent for cultivation in the Fourteenth Century, and the American rainbow trout, introduced in the 1880s, have had the most positive effect on the fisheries of the UK of any of the exotics.

In addition to the fin-fishes, one indigenous crayfish, Austropotamobius pallipes, is common in many alkaline waters in the British Isles although not found naturally in Scotland. It was once eaten extensively. The American signal crayfish (Pacifastacus leniusculus) has been introduced on a wide scale.

Various committees have categorized the inland fishes of England and Wales in ways which to some seem a bit arbitrary or confusing. Thus, the Committee on Salmon and Freshwater Fisheries (1957) has grouped them as follows: (i) "freshwater fishes", a term self-explanatory except that this category excludes even resident trout and chars as well as salmon and sea trout; (ii) "coarse fishes", those fishes which live all their lives in fresh waters but excluding the "game fishes" and certain freshwater fishes such as loaches (Cobitis sp.), sticklebacks (Gasterosteus spp.) and bullheads (Cottus qobio); (in) "game fishes" reserved for Atlantic salmon, both resident and migratory trout (Salmo sp.) and char (Salvelinus sp.). Thus, among other fishes which may be taken for either sport or food in inland waters, the three groups above do not include a number of species which also live in salt water, e.g., eels, lampreys, shads, mullets, and flounder. In actual practice, char are not generally considered "game fishes" in the UK and even the sporting grayling is, together with most of the cyprinids, considered to be a "coarse fish". More recently, the First Report of the Joint Freshwater Fisheries Research Advisory Committee (MAFF and NWC, 1980) has erected another series of species-groups which (to the author) appears more logical: (i) "salmonid fishes", including salmon, sea trout, brown trout, rainbow trout and char ("migratory salmonids" include only salmon and sea trout); (ii) "freshwater fishes", including grayling, roach, perch, tench, pike, bream, barbel and other species sometimes referred to as "coarse fish"; and (iii) "eel".

7.1 Capture Fisheries

Table 16 illustrates the major commercial catch records of diadromous fishes in the UK at intervals during the period 1965-86. Both "inland" and "marine" catches are included because of the dependence of these fishes on both milieus and the centering of much of their management in fresh waters. Elsewhere in this report, the commercial fishery since 1965 as compiled by FAO from government statistics has been - 238 -

reported for almost every country. However, with respect to the catch for this period (especially 1965-82) by the principal sub-divisions of the UK, analysis of presentation in the FAO Fishery Yearbooks has revealed so many errors or paucity of data that it has been decided to forego duplication of most of them here'.

Instead, Table 16 presents the commercial catch records for Atlantic salmon, sea trout, and European eel in the same form that is used within the three major components of the UK21. Two other tables are included to partially fill out the picture of the catch by the capture fisheries. Table 17 shows the salmon and sea trout reported taken by nets (commercial fisheries) and the number and weight taken by rods (sport fisheries) in England and Wales during the 1965-82 period. Table 18 shows the number and weight of salmon and sea trout caught by the rod and line fisheries of Scotland during the 1961-81 period.

There are no available data on the total catch of non-migratory salmonids or coarse fishes in the UK.

Great attention has been directed in the UK to the migratory salmonids which provide both commercial and recreational fisheries; in fact, salmon preservation legislation has existed here and in Ireland for over 800 years. There were once almost 100 salmon rivers in England, about 20 in Wales, perhaps 200 in Scotland, and a few in Northern Ireland. Although many of these have been lost in the last 200 years through the combined results of industrialization, urban growth, and over-fishing (including poaching), enough still exist to furnish a harvest of Atlantic salmon unexceeded by any other nation in the world. In Scotland, for example, very few salmon streams have been lost, the only large one being the Clyde.

There are now about 50 or more viable salmon fisheries in England and Wales. Among the largest producers are the: Wye, Severn, Lune, Dart, Tamar and Plym, Dee, Hampshire Avon, Conway, Yorkshire Esk, Teifi, Exe, Ribble and Tyne. The Wye, which rises in mid-Wales and flows to the Bristol Channel, is the best salmon stream south of Scotland. Its annual rod catch is about 5 500 fish, while its commercial net fishery in the estuary produces about 1400 fish annually with a value of about 30 000 (Gee and Edwards, 1982). Netboy (1980) says that in England and Wales, the rods take about one salmon for every six landed by the nets. In late years, the figure appears to be closer to one in five. Harris (1980) believed that "... allowing for seasonal fluctuations, the overall declared salmon catch in England and Wales has remained relatively stable over the years".

1/ Among the mistakes during the 1965-82 period were the lumping of Scotland's catch statistics for commercial and sport fishing in both the sea and rivers, the placement of Northern Ireland's commercial eel catches (which are made only in inland waters) in a marine statistical area, and inaccurate reporting of the catch in England and Wales. (Such mistakes have been called to the attention of FAO. The reporting has been improved but is still not consistent.)

2/ Where the term "salmon" appears alone in these catch tables or without specification elsewhere in this report, it is understood to include any life stage of Salmo salar. That is, it includes both "grilse" (those fish returning to fresh water after spending one winter in the sea) and "full salmon" or "multi sea winter fish". There is no hard and fast rule for the distinction by commercial fishermen between "grilse" and "salmon" in Scotland. The two have often been segregated by weight and time of capture or even by "negotiation" between the fisherman and wholesaler (the prices may vary). For example, after the end of May, fish less than about 3.2 kg (7 lbs) are termed "grilse" (DAFS, Fish. of Scotland, Report for 1969). During the period of 1952-68, the average weights in Scotland were 4.7 kg for salmon and 2.4 kg for grilse - 239 -

Table 16

Nominal commercial catches within waters of the UK of salmon, sea trout and eel 1965, 1970, 1975, 1980, 1983-86 (in tons)

Area/species/method 1965 1970 1975 1980 1983 1984 1985 1986

England/Wales&

Atlantic salmon 194 444 339 217 366 299 68 102 (Salmo salar)

Sea trout (S. trutta) 102 101 118 168 153 170 25 20

Scotland"

Atlantic salmon 958 - 272 485

net-and- 671 739 726 417 - - -

fixed-engine 615 470 556 385 - - -

Sea trout 95 - 64 54

net-and-coble 195 144 75 117 - - -

fixed-engine 54 27 35 43 - - -

Northern Ireland"

European eel 827 790 811 1 000 915 867 702 717 (Anguilla anguilla)

Atlantic salmon 400 299 163 122 187 79 43 39 at All of the legal commercial catch of salmonids is made within 6 miles of the coast and quite a proportion is taken in the estuaries. Eel catch not reported here; see text b/ Net-and-coble catch is equivalent to commercial fishing in inland waters. Fixed-engine (use of which is illegal in inland waters) covers catches made in FAO's Marine Statistical Area 27 c/ Eel catch made exclusively in inland waters. The Atlantic salmon catch includes half of the total catch of the Foyle system which, for statistical purposes, is divided equally between Northern Ireland and the Irish Republic. "Trout" catches are made but are not recorded here because the statistics appear to be confused (see text). See text also for catches of other species.

Source: England and Wales - Catch for 1965-80 from Inspector of Salmon and Freshwater Fisheries, MAFF, London, 15 Dec. 1983. Catch for 1983-86 (probably minimal) from O'Grady (1986, 1988) Scotland - Catch for 1965-80 from Inspector of Salmon and Freshwater Fisheries for Scotland, DAFS, Edinburgh, 11 Dec. 1979 and 30 Dec. 1983, as well as DAFS (1966-80). Catch for 1983-86 (probably minimal) from O'Grady (1986, 1988) Northern Ireland - Eel catch for period of 1965-80 from DANI (1971-78). Eel catch for 1983- 86 (probably minimal) from O'Grady (1986, 1988) Salmon catch for period 1965-68 from FAO Yearbook of Fishery Statistics, Vol. 36 (Marine Statistical Area 27). Salmon catch for 1969-80 from DANI (1970-78). Salmon catch (probably minimal) 1983-86 from O'Grady (1986, 1988) - 240 -

Table 17

Declared salmon and sea trout catches in England and Wales, 1965-82

Salmon Sea trout

Year Nets Rods Nets Rods Number Number Number Weight t Number Weight t

1965 47 748 32 162 126 61 356 74 452 62

1966 56 730 35 260 158 47 999 77 909 62 1967 68 103 29 608 147 70 743 49 267 40

1968 51 591 16 573 79 53 560 39 678 31

1969 82 074 16 178 78 38 577 29 286 23

1970 130 325 19 031 84 52 901 32 404 20

1971 92 718 19 753 86 49 304 24 738 19

1972 85 887 24 691 123 40 690 40 482 28

1973 93 905 20 861 101 50 219 38 507 28 1974 80 474 24 736 101 57 450 43 280 30 1975 89 511 25 895 109 61 260 37 800 25 1976 43 732 10 592 47 58 650 21 270 17

1977 75 142 19 001 83 53 690 26 160 22

1978 75 603 13 707 64 55 290 30 400 22

1979 62 332 13 908 51 67 960 47 490 36

1980 69 370 21 577 89 97 720 42 410 36

1981 99 398 22 165 104 83 390 44 630 38 1982 66 736 13 360 58 79 337 28 777 23

Source: Inspector of Salmon and Freshwater Fisheries, MAFF, London, 15 Dec. 1983 - 241 -

Table 18

Rod catches of salmon and sea trout in Scotland, 1961-81

Salmon' Sea trout Year .. Number Weight Number Weight (x 1,000) t (x 1,000) t

1961 55 222 43 31

1962 73 303 56 39

1963 80 335 55 48

1964 83 314 59 43

1965 77 317 70 56

1966 73 303 73 60 1967 78 312 63 51

1968 52 207 41 33

1969 51 203 36 29

1970 58 216 40 30 1971 48 181 41 31

1972 55 223 37 36

1973 62 267 34 35 1974 59 241 38 30

1975 73 314 34 28

1976 49 194 35 31 1977 64 257 31 27

1978 77 338 29 25

1979 84 324 41 35

1980 69 286 39 34 1981' 59 243 45 41 a/ Including grilse b/ Provisional

Source: 1961-63 - Dept. of Agriculture and Fisheries for Scotland (DAFS) comm. of 11 Dec. 1979 based on Fisheries of Scotland Reports 1964-79 - DAFS 1966-81 1980-81 - DAFS, Scottish Sea Fisheries Statistical Tables, 1981 - 242 -

Scotland, with less industrial development, and about 110 rivers and lochs for salmon fishing, possesses the bulk of UK's salmon resources. The most valuable fisheries are on the east coast. Its most important salmon rivers are the: Tweed (partly a border stream), Spey, Tay and Dee. Others prominent for angling include the: Deveron, Findhorn, Ness, Oykell/Cassley, Helmsdale and Naver. During 1 952-75, the total catch of salmon and grilse by nets and rods in Scotland averaged 434 200 annually (range, 314 076 in 1956 to 606 420 in 1967). The ratio of grilse to "full" salmon was about 50:50 during this period. It was the conclusion of the Association of Scottish District Salmon Fishery Boards (1977) that: "It does not appear that there has been any marked change in the total Scottish salmon catch over the last 50 years". During a later period, 1976-81, the total Scottish catch of salmon and grilse by nets and rods averaged 320 641 annually (range 282 569 to 353 859 fish) while the ratio of grilse to "full" salmon was 54 to 46. It will be noted that during this nine-year period, the average catch had descended towards the 1 952-75 minimum. During the 1 960-70 period, the average annual number of salmon caught by rods in Scotland was 67 175 or 15 percent of the total catch (Netboy, 1974). During the 1978 to 1 982 period, rods were taking about 25 percent of the catch (R. Williamson, DAFS, personal communication, 1983).

In Northern Ireland, the best salmon streams include the: Foyle, Bann, Erne, Finn, Faughan, Main, Strule and Roe. Salmon fishing on the Foyle has been mooted as the greatest of any river in Europe (Elson, 1975). During 1960 to 1972, the average annual salmon catch in Northern Ireland minus the Foyle area was calculated at 93 t; that for the Foyle areas as 379 t (Elson, 1975). The Foyle catchment area of 4 002 km', involving about 830 km of stream for salmon, is situated in both Northern Ireland and the Republic of Ireland, and is administered by the Foyle Fisheries Commission. For statistical purposes, one-half of the catch is credited to Northern Ireland and one-half to the Republic (see section 8.2).

Unlike the more northern countries, in both Great Britain and Ireland into the rivers throughout the year, e.g., the Tweed has a run of salmon eleven months of the year. The shorter spate rivers of the west coast have more limited runs. Most smolts are two years old, and many streams have large populations of grilse.

7.1.1 Commercial fishing

Commercial fishing for inland fish species in Great Britain is almost entirely limited to Atlantic salmon, sea trout, European eel and in Northern Ireland to pollan, brown trout, and a few other species.

Commercial catches of salmon and sea trout are shown in Tables 1 6 and 17 and have been partially discussed in the previous section. The commercial fishery for these migratory salmonids, which is strictly controlled, occurs both in coastal waters and in estuaries. A variety of fishing methods are used, some of them quite primitive, and with many local adaptations. In fact, Lord Hunter (1976) has characterized some of these methods as "ante-diluvian", considering "traditional" methods as "an interesting amalgam of inefficiency and anachronism". Sea fishing for salmon is prohibited in a wide area outside the six-mile zone. Within the zone, drift netting and certain other methods are prohibited off the coast of Scotland, but are permitted under license off England, Wales and Northern Ireland. Most drift netting off England and Wales is well within a three-mile limit.

In Scotland's inland waters and territorial seas, i.e., within the three-mile limit, the rights to salmon and sea trout are private. Coastal fishing is primarily with fixed engines (bag, stake, or fly net and jumper net), although beach seines may also be used. Within Scottish estuaries, with few exceptions, net-and-coble (a seine and a small rowboat) is the only method permitted, although some certificated fixed engines are permitted in Solway Firth, and cruives (a form of weir) now illegal but still present in a few rivers. A few other methods are also used.

In England and Wales, licenses are required for estuarine and coastal netting. Most salmon are taken with seine, draft or draw nets, but drift gillnets and traps are also used. With but a few exceptions, fixed engines are forbidden. Methods for fishing sea trout are similar and often the two species are taken together. - 243 -

During the Nineteenth Century, almost every mill stream in the south and west of England had an eel trap, but eeling is not very important in Great Britain now. (There were already about 18 000 water-mills on English streams by the Eighteenth Century.) It seems to have declined for economic rather than natura forces. The eel fisheries of England and Wales have never been monitored on a central basis, and locally only rarely. Commercial eel fisheries in Great Britain have traditionally been a one-man operation, usually conducted at night and the catch usually sold locally for cash. In the early 1970s, the water authorities estimated their annual commercial catch to be 293 t, and catches circa 1977 were still estimated at about 290 t/year in England and Wales. There are now limited coastal fisheries for eel in the Thames estuary and the Solent, taking about 58 and 80 t respectively per year. Most eel fishing is done with fyke nets although some eel traps are still in operation, and racks operated on the chalk streams of southern England are believed to catch about 50 t/year. Pair trawls are important in the Thames estuary and Solent. The total annual catch for England and Wales was believed to be about 440 t (B. Stott, MAFF, personal communication, 1983). On the basis of reported catch, O'Grady (1986) estimated the commercial catch of eel in Great Britain to be 600 t annually in both 1983 and 1984, 24 t in 1985 and 137 t in 1986. The elver catch in England and Wales was reported to be 22 t in 1985 and 23 t in 1986 (O'Grady, 1988).

