Hans Born and Albrecht Schnabel (Eds) Security Sector Reform in Challenging Environments Geneva Centre for the Democratic Control of Armed Forces (DCAF) LIT Security Sector Reform in Challenging Environments edited by Hans Born and Albrecht Schnabel LIT (Bibliographic information here) Contents Preface vii Acknowledgements ix Abbreviations xi Part I: Introduction 1 Ideal Requirements versus Real Environments in Security 3 Sector Reform Albrecht Schnabel Part II: Learning from Challenging SSR Environments 2 Security Sector Reform in the Central African Republic 39 Boubacar N’Diaye 3 Limited Security Sector Reform in Colombia 69 Wolf Grabendorff 4 Security Sector Reform in the DRC: Forward to the Past 89 Caty Clément 5 Impatient Reformers and Reignited Conflicts: The Case 119 of Georgia Duncan Hiscock 6 Morocco: Reforms in the Security Sector But No ‘SSR’ 143 Hanspeter Mattes 7 Security Sector Reform in Nepal: Challenges and 165 Opportunities Bishnu Raj Upreti and Peter Vanhoutte 8 Post-Conflict Reconstruction and Security Sector Reform 189 in Sri Lanka Eleanor Pavey and Chris Smith 9 A Lot of Talk But Not a Lot of Action: The Difficulty of 213 Implementing SSR in Timor-Leste Gordon Peake Part III: Conclusion 10 Security Sector Reform in Challenging Environments: 241 Insights from Comparative Analysis Hans Born List of Contributors 267 About DCAF 269 Preface The Geneva Centre for the Democratic Control of Armed Forces (DCAF) is an international foundation whose mission is to assist the international community in promoting good governance and reform of the security sector. Beyond a range of publications linked to its activities, each year DCAF dedicates one book to a topic that is of particular relevance to its research and operational activities. The first volume in this series, Challenges of Security Sector Governance, was published in 2003. Subsequent Yearbooks focused on Reform and Reconstruction of the Security Sector (2004), Security Governance in Post-Conflict Peacebuilding (2005), Private Actors and Security Governance (2006), Intergovernmental Organizations and Security Sector Reform (2007) and, last year, Local Ownership and Security Sector Reform. This seventh edition of DCAF’s Yearbook series is dedicated to Security Sector Reform in Challenging Environments. It explores experiences with implementing security sector reform (SSR) in situations that are far from conducive to comprehensive, holistic and effective SSR, either because the national and local context is not in tune with SSR requirements, the reform strategy is ill-conceived, or those responsible for implementing SSR processes are confronted with major obstacles. SSR is never an easy process because it is essentially a political one. However, practitioners have learned to develop strategies to cope with the challenging environments they are faced with when attempting to implement ‘ideal’ concepts in real contexts. With a better understanding of these challenges that condition the extent to which (and how) security sector reform can be implemented, reform strategies may be designed more appropriately and realistically, coping strategies can be put in place early on and much counterproductive frustration can be avoided. As a result, expectation levels are more likely to be in tune with what is possible under a given set of circumstances. While the practitioner should benefit from the experiences and suggestions presented throughout this volume, the analyst will hopefully find information that will contribute to narrowing the gap between theory and practice in the study and implementation of SSR. This book does not pretend to have all the answers or to offer a remedy for all of the many possible difficulties one might encounter in designing, planning and implementing SSR. However, in publishing this volume, DCAF hopes to stimulate serious viii and constructive discussions among SSR practitioners and researchers alike about the always considerable challenge of translating theoretical and well- intentioned concepts into effective, legitimate and sustainable results in real- life contexts. Ambassador Theodor H. Winkler, Director, DCAF Acknowledgements We would like to acknowledge the contributions of a number of individuals without whose cooperation and assistance this volume would not have been completed within the tight timeline available for the completion of a DCAF Yearbook. We are grateful to Herbert Wulf, our principal reviewer, whose valuable comments have helped improve individual chapters while putting the entire text, including the opening and concluding chapters, into perspective. A number of colleagues from inside and outside DCAF have contributed with their own country expertise to the improvement of a number of chapters, or have offered