Demystifying the Author(s): Mark Warschauer Source: Scientific American, Vol. 289, No. 2 (AUGUST 2003), pp. 42-47 Published by: Scientific American, a division of Nature America, Inc. Stable URL: http://www.jstor.org/stable/26060401 Accessed: 05-06-2018 13:38 UTC

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This content downloaded from 129.252.86.83 on Tue, 05 Jun 2018 13:38:29 UTC All use subject to http://about.jstor.org/terms By Mark Warschauer Demystifying Digitalthe Divide The simple binary notion of technology haves and have-nots doesn’t quite compute

For much of the past decade, policy leaders and social scientists have grown increasingly concerned about a so- cietal split between those with and those without access to computers and the In- ternet. The U.S. National Telecommuni- cations and Information Ad- ministration popularized a term for this situation in the mid-1990s: the “digital di- vide.” The phrase soon became used in an international context as well, to describe the status of information technology from country to country. TOM DRAPER DESIGN

42 SCIENTIFIC AMERICAN AUGUST 2003 This content downloadedCOPYRIGHT from 2003 129.252.86.83 SCIENTIFIC on AMERICAN, Tue, 05 Jun INC.2018 13:38:29 UTC All use subject to http://about.jstor.org/terms LEFT TO RIGHT: NATIONAL INSTITUTE OF INFORMATION TECHNOLOGY, DAVID GREEDY, PHOTODISC, PHOTODISC (top row); PHOTODISC (all photographs in second row); PHOTODISC, PHOTODISC, MARK WARSCHAUER (third row); PHOTODISC, PHOTODISC, KEITH DANNEMILLER Corbis/SABA ( fourth row); KEITH DANNEMILLER Corbis/SABA, NATIONAL INSTITUTE OF INFORMATION TECHNOLOGY, PHOTODISC, PHOTODISC (fifth row); PHOTODISC, PHOTODISC, VIVIAN MOOS Corbis (bottom row) This content downloadedCOPYRIGHT from 2003 129.252.86.83 SCIENTIFIC on AMERICAN,Tue, 05 Jun 2018INC. 13:38:29 UTC All use subject to http://about.jstor.org/terms Underlying disparities are real, both the ‘digital divide’ framing is that it tends broader health and education campaigns within and among countries. The Benton to connote ‘digital solutions,’” that is, around the world.) Foundation, which promotes the public- “computers and telecommunications,” This perspective is known in academ- interest use of communications technolo- without a consideration of the context ic circles as technological determinism, gy, reports that by late 2001, 80 percent into which that hardware would be put. the idea that the mere presence of tech- of American families with annual house- This line of reasoning led some to as- nology leads to familiar and standard ap- hold income greater than $75,000 were sume that the dearth of digital access of plications of that technology, which in online, compared with 25 percent of the nations, communities and individuals turn bring about social change. The Har- poorest U.S. families. Total home Inter- could be easily tackled by an infusion of vard Graduate School of Education’s net access was 55 percent for whites, 31 computers and Internet connections. For- Christopher Dede has termed this the percent for African-Americans and 32 mer Speaker of the U.S. House of Repre- “fire” model, with its implication that a percent for Hispanics. Looking at the in- sentatives Newt Gingrich has talked computer, by its mere presence, will gen- ternational picture, in most African coun- about the virtues of giving every child a erate learning or development, just as a tries less than 1 percent of the population laptop computer, without offering a sol- fire generates warmth. Governments, the is online. Not surprisingly, such dispari- id plan for using the devices. And Bill private sector, foundations and charities Some assumed that the dearth of digital access could be easily tackled by an infusion of computers.