There is also a long flourishing elver fishery mainly confined to the lower reaches of the Severn. Landing nets on wooden frames are used to catch them. From a facility designed to handle 100 t annually, the elvers are widely sold overseas for eel culture, for restocking (in Germany and the Netherlands), for human consumption in Spain, and for a small local market.

There is also some commercial eel fishing in Scotland, mainly with fyke nets in east coast rivers and some low-lying lochs. Longlines are not allowed.

Eel fishing is still important in Northern Ireland where the remains of eel weirs dating to about 1000 B.C. are to be found on the River Bann. There is no saltwater eel catch here; the entire eel catch comes from the Lough Neagh-River Bann complex and Lough Erne. Approximately 300 fishermen using 150 boats fish Lough Neagh on a seasonal basis for eel (Vickers, 1971). Eel stocking in this lough started in 1933, left off 1948-59, and then resumed. The mean annual number of elvers stocked from 1960 to 1974 was 13.8 million and the annual catch is about 600-800 t (Moriarty, 1978, 1984). Yellow or feeding eel are caught in the summer, traditionally using baited longlines. The migrating silver eel are caught in the autumn at weirs in the outlet, the lower Bann. Lough Erne is also stocked with elvers, about 3.3 million annually during the 1960-81 period, and has an annual catch of about 49 t. About 65 years ago, the Northern Ireland catch of pollan from Lough Neagh was over 400 t, most of it exported to England. In recent years the pollan catch amounts to only 50 to 150 t, used for local market sale and for bait. O'Grady (1986) reports the commercial catch as around 80 t in both 1985 and 1986. Brown trout are also caught commercially in Northern Ireland, mainly in Lough Neagh. In 1970, the catch was said to have fallen by over 9 t to an estimated catch of 20.4 t, and in 1971 it was estimated at 21.3 t (DANI, 1971-81). There is also some commercial exploitation of pike, perch, bream and reach again mainly from Lough Neagh and Erne, although catches here, especially of perch, are reported to have declined. Northern Ireland's commercial catch as reported by O'Grady (1988) for these species are as follows: pike, 10 t in 1985 and 9 t in 1986; perch, 75 t in both 1985 and 1986; bream, 45 t in both 1985 and 1986; roach, 25 t in both 1985 and 1986. Circa 1957, there were about 1 950 men fishing for commercial inland species in England and Wales, and about 650 in Northern Ireland. About 1 600 men were directly employed in commercial salmon fishing in Scotland in 1965, declining to about 1 200 circa 1982. To complete the general picture of commercial fishing for inland species in the UK, Britain (1981) states that the landed value of the salmon catch in 1979 was about £ 5.3 million in Scotland, about £ 2 million in England and Wales, and £ 419 000 in Northern Ireland. Eel gained about £1.5 million in Northern Ireland in 1979. - 244 -

7.1.2 Sport fishing

About 15 species of fluvial and diadromous fishes in the UK are widely exploited for sport. Atlantic salmon, brown and sea trout, the rainbow trout, and the char command attention both as "game" and food fish. Salmon rivers also provide angling for trout as do many other streams and lakes throughout most of the UK. Among them are the famous chalk streams, the large lochs, and the many small tarns and becks with natural populations of brown trout, and the newer reservoir fishing, especially in England. Much of the older British angling literature is based on tales of dry fly and nymph fishing on the clear chalk streams, but today's English trout fisherman is primarily a reservoir fisherman. Here, the use of rapidly growing domesticated rainbow trout has revolutionized angling for the average or lower income angler. Many of the reservoirs are situated in nutrient-rich lowland areas which provide good trout growth and would otherwise be coarse fish waters. They are generally considered put-and-take fisheries using trout of fairly large size. The early success of fishing at Rutland has been described (section 5.3), and a high catch rate has been experienced from other well-stocked reservoirs in the UK, e.g., Eyebrook Reservoir where 75 percent of all stocked fish were caught during 1962-71 (Crisp and Mann, 1977), and the 240-ha Draycote where 70 percent of the trout stocked were caught in 1980 (North, 1983).

In England and Wales, the National Angling Survey of 1980 showed that in 1979, their inland waters were fished by some 2 704 000 anglers, and sea waters by 1 791 000 anglers. Among these anglers, 60 percent went fishing for coarse fish in inland waters, 20 percent went game fishing (i.e., for salmon or trout in inland waters), and 53 percent went sea fishing. (For references to the National Angling Survey 1 980 see: NOP Market Research Ltd (1980) and Glyptis (1980). For the National Angling Survey 1970 see: National Environment Research Council (1971 and 1971a).) Reservoirs, lakes and gravel pits attracted almost as many game anglers as rivers and streams. About 45 percent of these game anglers used still water sites and the majority used stocked sites.

The bulk of the inland sport fishing in England and Wales is devoted, however, to "coarse" fishes, primarily cyprinids: barbel, bream, carp, chub, dace, gudgeon, roach, rudd, and tench. Coarse fishes also include perch, pike and even grayling. There is also some eel fishing for sport, a rather specialized activity. The coarse fisherman in Great Britain has a large array of waters in which to fish. Prominent among the coarse fish waters of England and Wales are: the Norfolk Broads, and rivers such as the Trent, Thames, Severn, the Ouse system in Yorkshire, and the rivers of the Fenland area in East Anglia and Lincolnshire, and the Welsh lakes. The chalk streams of southern England often produce specimen (trophy) coarse fish. Some of the Lake District waters are well known for perch and pike. Some coarse fishes have been imported from the Continent to restock streams, but not in numbers today because of strict disease control regulations. Generally speaking, unlike the general practice elsewhere in Europe, the angler seeking coarse fish in England and Wales does not retain his catch, and in 1979, 36 percent of their coarse anglers took part in matches. The competition or "match" angler competes with others for prizes for trophies in trying to attain a high weight of captures within a given time, which, after measurement, are returned to the water. This practice has met with disapproval with some biologists who feel that many fisheries might be improved (i.e., that there would be fewer stunted populations) if most of the captures were killed (Le Cren, 1978).

In Scotland, which is renowned for its trout and salmon fishing, most of the waters are exploited only for salmonids, even where coarse fish (including perch, pike and grayling) are present. If caught, coarse fish are usually retained in Scotland, and "match" fishing has been almost unknown. In fact, coarse fish are often removed by chemical treatment and replaced by trout. Coarse fishing is becoming more popular in Scotland now because of the presence of specimen fish and advertising.

Although Northern Ireland is primarily a game-fishing country for both resident and sea trout and salmon, it also provides some of the best coarse fishing in Europe, especially for bream, roach, rudd, perch and pike. Lough Erne, Upper Bann, Blackwater, Colebrook River and Newry Canal are among its best coarse fish waters. A world match record of almost 94 kg was once set at Lough Erne and in 1977 a "staggering" total catch of 10.61 t was made by 200 anglers over a three-day period at Lough Erne (DANI, Rept. on the Sea and Id. Fish. of N. Ireland for 1977). - 245 -

The National Angling Survey of 1970 estimated a total of 2 790 000 anglers in England and Wales. The National Angling Survey of 1980 estimated that in 1979 there were 3 380 000 anglers in England and Wales and 354 000 in Scotland, i.e., 8 percent of the population of Great Britain or 15 percent of the men and boys aged 12 and over. In 1981, there were estimated to be about 4 million anglers in the UK as a whole, or about 7 percent of the total population (Britain, 1981). Somewhat different estimates are given by Scotland (1990) who - with a small sample - estimated that in 1986, 1.8 percent of the adults in Scotland and 1.7 percent of the adults (aged 16 or more years) in Great Britain participated in fishing. Although these are not large percentages, as compared, for example, with that in Sweden, angling is considered to be the most popular active sport here for males after soccer or association football (Birch, 1976). As Britain (1990) says, "The most popular country sport is fishing, and there are about 4 million anglers in Britain." It is now generally accepted in the UK not only as having great economic value but as playing an increasingly important part sociologically in providing pleasure to a growing number of people.

No licenses are issued in Scotland for either recreational or commercial fishing. Proprietors of rod fisheries in Scotland are, however, required to make reports of migratory salmonids caught on their waters. In England, Wales and Northern Ireland, both recreational and commercial fishing licenses are issued, and anglers are required to report their catches of migratory salmonids. Catches of non-migratory trout and other inland fishes need not be reported to any central national agency throughout the UK, although commercial fishermen must report their catch.

Freshwater fishing in the UK usually has to be paid for. Coarse fishing is let to angling clubs by private owners, while trout and salmon fishermen either rent a stretch of river, join a club, or pay for the right to fish by the day, week or month. The main incentive for joining an angling club is that the club has access to good and/or local angling waters. The National Angling Survey of 1980 showed that in England and Wales 43 percent of coarse anglers and 31 percent of game anglers belonged to at least one club or association. A considerable number of hotels provide free fishing to residents or have access to private waters in the vicinity. Guides to angling are issued by various tourist boards in the UK.

The economic value of the sport fisheries in the UK as reflected by the National Surveys of Angling is very high. Much more money is spent on recreational fishing than on freshwater . During the year 1969-70, each angler in England and Wales spent about £ 80/year for his sport, and of the gross annual expenditure of about £ 195-250 million by 2 790 000 anglers, about two-thirds related to inland waters (Tombleson, 1978, 1982). In 1979, the gross expenditure in England and Wales for coarse fishing was £ 300 million, for sea fishing £ 213 million, and for game fishing in inland waters £ 120 million. As a specific example, Gee and Edwards (1982) estimated that the total expenditure on salmon angling on the River Wye amounted to £ 736 per salmon compared with a commercial value of £ 36 for each salmon netted in the Wye estuary.

As might be expected, the sales and rental of salmon and trout waters is very high. In England and Wales, circa 1967-72, the sales value of a recreational salmon fishery was about £ 500-750 per fish caught. "Thus a fishery in which the five-year average annual catch was only 100 salmon would fetch between £ 50 000 and £ 75 000 on the open market" (Nat. Environ. Res. Counc., 1972). Trout fishing values are also very high; some have risen to as high as £ 10 900/km of stream and circa 1972, a mixed fishery (one bank only) for salmon and coarse fish sold for £ 11 200/km. More recently, the fishing for about 1.5 km of the River Tweed in Scotland sold for US$ 200 000, based on an average annual catch of 65 salmon (Zern, 1982). Such startling figures are, of course, far above the norm. Salmon fishing or trout fishing on a famous chalk stream are generally luxury sports, but much of the trout fishing, especially in Scotland, is quite cheap, and coarse fishing widely practised. Furthermore, the growth of reservoir fishing has brought fishing for large trout within the capabilities of many.

7.2 Aquaculture

Until fairly recently, most of the fish produced through pond culture in the UK have been destined for stocking recreational fisheries and not for the table. Lewis (1979) says that although trout restocking farms have been in operation in Great Britain for over 100 years, the first table trout farm was not built until the - 246 -

1960s. Today, however, there is a greater emphasis on commercial production for food. There has been considerable research in the UK on culture of some marine flatfish, trout and salmon culture in both fresh and salt water is firmly established, and eel, crayfish and common carp culture are also in progress.

As in other countries, it is difficult to obtain accurate figures on the rise or extent of aquacultural production in the UK. Table 19 which provides some estimates of table trout production in the UK illustrates some of the difficulties in obtaining specific or agreed information even from "standard" sources. (Statistics on aquacultural production in the UK do not always specify the geographical or political unit represented, nor do they always specify the species (it is probably mostly rainbow trout in Table 19) nor whether all of the production is designed for table (i.e., consumable or for food) or for stocking either other production ponds or fishing waters, nor the exact year of production. In short, aside from the difficulties in obtaining figures, their presentation in many reports simply begs the question. In this paper I have tried to present the data as they were given originally.) It is clear, however, that with an apparent production of only about 100 t in 1956 in England and Wales (UK/EIFAC, 1975) and 100-800 t in the UK in 1965, that the estimates of about 6 000 t of trout (Table 19) or even 11 000 t of fish from all freshwater farms in the UK in 1980 (Solbe, 1982) represented a substantial increase for the country. Prescott (1983) said that the UK ranked about sixth in Europe for farmed fish. By 1989, of all European countries, outranked only by Norway in its production of salmonoid fish: about 17 000 t of trout and 28 000 t of salmon'. Trout production appears to be fairly stable, but further large increases are still being predicted for salmon (see below).

In a survey of 421 fish farms (out of an estimated 480 freshwater fish farms in the UK), Solbe (1982) noted that 95 percent raised salmonids: 62 percent rainbow trout, 18 percent brown trout, 10.6 percent salmon, 3.1 percent brook trout and 2 percent sea trout. The other 5 percent of the farms raised: carp, roach, rudd, tench, grass carp and eel.

Readily identifiable individual statistics on aquacultural production in England and Wales seem often to be lacking. It is apparent, however, that England and Wales produce the largest amount of cultivated trout in the UK. During the 1976/77 period, the following estimates were made of trout and salmon production in Great Britain: in England and Wales, 1 500 t from 140 trout farms; in Scotland, 950-1 300 t of trout from 25 farms, and 200 t of salmon from 8 farms (MAFF/DAFS, 1978). Lewis (1980) felt that two-thirds of the production in Great Britain would be in England and Wales and one-third in Scotland, and Lewis (1981) had figures showing that 70 percent of the table trout reared in Great Britain during 1974-79 came from England and Wales. Based on a survey of about two-thirds of its registered fish farms, in 1988 England was producing at least 7 800 t of rainbow trout, 10 t of brown trout, 5 t of salmon, 20 t of carp and 1 t of eel. The returns from Wales showed that this principality was producing at least 660 t of rainbow trout, and 5 t of other trout and salmon for the table (Morrison, 1990).

The prospects of fish farming in Scotland, especially for rainbow trout, were somewhat discounted at one time (see the DAFS Fisheries of Scotland Report for 1966, p. 57). Fluctuation in flow of Scottish streams and lack of industrial fishing to provide trout feed (as in Denmark) were cited as reasons for a less than ideal situation for pond rearing. However, successful trials of on-growing rainbow trout had already started in 1960 at Loch Sween on Scotland's west coast, with fish kept in net enclosures in brackish water and then transferred to floating cages in a sea-loch (Sedgwick, 1982). Moreover, ponds starting on "Danish" lines were well in production in 1967, with 20 t of trout produced at one Scottish farm, and new units constructed for saltwater cages to raise rainbow trout to 2% kg.

