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Home , Bell jar, Denis Papin, Magdeburg hemispheres, Michelangelo Ricci, Paul Bert, Vacuum pump

HISTORY CORNER

A SHORT HISTORY: in the 17th Century and Onward The Beginning of Experimental Sciences Donald M. Mattox, Management Plus Inc., Albuquerque, N.M.

acuum as defined as a space with nothing in it (“perfect Early Vacuum Equipment vacuum”) was debated by the early Greek philosophers. The early period of vacuum may be taken as the VThe saying “Nature abhors a vacuum” () is gener- 1640s to the 1850s. In the 1850s, invention of the platinum- ally attributed to Aristotle (Athens ~350 BC). Aristotle argued to-metal seal and improved vacuum pumping technology al- that vacuum was logically impossible. Plato (Aristotle’s teach- lowed the beginning of widespread studies of glow discharges er) argued against there being such a thing as a vacuum since using “Geissler tubes”[6]. Invention of the incandescent lamp “nothing” cannot be said to exist. Hero (Heron) of Alexandria in the 1850s provided the incentive for development of indus- (Roman Egypt) attempted using experimental techniques to trial scale vacuum technology[7]. create a vacuum (~50 AD) but his attempts failed although he did invent the first steam (“Heron’s ”) and Single-stroke -piston Vacuum “Heron’s fountain,” often used in teaching hydraulics. Hero It was the latter part of 1641 that demonstrated wrote extensively about in his book Pneumatica and his water manometer, which consisted of a lead pipe about 10 noted that there was a maximum height to which a can meters tall with a glass flask cemented to the top of the pipe “lift” water. while the bottom of the pipe was immersed in a barrel of wa- The 17th century was the beginning of the era of scientific ter {pp.10–18[8]}. There was a water reservoir with a valve that experimentation. Of the six major scientific instruments de- was attached near the base of the flask. Access to the flask veloped in the 17th century (telescope, , pen- was through a sealed port on top of the globe. To operate the dulum clock, , air pump {}, and manometer, a valve was closed at the bottom of the pipe, the ) only the telescope and air pump challenged the pipe was filled from the reservoir, the valve at the reservoir dogma of the Roman (God would never cre- was closed, and the valve at the bottom was opened. The wa- ate “nothing”). Natural philosophy (science) was based on ter level fell to the height dictated by the difference in pres- a the teachings of Aristotle, a “plenist” who believed a vacuum sure between that in the flask and the atmosphere . The bot- cannot exist in nature. The “plenists” were aligned against the tom valve was then closed and the water level was measured “vacuists,” who did believe in the existence of a vacuum[1]. through the port at the top of the flask. There have been a number of reviews of the history of vac- uum technology[2–4] but little about experiments performed in early vacuum environments[5]. aBerti’s technique left some air in the flask so that the differential was not really the . Later investigators made true “water .” For example, O. von Guericke made a water barometer with a glass pipe and had a mannequin floating on the water with a finger pointing at a scale on the (c. 1654) {fig. 1, p. 31[4]}.