feedback during the development of the thematic focus and scope of this volume. Our heartfelt thanks go to Ina Amann, Alan Bryden, Mark Downes, Mpako Foaleng, Heiner Hänggi, Jonas Loetscher, Henri Myrttinen, Vincenza Scherrer, Fred Schreier, Marlene Urscheler, Kristin Valasek and Aidan Wills. We greatly appreciate the excellent contributions made by Wendy Gamage and Cherry Ekins, who have copyedited and proofread the entire manuscript. We thank Danail Hristov for assisting us at various stages of the manuscript preparation, particularly in meeting the publisher’s formatting requirements. We thank Yury Korobovsky and his colleagues for guiding the publication process and contacts with the publisher, LIT Verlag, to whom we are grateful for the publication of this newest addition to the DCAF Yearbook series. The country maps are used with the courtesy and permission of the United Nations Cartographic Service, except for the map of Colombia, which is used by courtesy of the University of Texas Libraries, University of Texas at Austin. The views expressed in this volume are those of the authors and do not necessarily reflect the views of DCAF. Hans Born and Albrecht Schnabel Geneva, October 2009 Abbreviations AISC Army Integration Special Committee AITC Army Integration Technical Committee AMMAA Agreement on the Monitoring of Management of Arms and Armies APF armed police force AU African Union AUC Autodefensas Unidas de Colombia BCNUDH Bureau Conjoint des Nations Unies pour les Droits de l’Homme BONUCA Bureau de l’Organisation des Nations Unies en Centrafrique CA Constituent Assembly CAR Central African Republic CCDH Conseil Consultatif des Droits de l’Homme CDF Ceylon Defence Force CEMAC Communauté Économique et Monétaire de l’Afrique Centrale CFA cease-fire agreement CIAT International Committee to Accompany the Transition CNDP Congrès National pour la Défense du Peuple CNRR National Commission on Reparation and Reconciliation COAS chief of the army staff CONADER Commission Nationale de Désarmement, Démobilisation et Réinsertion CPA Comprehensive Peace Agreement CPN (M) Communist Party of Nepal (Maoist) CSO civil society organisation CSRA Comité de Suivi de la Réforme de l’Armée DAC OECD Development Assistance Committee DDR disarmament, demobilisation and reintegration DDRRR disarmament, demobilisation, repatriation, resettlement and reintegration DFID UK Department for International Development DGED Direction Générale des Etudes et de la Documentation DGSN Direction Générale de la Sûreté Nationale DGST Direction Générale de la Surveillance du Territoire DNI Nepalese Department of National Intelligence xii DPKO United Nations Department of Peacekeeping Operations DRC Defence Review Committee DRC Democratic Republic of the Congo DSP Democratic Security Policy DZ demilitarised zone ECCAS Economic Community of Central African States ELN Ejército de Liberación Nacional ENP AP European Neighbourhood Programme Action Plan EU European Union EUPOL European Union Police Mission in the Congo EUSEC European Union Advisory Mission in the Congo FACA Force Armées Centrafricaines FAR Forces Armées Royales FARC Fuerzas Armadas Revolucionarias de Colombia FDLR Forces Démocratiques de Libération du Rwanda FDPC Front Démocratique du Peuple Centrafricain F-FDTL Falintil-Forças de Defesa de Timor-Leste FOMUC Forces Multinationales en Centrafrique FRETILIN Frente Revolucionária de Timor-Leste Independente GDP gross domestic product GoSL Government of Sri Lanka GTEP Georgia Train and Equip Programme GTZ Deutsche Gesellschaft für Technische Zusammenarbeit GUS Groupe Urbain de Sécurité ICC International Criminal Court ICG International Crisis Group IDEA International Institute for Democracy and Electoral Assistance IDP internally displaced person IER Instance Equité et Réconciliation ILO International Labour Organization IMATT International Military Assistance and Training Team IMF International Monetary Fund IOM International Organization for Migration IPAP Individual Partnership Action Plan IPKF Indian Peacekeeping Force ISAB International Security Advisory Board JMCC Joint Monitoring Coordination Committee JVP Janatha Vimukthi Peramuna LTTE Liberation Tigers of Tamil Eelam xiii MDRP World Bank Multi-Country Demobilization and Reintegration Programme MIA Ministry of Internal Affairs MINURCA Mission des Nations Unies en République Centrafricaine MINURCAT United Nations Mission in the Central African Republic and Chad MISAB Mission Interafricaine de Surveillance des Accords de Bangui MLC Mouvement de Libération du Congo MoD Ministry of Defence MoI Ministry of Interior MONUC Military Commission and United Nations Peacekeeping Mission in the DRC MPRC Mouvement Patriotique pour la Restauration de la République Centrafricaine NA Nepalese Army