By 1970, low-cost floating cage structures, considered better than either ponds Of raceways, had been developed for use in Scottish freshwater lochs. Sea culture using both fixed cages and saltwater tanks had also started and by 1971 some cultivated salmon had reached the market from one saltwater farm. Currie (1972), among others, pointed out the possibilities of using Scotland's west coast waters for salmonid

Norway produced 4 000 t of trout and 130 000 t of salmon in 1989 Table 19

Estimated production of cultivated trout in the UK, 1965, 1970, 1975, 1980-89 (in tons)

Source Species 1965 1970 1975 1980 1981 1982 1983 1984 1985 1986 1987 1988 1989

Tombleson (1982) "Fish" 100 200 ------

Brown (1977) Trout, rainbow 800 - 1000------

22000

Georgetti and Ceschi (1982)' Trout ------

Lewis (1980, 1981)" Trout, table - 1505 ------

Lewis (1979) Trout, rainbow - - - - - _ ------

Shaw, Shaw and Thomas Trout, table, - - 1300 5500 6500 ------(1981) rainbow

FAO (1980) Trout, mostly - - - . ------rainbow

Britain (1982) Trout - - - 6000 ------

Pinot and Kirk (1982) Trout, rainbow, - - - 5000 ------freshwater

Prescott (1983) Trout, rainbow ------

Fish Farm.Inter., 9(101(1982) Trout, table - - 4200 5200 5500 ------

Fish Farm.Inter., 11(7)(1984) Trout - . - - - - 8500 ------

FES (1986)w Trout, table, ------10200 - - - - portion

FES (1989)' Trout, table, - . ------15000 17000 portion

FAO Fish.Info. Data & Stat. Rainbow trout ------11600 11877 13707 15525 - Serv. (1990)

FAO Fish.Info. Data & Stat. Rainbow trout ------11877 13707 15525 17362 Serv. (1991)' at Circa 1975 (exact date not given) b/ Specified as Great Britain, not UK c/ Specified as Great Britain. Rainbow trout judging from Lewis (1980) d/ Large trout specified as UK, portion size trout specified as Great Britain e/ To these figures add the additional production of brown trout: 140 t (est) in 1986; 150 t in 1987; 180 t in 1988; 200 t (est) in 1989 Table 20

Estimated production of cultivated salmon in Scotland, 1971, 1975, 1980-89 (in tons)

Source 1 971 1975 1980 1981 1 982 1983 1984 1985 1986 1987 1 988 1989

DAFS, Fisheries of "some" 200------Scotland Reports for 250 1971-78

DAFS (1981a), 1982, - - 598 1 133 2 152 ------1983)

Fish Farm.Int., 11(3) - - - - - 2 536 ------(Publ. 1984)

Fish Farm.Int., 12(4) ------3 912 - - - - - (Publ. 1985)

Laird and Needham ------6 900 11 000 15 000 - - (1986)

Morrison (1990) ------17 951 28 553

FAO Fish.Info. Data & ------6 921 10 338 1 2 721 1 7 951 - Stat. Serv. (1990)

FAO Fish.Info.Data & ------10 338 12 721 1 7 951 28 553 Stat. Serv. (1991)

Fish Farmer (1990) ------28 000 - 249 -

culture, likening its indentations or sea-lochs to the fiords of Norway'. He described their salinity, stated that their tidal rise and fall ensured good oxygenation, and felt that better food conversion rate for trout could be obtained in the sea than in fresh water. He was, however, not overly sanguine about the possibility of enclosed sea culture, but the Fisheries of Scotland Report for 1972 now spoke of a great potential for Scottish salmon culture, saying that apart from Norway, Scotland had the only suitable sheltered waters in Europe for sea-loch culture (west coast and the Hebrides). Floating sea cages for rainbow trout and salmon were adapted for use in freshwater lochs to raise rainbow trout in 1976, and were also being exported. An act of 1980 further facilitated fish farming in Scotland by relieving fish farmers of liability to pay local authority rates on operational property.

By 1982, rainbow trout culture, from 65 companies at 85 sites, in Scotland was using the following methods (production is indicated in parentheses): freshwater cages (38%), ponds (34%), tanks (21%), and seawater cages (7%). Of the 1982 production of rainbow trout, 1 786 t were table trout and 132 t were used for restocking.

With respect to salmon, by 1981 the aquacultural production in Scotland of 1 133 t exceeded that of the commercial capture fishery for that year (997 t), and by 1982 it had exceeded the greatest combined catch of both rods and nets during the 1965-82 period, i.e., 2 152 t as against the capture fishery catch in 1967 of 2 134 t. Within two years (1984), this farmed production of salmon had risen to 3 912 t or about 1.8 million fish (Fish. Farm. Inter., 12(4) (1985)). By 1 988, the value of production was set to make salmon the single most valuable fish produced or landed in the UK, topping and haddock (Laird and Needham, 1988). By 1989, the production of salmon in Scotland alone was about 28 000 t. See Table 20 to follow the rise of commercial aquacultural production of salmon in Scotland from 1 971 through 1989.

The commercial production of table fish in Northern Ireland is in no way comparable to that in Great Britain. During the 1973-80 period, the estimated commercial production of rainbow trout varied from 100 t by nine farms in 1973 to 235 t in 1979 (DANI, Rep. Sea and Inland Fisheries N.I., 1973-80). By 1988, annual commercial production of rainbow trout had reached about 700 t and a salmon farm had started (Morrison, 1990). The development of commercial aquaculture in Northern Ireland has been facilitated by governmental grant aid in establishing and improving fish farms. Much of the produce is sold fresh in Great Britain.

With respect to trout culture generally, most farms in the UK are now raising their own eggs, reversing the former practice of using large numbers of imported eggs. Unlike the "Danish" system, few ponds are built into existing river courses although rivers are a prime source of water for freshwater systems. Springs and wells are used to supply intensive ponds which are of paramount importance, although raceways, cages and extensive ponds are also used. Sea water pens are also used. Most effluent from freshwater farms is discharged to rivers. In the UK circa 1 982, it required 8.1 to 1 0.3 l/s of water on the average to produce 1 t of trout (Sob& 1 982).

Trout weighing between 1 70 and 250 g in the round are in demand as consumption fish. Circa 1 980, about 82 percent were sold fresh, 1 6 percent sold frozen, and 2 percent smoked. Dried pellet food is used almost exclusively, automatic feeders and other modern devices are used on the newer farms. The production cycle from hatching to market size requires about 1 0 months in the southern UK and up to 18 months in the north.

Atlantic salmon production in the UK is almost confined to Scotland. Like the DAFS (1972), Edwards (1978) felt that the west coast of Scotland had the best sites for sea production of salmon next to Norway; the fish are farmed in cages in sea-lochs after the smolts have been adapted to salt water. Smolts are put into sea water in April at a weight of 40 g and reach a weight of 0.5 kg by December of the same year. The

1/ Needham (1986) has emphasized Norwegian influences on the development of the Scottish salmon farming industry: especially the use of sea lochs and the use of Norwegian salmon stocks which tend to be late maturers - 250 -

first sales of grilse are made in June of the following year when the fish have reached a size of 1.0 to 1.5 kg. Salmon sales start in January and continue until April of the third year when the fish average 3 to 3.5 kg. The cages are then restocked (Sedgwick, 1982).

Salmon ranching is also a possibility, but Thorpe (1980) states that in Britain it is a potential rather than actual enterprise. A pilot study by DAFS on sea ranching on the river Lussa in southwest Scotland reported by Anon. (1984) and Wray (1985) obtained a return of just under 2% percent in the first year. Eggs of the Pacific coho salmon ( Oncorhynchus kisutch) have also been imported into Scotland for commercial hatching. To date, however, the farming of Atlantic salmon continues to be an amazing endeavour in Scotland.

European eel production using heated effluents from power plants is now underway in the UK. Sixty-five tons of eel were cultivated in Scotland in 1979 and 15 t in 1980 (DAFS, Fisheries of Scotland Report for 1980).

A few common carp farms have also been started in England with a view to sales to "ethnic minorities", foreign restaurants and shops, and for export. One of the largest farms, in Yorkshire, uses mirror carp from Germany. In Britain, carp grow only during the summer so it requires three growing seasons to reach a table weight of about 1% kg (Wray, 1982).

There is also interest in the commercial production of crayfish in the UK. The first commercial crayfish centre in Britain was established in Dorset in 1976, using the American Pacifastacus leniusculus (Richards and Fuke, 1977).

8. OWNERSHIP, ADMINISTRATION, MANAGEMENT AND INVESTIGATION"

8.1 Ownership, Availability and Licensing

Ownership of fisheries in the UK is divided between the private and public sectors: the former being connected with most of the natural waters, and the latter with tidal and navigable waters, reservoirs and drainage channels.

8.1.1 England and Wales

Generally speaking, in England and Wales the right of fishing in waters which are tidal and navigable is enjoyed by all citizens, subject, of course, to the fact that licenses are necessary for salmonids, freshwater fish and eel, but not marine species. However, some ancient grants of tidal fisheries to private persons still exist, and can be bought or sold as freehold or leasehold properties (Hardy, 1980). Commercial fishing is carried on mainly in waters where the right of fishing is public. In fresh or non-tidal waters, the fishing rights are presumed to belong to the owner of the soil thereunder. One may own all of the right if one owns both banks or the rights out to mid-stream if one owns only one bank. The riparian owner of a fishery may, however, sell or lease the fishing rights separately from the land but cannot abandon them through non-use.

There is some eel catching in the rivers, and commercial netting for salmon and sea trout in estuaries and on the coast. However, most of the fishing in fresh waters is angling, i.e., recreational.

With respect to the availability of inland waters for recreational fishing, Tombleson (1978) offers the following broad classification: (i) privately owned fisheries, owned by or leased to angling clubs, with no

1/ Based largely on Gaudet (1974), Govt. of the UK (1978), Parton (1978), Tombleson (1978, 1982), information received by EIFAC from the UK in 1979, UK/EIFAC (1979), Aptekman (1979), Britain (1981, 1982), personal communications from B. Stott (1983) and R. Williamson (1983), and information furnished to E1FAC by J.W. Banks (1990). Some of the systems used in the UK have changed several times during this almost 20-year period - 251 -

public right of navigation; (ii) publicly owned fisheries such as canals, reservoirs and drainage channels, where rights of navigation and public access are involved and are mostly leased as fisheries to angling clubs, and (Hi) privately owned fisheries on waters having a public right of navigation. The type first named constitutes the largest section; the fisheries are mainly on flowing water but also include natural lakes and ponds and gravel pits.

The local administration of fisheries in England and Wales lies with the National Rivers Authority (see section 8.2.1) which is required to regulate fisheries by a system of licenses. The Authority has the power to impose different duties on different types of fishing instruments and to grant exemptions from duty. However, a fishing license does not give a holder a right to fish at a time or in a place where he is not otherwise entitled to fish.

8.1.2 Scotland

The situation differs in Scotland. Here, all the salmon and sea trout fisheries are a separate heritable estate or the subject of proprietorship separate from land ownership. The salmon and sea trout fisheries that do not belong to private persons (or corporate bodies) belong to the Crown; although owned by the State they are not public fisheries and can be let to private individuals or corporate bodies. Private ownership of salmon and sea trout fisheries in Scotland extends to all rivers and lakes and to the sea within three miles of shore. (There are exceptions in the Orkney and Shetland Islands where some of the land is under "udal" tenure and the right of salmon fishing is held with ownership of the adjacent land.) Aside from rod fishing for these fish, various commercial methods are used (see section 7.1.1).

All other freshwater fisheries in Scotland, including those for brown trout, appertain to the land. The fisheries cannot be sold separately from the adjacent land although they can be let independently of it. In non-tidal fresh waters, the right to fish for freshwater fish is private except that there is (generally) a public right to fish for brown trout in navigable and tidal waters.

With respect to the general availability of recreational fisheries in Scotland, the following classification is offered by Jamieson (1978): (i) private, retained only for the owners and their guests; (ii) leased, both short or long-term, and constituting the bulk of the good salmon fishing; WO hotel fisheries, and (iv) permit fisheries, widespread, administered by diverse agencies and considered the open market fishery with fewest restraints.

There is no licensing system for either sport or commercial fishing in the inland waters of Scotland.

8.1.3 Northern Ireland

Fishing rights in Northern Ireland are normally attached to soil over which water lies or flows. However, the title to a fishery may be separated from the soil and vested in a separate owner.

All inland fisheries are in private ownership of some kind, and there is no right of public fishing on inland waters. Fishing rights are included in sporting rights attached to the land. This has led to a complex situation as there is a fragmentation of ownership among various landowners. There can be difficulties in acquiring fishing rights, and often an owner will not take the trouble to establish his title.

In practice, much of the best fishing water in Northern Ireland, and in particular, the best rivers, are under the control of angling clubs or syndicates and reserved for private use. Since 1967/68, the Department of Agriculture for Northern Ireland (DANI) has undertaken an angling development plan to provide reasonable trout fishing facilities for public use. DANI did not compete with angling clubs for the acquisition of waters, but acquired suitable coarse fish lakes and developed them into trout fisheries. About 1 275 ha of game fishing lakes, 60 km of game fishing river and 15 500 ha of mixed game and lake fishing were available to the public by 1979. In 1990, over 60 public angling waters provided both game and coarse fishing, and salmon rivers were accessible to DANI permit holders. - 252 -

Throughout Northern Ireland, there is a licensing system which applies to public and private waters. The Fisheries Conservancy Board issues rod licenses which are required for fishing in both private and public waters, the Foyle Fisheries Commission issues licenses for fishermen fishing in the Foyle area, and the DANI issues permits which allow an angler to fish the Department's waters (see section 8.2.3). Anglers under 16 who fish exclusively for coarse fish do not require a license. In the Conservancy area, a game license is valid for both game and coarse fishing, and the holder of a license issued in one area may have it endorsed for the other area by paying an extra charge.

8.2 Administration and Management

8.2.1 England and Wales

(i) Ministry of Agriculture, Fisheries and Food (MAFF). This Ministry through its Department of Fisheries has overall responsibility for all salmon and inland fishery matters, but the detailed administration and management of the fisheries is performed by the National Rivers Authority (see below). MAFF's Fisheries Division 1 is the unit concerned with aspects of inland fisheries. The Minister of Agriculture, Fisheries and Food has the duty, jointly with the Secretary of State for the Environment (DOE) to promote a national water resources policy and it is his duty to secure the effective execution of that policy as it is related to inland and coastal waters.

(ii) The Secretary of State for the Environment has the duty to secure the effective execution of as much of the policy as relates to the restoration of wholesomeness of rivers and other inland waters, and the use of water for recreation.

(iii) National Rivers Authority (NRA). Following the Water Act of 1989 the National Rivers Authority came into being. It was formed by amalgamating those portions of the ten Regional Water Authorities which dealt with rivers, water resources and inland waters generally. The other functions of the Water Authorities, concerned with water supply and sewage treatment and disposal, were left in the hands of ten newly formed private companies corresponding in area to the ten Water Authorities which they replaced'.

The NRA is also divided for administrative purposes into ten regions whose boundaries correspond closely to those of the ten private Water Companies.