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SVC.Bulletin.Spring2017.indd 40 3/20/17 5:10 PM , an associate of Galileo utilizing mer- cury rather than water in the manometer, demonstrated his famous mercury manometer (~1 meter tall) instrument in 1644 {pp.19-32[8]}. The Torricelli manometer was made by filling a closed-end glass tube with mercury, closing the open end (usually with a finger), and up-ending the tube into a mercury pool—the mercury in the tube fell to a level dictated by the am- bient atmospheric pressure leaving a “Torricelli vacuum” in the tube above the mercury. Torricelli is generally credited with the invention of the barometerb to measure atmospheric pressure. The pressure unit Torr (1 mm Hg) is named after Torricelli. For about 200 years, the Torricelli vacuum, using well-cleaned glass and distilled mer- cury, was considered the best vacuum that could be attained in the . Emanuel Swedenborg developed the first multi-stroke mercury-piston pump in 1722[9]. The multi- stroke mercury-piston could not attain as good a vacuum as the Torricelli vacuum until after the development of the Geissler/ Toepler pump (1862) and the Sprengel pump (1865)[9]. Multi-stroke Mechanical Piston Pumps In the mid-1640s, Ottonis von Guericke made the first mechanical solid piston/cylinder-type vacuum pump (which he called “air pumps”) patterned after the water pumps that had Fig. 2—Boyle’s first vacuum been used for many years to remove water pump (1660) {p.156[12]}. from mines and to provide water pressure for fire hoses. The first air pumps of von Guericke were immersed in water to provide “sealing”—this was a common technique for the water pumps of the time {fig. Fig. 1—O. von Guericke pump 2[2]}. The first attempt by von Guericke to generate a vacuum of 1664 from {fig. 21, p. 279[1]}. Courtesy of Cambridge Univer- was by pumping water from a wooden barrel. Of course, the sity Library. barrel/chamber leaked badly so von Guericke made a cham- ber out of copper. As the vacuum was generated, the copper chamber collapsed from the atmospheric pressure. Von Guer- icke then made a globe-shaped iron chamber, which he used Boyle gave a detailed description of the construction of the for his famous Magdeberg hemispheres demonstration for the Boyle/Hooke piston air pump (he called it a “sucker”) (Fig. 2). King of Prussia in 1654[10]. Figure 1 shows a later version of Due to the craftsmanship of , he did not need von Guericke’s pump. to immerse the pump in water as shown in Fig. 2[12]. In 1663, Gaspar Schott described Guericke’s pump in his Mechanica C. Huygens used a flat baseplate to which a could be Hydraulica-Pneumatica in 1657. This really introduced the bonded {fig. 18, p. 268[1]} as did Boyle in 1665. The first dou- piston-type vacuum pump to the scientific world[11]. R. Boyle ble-cylinder “continuous” mechanical piston air pump was and his associate/instrument-maker Robert Hooke (1660) made by Boyle based on a design by Denis Papin in 1682[2]. in England[12] and then and his associ- A great deal of controversy and technical details were built ate/instrument maker Denis Papin (1661) in Holland[13] im- around the seal between the solid piston and the cylinder and proved on von Guericke’s piston design. They both initially about leaks in general[14]. The mechanical solid piston vac- used globe-shaped glass vacuum chambers cemented to the uum pump comprised the bulk of vacuum pumping technol- piston pump, as did von Guericke. ogy for 200 years although work was continuing on mercury piston pumps[9]. By the 1850s, the mechanical solid piston bThe term “barometer” as applied to a manometer with the open end pumps could achieve about 1 Torr (~133 Pa) although there (mercury cistern) at atmospheric pressure is attributed to was no good way to measure that low until the in- (1663) by Middleton {p. 71[8]}. vention of the McLeod gauge in 1874.