ty correlates highly with other measures Gates donated computers to small-town have thus spent hundreds of millions of of social and economic inequality. libraries across America, believing that dollars to bridge the perceived digital di- Yet the simple binary description of a Internet connections would help stem the vide by providing computers and Inter- divide fails to do justice to the complex exodus from rural areas. Although Inter- net lines to those in need, often without reality of various people’s differing access net connection through small-town li- sufficient attention to the social contexts and usage of digital technology. An braries has improved people’s lives by al- in which these technologies might be American who surfs the Internet on a lowing them to stay in touch with friends used. (Dede notes that a better model computer at a local library once a month and relatives, it has not stemmed the ex- than fire might be clothing, which also might be considered to be a digital “have- odus—which largely depends on broad- keeps one warm yet is tailored for indi- not,” whereas someone in a developing er factors, such as employment availabil- vidual fit and use.) country with the same profile would be a ity—and may even have contributed to it How does this application based on “have.” Indeed, couching the condition by allowing people to search for jobs in the assumption of technological deter- in black-and-white terminology can lead cities. (To Gates’s and Gingrich’s credit, minism turn out in practice? Over the those attempting to deal with technolog- they at least had the issue of technology past few years, I have traveled around the ical inequities down the wrong path. The access on their radar screens. Gates, rec- world to study community technology late Rob Kling, who directed the Center ognizing the limitations of computer programs in both developed and devel- for Social Informatics at Indiana Univer- technology in solving social ills, has since oping countries. I have observed scores of sity, put it well: “[The] big problem with gone on to donate billions of dollars to diverse programs and have interviewed hundreds of participants and organizers. As the following case studies show, two Overview/Technologic Logic basics became apparent: well-intentioned ■ The concept of a “digital divide” separating those with access to computers and programs often lead in unexpected direc- communications technology from those without is simplistic and can lead to tions, and the worst failures occur when well-meaning but incomplete attempts at a solution based on merely adding people attempt to address complex social technology to a given circumstance. problems with a narrow focus on provi- ■ In fact, people have widely varying opportunities for access to computers and sion of equipment. communications technology and disparate reasons for wanting the level of access they may desire. A Minimalist Approach ■ A consideration of how people can use computers and the Internet to further the IN 1999 THE MUNICIPAL govern- process of social inclusion is paramount in any effort to install new technology ment of New Delhi, in collaboration with into an environment lacking it. an Indian company called the National Institute of Information Technology,

44 SCIENTIFIC AMERICAN AUGUST 2003 This content downloadedCOPYRIGHT from 2003 129.252.86.83 SCIENTIFIC on AMERICAN, Tue, 05 Jun INC.2018 13:38:29 UTC All use subject to http://about.jstor.org/terms work is suffering.” In short, the commu- nity came to realize that minimally inva- sive education was, in practice, minimal- ly effective education. Nevertheless, an overemphasis on hardware with scant attention paid to the pedagogical and curricular frameworks that shape how the computers are used is common in proj- ects throughout the world. But such tech- nological determinism has been chal- lenged in the academic arena by a con- cept called social informatics, which argues that technology must be consid- ered within a specific context that in- cludes hardware, software, support re- sources, infrastructure, as well as people in various roles and relationships with one another and with other elements of NEW DELHI CHILDREN experiment with what is literally a hole-in-the-wall computer in 2000. The the system. And the technology and so- minimally invasive education project was designed to insert technology into the environment so that the children would learn to use the computer without guidance. Without direction, however, the cial system continuously shape each oth- computer proved for the most part to be merely a high-tech toy. er, like a biological community and its environment. launched an experiment to provide com- difficult. Most poor communities in New Although grassroots teachers, parents puter access to children in one of the Delhi already have organizations that or aid workers may be unfamiliar with city’s poorest areas. Government officials work with children and that could have the academic term “social informatics,” and representatives of the company set set up educational training at a different many already appreciate the implications up an outdoor kiosk with several com- kind of computer center, but their par- of an interwoven relationship of technol- puter stations. The computers, with dial- ticipation was neither solicited nor wel- ogy and public organizations. Social in- up Internet access, were inside a locked comed. Over the nine-month duration of formatics has recently given birth to booth, but the monitors, joysticks and the experiment, the youngsters did in- “community informatics,” which also buttons stuck out through holes and deed learn how to manipulate the joy- considers unique aspects of the particu- were accessible. In line with a concept stick and buttons. But without educa- lar culture into which technology is known as minimally invasive education, tional programs and with the content pri- placed, so that communities can most ef- the test included no teachers or instruc- marily in English rather than Hindi, they fectively use that technology to achieve tors. The idea was to allow the children mostly did what you might expect: played social, economic, political or cultural unfettered daily access so they could games and used paint programs to draw. goals. learn at their own pace rather than Neighborhood parents felt ambiva- through the directives of adults. lent. Several embraced the initiative, but A More Integrated Attempt The program was hailed by its orga- most expressed concern about the lack of ONE EXAMPLE of a program based on nizers as a groundbreaking model for organized instruction. Some even com- a community informatics approach is the how to bring information technology to plained that the computer was detrimen- Gyandoot (which translates to “purvey- the world’s urban poor. Inspiring stories tal. “My son used to be doing very well or of knowledge”) project in . In circulated on the Internet about how il- in school,” one parent said, “but now he 2000 in the southwest corner of Madhya literate children taught themselves to use spends all his free time playing comput- Pradesh, one of India’s poorest states, the computers and thus crashed the barriers er games at the kiosk, and his school- government established this digital effort to the information age. These accounts led to additional kiosks being set up in MARK WARSCHAUER is vice chair of the department of education at the University of Califor- other locations. nia, Irvine, and is also affiliated with the university’s School of Information and Computer Sci- My visit to one of the New Delhi ence and Center for Research on Information Technology and Organizations. He is the found- kiosks, however, revealed a different pic- ing editor of Language Learning & Technology journal and author or editor of seven books on ture. The Internet connection seldom technology, education and development. The editor of the “Papyrus News” e-mail news list