The NRA is concerned with all aspects of water resource management, flood defence, land drainage, effluent discharge quality, fisheries, water based recreation, navigation and wildlife conservation on rivers. The fisheries duties are broadly defined as the maintenance, improvement and development of all fisheries on inland waters. There are also certain responsibilities for the management of migratory salmonid fisheries along the coast.

The NRA includes representation of all its interests on a national Board. There are also regional boards with separate committees for rivers, flood defence and fisheries. The national Board is appointed by the Secretary of State for the Environment and the Secretary of State for Wales.

In addition to its Fisheries Advisory Committee each region may also appoint local fishery committees. They have the power to require fishing licences even on private waters, and approximately fifty per cent of their revenue for fishery expenditure is derived from this source. The remainder being at present provided by the Government through grant-in-aid to the NRA as a whole.

Both public and privately owned inland fisheries (commercial and sport) are subject to the general provisions of the Salmon and Freshwater Fisheries Act 1975 relating to illegal methods of fishing, seasons,

11 The fishery problems of a number of these Water Authorites, which were carried over to the National River Authority, are well covered in accounts to be found in van Densen, Steinmetz, and Hughes (1990) - 253 -

river obstructions, etc., and to byelaws laid down by the NRA. Such byelaws may regulate the taking of fish, methods, numbers and size limits, use of nets, etc. Byelaws proposed by the Authority are, however, subject to Ministerial approval.

(iv) In addition to the above, there are a large number of other bodies (national, regional and local), which have a share in one or more aspects of water use or management including some aspects of fisheries (see section 8.4).

8.2.2 Scotland

(i) The Department of Agriculture and Fisheries for Scotland (DAFS), through its Fisheries Division, is responsible for all central fisheries administration, utilizing various services. Technical advice is provided by an Inspector of Salmon and Freshwater Fisheries for Scotland.

(ii) Salmon Fishery District Boards. Within their individual districts, on virtually all the important salmon rivers, these District Boards are responsible for protection and improvement of their salmon and sea trout fisheries, especially through the enforcement of anti-poaching measures, closing times, and the stocking of rivers. The laws currently administered are the Salmon Fisheries (Scotland) Acts of 1862 and 1868 which established a system of District Boards consisting of representatives of proprietors of salmon fisheries in each district; the Salmon and Freshwater Fisheries (Protection) (Scotland) Act 1951 which amended and strengthened the law with respect to protection of salmon and freshwater fisheries, and the Salmon Act of 1986 which redefined the areas of the Salmon Fishery Districts and further increased their powers and administrative duties.

(iii) The North of Scotland Hydro-Electric Board is concerned with measures to preserve salmon and trout fisheries in waters affected by hydroelectric development. The Board also undertakes some research projects. It receives advice from an independent Fisheries Committee appointed by the Secretary of State. The Forestry Commission encourages angling in certain lakes within its forests.

8.2.3 Northern Ireland

The Secretary of State for Northern Ireland is responsible to the Parliament of the UK for services such as agriculture, including fisheries and the environment.

The legislation which governs fishing in Northern Ireland is the Fisheries Act (NI) 1966 and the Foyle Fisheries Act (NI) 1952.

(i) The Department of Agriculture for Northern Ireland (DANI) and the Fisheries Conservancy Board share the general management of fisheries (aside from Foyle). The Board is responsible for the conservation and protection of the country's salmon and inland fisheries.

(ii) The Foyle Fisheries Commission, established in 1952 to provide for the management, protection and improvement of fisheries in the Foyle area, administers the Foyle Catchment which is situated in both Northern Ireland and the Republic of Ireland.

8.3 Scientific and Research Services

A Fisheries Research and Development Board is responsible for advising the fishery units within MAFF and DAFS on research needs and priorities, and the Controller of Fisheries Research is responsible for coordinating fishery research for England, Wales and Scotland.

8.3.1 England and Wales

(i) The Ministry of Agriculture, Fisheries and Food has several units concerned with investigation on or related to inland fisheries. (a) The Inland and Coastal Fisheries Group in the Directorate of Fisheries at - 254 -

Lowestoft carries out investigations on biological problems including those of diadromous and other fishes. Its officers provide advice and technical information to the public and other bodies on fishery problems; (b) Studies on river pollution and toxic substances are the responsibility of an Aquatic Environmental Pollution unit at the Ministry's laboratory at Burnham-on-Crouch; (c) The Fish Diseases Laboratory at Weymouth, part of the Ministry's Fish Cultivation Unit, carries out investigations into fish pathology and parasitology and provides advice to MAFF Fisheries Division, fish farmers, the National Rivers Authority and the public.

(ii) The Institute of Freshwater Ecolooy (IFE), a unit within the National Environment Research Council (NERC), Partly financed by Government funds, has a Headquarters Laboratory at Windermere. Its activities cover the entire field of limnology as well as work on fish and fisheries. (The old and well known Freshwater Biological Association (FBA) became a part of IFE in 1989.)

8.3.2 Scotland

Scientific and research services for salmon and freshwater fisheries in Scotland are under the direction of DAFS's Director of Fisheries Research at Aberdeen. Freshwater research is carried out at the Freshwater Fisheries Laboratory at Pit!ochry.

8.3.3 Northern Ireland

DANI operates a Fish Research Laboratory and a Freshwater Biological Investigation Unit, and has a long-term research project on the biology of the Atlantic salmon.

8.4 Other Agencies

In addition to the legislative authorities described above, there are a large number of groups in the UK involved directly with inland fisheries or with related concerns such as water resources, amenity, the environment, or recreation. Some of these are listed below.

(i) Statutory National: The Welsh Office, Department of the Environment (recreation), Sports Council, British Waterways Board (BWB) (canals and waterways including provision of facilities for recreational fishing), Inland Waterways Amenity Advisory Council (advises the BWB and Secretary of State for the Environment on recreation, including fishing), British Tourist Board, Countryside Commission. (Two other bodies have been eliminated in recent years: the National Water Council has been replaced by the Water Authorities Association, and the Water Space Amenity Commission disbanded.)

(ii) Voluntary National: National Angler's Council (representing the whole of the sport of angling), National Federation of Anglers (coarse fishing), Salmon and Trout Association (game fishing), Angler's Cooperative Association, National Association of Specimen Groups, British Field Sport Society, Institute of Fisheries Management (a professional organization for the subject), Welsh Angler's Council, Scottish Angler's Association, Scottish Salmon Angling Association, Scottish National Angling Club's Association, Ulster Provincial Council of the Irish Federation of Sea Anglers, Ulster Coarse Angling Federation, and Ulster Angling Federation.

(iii) Other Regional Statutory: Northern Sports Council for Sport and Recreation, North West Council for Sport and Recreation, Yorkshire and Humberside Council for Sport and Recreation, East Midland Regional Council for Sport and Recreation, West Midlands Council for Sport and Recreation, Eastern Council for Sport and Recreation, and Greater London and South East Council for Sport and Recreation.

(iv) Universities. Many universities in the UK perform considerable research on inland fishery biology or related aspects such as fishery economics, and limnology.

8.5 Water Pollution Research and Control

Responsibility for pollution control is shared by various central governmental departments, local and - 255 -

regional water authorities, and statutory agencies. The Water Act of 1989 which applies to England, Scotland, and Wales provides a wide basis for greater protection of waters. An independent standing Royal Commission on Environmental Pollution advises the Government on national and international matters concerning the pollution of the environment, in adequacy of research, and future dangers to the environment.

In England and Wales, the Secretary of State for the Environment has a coordinating role concerning pollution matters as a whole exercised through a Central Directorate on environmental pollution within his Department, while an independent Standing Commission on Energy and Environment provides the Government with advice on the interaction of energy policies to the environment. Water research in England and Wales is undertaken by the Water Research Centre (WR), under contracts from the National Rivers Authority and the Department of the Environment.

The National Rivers Authority in England and Wales, the River Purification Boards and Island Councils in Scotland, and the Department of Environment for Northern Ireland are responsible for control of water pollution. There is also a Scottish River Purification Advisory Committee which advises the Secretary of State on pollution matters.

9. STATE OF THE FISHERY

9.1 Yield

Estimates of fish production have been made in a number of streams and natural lakes in the UK. (The term "production" as used here is that of lvlev (1945), expressed by Le Cren (1972) as "... the total elaboration of fish flesh in a given time regardless of its ultimate fate and whether it survives to the end of that time". It is not synonymous with the "yield" to the fisherman.) Studies of salmonids in streams of England and Scotland cited by Le Cren (1972) range from a production of 2.6 to 13 g/m2/year (26 to 130 kg/ha/year). With respect to his own studies in English streams, Le Cren (1969) noted that the annua production of brown trout was similar in both Highland streams with soft water and Lowland streams with high calcium content, but that the populations were sparser in the lowlands. With respect to coarse fish production in English streams, Mann (1971) made estimates of 2.3-43 g/m2/year (23-430 kg/ha/year) for the bullhead (Cottus aobio), 9.0 g/m2/year (90 kg/ha/year) for the roach (Rutilus rutilus), and 29 g/m2/year (290 kg/ha/year) for the bleak (Alburnus alburnus).

Le Cren (1972) also provided estimates of production in English lakes of brown trout (0.75 g/m2/year or 7.5 kg/ha/year in Three Dubs, Tarn), European perch (16 and 20 g/m2/year or 160 and 200 kg/ha/year in Windermere), and pike (0.24-0.67 g/m2/year or 2.4-6.7 kg/ha/year in Windermere).

Mann (1972) also cited studies in the Thames, midway between Oxford and London showing a total annual production of 2 000 kg/ha (about 200 Kcal/m2). About 70 percent was attributable to fish in their first year, but he considered that with skillful management, a yield of 500 kg/ha/year could be obtained. (Such yields in this type of water could only be described as phenomenal, see below.)

It is important to note that although some very high levels of production have been found in some English streams, there is indeed large contribution from young stages, and that the dominant species such as the bullhead (in chalk streams) and the bleak (in the Thames) are not of interest to fishermen.

In Northern Ireland, some estimates of young salmon production in various streams were listed by Elson (1975) as follows: 3.95 g/m2/year (39.5 kg/ha/year) in the Bann; and in the Foyle system 9.16 g/m2/year (91.6 kg/ha/year) in the Granagh, and 1.69 g/m2/year (16.9 kg/ha/year) in the Roe.

Of greater interest to the fishermen is his own "yield" or "harvest" from the waters. The natural yield varies decidedly: it is quite high in some of the lowland lakes and streams and extremely low in some of the infertile Highland tarns. Intermediate between these are waters like Loch Leven. In 1960 it produced a catch of 86 000 trout, but between 1923 and 1 972 it averaged about 40 000 fish weighing 18 t, i.e., a yield of about 13.6 kg/ha/year. Since 1968, the catch has declined to consistently below 20 000 fish annually - 256 -

(A. Holden, personal communication, 1979). Frost and Brown (1967) list some yields from man-made lakes in the British Isles ranging from about 0.45 to 61.6 kg/ha/year. The yield from UK's largest lake, Lough Neagh in Northern Ireland, considering only the catch of eel, trout, coregonids, pike, bream and perch appears to be about 23 kg/ha/year (Milway, 1970). Tesch (1977) states that the yield in Lough Neagh from eel alone is about 20 kg/ha/year. Studies in 1976 from the Piddle catchment in Dorset indicated a yield of silver eel of 52 kg/ha/year in 1976 and 49 kg/ha/year in 1977 (MAFF, Dir. of Fish., 1982).

The yield to the angler obviously rests to a large extent upon the species taken, e.g., the highly productive bullhead is fished by children, not serious anglers. In many waters the yield to the angler is largely dependent upon the local angling regulations and the amount and type of stocking. Cane (1980) points out that data for 22 reservoir fisheries in England and Wales, each of which yielded over 10 000 fish in 1978, indicated trout catches ranging from 30 to 1 240 fish/ha. "The smaller reservoirs yielded the highest catch rates relative to area, a reflection not necessarily of greater maintained fish density but rather of the increased frequency of stocking necessary to support high angling demand". As heavy stocking of catchable trout in reservoirs increases, their yield will also increase.

With respect to coarse fisheries, the River Trent had a mean annual catch rate (by angling) of 114 g/man/hour as compared with the Ouse, 58 g/man/hour, and Severn, 82-176 g/man/hour (Cowx, 1990). As has been pointed out by Cowx (1990), however, the anglers' satisfaction may not rest completely on numercial yield, but upon the principal species caught.

9.2 Factors Affecting the Fishery

Although the overall area of inland water within the UK is relatively small, almost all of the nation was originally endowed with many excellent fishing rivers, and in some areas, many natural lakes and tarns. Even in the driest areas of the UK, rain falls on almost half the days of the year, and on average the wettest areas have less than 100 dry days annually. Since the response of streamflow to rain is rapid, the streams generally maintain good flows, and if not polluted, almost any water in the country can still support populations of salmonids. (The uneven population distribution and east-west rainfall gradient does mean, however, that some rural rivers and many urban rivers have high demands.)

Today, these waters range from the rushing salmon streams of Scotland and Wales, to small Highland becks with abundant populations of small brown trout and to the famed chalk streams of southern England with their large and wily trout. They range from the deep lochs and clear tarns of Scotland to the well stocked reservoirs of England. In addition, there is an abundance of quiet waters in the canals and broads where coarse fishing is paramount.

Although the variety of fishing is limited, it far exceeds that of more northern European countries, and includes the "finest" of game fishes, especially salmon and trout, as well as the less appreciated char and grayling. Coregonids are very limited, being important only in Lough Neagh. Perch, pike, eel and a good supply of cyprinids for coarse fishing generally completes the picture. There are, of course, pressures to introduce exotic fishes either for sport or fish culture and a number have been brought into the country, among them the pike-perch, American brook trout, grass carp and Pacific coho salmon.

The water quality, based on acid rocks, of Highland Britain is generally oligotrophic and of low productivity. Its streams are usually fast flowing and support only populations of small brown trout. Balanced against these are the more productive waters of Lowland Britain for both coarse and , and even the low nutrient status of Highland streams is often well compensated for through the return of migratory salmonids nourished in the rich marine waters off Britain. Similarly, although the growing season decreases from south to north, a generally mild climate persists even in the north.

Population density in England is very high (similar to that in the Benelux countries), more moderate in Wales and Northern Ireland, and relatively light in Scotland. This can encourage heavy fishing in some areas, facilitated by the good system of public transportation and automobile roads, which, within the legally set limits, permits year-round fishing. (In general, trout fishing is not allowed between 1 October and - 257 -

28 February for trout or between 1 November and 31 January for salmon. Coarse fishing is not permitted between 15 March and 15 June in most of England and Wales, but has no closed season in Northern Ireland.)

The average annual runoff per caout is very high in Scotland, 13 787 m3 and above the European average in Northern Ireland, 5 416 m3. However, it is only 992 m3 in England and Wales, 2 167 rn3 in Great Britain, and 2 257 m3 in the United Kingdom as a whole (based on Table 2 and hydrological data in section 5). The situation in Great Britain is particularly aggravated by the fact that about 90 percent of its population lives where only about one-half the total runoff is available. With respect to the dilution of polluting effluents, this has posed serious problems.