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SVC.Bulletin.Spring2017.indd 41 3/20/17 5:10 PM HISTORY CORNER Torricelli is generally credited with the invention credence to the old concept of an “aether,” which permeated all space, even a vacuum[18]. Boyle tried to find evidence of of the barometer to measure atmospheric pres- an “aether-wind” in a vacuum {fig. 8, p. 183[1]} but could not detect any such effect. The concept of “aether” lasted well sure. The pressure unit Torr (1 mm Hg) is named into the 19th centuryc. The concept was ultimately refuted after Torricelli. For about 200 years, the Torricelli by the Michelson–Morley experiments on the speed of light in 1887. vacuum, using well-cleaned glass and distilled In 1648, Blaise Pascal, who proposed the experiment (from mercury, was considered the best vacuum that Paris), and Florin Périer who actually climbed the Puy-de- Dôme mountain (1465 meters high) were the first to show could be attained in the laboratory. that atmospheric pressure decreased with an increased height above the earth’s surface. Florin Périer found that the mercury column was 85 mm less in height on the top of the mountain (627 mm Hg) than at the monastery at the base of the mountain (711 mm Hg) (~1000 meters altitude difference) Mercurial “High-vacuum” Pumps[9] {p. 51[8]}. In 1855, Geissler improved the multi-stroke column-type mer- In 1653, in “Traité de la Pesanteur de la Masse de l’Air,” Pas- cury piston pump using a 3-way manual valve. Geissler also cal wrote “…the mass of the air is more pressing at one time invented the Pt-to-glass seal, which allowed glow discharge than at another, namely when more charged with vapours, or tubes (Geissler tubes) to be made. By 1862, Toepler reported more compressed by the cold.” Von Guericke noted in 1660 on an improved Geissler pump (Geissler/Toepler pump) using that the height of the mercury column varied for different a mercury “cut-off” valve. In 1865, Sprengel reported using weather conditions and rightly foretold a storm by the drop drops of mercury moving through a “fall tube” to generate a in pressure[5]. Barometers for weather prediction were made high vacuum. The Geissler/Toepler pump for rough pumping in England on a commercial basis by the end of the 17th along with a bank of Sprengel pumps became the laboratory/ century. These observations opened the way to the weather industry high vacuum pumping system[15,16]. “highs” and “lows” of pressure that we now observe and use In the late 1800s, advancements in mercurial pumps were for weather forecastingd,e. In the 1640s, Torricelli gave a de- instrumental in producing incandescent lamps as well as the scription of the cause of wind: “...winds are produced by dif- discovery of X-rays (Roentgen, 1895) using a low-pressure ferences of air , and hence density, between two Crookes glow discharge. regions of the earth.” The Torricelli vacuum was used for many years in vacuum Early Experiments experiments as shown in Fig. 3. In 1786, Benjamin Thompson (later Count Rumford) reported that heat was conducted more G. Berti tried to perform the bell-in-a-vacuum experiment in readily through air than through a vacuum. Thompson used his water manometer to show that sound was not propagated both a pumped vacuum (1/4 and 1/64 of atmosphere) and a in vacuum. The results were inconclusive, probably because Torricelli vacuum giving a heat “conducting power” of 80¼, he did not have a very good vacuum and due to the way the 78, and 55, respectively[19]. The Torricelli vacuum was used bell was mounted in the glass flask. in experiments at least until 1798 when Count Rumford used The first successful planned experiment in a vacuum was a Torricelli vacuum in his heat conduction experiments[20]. by Vincenzio Viviani in 1644. Viviani mounted a bell in a “Tor- ricelli vacuum” and showed that the ringing was muted in cJames Clerk Maxwell subscribed to the aether concept when he argued the vacuum. This convinced most scholars at that time that forcefully for the existence of the “luminiferous aether” in his 1861 elec- a vacuum had been created. In 1644, Torricelli stated, “We tromagnetic theory of light (“…that pervaded all space, even a vacuum, and allowed transmission of “waves”). live submerged at the bottom of an ocean of the element air, that by unquestioned experiments is known to have ” dToday most meteorologists use hectopascals (hPa) as the measure of (excerpted from a letter by Torricelli to Michelangelo Ricci pressure (1 hPa = 100 Pa = 0.75006 Torr). 1644)[17]. This was in contradiction to Galileo’s belief that eThe highest atmospheric pressure ever recorded (adjusted to sea level air had no weight and therefore there was no such thing as at ~1 hPa per 7.5 meters) was 1089.4 hPa in Tosontsengel, Mongolia “air pressure.” The effect of air pressure had been previously (2004), which is 7% higher than the standard atmosphere. The lowest atmospheric pressure ever recorded was 870 hPa in the eye of Super evidenced by the collapse of von Guericke’s copper vacuum Typhoon Tip (1979), which is 14% less than the standard atmosphere. chamber by atmospheric pressure in the late 1640s. It has been estimated that the pressure inside a tornado can be less Prior to the 1640s, it was assumed that light had a wave than 20% of a standard atmosphere (G. Vatistas, et al., J. American nature and required a medium to be propagated. The obser- Inst. Aeronautics and Astronautics, in press {from wattsupwiththat. vation that light traveled through the Torricelli vacuum gave com/2017/01/17/}).