functioned. The architecture of the THE AUTHOR reporting on technology and society, Warschauer has conducted research in , , kiosk—based on a wall instead of a India, , Singapore and other countries, focusing on how diverse peoples and commu-

PABLO BARTHOLOMEW Netphotograph.com room—made instruction or collaboration nities make use of information technology for human and social development.

www.sciam.com SCIENTIFIC AMERICAN 45 This content downloadedCOPYRIGHT from 2003 129.252.86.83 SCIENTIFIC on AMERICAN,Tue, 05 Jun 2018INC. 13:38:29 UTC All use subject to http://about.jstor.org/terms to bring more economic and political kiosks that helped to extend phone ac- panic population. The first effort was an power to the rural population, nearly cess throughout much of India. In the online AP course in macroeconomics, be- two thirds of whom are undernourished nine months beginning in October 2001, cause many of their students, even the and illiterate. Each village received a the Gyandoot kiosks had some 21,300 poorer of them, had some access to com- computer kiosk, which is connected to users, 80 percent of whom had annual in- puters and the Internet outside of school. the others in a network. Local entrepre- comes of less than $300. The number of Attendees of several schools enrolled in neurs service the machines, and a small users is a small percentage of the popula- the courses, thus potentially overcoming team hired by the government creates tion, but the benefits of the project, such the problem of small and dispersed pop- content for the Gyandoot intranet, based as improved government services, even- ulations of advanced students. The result: on an analysis of the people’s social and tually ripple outward to friends, families only six of 22 students completed the economic needs. and co-workers. course. Some reasons became clear This content includes updated prices The magnitude of the Gyandoot suc- through student surveys and interviews. of popular crops at the district, regional cess story remains to be determined. But The online instructional format—with and national markets, so that small farm- the underlying approach—a combination students completing work independently ers can decide whether to harvest their of well-planned and low-cost infusions of from their home computers—lacked suf- crop and where to sell it, without wast- technology with content development ficient structure, teacher contact and peer ing a day traveling to the district capital and educational campaigns targeted to interaction to maintain students’ motiva- for price checks. A complaint service lets social development—is surely a healthy tion to cope with the challenging materi- villagers report local problems, such as alternative to projects that rely on plant- al. The Hispanic students commented malfunctioning hand pumps or teachers ing computers and waiting for something most frequently that they preferred these failing to show up at schools. With vil- to grow. types of social support. The key issue is not unequal access to computers but rather the unequal ways that computers are used. lagers quickly able to voice such concerns Fine-Tuning in California Still, the failure was fruitful. A revised digitally, government services have start- A DOMESTIC CASE, which I investigat- program the next year brought students ed to improve. ed with doctoral candidate Jodie Wales, from several schools to a computer labo- Local kiosk managers operate the also shows the importance of the com- ratory at a central location, this time to computers, thus making the service, munity informatics approach. California take an honors course, “Introduction to which costs a few cents per use, accessi- high schools offer Advanced Placement Computer Science and the C Program- ble even to the illiterate. Kiosk managers (AP) courses that give students college ming Language.” Although the class was also offer computer training to village credit and facilitate their admission to the still taught online to take advantage of the children for a small fee, thereby upping best universities. These courses are avail- distant expert instructor and the comput- the collective computer skills of the com- able in dramatically unequal numbers, er-based curriculum, a local teacher munity while affording additional in- however, largely in relation to the socio- joined the students to answer questions come to the managers. And Gyandoot is economic status and ethnicity of student and provide general assistance. The com- used to connect with the area’s broad populations. For example, in 1999 Bev- bination of online expert instruction and socioeconomic initiatives, such as a erly Hills High School, which is 9 percent face-to-face teacher and peer interaction “healthiest child” campaign, which pro- African-American and Hispanic, offered proved much more effective: 56 of 65 stu- vides information about vaccinations 45 AP classes. Inglewood High School, in dents completed the course. Based on and nutrition. a different part of the same metropolitan these results, the University of California Gyandoot was inexpensive to launch, area and with 97 percent black and His- College Preparatory Initiative abandoned because it involves only one computer panic students, offered only three such the previous model of pure online in- per village, and it is partly self-sustaining, courses. struction in exchange for the combined because kiosk operators are able to re- To address this problem, in 2000 the online and face-to-face model. (Of course, cover some of their costs through small University of California Office of the Pres- students may find an honors computer fees to users. With its emphasis on meet- ident and the university’s College Prepa- class somewhat more accessible than an ing user needs through small-scale, local- ratory Initiative engaged in a collabora- AP macroeconomics course, or the former ly run services, it has much in common tion with the Anaheim Union High might be better suited for the online set- with the earlier model of telephone School District, which has a large His- ting. Such points must also be considered