It might be natural to assume that a country so densely populated, industrialized and intensely cultivated as is the UK, would have widespread water pollution. Such a misleading conclusion deserves correction, best shown by three tables (21, 22, 23). The first table shows the situation during the 1958-75 period in England and Wales and the 1968-74 period in Scotland. It will be noted that the situation (using the chemical criteria selected by the surveyors) has gradually improved. (See 5.2 in Walling and Webb (1981) for the chemical classification used in pollution surveys in the UK.) Many publications, especially "official" ones stress surveys which indicate improvement in the quality of UK's waters, but not all authors agree. For example, Smith (1972) points out that the Department of the Environment's 1971 report on the extent of water pollution in England and Wales in 1958 and 1970 partly conceals the real extent of pollution by using

Table 21

Total lengths of all rivers in various chemical classes in different surveys in Great Britain

1958 1970 1971 1972 1975 Chemical class km ok km % k ok km % k %

England and Wales

Unpolluted 24660 70.3 28758 74.1 29236 75.4 29514 76.1 29459 75.6

Doubtful 5544 15.8 5972 15.4 5927 15.3 5702 14.7 6178 15.8

Poor 2460 7.0 2209 5.7 1919 4.9 1949 5.0 1873 4.8

Grossly polluted 2411 6.9 1869 4.8 1720 4.4 1637 4.2 1479 3.8

Total (km) 35075 38808 38802 38802 38989

1968 1974 1969 1974 Chemical class km % km ° We' WI

Scotland River Purification Boards

Unpolluted 4049 80.6 30288 92.8 79 78

Fairly good 620 12.3 1713 5.3 14 16

Poor 193 3.8 438 1.3 4 4

Grossly polluted 165 3.3 199 0.6 3 2

Total (km) 5027 32638 4986

a/ Based on lengths common for both surveys

Source: Table 5.5 in Walling and Webb (1981) - 258 -

river length rather than volume of discharge as the basic criterion in estimating improvement. Thus, small headwater streams are given as much weight as the lower reaches of large river systems which are more polluted. He felt that the overall situation in 1970 remained essentially similar to that of 1 958. It may be noted that the need to relate the quality and the magnitude of flow of polluted rivers has, indeed, been recognized in later national surveys of England and Wales. Table 5.4 in Walling and Webb (1981), based on a DOE survey in 1 975, shows the more frequent occurrence of poor quality and grossly polluted reaches with frequent occurrence of poor quality and grossly polluted reaches with increasing mean discharge. Two other critics, Johnson and Brown (1976) thought that the water quality of England and Wales had not appreciably improved or worsened in the past decade, and that one of the expressed aims that "... making the rivers clean enough to restore high-quality fishing is recognized to be a desirable but quite distant goal".

The second table (22) presents some statistics covering more detailed analyses of river pollution in both Great Britain and Northern Ireland. The distinction between pollution in tidal and non-tidal sections as well as between that in the three major political sub-divisions of the UK is shown here.

Table 22

Chemical classes of different types of rivers in the UK

Chemical class

Area Year Unpolluted Doubtful Poor Grossly Total polluted

km % km % km % km %

England and Wales

Total rivers 1975 29459 75.6 6178 15.8 1873 4.8 1479 3.8 38989

Non-tidal 1975 28037 77.6 5458 15.1 1449 4.0 1178 3.3 36123 Tidal 1975 1422 49.6 720 25.1 424 1 4.8 301 10.5 2866

Scotland

Total rivers 1974 45407 95.1 1728 3.6 438 0.9 199 0.4 47772

Non-tidal 1974 45084 95.3 1627 3.4 407 0.9 161 0.4 47279

Tidal 1974 323 65.5 101 20.5 31 6.3 38 7.7 493

bi Northern Ireland

Non-tidal 1978 953 95.9 31 3.1 10 1.0 0 0.0 994 rivers - at Fairly good category used in Scottish surveys b/ Northern Ireland survey is based on a more recent chemical classification

Source: Table 5.3 in Walling and Webb (1981)

The third table (23) illustrates the situation with respect to water quality in rivers and canals in Scotland in 1974, 1980 and 1985. - 259 -

Table 23

River and canal quality (chemical classification) in Scotland, 1974, 1980 and 19851/ (in km)

Non tidal rivers Tidal rivers Canals

1974 1980 1985 1974 1980 1985 1 974 1980 1985

Total 47315.6 47315.6 47315.6 471.9 471.9 471.9 196.7 196.7 196.7

Class 1 45122.7 45024.2 45338.6 310.2 281.1 314.9 71.5 58.5 58.5 unpolluted

Class 2 1634.0 1866.2 1573.6 97.2 126.7 112.1 121.5 136.0 136.0 doubtful

Class 3 poor 391.9 254.9 265.8 28.7 36.6 17.4 1.8 0.2 0.2

Class 4 167.0 170.3 137.6 35.8 27.5 27.5 1.9 2.0 2.0 grossly polluted a/ Excludes Orkney, Shetland and Western Isles

Source: Table 1 6.19 in Scotland (1990)

From these tables and other evidence, one can generally say that: (i) the tidal reaches of many British rivers are frequently classed as polluted; (ii) there is usually a general reduction in water quality in a river from source to mouth; (iii) industrial and urban conurbations are greater sources of pollution than rural areas; (iv) there has been a reduction in the length of highly or grossly polluted river basins, but (v) also a diminution in the extent of high quality river areas. Despite these changes, the great majority of the rivers in the UK are considered unpolluted, and it is generally considered that these rivers are in far better shape than they were during and at any time after the Industrial Revolution. As Britain (1990) says, there has been a general improvement in water quality in the UK since the 1950s, and a comprehensive survey of 1985 classified 90 percent of river lengths in England and Wales as of "good" or "fair" quality, i.e., among other things capable of supporting game or coarse fish populations and suitable for drinking water.

The great improvement in the water quality of the tidal Thames has already been described (section 5.1); its pollution levels have been reduced decidedly over those in the 1950s and 1960s and salmon have been found in this river as far upstream as Oxford. Similarly, in the Trent, a first class mixed fishery for coarse fish, there have been regular sightings of salmon over the last few years. Some have even returned to the Clyde after an absence of over 80 years. Despite such improvements, the situation resulting from the combined effect of sewage and industrial wastes in lowering the concentration of dissolved oxygen and in raising that of poisons is still cause for concern. Half of the fish kills in Great Britain have been attributed to low oxygen levels resulting from sewage and agricultural waste discharges.

As of now, acidified waters are a minor problem.

The use of water for irrigation in a country with abundant rain-fall has been so small that it has rarely affected fisheries; circa 1972, only 0.036 percent of the licensed water abstractions in England and Wales were used for agriculture. (In some areas and at certain times, there are nevertheless rather heavy demands for irrigation water, e.g., if the potential demand for spray irrigation were met, it would produce virtually zero flow in the rivers of the Great Ouse Basin during a dry summer (Ministry of Housing and Local Government, 1960).) The heavy emphasis on land drainage to convey water away as quickly as possible, has, however, affected large areas of good fishing. It has lowered levels, altered flows, eliminated pools and riffles, removed cover, made uniform channels, and, in some cases, created erosion. The Wildlife and Countryside Act (1981) - 260 -

has set out the need for consultation between land drainage engineers and those responsible for fisheries. The requirements of wildlife and fishery conservation are increasingly being taken into account in the drainage works carried out by the National Rivers Authority.

Overall, the British Isles are not well endowed for large-scale production of hydroelectric power. There are sites with favourable climate and terrain, but catchment areas are small, most such areas are distant from centres of population, and formerly abundant supplies of coal have also delayed hydroelectric use in Britain. Thus, the effect of hydroelectric development has been minimal except in some areas in Scotland and northern Wales where steeper gradients, greater rainfall, impermeable rocks, and recent employment of pumped storage, have promoted its use. Here, anadromous fishes have been affected through barriers to their upstream migration, and difficulties of working their way downstream and through turbines. Fortunately, laws concerning hydroelectric development have demanded attention to salvation of fish stocks, resulting in construction of fishpasses, installation of fish-screens and provision of instream or compensation water.

The majority of the freshwater fisheries in the UK are under private ownership (see section 8.1) and use of many of the first quality trout and salmon streams is, as has been noted, a very expensive luxury. Good trout fishing can be found in Scotland, however, at very moderate cost and sometimes without charge, and reservoir fishing in England has brought trout fishing for large fish within reach of the average angler. In the UK as a whole, there are good opportunities for public coarse fishing in many streams and in the extensive canal system. In fact, of all water uses in England and Wales, canalization and the more recent reservoir development (often in drainage basins which originally provided little fishing) may have been the most useful to fishermen seeking low cost and available angling. Membership in Britain's many fishing clubs, in England alone there are probably over 2 000, some with extremely large memberships, also make angling possible for many people through their acquisition of fishing rights through ownership or lease.

The dominance of sport fishing over commercial fishing has long been apparent in the UK. The general use of freshwater fish other than salmonids for food died out long ago, partly as a result of the availability of cheap marine fish. The UK has been a leader in marine fishing, the local seas are productive, and there is no spot more than 120 km from tidal waters.

A traditional interest remains, however, in maintaining a commercial fishery for salmon and sea trout despite the comparatively small number of participants (see section 7.1.1). Furthermore, careful attention has been given to restricting gear and methods that might be harmful to the stocks, e.g., a new drift net fishery for salmonids that developed off the east coast of Scotland in 1960 was soon prohibited (September 1962). UK's salmon fishery may, of course, like that of other European countries be affected by more distant factors such as oceanic conditions, high seas interception, or the somewhat controversial salmon disease, UDN. In recent years, it has also been affected by augmented "poaching" using not only the age-old methods of gaffing, snaring and spearing but the use of lightweight monofilament nets, electro-fishing and poisoning. In 1983, the National Water Council stated that in some areas illegal catches were double the legal catch (Time, 1983).

With respect to commercial aquaculture, the field is primarily limited to salmonid culture because of the climatic conditions which preclude rapid growth in species such as carp, and the type of fish desired by the market. Actual production is limited by the sites available. The best for both salmon and trout appear to be in Scotland where the use of both running water and containment in freshwater and sea-lochs has facilitated cultivation. Limiting factors to aquacultural development include: egg supply (which must eventually come from farmed broodstock), predation, disease, and restrictions which may be placed on aquaculture because of the possible consequences of eutrophication and contamination from disposal of effluent and cage culture. In sea culture, there is also the possibility of damage to pens or cages by storms. For example, in Scotland where a large stocked cage of salmon at time of harvest represented an investment of around 20 000, circa 1981, and the loss of one cage in a three or four cage farm could be disastrous to a small farmer (Nestel, 1981). - 261 -

9.3 Prospect

Water problems in Britain exist because of the broadly inverse distribution of precipitation (i.e., in the north and at heights) and water demands (in the south and lowlands). Furthermore, in the future, not only will industrial use increase, but there will be increases in individual use as for laundry, gardens and recreation. Like most European countries, the UK considers that its water supply is adequate to meet both current and future needs. Nevertheless, neither increasing water use nor changes in water quality are really encouraging to the future of its inland fisheries.

It has been estimated that the demands for water in England and Wales (which constitute 62 percent of UK's area and 88 percent of its population) will increase from the demand of 13.6 million m3/day in 1970 to 28.2 million m3/day in the year 2001. This is a doubling of demand, equivalent to about 15 percent of the entire runoff. To meet such demands, larger abstractions from rivers will be necessary, but since the possibilities for further diversion from rivers in the UK is now very limited unless coupled with storage, including bunded pumped reservoirs, reservoir area is expected to double by that time. It may also be necessary to increase transfer water between river catchments. It has been estimated that by the year 2000, perhaps 25 percent of all public water supplies will be transferred across the existing Water Authority boundaries (Smith, 1972). The best storage facilities are in the north and west, but the major demands are in the flatter Midlands and south east of Great Britain. Transfers will, therefore, be essentially south-eastward from Scotland, Wales and northern England. It may also be necessary to construct estuarial barrages to create large freshwater lakes. While perhaps improving some recreational activities, these may also bring about a multitude of problems including interference with fishery rights and fish migration. Doubling of water demand in Scotland is also anticipated by 2000, but ample water resources are available, and it is believed that they can be developed with minimum impact on fisheries. Northern Ireland is also considered to have abundant potential supplies for domestic and industrial use.

Meanwhile, although a number of smaller power stations on UK rivers have been closed, construction of new power stations, especially nuclear installations, will increase the use of water for cooling purposes, and thus raise the water temperatures where discharged. (Nuclear stations in Britain use about twice as much water for cooling as directly cooled coal-fired stations.) It is likely that most of these new stations will be sited on estuaries or the coast. It might generally appear that rises in water temperature would be harmfu to the fish fauna. Langford and Howells (1977) have, however, maintained that in spite of the extensive use of water in the UK and its discharge at a temperature higher than ambient, no serious adverse effects on the biota, fisheries productivity, or water quality have been noted, even on rivers such as the Trent or Thames, where a succession of stations use, in total, more than the river flow. Langford (1972) also felt that replacement of direct-cooled facilities by those with closed systems would actually reduce the quantity of heat discharged to rivers, "... at least over the next 20 to 25 years". He did, however, place very tolerant temperature limits to be endured by the fauna, e.g., for a fairly clean British river with a mixed fishery, he felt that the temperature over the whole width of the river should not exceed more than 30°C for short periods and never more than 32°C. These are certainly not temperatures suitable for salmonoid stocks, and (to the author) do not present an optimistic picture.

Pollution levels are also likely to change as the number and variety of chemicals grow. Despite the improvement in water quality in many areas of the UK, the relative proportion of effluent in inland waters continues to rise, and the levels of nitrogen and phosphorus have risen decidedly. For example, at Loch Lomond where over 90 percent of nitrate nitrogen entering comes from farmland, the annual amount of nitrate entering the lake had doubled between 1966 and 1969 (Morgan, 1972). In any case, any increased water pollution, including that by heat, and lessened or altered flows will reduce the extent of riverine area suitable for a number of species of fish, and lead to changes in faunal composition. The salmon and trout fisheries will be particularly vulnerable to such changes.

Interbasin transfers of water may also bring about changes in both resident and anadromous stocks. For example, a redistribution of pike and perch stocks from one drainage to another may have occurred in the past through water diversion (Maitland, 1977) and the Stour is believed to have received pike-perch as the result of a water transfer scheme (Linfield, 1984). lnterbasin water transfer may also bring about channel - 262 -

response such as clear water degradation. Even greater changes may be caused by disturbances of migration patterns through changes in water chemistry and timing of flows. (A statement based on the theory that salmon and sea trout "home" from coastal waters to their natal rivers by their formerly imprinted sense of smell (MAFF Dir. Fish. Res., 1982).)