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SVC.Bulletin.Spring2017.indd 42 3/20/17 5:10 PM Fig. 3—Experiments using the Torricelli vacuum from Saggi di Fig. 4—Boyle’s vacuum base plate with a glass bell jar and an Naturali Esperienzi, Academia del Cimento (1667)[21] from {p. 78[2]}. Hg manometer (1665) from {p. 32[4] & p. 72[22]}. 1a) Concentrated sunlight used to heat a ball of bitumen tar in a Torricellian vacuum that caused it to “smoke” and the smoke fell to the bottom of the chamber; 1b) inflation of a lamb’s bladder containing a trace of air.

Boyle performed a number of experiments (43) in the vac- they diedf. Snails didn’t seem to be affected by prolonged ex- uum system as reported in 1660[12,17] including placing a posure in vacuum. Torricelli-type manometer in the glass belljar (Experiments Boyle noted that there was a relationship between the pres- 17–19). The manometer tube was too tall for the chamber so sure (P) and volume (V) (“spring of air”), which led to Boyle’s the tube extended out of the access port on top and was sealed Law (i.e., PV = constant) that was published in 1662[24]. In with cement. The chamber was evacuated to ~¼ inch of mer- 1679, the French physicist Edme Mariotte published the same cury (6 Torr (800 Pa)). This was the first “vacuum system” with relationship in De la nature de l’air independent of Boyle. the experimental chamber separate from the vacuum pump- Thus, this law is sometimes referred to as Mariotte’s Law or ing and with a vacuum gauge to measure the pressure in the the Boyle–Mariotte Law. chamber (“vacuum in a vacuum” experiment). See Fig. 4. Anne-Jean Robert and Nicolas-Louis Robert were the engi- Several of Boyle’s experiments were on the effect of vacuum neers who built the world’s first balloon for Professor on living things (butterflies, mice, birds, snails, etc.) (Experi- ments 40 & 41). These were the first vacuum experiments on fIn 1862, James Glaisher and Henry Coxwell reach an altitude of >29,000 the effects of rarefied air on living things and essentially a feet and possibly 35,000 feet (stratosphere) in an open-basket balloon. study on high altitude physiological reactions[17,23]. In some Glaisher passed out and they both nearly died; http://scied.ucar.edu/ cases, the subjects passed out but recovered; in other cases docs/unconscious-stratosphere.

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SVC.Bulletin.Spring2017.indd 43 3/20/17 5:10 PM HISTORY CORNER