46 SCIENTIFIC AMERICAN AUGUST 2003 This content downloadedCOPYRIGHT from 2003 129.252.86.83 SCIENTIFIC on AMERICAN, Tue, 05 Jun INC.2018 13:38:29 UTC All use subject to http://about.jstor.org/terms not just through physical access to books but through education, communication, work connections, family support and assistance from social networks. Similar- ly, technology can be well implemented to augment and improve existing social efforts and programs. The bottom line is that there is no bi- nary digital divide and no single overrid- ing factor for determining—or closing— such a divide. Technology does not exist as an external variable to be injected from the outside to bring about certain results. It is woven into social systems and processes. And from a policy stand- point, the goal of bringing technology to marginalized groups is not merely to overcome a technological divide but in- stead to further a process of social inclu- sion. Realizing this objective involves not only providing computers and Internet links or shifting to online platforms but also developing relevant content in di- FARMERS ACCESS the Gyandoot intranet at a community computer facility in central India’s Dhar verse languages, promoting literacy and district, where 60 percent of the 1.7 million residents live below the poverty line. The intranet provides crop prices, official application forms, and a place to hold village auctions and to air public grievances. education, and mobilizing community and institutional support toward achiev- when devising the mode of instruction.) ments and simulations, do wealthy stu- ing community goals. Technology then More and more evidence points to dents use computers more. Once again, a becomes a means, and often a powerful the need for a careful consideration of all “digital divide” framework that focuses one, rather than an end in itself. potential ramifications before applying on access issues alone fails to face these It is important to note that the Bush technology as an educational Band-Aid. broader inequalities in technology use administration is cutting funding of pro- In fact, my research—together with that and learning. grams that foster access to technology. of other educational investigators such as Some might argue that such cuts are ap- Henry J. Becker of the University of Cal- Changing the Mind-set propriate if there is no digital divide, but ifornia at Irvine, Harold Wenglinsky of PEOPLE ACCESS digital information in that reasoning is as specious as simplistic the City University of New York and a wide variety of ways and usually as part solutions based on the notion of a divide. Janet Schofield of the University of Pitts- of social networks involving relatives, The opposite of divide is multiply. Policy burgh—shows that computer use in friends and co-workers. Literacy pro- planners should stop thinking in terms of schools is as likely to exacerbate in- vides a good analogy. Literacy does not divides to be bridged. The combination equality as lessen it. The key issue is not exist in a bipolar divide between those of carefully planned infusions of tech- unequal access to computers but rather who absolutely can and cannot read. nology with relevant content, improved the unequal ways that computers are There are levels of literacy for function- education and enhanced social support used. Our studies note that kindergarten al, vocational, civic, literary and scholar- can multiply those assets that communi- through 12th grade students who enjoy ly purposes. And people become literate ties already have. a high socioeconomic status more fre- quently use computers for experimenta- MORE TO EXPLORE tion, research and critical inquiry, where- Technology and Social Inclusion: Rethinking the Digital Divide. Mark Warschauer. MIT Press, 2003. as poor students engage in less challeng- Who’s Wired and Who’s Not? Henry J. Becker in The Future of Children, Vol. 10, No. 2; 2000. ing drills and exercises that do not take Available at www.futureofchildren.org/usr–doc/vol10no2art3.pdf Reconceptualizing the Digital Divide. Mark Warschauer in First Monday, Vol. 7, No. 7; 2002. full advantage of computer technology. Available at www.firstmonday.dk/issues/issue7–7/warschauer/ In mathematics and English classes, Athena Alliance: www.athenaalliance.org/ where such drills are common, poor stu- Center for Social Informatics: www.slis.indiana.edu/CSI/ dents actually have more access to com- Community Informatics Research and Applications Unit: www.cira.org.uk/ puters than do more affluent ones. Only Community Technology Centers Network: www.ctcnet.org

PABLO BARTHOLOMEW Netphotograph.com in science classes, which rely on experi- Digital Divide Network: www.digitaldividenetwork.org/

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