There are, of course, partially alternative measures to meet water demands which would affect fisheries less adversely. These include: the use of ground water (possibly one-quarter of the new water supplies can be obtained from this source), recharge of aquifers, increased reuse and recirculation of effluents, and desalination of sea water (not considered a major source at present, however). Furthermore, most natural lakes in the UK will probably not be affected, i.e., not used for storage and therefore not subject to fluctuation. There will actually be increases in static waters, doubling of reservoir area, and new gravel pit waters which may increase five-fold by 2001. Furthermore, if the natural minimum flows in rivers can be increased, conditions for fish in some areas may be improved. The combined dry weather flow of rivers in Engalnd and Wales has already been doubled by the provision of storage, and the addition of pumped ground water to rivers to maintain their base flows above those amounts normally discharging, especially at periods of low summer or drought flow, has already become a feature of use schemes in several areas (Drennan, 1 979).

Even with increases, however, the fishing public may not be satisfied. Surveys have indicated that freshwater fishermen in the UK prefer to fish rivers, and their general feeling is that their fishing areas have deteriorated. Ginifer (1992) for example, feels strongly that the "chalk streams" or spring creeks of southern England are deteriorating because of reduced flows due to headwaters abstraction, siltation, and a rise in the quantity of nitrates and phosphates from sewage works, trout farms, intensive agriculture, and cress farming. Spacing of anglers has been necessary even in some coarse fish areas, and a general trend of greater travel to distant waters as well as a trend toward sea fishing is already discernible. (The number of sea anglers in England and Wales has increased 40 percent in the decade since 1970 (Glyptis, 1980).) Furthermore, a water deficit for England and Wales has been predicted by the year 2000.

As in other affluent countries, there is a bias toward water-borne recreation, indicating a trebling of use by the next century, and conflict between angling and other recreational use (swimming, boating, and water-skiing) are well known (see Alabaster, 1978).

The future of commercial fishing in inland waters continues uncertain. In 1961, the Bledisloe Committee for Salmon and Freshwater Fisheries in England and Wales considered, but then rejected, the suggestion that the commercial fishery for salmon and sea trout be abolished. The commercial fishery for these species does continue to have a considerable economic and traditional value, but its importance will almost surely decrease as angling increases. Even in Scotland, it is felt that the role of commercial fishing for salmonids will be diminished. The Hunter Committee or Scottish Salmon and Trout Committee (DAFS, 1963, 1965) recommended that all coastal nets should eventually be abolished and when possible to replace the river net fisheries with trap fisheries. In Northern Ireland, a survey by Elson and Tuomi (1975) of the Foyle River system recommended: drastic curtailment of the commercial salmon fishery, prohibition of the sale of rod-caught salmon and sea trout, and emphasis on angling. (The sale of rod-caught salmon, which command a high price, and lack of lessens the distinction between commercial and recreational fishing.) Two other authorities have proposed that all catches in salmon rivers be left to sports fishermen (Mills and Piggins, 1978), although there is some question as to whether, in the long run, this would be useful (see, especially, Mills, 1989).

Conversely, commercial eel fishing in England and Wales continues to be far below its potential. A consensus (ICES/EIFAC, 1976) indicated that the abundance of elvers seemed satisfactory for stock maintenance, and that an increase in exploitation of silver eels would be both possible and desirable. A possible annual yield of 2 169 t in England and Wales has been estimated (MAFF, Dir. of Fish., 1979, 1982).

Aquaculture for food production is not expected to be a highly important use of inland waters in the UK, except in Scotland, although considerable effort is being made to rear salmonoid fishes for this purpose, and both rainbow trout and salmon culture in salt water will increase, especially in Scotland. The Fisheries - 263 -

Research and Development Board in its 1976-77 report estimated that by 1985, Great Britain would produce 3 000-5 000 t of salmon, and 15 000-20 000 t of trout, their use unspecified (MAFF/DAFS, 1978). Lewis (1980) predicted about 10 000 t of table trout in the UK by the mid-1980s. Shaw, Shaw and Thomas (1981) estimated the production potential of table rainbow trout in the UK would be 18 000 t in 1990, but that the demand in the UK would be only 9 000 t. They also estimated a production of 8 000-10 000 t of salmon, all from Scotland, by 1990, dependent upon market conditions. Tombleson (1982) predicted an output of about 20 000 t of trout in the UK by the mid-1980s, and Brown (1977) stated that some felt that the UK could absorb up to 50 000 t including imports. It is clear that these estimates have turned out to be fairly accurate for trout but have considerably underestimated the rate of development and potential within the Scottish salmon farming industry, where by 1989, the salmon production was already 28 000 t (see Section 7.2).

The industry for rearing trout to stock recreational waters will grow, especially as more emphasis is placed upon provision of sizeable trout, especially rainbow. Advances include the development of both early and late spawning strains and production of sterile female trout (triploids) only. Further advances will also be made in coarse fish culture.

The use of geographical information systems (GIS) and remote sensing (RS) in siting fish cultural establishments has already been mooted for aquacultural activities. See, for the UK especially: Meaden (1987) and Quintero-Marmel (1990)“.

It is difficult to visualize much expansion of the present capture fisheries or development of new ones in the UK as a whole. The expected changes in water quantity and quality, especially in rivers, generally militate against these possibilities. There are some exceptions. Scotland, particularly in its north, may be able to increase trout production in many of its unproductive or unutilized waters, e.g., through fertilization, introduction of forage organisms, or even reduction of recruitment to produce fish large enough to interest anglers. There will probably be changes in the attitude of anglers in the UK toward a number of fish now regarded as inferior to the top "game" fishes. The grayling, more generally respected outside Great Britain, and the introduced pike-perch are examples. There may be greater use of exotic species, e.g., the American brook trout, especially in acid lakes. There will probably be changes in the attitude of anglers in the UK toward the use of cyprinid coarse fishes and a culling of their stocks. There will be greater transfers of anglers from rivers to reservoirs.

In any event, aside from salmon culture in the north, whether it be development or merely "holding the line" to preserve natural waters for fishing, the future of inland fisheries in the UK may rest upon a more positive system for insuring investment in research into and management of recreational fisheries. Responsibilities for such action are now widely spread among a variety of public and private bodies and thus lack a unified pattern. For example, the Ministry of Agriculture, Fisheries and Food (England and Wales) does not appear to have a clear mandate to perform research on recreational fisheries, e.g., management of coarse fish stocks (MAFF/DAFS, 1976). However, the strengthening of the recreational remit given to the new National Rivers Authority, combined with its inherited responsibility to maintain, improve and develop fisheries may enable some progress to be made in this field.

There has also been a proliferation of groups (commissions, authorities, units, councils, boards, etc.) each having some say concerning the use of water which may affect fisheries, and often "advising" either the Government or each other and in turn being advised. As noted above it is to be hoped that a clearer focus on these questions will result from the formation of the N.R.A.

Furthermore, there is a division of governmental authority over the fisheries of the three major political sub-divisions of the UK. These are not necessarily adverse factors, many other governments have analogous allotment of responsibilities, but they must be considered in prognosticating the future. It seems probable that despite the age-old emphasis on private fishing rights, and what some have termed "class" distinctions

1/ The general subject is well described by Meaden and Kapetsky (1991) - 264 -

even between the species fished (see Hunter, 1976), it will be recognized that more specific governmental controls over inland fisheries are necessary, and that the costs must be defrayed to a larger extent by the user. Both Banks (1990) and Chandler (1990) provide good information on the prospects for inland fisheries in Britain.

Perhaps the strongest argument for foreseeing a secure future for the inland fisheries of the UK lies in its policy of seeking to preserve its traditional values, including those of its fishery resources, and to apportion them as equably as possible in a highly industrialized nation.

1 0. REFERENCES

Alabaster, J.S. (Ed.), 1978. Recreational freshwater fisheries. Their conservation, management and development. Proceedings of a Conference of the Water Research Centre held at Keble College, Oxford, 12-15 December 1977. Water Research Centre. 312 p.

Aptekman, T., 1979. England and Wales. In Water laws in selected European countries, 3rd printing, by Agrarian and Water Legislation Section, Legislation Branch, Legal Section, FAO. Vol.1, Legislative Studies, (10):27-48

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SUMMARY AND CONCLUSION

The first volume of this paper (EIFAC Technical Paper No. 52) defined "Europe" as being that part of the Eurasian continent west of the Urals, excluding the then USSR. The larger associated islands of the Atlantic and Mediterranean were included, as was Turkey which is partly in Europe and partly in Asia. It should be noted that FAO's Yearbook of Fishery Statistics considers Turkey and Cyprus as "Asiatic". These two countries were, however, included in this paper because both countries are members of the European Inland Fisheries Advisory Commission (EIFAC) which has played a definite role in the preparation of this paper. It is true that another "Asiatic" country, Israel, is also a member of EIFAC. However, its initial membership was a political consideration, and its inland fisheries have been described by Dill and Ben-Tuvia (1989) in the same manner as has been done here.

If one accepts the findings of FAO based on its Yearbook of Fishery Statistics, and also accepts its definitions of continental affinity (see above) and "catch", then, using FAO Fisheries Circular C710 Rev.7 (1990) as a guide, one arrives at the conclusion that in 1987, "Europe" produced 437 000 t of freshwater and diadromous fish. Aquaculture (including small quantities of fish caught in the brackishwater zone) produced 313 000 t of these fish; 124 000 t were taken through capture fisheries. This amounted to 3.6 percent of the world's production of these fish in that year. If one were to add FAO's estimated "catch" in Turkey and Cyprus, and delete the "catch" of the then Democratic Republic of Germany (not treated in EIFAC Technical Paper No. 52), then the total production (FAO's "catch") of freshwater and diadromous fishes ("inland fisheries production") in 1987 would have been in FAO's opinion about 462 000 t or 4 percent of the world's production of these fish'.

It seems useless to calculate further since any figures that one can use, including the ones in this paper, are estimates. The major conclusions concerning the inland fisheries of the continent of Europe arrived at by FAO Fisheries Circular C710 Rev.7 (1990) are that capture fisheries have remained relatively static during the period of 1984-88 and that aquacultural production has increased about 19 percent. As has been emphasized in the first volume of this report and in agreement with Gulland (1970) "too much attention should not be given to the precise value of many of the 'estimates—. In other words, the trend is the important thing.

A certain amount of explanation and summarization based on the present publication may be useful in making a more detailed assessment of the inland fisheries of Europe.

First, despite any changes in the name of any European country, or its area, population, or boundaries, the physical geography either of the country or its components remains essentially unchanged. Thus, if it is a "northern" country with a low fishery yield per unit area, it will continue to differ from one in a more southern clime. If it possesses many natural lakes, its fishery will differ from one with very few. In a country which has been divided, each derived component will continue to reflect its original status. Its specific geology, altitude, and climate will continue to determine certain aspects of its faunal assemblage, and to a large extent its yield. Similarly, the importance of a country's marine fisheries will dictate to some extent the relative importance of its inland fisheries and the degree to which the latter are tended.

Second, obviously the type of government will determine to a large degree the state of its fishery, the type of management, and even its statistics. This point has not been stressed in this report, but, especially in light of the present changes in government, this is an important consideration.

Third, now that the second volume of this paper has been completed, the two volumes describe the inland fisheries of thirty-one countries, it may be useful to list some of the detected attributes and trends of this community. They follow:

1/ Inland fish resources used for recreation and subsistence are presumed to be unrecorded in these statistics - 274 -

(i) The statistics for European inland fisheries are improving, but whether primary (usually national or provincial) or secondary (those compiled and sometimes interpreted by agencies like FAO or OECD) they are still uncertain and at best are estimates'. The reasons, which are replete, have been discussed briefly on page 13 of the first volume of this report. Among them are: the size of the catch, the multiplicity of fishing sites and census points, their age, infrequency of the capture fishery, the often voluntary reporting, difficulty of federal governments in obtaining them from their provincial or political components, false or inaccurate reporting in order to evade taxation or simply due to lack of information or laziness which results in repetition, inclusion of brackishwater fisheries with marine fisheries, inclusion of several species groups within a general class or failure to distinguish between species either by the fishermen or by those collecting or compiling the statistics, confusion of recreational with commercial statistics or aquacultural production with that of the capture fishery, inclusion of the products of stocked fish with those which are consumable, and excessive rounding of figures.

(ii) The rules and regulations concerning ownership of water areas, water use, capture fisheries, or aquaculture are quite specific, whether they be those of individual countries or its provincial components. They are also subject to frequent change.

There is a general tendency for the commercial capture fisheries to decline, and lessened markets for certain stocks. Concomitant with their decline is a decrease in the number of commercial fishermen and an increase in their average age.

(iv) There is, nevertheless, an emphasis for these commercial fisheries to use modern gear (e.g., synthetic fibres for nets and even sonar) instead of the older and cruder gear often derived from natural and local sources.

(v) There is also a traditional feeling in some countries to keep commercial inland capture fisheries alive even if the returns are not large either in food production or monetarily.

(vi) Commercial fishermen's associations still persist.

(vii) With the decline in commercial fishing there has been a replacement by sport or recreational fishing. (There is some conflict between commercial and recreational fishermen, but it is lessening.) There is, today, a realization that sport fishing is important both emotionally and economically. In some European countries the inland capture fishery has become exclusively recreational.

(viii) In some cases, this sport is aided by the government; in other cases it is fostered by private enterprise. Angling associations, whether sponsored by private or public agencies, are important in many countries in securing legislation, maintaining the fisheries, securing special privileges, or fostering companionship. In some cases, sport fishing is used as a means of attracting tourists.

(ix) Although stocking has been found to be a useful tool in both sport and commercial fisheries, there is a tendency today to rear and stock lesser numbers but larger fish in order to achieve better survival to the captor.

(x) Although subsistence fishing is almost at an end generally, the idea of individuals or families continuing to live off still persists, and is even sponsored by a few countries which allow special fishing privileges for its "primitive" people.

(xi) Aquaculture is rapidly increasing in importance in most European countries. Emphasis is now upon the cultivation of salmonoid fishes (rainbow trout and Atlantic salmon) and eel propagation is also increasing.

1/ Provincial components are those political components having a certain degree of autonomy, e.g., Cantons, Lander, states, etc. - 275 -

(xii) There is less emphasis on the cultivation of cyprinid stocks, but the yields from their culture are increasing due to enhancements such as polyculture (especially with the Chinese carp), fertilization, and supplemental feeding. In some cases, much of the cyprinid production (e.g., that of the common carp) is raised for export, marketed to particular ethnic groups, or sold primarily at certain (generally religious) seasons.

(xiii) Aquaculture is becoming a more technological process with the use of manufactured feeds (rather than natural foods), induced breeding with hormones, heated water, recycling, and the use of mechanical equipment such as automatic feeders, aerators, and graders. it is fast changing from an "old-fashioned" or "natural" process to an artificial one.

(xiv) The availability of fry for aquaculture is being solved through provision of a constant supply of young stock through artificial propagation and the rearing of brood stock rather than through dependence on wild stocks.

(xv) There are also changes in the species cultivated especially with the introduction of such exotic fishes as African catfish and the cichlids.