Jacques Charles, which flew from central Paris on August 27, gassed the water beforehand and there was limited outgas- 1783. They went on to build the world’s first manned hydrogen sing during pumping. The conclusion by M. Nauenberg[29] balloon. On December 1, 1783, Robert accompanied Charles is that neither pump could achieve a low enough pressure, on a 2-hour, 5-minute flight. Their barometer and thermom- when pumping with water in the chamber, to cause the water eter made it the first balloon flight to provide meteorological column to drop below 4 feet (i.e., <100 Torr (<13300 Pa)). measurements of the atmosphere above the earth’s surface. Boyle’s experiments (1660) led to a confrontation with Von Guericke measured the weight of a container in vacuum Hobbes who was a noted thinker at that time and a critic of with and without air in the container and found the weight experimentation in natural philosophy[1]. To Hobbes, natural change to be about 40 grams {p. 37[5]}g. Huygens also per- philosophy should be based only on observations of things formed a similar experiment using air, vacuum, and water that occurred in nature, not experiments. That was the pre- (1662) as did Schott (1664). dominant view of scientific thinking at that time. Both Boyle For much of early history, philosophers and scientists as- and Hobbes were looking for ways to establish scientific facts sumed Aristotle was correct in theorizing the heavier an without political or secular influence (Galileo was convicted object is, the faster it will fall. In 1705, Hauksbee showed that all for heresy by the Roman papacy in 1633)i. In his 1600 book, objects fall at the same rate if you eliminate air resistance[25]. Boyle goes to great length to detail the experimental proce- Boyle had also demonstrated the effect earlier. dures so that others could reproduce them, although the cus- In another experiment, Boyle demonstrated that there was tom of the time was to perform experiments with a number of a maximum height to which water could be raised by vacuum witnesses present to verify the findings. pumping. By standing on a roof 30 feet (9.14 m) above a res- Hobbes attacked Boyle’s experiments as being unreliable ervoir of water and sucking up the water through a pipe with due to both the vacuum pumping equipment and the intellec- a vacuum pump, Boyle showed that there was a maximum tual integrity of the knowledge it yielded. Other primary crit- height beyond which water could not be drawn up. Of course, ics of the “vacuist” included the Cambridge “Platonist,” Henry this effect had been noted much earlier in studies on the use Moore and the Jesuit, Franciscus Linus (who said that if there of siphons. were a vacuum you wouldn’t be able to see through it)[1]. In 1705, Hauksbee showed that the capillary action of draw- Glow Discharges ing a column of water up a narrow glass tube was the same in In 1675, J. Picard noted a glow (“barometric glow,” “Picard’s vacuum as in air[26]. Glow”) in the Torricelli vacuum above the mercury column in Gay-Lussac’s Law (also known as Charles Law) (V/T = con- an agitated mercury barometer[30]. When pure mercury in a stant, where V is volume and T is temperature) was enunci- clean glass barometric tube is shaken, a band of glow exists h ated in 1802[27] but had been experimentally observed by on the glass at the meniscus of the mercury as the mercury Guillaume Amontons in 1699[28]. moves downward. The cause is static charge buildup and dis- “Anomalous Suspension” Experiment charge. If the glass is not clean, it was found to be impossible In 1662, C. Huygens placed a 4-foot water manometer tube in to initiate the glow. a and evacuated the chamber. He reported In 1705, Francis Hauksbee used “frictional ” on the that the column remained suspended. This was in contrast outside of an evacuated globe to generate a glow discharge in with the work of Boyle/Hooke. Huygens’ “anomalous suspen- a vacuum that was intense enough “to read by”[31,32]. This sion” observation fueled the controversy between Boyle and was the first glow () discharge tube[30]. Later, Hauksbee Thomas Hobbes over the nature of “vacuum” and whether demonstrated a that produced frictional electricity “artificial” experimentation was valid[1]. in the vacuum[33]. Serious glow discharge studies began after The difference in results may be attributed to of 1850 when the hermetic Pt-glass seal was invented and better the water and the inability of the vacuum pump to achieve a vacuum pumps had been developed[6]. good vacuum with water in the chamber[29]. In the case of Scientists used “frictional electricity” to study the chemistry the Boyle/Hooke experiment, the water was not outgassed in electric sparks and plasmas before 1800. After the invention but released dissolved air when the pressure was lowered. of the voltaic battery in 1800 by A. Volta, the study of the chem- This created a pressure in the space above the water column istry in electric arcs rapidly developed even though arc plasmas that pushed the water down. In Huygens’ experiment, he out- had been generated by batteries made from Leyden jars much earlier[34,35]. Using high voltages, plasmas could be generated at atmospheric pressure (e.g., dielectric barrier discharges[36]) g One cubic meter of air weighs about one kg. So this would be equivalent and in below-atmospheric (“vacuum”) . to about a 30 liter chamber—which is reasonable for von Guericke to have used (see Fig. 1). iThe Roman papacy considered the concept of vacuum anathema hJacques Charles had made the same observation some years earlier but and most early work on vacuum was done outside the Roman ’s had not published it, so Joseph Louis Gay-Lussac gave him credit domain (i.e., in the Reform countries and where the French Pope by naming the law after him. had a different attitude).

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SVC.Bulletin.Spring2017.indd 44 3/20/17 5:10 PM Vacuum Arc Melting In 1839, Robert Hare described the first arc furnace that was used for arc melting of materials in vacuum and controlled at- mospheres[37]. The melting of calcium in vacuum would have resulted in the deposition of a calcium film on the chamber walls. Figure 5 shows Robert Hare’s “deflagrator”[38]. Plasma Treatment

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Fig. 5—Robert Hare’s 1839 “deflagrator”—the first controlled atmosphere arc melting furnace[37]. Process Materials Inc Conclusion processmaterials.com Until about 1850, experiments in vacuum were confined to and curious scientists. After 1850, the need for in- dustry to produce incandescent lamps was an important driv- ing in advancing vacuum technology. The development of lower vacuums allowed the field of gaseous electronics to flourish. This led to development of vacuum coating process- es in the later 1800s. References 1. Steven Shapin and Simon Schaffer, Leviathan Air-Pump; Hobbes, Boyle, and the Experimental Life (with a new introduction by the au- thors), Princeton University Press, 1985. 2. A.N. da C. Andrade, The History of the Vacuum Pump, Adv. Vac. Sci. Tech- nol., 1, pp. 14–20, 1960; also in History of Vacuum Science and Technol- Bonding Services ogy, edit. by T.E. Madey and W.C. Brown, pp. 77-83, AVS/AIP, 1984. 3. T.E. Madey, Early Applications of Vacuum, from Aristotle to Langmuir, Materials J. Vac. Sci. Technol., A2, pp.100–117, 1984; also in History of Vacuum Science and Technology, edit. by T.E. Madey and W.C. Brown, pp. 9–17 Planar Sputtering Targets AVS/AIP, 1984. Cylindrical Sputtering Targets