(xvi) The use of saline water, especially for salmonoid stocks, and enclosures such as cages in natural waters is increasing.

(xvii) The growth of aquaculture has been hampered in some countries because of sociological considerations, however, and also because of the danger of pollution from its practice.

(xviii) The role of disease is most important to aquaculture but also affects wild fishery stocks in some countries, and its occurrence is responsible for certain legislative edicts which prohibit the import or transfer of fish stocks.

(xix) In general (with one startling exception) sea-ranching has not been very successful in Europe.

(xx) Water pollution is still a major factor in lessening the quality and extent of inland fisheries, especially in areas where water is not abundant. Prevention and abatement processes are, however, on the rise, coupled with growing environmental consciousness. Conversely, practices such as the use of pesticides and compounds which lodge in fish tissues, heavy fertilization, and even aquacultural pollution, make this an extended and constant battle.

(xxi) There is a growing eutrophication of many natural waters (due primarily to increases in organic substances as a concomitant of man's practices and his aquatic encroachment), so that originally oligotrophic waters have become more fertile (and perhaps more productive) but have changed their populations from salmonoid fishes to cyprinid and other less valued stocks.

(xxii) Faunal changes have also been engendered by factors such as the introductions of exotic fishes or diseases, and inter-connections in waterways. Emphasis on the taking for profit or sport of predator species has also induced faunal changes.

(xxiii) Introductions or transfers of fishes or other organisms by governments is diminishing as biologists who work for these governments generally disapprove of them. However, certain transfers (such as crayfish or eel) are considered useful by many countries. Furthermore, the ease of transportation today, difficulty of detecting illegal introductions, and the feeling of many people that they are useful leaves introduction as an important factor in faunal changes.

(xxiv) Coarse fishing is increasing as the number of anglers increases, and as stocks of more desirable fish salmonids) decline.

(xxv) The natural aquatic environment such as wetlands and swamps, even natural lakes, is diminishing in most countries due to man's encroachment and use. Thus, the great overflow areas are disappearing, and with them their wild fisheries. - 276 -

(xxvi) Great harm has been done to some original fisheries through the use of water for other purposes (e.g., the erection of dams and abstraction of water for hydroelectric purposes, irrigation which creates barriers to migratory fishes and diminishes stream capacity, and canalization). The rules for such water-use have been intensified to the advantage of fisheries, but much of the damage remains.

(xxvii) Similarly, although dams have acted as barriers to anadromous stocks, the creation of new reservoirs has enlarged fishing areas, made them more accessible to some, and changed the style of fishing.

(xxviii) Although the role of private fishing and ownership of fishing rights is decreasing in some areas, it still plays an important part in the inland fishing, both recreational and commercial, of many European countries. There is, however, a tendency for placement of the control of inland fisheries in the hands of the State. There is also a tendency to rely more on the new State environmental agencies rather than the older or better established fishery agencies which in many maritime nations are dominated by marine administrators.

(xxix) There is still emphasis in a number of countries on fish management, especially through the rearing and stocking of fish, by amateur associations, but as governmental restrictions on their activities grow, their numbers are lessening.

(xxx) The impingement of license fees by governments is increasing, and the end of free fishing is in sight.

(xxxi) A number of countries continue to be influenced by deleterious events occurring in contiguous or upstream countries, or in the case of acid rain even by faraway countries. There is, however, a greater consciousness of interdependence, and international agreements concerning the regulation of fish stocking and water pollution tends to minimize these difficulties.

(xxxii) Organizations such as the European Inland Fisheries Advisory Commission (EIFAC) have served as meeting grounds for participants from different countries and aided in this understanding of interdependence.

(xxxiii) There is a change in the training of fishery scientists, and more emphasis on fishery management than reliance on, say, limnologists.

(xxxiv) There is also, however, an emphasis on their use of modern methodology and a realization that both wild and cultivated species are often composed of rather discrete components.

(xxxv) Governments continue to give a good deal of lip service to their present and prophesied role. Their promises are not always fulfilled, however, and their prognostications (as are those of this paper) are not always correct.

(xxxvi) Not stressed in this report, but quite apparent to the author, is the role of individuals, who, speaking in the name of their country or authority, actually determine much of its policy.

(xxxvii) Finally, there is a general change in the landscape as the older types of commercial fishing decline, as sport fishing increases, as waters change in their quality and quantity, and as mechanization increases. The landscape itself is becoming less "romantic" or "picturesque" as narrow wooden boats are replaced by metal ones, as reed barriers are replaced by those of concrete and steel, and the old fishing villages disappear.

In summing it up, one can say with respect to the inland fisheries of Europe that the commercial fisheries are declining as recreational and aquacultural fisheries grow, that new technologies are replacing the old, that the role of private fishing is declining, that environmental considerations are more important than ever before, and that there is a growing realization that many of the factors influencing fisheries are quite external to the fishing itself. These phenomena, and the other changes that have been mentioned, are not, however, unique to Europe. This is the way of the world today.

William A. Dill - 277 -

GENERAL REFERENCES

This chapter is supplementary to the one bearing the same title in "Inland Fisheries of Europe", pp. 455-471 of EIFAC Technical Paper No. 52, issued in 1990

Barnabe G. and R. Billard (eds), 1984. L'aquaculture du bar et des sparides. Paris, Institut National de la Recherche Agronomique, 542 p.

Behnke, R.J., 1988. Landlocked salmon. Trout, Autumn 1988, pp. 42-7

Europa, 1989. The Europa world year book 1989. London, Europa Publications Limited. (2 vols.), 3,037 p.

FAO, Fishery Information, Data and Statistics Service, 1990. Aquaculture production (1985-1988). FAO Fish.Circ., (815) Rev.2, 136 p.

, 1991. Aquaculture production (1986-1989). FAO Fish.Circ., (815) Rev.3, 141 p.

FAO, Marine Resources Service, Fishery Resources and Environment Division. 1990. Review of the state of world fishery resources. FAO Fish.Circ., (710) Rev.7, 89 p.

Gerdeaux, D., 1990. Fisheries management in an international lake: Lake Geneva. In Management of freshwater fisheries. Proceedings of a symposium organized by the European Inland Fisheries Advisory Commission, Goteborg, Sweden, 31 May - 3 June 1988. Wageningen, Pudoc, pp. 168-81

Gotterman, H.L., 1985. The geochemistry of the Rhine and the Rhone. 5. Synthesis and conclusions. Annals Limnol., 21,(3):191-201

Gulland, J.A., (ed.), 1970. The fish resources of the ocean. FAO Fish.Tech.Pap., 97:425 p. (Preliminary version of 105)

Holeik, J., et al (eds), 1980. The freshwater fishes of Europe. [Nine volumes, edited and written by different authors, and issued separately although comprising a set.] Wiesbaden, Aulu-Verlag

Meaden, G.J. and J.M. Kapetsky, 1991. Geographical information systems and remote sensing in inland fisheries and aquaculture. FAO Fish.Tech.Pap., (318):262 p.

Mills, D., 1989. Ecology and management of Atlantic salmon. London, Chapman and Hall, 351 p.

Mills, D.H. and D. Piggins (eds), 1988. Atlantic salmon: planning for the future. London, Croom Helm

OECD (Organisation for European Co-operation and Development), 1 985. OECD environmental data compendium/Donnees OCDE sur l'environment. Paris, OECD, 297 p.

Van Densen, W.L.T., B. Steinmetz and R.H. Hughes (eds), 1990. Management of freshwater fisheries. Proceedings of a symposium organized by the European Inland Fisheries Advisory Commission, Goteborg, Sweden, 31 May -3 June 1988. Wageningen, Pudoc, 649 p.

Van der Leeden, F., F.L. Troise and D.K. Todd, 1991. The water encyclopedia. 2nd Edition. Plainview, N.Y., Water Information Center, 808 p.11

1 / Although the author has not seen this book, it is obvious that it is more up-to-date than the one by Van der Leeden (1975) which has been used throughout this paper - 278 -

Welcomme, R.L., 1991. International introductions of freshwater fish species into Europe. Finnish Fisheries Research, 12:11-8

- 279 -

ERRATA

Inland Fisheries of Europe, EIFAC Technical Paper No. 52 Rome, FAO, 1990, 471 p. by William A. Dill

As has been pointed out in this paper, there are bound to be errors particularly when working at a distance both in time and place. Some of the errors are due to condensation by the publisher of the original tables without consequent alteration of the final text, some to reproduction without proofreading by the author, some by the author himself. As far as possible, they have been corrected.

The errors fall into the three categories described below. Only the third category is really serious in influencing the text.

1. Absence of Diacritical Marks

Although diacritical marks or standard accents are generally used throughout this paper, they have been omitted inadvertently at times. Although this is unfortunate, no notice of their omission has been made here since their inclusion in no way clarifies the text. For example, "Rhone" with or without the circumflex over the "o" is easily understandable as being the name of a major river in Switzerland and France.

2. Minor Mis-spellinas

There are a number of minor mis-spellings (usually lapsus calami or typing errors) or punctuation where the meaning will usually be clear to the reader. They are, however, corrected below in order that no mistake be made. p. 1, para. 1, line 8: "mixture" not "mixtue" p. 3, para. 8, line 1: "railway" not "railyway" J1_5: "CZECHOSLOVAKIA" not "CZECOSLOVAKIA" p. 12, sect. 8.5: "Training" not "Taining" p. 12, sect. 9.2, line 5: "Population" not "Populatin" p. 13, para. 2, line 6: "Coregonidae" not "Corigonidae" p. 18, para. 1, line 2: "joint" not "joing" p. 20, sect. 9, line 2: "season" not "seasons" p. 24, para. 3, line 1: Eliminate the dash (-) p. 49, sect. 8.2 line 1: "Flanders" not "Flenders" p. 56, para. 1, last line: 'ADCP" not "ADC" p. 59, sect. 7.2, para. 3, line 3: "Station" not "Stational" p. 104, pen-penultimate Reference: "Publisher" not "Publisheres" p. 115, line 11: Omit the comma 1,1 p. 133, Table 15, footnote b/: "Some" not "Same" p. 199, fourth reference: "Project" not "Prject" p.201, second reference: "Documents" not "Documeuments" p.312. twelfth reference: "Maart" not "March" p. 386, penultimate line: "figures" not "figues" p,2112: In last table it should read "Vrbas at not "Vrbas At..." p. 450, tenth reference: "Hundred" not "Hungred"

3. Critical Errors p. v, para. 4, line 9: "Pinter" not "Pint-r" p. 11, sect. 7.1.1: "Catch, 1965-87" not "Catch, 1965-83" p. 13, para. 2, line 5: "first" not "next" - 280 -

p. 37, line 1: Add "Vol. 42" p. 46, para. 4, line 2: Vol. "44" not "41" p. 46, para. 4, line 3: "1978" not "1988" p. 56, second para. line 3: Following the word "construction" add: "of dams of ever-increasing size and dam capacity increased" P. 61, sect. 8.2, penultimate paragraph: "Marine Fish Culture" not "Marine Farming" p. 72, para. 2, line 3: Insert "the" between "but" and "main" P. 72, para. 5 (table): Eliminate the line for "1978" p. 72, footnote 1/, line 1: Omit the words "very close" and "in Table 4" p. 74, Table 6: Pike-perch production and angling catch in 1984 was recorded as "254" not "258" t p. 76, para. 5, line 3: "(8 percent)" not "(88 percent)" p. 80, para. 1, line 4: "production" not "protection" p. 91, penultimate paragraph: On lines 1 and 2 eliminate the words "in Table 5" and on line 3 eliminate the words "Table 5's" p. 118, penultimate para., line 3: Insert "is" following the word "which" p. 120, penultimate para., line 4: Omit the words "as will be seen below" p. 120, penultimate para., line 13: Omit the words "(Tables 10 and 11)" p. 124, Source, line 1: Omit "69" p. 130, Table 13: In 1964, "Others" was "270" not "279" t In column "Age", Wiehl is "1974" not "1973" and Nonnweiler is "1981" not "1975" p. 172: Reference for Riedel, D. is "Zukunft-Schanden" not "Zukunft-Schancen" p. 172: First reference for Stat. Bund... is "Fachserie B" not

p. 182, sect. 5.4: "Csatorna" not "Osatorna" p. 219, sect. 5, para. 2, line 6: "EIFAC (1989)" not "Ireland/EIFAC (1989)" p. 220, last para., line 3: "EIFAC (1989)" not "Ireland/EIFAC (1989)" p. 222, sect. 5.3, para 1, line 4: "EIFAC (1989)" not "Ireland/EIFAC (1989)" p. 226, footnote 2/: "EIFAC (1989)" not "Ireland/EIFAC (1989)" p. 227, Table 5: The "Total" for 1985 is "1,537.3" t p. 228, Table 6, footnote a/, line 3: "135,889" not "135,809" kg p. 234, para. 3, line 5: "scrutiny" not "scrating" p. 237, references 8, 9 and 1 0: "EIFAC" not "Ireland/EIFAC" p. 250, sect. 5.5, para. 1, last sentence: "laqune morte" not "Iaquna morta" p. 255, sect. 7, last para., line 2: "more" not "move" p. 255, footnote 1/: "Stickney" not "Stickage" p. 259, para. 1, line 3: After the word "waters", add "and that from fresh waters" p. 262, para. 7: Add to this paragraph: "Bullheads are sold alive for local consumption and some are sold to catch-out ponds. Another catfish from the United States, the channel catch (Ictalurus lacustris) was introduced into Italy in 1 973 to be cultivated, and the native European catfish or wels (Silurus alanis) is also raised to a limited degree." P. 293: The estuary north of Gravelingen should be labelled "Haringvliet". Another barrier should be shown south of Gravelingen 2,30: In Source, eliminate "-69" P. 318, footnote 1/: "EIFAC (1989)" not "Norway/EIFAC (1989)" P. 325, Table 6, footnote a/: Eliminate the second line P. 333, para. 6: "Gyrodactvlus" not "Cyrodactvlus" p.361, para. 1, line 3: "aquacultural" not "agricultural" - 281 -

p. 365, lasta para., line 4: "deteriorates" not "deterents" 2,_351: In the first Reference, substitute "Vryn" for "Uryn" p. 387, Column 9: "Burbot" not "Turbot" p. 388, Column: The title is as on p. 387 p. 391, footnote 1/: "Staub's" not "Stabu's" p. 393, para. 3, line 2: "1987" not "1985" p. 443, para. 4, line 3: "ares" not "acres" p. 452, eleventh reference: "Petrinec, Z." not "Petrinec, A." p. 453, eighteenth reference, line 2: "EIFAC/XI/80" not as written

EIFAC TECHNICAL PAPERS

EIFAC/T1 Water quality criteria for European freshwater fish. Report on finely divided solids and inland fisheries (1964) CECPI/T1 Criteres de quake des eaux pour les poissons d'eau douce europeens. Rapport sur les solides finement divises et les peches interieures (1964)