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4. P.A. Redhead, The Measurement of Vacuum Pressures, J. Vac. Science 12. Robert Boyle, New Experiments Physico-Mechanicall (sic), Touching the Technol. A2(2), pp. 132-138,1984; also History of Vacuum Science and Spring of Air, and its Effects (Made, for the most Part in a New Pneu- Technology, edit. by T.E. Madey and W.C. Brown, pp. 31–37, AVS/AIP, matical Engine) Written by Way of Letter To the Right Honorable Charles 1984. Lord Viscount of Dungarvan, Eldest Son to the Earl of Corke, University 5. M.J. Sparnaay, Adventures in Vacuums, North-Holland, NL, 1992. of Oxford (1660); also The Works of Robert Boyle, Part 1, Vol. 1 (General 6. Sanborn C. Brown, Two Hundred Years B.C. (before the conference) Introduction; Textural Note; Publications to 1660), pp. 143–301, edit. in Gaseous Electronics Some Applications, (five papers from the 25th by Michael Hunter and Edward B. Davis, Pickering & Chatto, 1999. Gaseous Electronics Conference – 1972) edit. by J.Wm. McGown and 13. Disseminating the Pump: Holland and Paris, pp. 265–276 in [1]. P.K. John, pp. 9–16, North-Holland, 1974. 14. Replication and Its Troubles: Air-pumps in the 1660s, Ch. VI. pp. 225– 7. J.W. Howell and H. Schroeder, The History of the Incandescent Lamp, 282 in [1]. Magua Co., Schenectady, N.Y.,1927; http://www.archive.org/stream/ 15. Thomas A. Edison, U.S. Patent 248425, Apparatus for Producing High historyofincande00howe/historyofincande00howe_djvu.txt. Vacuums, (filed 29 Mar. 1880; published 18 Oct. 1881) (assigned to The 8. W.E.K. Middleton, The History of the Barometer, Johns Hopkins Univer- Edison Electric Light Co.). sity Press, 1964. 16. R.K. DeKosky, William Crookes and the Quest for Absolute Vacuum in 9. Donald M. Mattox, The Role of Mercury in Vacuum and PVD Technolo- the 1870s, Ann. Sci. 40, 1, 1983; also History of Vacuum Science and gy, pp. 44–47, SVC Bulletin, Society of Vacuum Coaters, Summer 2016. Technology, edit. by T. E. Madey and W. C. Brown, pp. 84–101, AVS/AIP, 10. Ottonis von Guericke, Experimenta Nova (ut Volantur) Magdeburgica 1984. de Vacuo Spatio, (New Experiment Powered by Vacuum Space), Am- 17. John B. West, Robert Boyle’s Landmark Book of 1600 with the First Ex- stelodami (1672) (translated by Roger Sherman); also Otto von Guer- periments on Rarified Air, J. Appl. Physiol., 98, pp. 31–39, January 2005. icke’s Account of the Hemispheres Experiment, p. 67 in 18. A History of the Theories of Aether and Electricity, Edmund Taylor Whit- History of Vacuum Science and Technology, edit. by T.E. Madey and taker, Longman, Green and Co., 1910. W.C. Brown, AVS/AIP, 1984. 19. Benjamin Thompson, New Experiments on Heat, Phil Trans. Royal Soc. 11. Gaspar Schott, Mechanica Hydraulico-pneuimatica, Wurzburg, (), 76, pp. 273–304, 1786. Bavaria, 1657. 20. Count Rumford, Essays, Vol. II, p. 393, 1798. 21. Saggi di Naturali Esperienze fatte nell’ (Essays on Natural Experiments) Translated into English by Richard Waller (Essays of Natural Experiments: Made in the Academie del Cimento, Under the protection of the most Serene Prince Leopold of Tuscany) (1684), Academia del Cimento, 1667; http://www.imss.fi.it/biblio/es- aggi.html (Institute and Museum of the History of Science, Florence, ). 22. Robert Boyle, The Second Continuation of Physico-mechanical Ex- periments, in The Works of Robert Boyle, Vol. IV, pp. 510–513, Plate 2 (iconismus) Fig. 1, p. 511 (London 1772) reproduced in part in History of Vacuum Science and Technology, pp. 71–75, edit. by T. E. Madey and W. C. Brown, AVS/AIP, 1984. 23. Paul Bert, La Pression Barométrique. Recherches de physiologie expéri- mentale Maisson, (1878); English translation by M.A. Hitchcock and F.A. Hitchcock, College Book, 1943. 24. Robert Boyle, A Defence of the Doctrine Touching the Spring and Weight ISO 9001:2008 Certified of the Air, Propos’d by Mr. R. Boyle in his New Phyfico-Mechanical Experi- ments – Against the Objections of Franciscus Linus: by the Author of the Experiments, R. Boyle, Ch. V, pp. 57–68, 1662; also The Works of Robert Boyle, Part I, Vol. 3, edit. by M. Hunter and E.B. Davis, Routledge, 1999. 25. F. Hauksbee, Bodies Falling in Vacuo, Phil. Trans. Royal Soc. (London), XXIV, p. 1946, 1705.  Serving the flat panel, webcoating, glass, optical, 26. F. Hauksbee, An Account Made at Gresham-College, Shewing That the hardcoating and solar industries since 1997 Seemingly Spontaneous Ascention (sic) of Water in Small Tubes Open at Both Ends is the Same in Vacuo as in the Open Air, Phil. Trans., 25,  Supporting volume production and new product pp. 1706–1707, 1706. development 27. Joseph-Louis Gay-Lussac, Recherches sur la Dilatation des Gaz et des Vapeurs, Annales de chimie, XLIII (43) pp. 137–175, lues à l’Institut  Sputtering targets, planar and rotatable National, le 11 pluvióse an 10, 1802.

28. G. Amontons, Moyen de Substituer Commodement l’action du Feu,  Backing plates and tubes and bonding service a la Force des Hommes et des Cheveaux pour Mouvoir les

 High purity evaporation materials (Method of Substituting the Force of Fire for Horse and Man Power to Move Machines), Mémoires de l’Académie royale des sciences, in: Histoire de l’Académie Royale des sciences, pp. 112–126, June 1699.  Magnetic Materials/Assemblies: NEW- 29. M. Nauenberg, of the Long-standing Puzzle of Huygens’ SmCo, NdFeB, AlNiCo “Anomalous Suspension,” Arch. Hist. Exact Sci., 69(3) 327–341, 2015. 30. Jean Picard, Experience Fait à l’Observatoire sur la Barometre Simple ((415) 619-9788 / www.protechmaterials.com Touchant un Nouveau Phenomene qu’on y a Découvert [Experiment

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SVC.Bulletin.Spring2017.indd 46 3/20/17 5:10 PM Made at the [Astronomical] Observatory [in Paris] on a Simple Ba- About the Author: Donald M. Mattox rometer Concerning a New Phenomenon that was Discovered There], Le Journal des Sçavans [later: Journal des Savants], page 112 (Paris Don Mattox served as a meteorologist and Air edition) or page 126 (Amsterdam edition), 25 May 1676. Weather Officer in the U.S. Air Force (USAF) 31. Francis Hauksbee, An Account of an Experiment Made before the during and after the Korean War. After being Royal Society at Gresham College, Together with a Repetition of the Same, Touching the Production of a Considerable Light upon a Slight discharged from the USAF, he obtained an Attrition of the Hands on a Glass Globe Exhausted of Its Air: With Other M.S. degree on the G.I. Bill, and went to work Remarkable Occurrences, Phil.. Trans., 25, pp. 2277–82, 1706–7. for Sandia National Laboratories in 1961. 32. Francis Hauksbee and Stephen Gray, Part Three, Chapter VIII, pp. 229- Don retired in 1989 after 28 years as a member of Technical 237, in Electricity in the 17th and 18th Centuries: A Study of Early Mod- Staff and then as a Technical Supervisor. Don was President ern Physics, J.L. Heilbron, Univ. California Press, 1979. 33. Francis Hauksbee the Elder, Physico-Mechanical Experiments on Vari- of the American Vacuum Society (AVS) in 1985. In 1988, the ous Subjects: Containing an Account of several Surprizing Phenomena 9th International Congress on Vacuum Metallurgy presented touching Light and Electricity, Producible on the Attrition of Bodies, him with an award for “outstanding contributions to metal- R. Brugis (London), 1709. lurgical coating technology for the period 1961–1988” and in 34. André Anders, Tracking Down the Origin of Arc Plasma Science: 1. 1995 he was the recipient of the AVS Albert Nerken Award for Early Pulsed and Oscillating Discharges, IEEE Trans. Plasma Science, 31(5) pp. 1052–1059, 2003. his work on the ion plating process. In 2007, Don received the 35. André Anders, Tracking Down the Origin of Arc Plasma; 2. Early Con- Nathaniel Sugerman Award from the Society of Vacuum Coat- tinuous Discharges, IEEE Trans. Plasma Science, 31(5) pp. 1060–1069, ers (SVC). Don served as the Technical Director of SVC from 2003. 1989 to 2006 and Technical Editor from 1989–2016. For more 36. U. Kogelschatz, Dielectric-barrier Discharges: Their History, Discharge information, contact Don Mattox at [email protected]. Physics, and Industrial Application, Plasma Chem. Plasma Processing, 23(1) p. 1, 2003. SVC 37. Robert Hare, Description of an Apparatus for Deflagrating Carburets, Phosphurets, or Cyanides in Vacuo or in an Atmosphere of Hydrogen, with an Account of Other Results Obtained by These and Other Means, Especially the Isolation of Calcium, Trans. Am. Philos. Soc., Vol. 7, article 5 in New Series pp. 53–57, 1841. 38. R.A. Beall et al., Cold-mold Arc Melting and Casting, U.S. Bureau of Mines Bulletin, No. 646, 1968.

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