EIFAC/T2 Fish diseases. Technical notes submitted to EIFAC Third Session by Messrs J. Heyl, H. Mann, C.J. Rasmussen and A. van der Struik (1965) /Maladies des poissons. Notes presentees a la troisieme session de la CECPI par J. Heyl, H. Mann, C.J. Rasmussen and A. van der Struik (1965)

EIFAC/T3 Feeding in trout and salmon culture. Papers submitted to a Symposium, EIFAC Fourth Session (1967)/Alimentation dans l'elevage de la truite et du saumon. Communications presentees a un symposium, quatrieme session de la CECPI (1967)

EIFAC/T4 Water quality criteria for European freshwater fish. Report on extreme pH values and inland fisheries (1968)/Criteres de quake des eaux pour les poissons d'eau douce europeens. Rapport sur les valeurs extremes du pH et les ;Aches interieures (1968)

EIFAC/T5 Organization of inland fisheries administration in europe, by Jean-Louis Gaudet (1968) CECPI/T5 Organisation de l'administration des peches interieures en Europe, par Jean-Louis Gaudet (1968)

EIFAC/T5 Rev.1 Organization of inland fisheries administration in Europe. Revised edition (1974) CECPI/T5 Rev.1 Organisation de l'administation des peches en Europe. Edition revisee (1974)

EIFAC/T6 Water quality criteria for European freshwater fish. Report on water temperature and inland fisheries based mainly on Slavonic literature (1968)/Criteres de quake des eaux pour les poissons d'eau douce europeens. Rapport sur la temperature de l'eaux et les [Aches interieures base essentiellement sur la documentation slave (1968)

EIFAC/T7 Economic evaluation of inland sport fishing, by Ingemar Norling/Evaluation Oconomique de la Oche sportive dans les eaux continentales, par Ingemar Norling (1968)

EIFAC/T8 Water quality criteria for European freshwater fish. List of literature on the effect of water temperature on fish (1969)/Criteres de quake des eaux pour les poissons d'eau douce europeens. References bibliographiques sur les effets de la temperature de l'eau sur le Poisson (1969)

EIFAC/T9 New developments in carp and trout nutrition, papers submitted to a Symposium, EIFAC Fifth Session (1969)/Recents developpements dans la nutrition de la carpe et de la truite. Communications presentees a un symposium, cinquieme session de la CECPI (1969)

EIFAC/T10 Comparative study of laws and regulations governing the international traffic in live fish and fish eggs, by F.B. Zenny, FAO Legislation Branch (1969) /Etude comparee des mesures legislatives et administratives regissant les echanges internationaux de poissons vivants et d'oeufs de poisson, par F.B. Zenny, Service de legislation de la FAO (1969) EIFAC/T11 Water quality criteria for European freshwater fish. Report on ammonia and inland fisheries (1970) CECPI/T11 Criteres de quake des eaux pour les poissons d'eau douce europeens. Rapport sur l'ammoniac et les [Aches interieures (1971)

EIFAC/T12 Salmon and trout feeds and feeding (1971) CECPI/T12 Aliments du saumon et de la truite et leur distribution (1973)

EIFAC/T13 Some considerations on the theory of age determination of fish from their scales - Finding proofs of reliability, by R. Sych (1971)

EIFAC/T14 EIFAC consultation on eel fishing gear and techniques/Consultation de la CECPI sur les engins et techniques de Oche a l'anguille (1971)

EIFACTT15 Water quality criteria for European freshwater fish. Report on monohydric phenols and inland fisheries (1972) CECPI/T15 Criteres de quake des eaux pour les poissons d'eau douce europeens: rapport sur les phenols monohydrates et les [Aches interieures (1973)

EIFAC/T16 Symposium on the nature and extent of water pollution problems affecting inland fisheries in Europe. Synthesis of national reports (1972) CECPUT16 Symposium sur la nature et l'etendue des problemes de pollution des eaux affectant les 'Aches continentales en Europe. Synthese des rapports nationaux (1972)

EIFAC/T17 Report of the Symposium on the major communicable fish diseases in Europe and their control. (1972) CECPI/T17 Rapport du symposium sur les principales maladies transmissibles des poissons en Europe et la lutte contre celles-ci (1973)

EIFAC/T17 Supp1.1 The major communicable fish diseases of Europe and North America. A review of national and international measures for their control, by P.E. Thompson, W.A. Dill and G. Moore (1973) CECPI/T17 Supp1.1 Les principales maladies transmissibles des poissons en Europe et en Amerique du Nord: examen de mesures nationales et internationales sur la lutte contre ces maladies, par P.E. Thompson, W.A. Dill et G. Moore (1973)

EIFAC/T17 Supp1.2 Symposium on the major communicable fish diseases in Europe and their control. Panel reviews and relevant papers (1973) CECPI/T17 Supp1.2 Symposium sur les principales maladies transmissibles des poissons en Europe et la lutte contre celles-ci: exposes des groupes et communications apparentees (1973)

EIFAC/T18 The role of administrative action as a tool in water pollution control, by G.K. Moore (1973) CECPI/T18 Le rOle instrumental de l'administration dans la lutte contre la pollution des eaux, par G.K. Moore (1973)

EIFAC/T19 Water quality criteria for European freshwater fish. Report on dissolved oxygen and inland fisheries (1973) CECPI/T19 Criteres de quake des eaux pour les poissons d'eau douce europeens. Rapport sur l'oxygene dissous et les [Aches interieures (1973)

EIFAC/T20 Water quality criteria for European freshwater fish. report on chlorine and freshwater fish (1973) CECPI/T20 Criteres de quake des eaux pour les poissons d'eau douce europeens. Rapport sur le chlore et les poissons d'eau douce (1973)

EIFAC1T21 Water quality criteria for European freshwater fish. Report on zinc and freshwater fish (1973)

CECPITT21 Criteres de quake des eaux pour les poissons d'eau douce europeens. Rapport sur le zinc et les poissons d'eau douce (1973)

EIFACTT22 Ecological diagnosis in salmonid streams - Method and Example, by R. Cuinat et al. (1973) CECPI/T22 Diagnose ecologique en cours d'eau a salmonides. Methode et exemple, par R. Cuinat et al. (1975)

El FAC/T23 Report on the Symposium on methodology for the survey, monitoring and appraisal of fishery resources in lakes and large rivers (1974) CECP1r123 Rapport du Symposium sur les methodes de prospection, de surveillance et d'evaluation des ressources ichtyologiques dans les lacs et grands cours d'eau (1974)

EIFAC/T23 Supp1.1 Symposium on the methodology for the survey, monitoring and appraisal of fishery resources in lakes and large rivers - Panel reviews and relevant papers. Vol. I and 11(1975)/Symposium sur les methodes de prospection, de surveillance et d'evaluation des ressources ichtyologiques dans les lacs et grands cours d'eau - Exposes des groupes et communications apparentees, Vol. I et II (1975)

EIFAC/T24 Report on fish toxicity testing procedures (1975) CECPI/T24 Rapport sur les tests de toxicite sur les poissons (1976)

EIFAC/T24 Rev.1 Revised report on fish toxicity testing procedures (1982) CECPI/T24 Rev.1 Rapport revise sur les tests de toxicite sur les poissons (1983)

EIFAC/T25 Workshop on controlled reproduction of cultivated fishes - Report and relevant papers (1975) CECPI/T25 Reunion sur la production contrOlee des poissons d'elevage. Rapport et communications apparentees (1975)

EIFAC/T26 Economic evaluation of sport and commercial fisheries. Report and technical papers/DeuxiOme consultation europeene sur revaluation economique de la Oche sportive et commerciale. Rapport et communications apparentees (1977)

EIFAC/T27 Water quality criteria for European freshwater fish. Report on copper and freshwater fish (1976) C EC PI/127 Criteres de quake des eaux pour les poissons d'eau douce europeens. Rapport sur le cuivre et les poissons d'eau douce (1976)

EIFAC/T28 Joint ICES/EIFAC Symposium on eel research and management (Anguilla spp.). Report (1976) CECPI/T28 Symposium conjoint CIEM/CECPI sur la recherche et l'exploitation des anguilles (Anguilla spp.). Rapport (1976)

EIFAC/T29 Water quality criteria for European freshwater fish. Report on the effect of zinc and copper pollution on the salmonid fisheries in a river and lake system in central Norway (1977) CECPI/T29 Criteres de qualite des eaux pour les poissons d'eau douce europeens. Rapport sur l'effet de la pollution par le zinc et le cuivre sur les pecheries de salmonides dans un systeme fluvio-lacustre du centre de la Norvege (1977)

EIFAC/T30 Water quality criteria for European freshwater fish. Report on cadmium and freshwater fish (1977) CECPI/T30 Criteres de quake des eaux pour les poissons d'eau douce europeens. Rapport sur le cadmium et les poissons d'eau douce (1977)

EIFAC/T31 Report of the Symposium on Finfish Nutrition and Feed Technology (1978) CECPI/T31 Rapport du symposium sur la nutrition des poissons et la technologie de leurs aliments artificiels (1978) EIFAC/T32 The value and limitations of various approaches to the monitoring of water quality for freshwater fish (1978) CECPI/T32 La valeur et les limites des diverses methodes de surveillance biologique de la qualite des eaux pour les poissons d'eau douce (1978)

EIFAC/T33 Guidelines for sampling fish in freshwater (1980) (priced publication)

EIFAC/T34 EIFAC fishing gear intercalibration experiments (1979) CECPI/T34 Essais CECPI d'interetalonnage des engins de {Ache (1979)

EIFAC/T35 Report of the EIFAC Workshop on mass rearing of fry and fingerlings of freshwater fishes (1979 CECPI/T35 Rapport du stage CECPI sur la production massive du frai et des alevins en eau douce (1979)

EIFAC/T35 Supp1.1 EIFAC Workshop on mass rearing of fry and fingerlings of freshwater fishes. Papers (1979)

EIFAC/T36 Report of the EIFAC/IUNS and ICES working group on standardization of methodology in fish nutrition research (1980) CECPI/T36 Rapport du groupe de travail de la CECPI, de l'UISN et du CIEM sur la normalisation de la methodologie dans la recherche sur la nutrition des poissons (1980)

EIFAC/T37 Report on combined effects on freshwater fish and other aquatic life of mixtures of toxicants in water (1980) CECPI/T37 Rapport sur les effets produits par la combinaison de toxiques dans l'eau douce et sur d'autres formes de vie aquatique (1981)

EIFAC/T37 Rev.1 Revised report on combined effects on freshwater fish and other aquatic life of mixtures of toxicants in water (1987)

CECPITT37 Rev.1 Rapport revise sur les effets produits par la combinaison de toxiques dans l'eau sur les poissons d'eau douce et sur d'autres formes de view aquatique (1987)

EIFAC/T38 Report of the technical consultation on the allocation of fishery resources (1981) CECPI/T38 Rapport de la Consultation technique sur la repartition des ressources ichtyologiques (1981)

EIFAC/T39 Utilization of heated effluents and recirculation systems for intensive aquaculture (1981) CECPI/T39 Rapport du Symposium sur les recents developpements de l'utilisation des eaux rechauffees et des eaux recyclees en aquaculture intensive (1981)

EIFAC/T40 Problems of fish culture economics with special reference to carp culture in eastern Europe, by M. Leopold (1981)

EIFAC/T41 Report of the EIFAC Workshop on fish-farm effluents, by John S. Alabaster (1982)

EIFAC/T42 Report of the Symposium on stock enhancement in the management of freshwater fisheries (1982) CECPI/T42 Rapport du Symposium sur l'amelioration des stocks dans le cadre de l'amenagement des pecheries d'eau douce (1983)

EIFAC/T42 Suppl. Documents presented at the Symposium on stock enhancement in the management of freshwater fisheries, Volume 1: Stocking/ Documents presentes au Symposium sur l'amelioration des stocks dans de cadre de l'amenagement des p8cheries d'eau douce, Volume 1: Repeuplement (1984) EIFAC/T42 Suppl. Documents presented at the Symposium on stock enhancement in the management of freshwater fisheries, Volume 2: Introductions and Transplantations/Documents presentes au Symposium sur l'amelioration des stocks dans de cadre de l'amenagement des pecheries d'eau douce, Volume 2: Introductions et transplantations (1984)

EIFAC/T43 Water quality criteria for European freshwater fish. Report on chromium and freshwater fish (1983) CECPI/T43 Criteres de quake des eaux pour les poissons d'eau douce europeens. Rapport sur le chrome et les poissons d'eau douce (1983)

EIFACT1-44 Report of the EIFAC Working Party on Stock Enhancement/Rapport du groupe de travail de la CECPI sur l'amelioration des stocks (1984)

EIFAC/T45 Water quality criteria for European freshwater fish. Report on nickel and freshwater fish (1984) CECPI/T45 Criteres de quake des eaux pour les poissons d'eau douce europeens. Rapport sur le nickel et les poissons d'eau douce (1984)

EIFAC/T46 Water quality criteria for European freshwater fish. Report on nitrite and feshwater fish (1984) CECPUT46 Criteres de quake des eaux pour les poissons d'eau douce europeens. Rapport sur les nitrites et les poissons d'eau douce (1984)

EIFACTT47 Report of the Symposium on habitat modification and freshwater fisheries/Rapport du Symposium sur les modification de l'habitat et leurs effets sur la [Ache continentale (1984)

EIFAC/T48 The transport of live fish - A review, by R. Berka (1986) CECPI/T48 Le transport des poissons vivants - Etude de synthese, par R. Berka (1986)

EIFAC/T49 Flow-through and recirculation systems. Report of the working group on terminology, format and units of measurements (1986) CECPI/T49 Systernes d'aquaculture ouverts et fermes. Rapport du groupe de travail sur la terminologie, le mode de presentation et les unites de mesure (1986)

EIFAC/T50 Report of the Symposium on selection, hybridization and genetic engineering in aquaculture of fish and shellfish for consumption and stocking/Rapport du Symposium sur la selection, l'hybridation et le genie genetique en aquaculture des poissons, crustaces et mollusques pour la consommation et le repeuplement (1986)

EIFAC/T51 Report of the EIFAC Working Party on Prevention and control of bird predation in aquaculture and fisheries operations (1989)

EIFAC/T52 Inland fisheries of Europe, by W.A. Dill (1990)

EIFAC/T52 Suppl. Inland fisheries of Europe, by W.A. Dill (1993)

EIFAC/T53 Report of the Symposium on production enhancement in still-water pond culture/Rapport du Symposium sur l'accroissement de la production des elevages aquacoles dans les plans d'eaux stagnants et peu profonds (1990) EUROPEAN INLAND FISHERIES ADVISORY COMMISSION (EIFAC)

EIFAC documents are issued in two series:

EIFAC Technical Papers

Selected scientific and technical papers, including some of those contributed as working documents to sessions of the Commission or its Sub-Commissions. Published in English and French, or one of these languages.

EIFAC Occasional Papers

Papers of general interest to the Commission. Published in the language submitted, either in English or French, sometimes in both languages.

Copies of these documents, when still available, can be obtained from:

The Secretariat European Inland Fisheries Advisory Commission Fisheries Department FAO Via delle Terme di Caracalla 00100 Rome, Italy