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Appropriation of Religion: the Re-Formation of the Korean Notion of Religion in Global Society

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Appropriation of Religion: the Re-Formation of the Korean Notion of Religion in Global Society Appropriation of Religion: The Re-formation of the Korean Notion of Religion in Global Society Kyuhoon Cho Thesis Submitted to the Faculty of Graduate and Postdoctoral Studies In Partial Fulfillment of the Requirements For the Degree of Doctor of Philosophy In Religious Studies Department of Classics & Religious Studies Faculty of Arts University of Ottawa © Kyuhoon Cho, Ottawa, Canada, 2013 ABSTRACTS Appropriation of Religion: The Re-formation of the Korean Notion of Religion in Global Society By Kyuhoon Cho Doctor of Philosophy in Religious Studies, University of Ottawa, Canada Dr. Peter F. Beyer, Supervisor Dr. Lori G. Beaman, Co-supervisor This dissertation explores the reconfiguration of religion in modern global society with a focus on Koreans’ use of the category of religion. Using textual and structural analysis, this study examines how the notion of religion is structurally and semantically contextualized in the public sphere of modern Korea. I scrutinize the operation of the differentiated communication systems that produces a variety of discourses and imaginaries on religion and religions in modern Korea. Rather than narrowly define religion in terms of the consequence of religious or scientific projects, this dissertation shows the process in which the evolving societal systems such as politics, law, education, and mass media determine and re-determine what counts as religion in the emergence of a globalized Korea. I argue that, ever since the Western notion of religion was introduced to East Asia in the eighteenth and nineteenth centuries, religion was, unlike in China and Japan, constructed as a positive social component in Korea, because it was considered to be instrumental in maintaining Korean identity and modernizing the Korean nation in the new global context. In twentieth century Korea, the conception of religion was manifest in the ii representation of the so-called world religions such as Buddhism and Christianity, which were largely re-imagined as resisting colonialism and communism as well as contributing to the integration and democratization of the nation-state. The phenomenal clout and growth of Korea’s mainstream religions can be traced to an established twofold understanding that religion is distinctive, normal, and versatile, while indigenous traditions and new religious groups are abnormal, regressive, and even harmful. I have found that, since the late 1980s, a negative re-formation of religion has been widespread in the public sphere of South Korea, with a growing concern that religion may harbor a parochial attitude against the nation’s new strategies of development. Religion has been increasingly signified as antisocial, conflictual, and sectarian in newly globalized South Korea, because structuralized religious power, in particular that of Protestantism, gets in the way of autonomous evolvement of the secular societal institutions. As such, I conclude by suggesting that the definition of religion was multiply appropriated by the differences in local particularization in contemporary global society. Insofar as religion is regarded as incompatible with the changed location of the national society in the new global society, the semantics assigned to what is called religion continues to be degraded in contemporary South Korea. iii TABLE OF CONTENTS ABSTRACT …………………………………………………………………..…………..... ii TABLE OF CONTENTS ………………………….……..…………………..………......... iv ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS ….…………………….……………….…………….…….. vii LIST OF TABLES ……………………………………….…………………..……………. ix KEY TERMINOLOGY ………………………………………………………..…….......... x INTRODUCTION …………………………………………………………………..….... 1 I THEORIZING RELIGION AND RELIGIONS IN THE CONTEXT OF GLOBALIZATION Chapter 1 Theoretical Framework and Research Propositions …..………….....….... 10 1. Previous Research on Religion as Concept, Category, and Social Reality …..……….. 13 (1) The Contested Nature of Religion ……………….……............................................. 13 (2) The Social Scientific Observation of Religion …..……............................................. 18 (3) The ‘Official’ Conception of Religion ….……….……............................................. 21 2. Luhmannian Framework: Religion as Self-Referential System in Modern Society …. 23 (1) Systems Theory as Another Paradigm ….……….……............................................. 24 (2) World Society or Globalization …....…………….……............................................. 27 (3) Religion as Autopoietic Communication System …................................................... 33 (4) The Transformation of the Idea of Religion in Late-modern Society ….................... 37 3. Three Axes of the Religious Change in Late-modern South Korea ……….....………. 41 (1) Democracy …..…………….……............................................................................... 43 (2) Globalization ….……………….……........................................................................ 45 (3) Multiple Modernities ……..………….……............................................................... 48 4. Research Methodology …………………………………………………………….….. 52 II THE KOREAN NOTION OF RELIGION IN CONTEMPORARY GLOBAL SOCIETY Chapter 2 The Re-formation of the Korean Notion of Religion in the Political System …………………………………………………………………………………… 61 1. The Modern Political System, the Nation-State, and Religion ……………………….. 63 2. The Emergence of Religion and Religions in the Modern World ……………………. 68 3. The Appropriation of Religion in Modern China and Japan ………………………...... 74 (1) China: “The Chinese Nation Cannot Be Represented by Religion” ……...………... 79 a. Refusal and Appropriation of Zongjiao in Modern China ………………………. 80 b. Attempt and Failure of Manufacturing Confucian Religion …...……………….. 81 c. Modernism, Chinese Socialism, and the Difficulty of Religions …...………… 83 (2) Japan: “The National Polity Must Go beyond Religion” ……………………….….. 86 a. How the Notion of Religion Was Introduced into Japan …...………………….. 87 b. Shinto, Christianity, and the Religious Landscape ...………………………….. 89 c. “Non-Religion” as Japanese Essence …………………………….…...…………. 91 4. The Case of Korea: From “Civilized Religion” to “Suspicion to Religion” …….……. 93 (1) How the Concept of Religion Was Constructed in Modern Korea ……..………..... 94 (2) The Religious Landscape and Protestantism as ‘Model Religion’ iv in Korea’s Political Change ………......………………………………..……………. 99 (3) The Re-construction of Religion in a Globalized Korea ………....……………….. 109 5. Concluding Remarks: The Convergence of the Religious Ideas in East Asia ……… 120 Chapter 3 The Re-formation of the Korean Notion of Religion in the Legal System 124 1. The Modern Legal System on Religion and Religions ……………………………… 125 2. The Legal Construction of Religion in Modern Korea …………..…………………. 131 (1) The Opening Era: The Introduction of the Category of Religion into a Confucian Kingdom …..……...……………………………………………… 132 a. The Negative Structure of Religion: “The Western Religion Must Not Interfere with the Korean Nation” ………… 133 b. The Positive Semantics of Religion: “Religion Is the Root of the Nation” ………………………………….……….... 137 (2) Japanese Colonial Era: The Making of the Shinto State in Korea …………..….. 139 a. The Negative Structure of Religion: “Religion and Politics Must Be Strictlly Separated” …...……………………….. 141 b. The Negative Semantics of Religion: “Sects Should Not Outstrip the National Morality” ………………………….….. 146 (3) The Cold War Era: The Protestantization of Law-Religion Relation ………..…… 150 a. The Positive Structure of Religion: “Law Protects Religion, But Not Fake Ones” …...………………………….….. 151 b. The Positive Semantics of Religion: “Religion Helps the National Modernization” ……………………....……….….. 160 3. The Transformation of the Legal Notion of Religion in Post-Cold War South Korea 167 (1) The Positive Structure of Religion: “Law Does Not Recognize ‘Good Religion’ or ‘Bad Religion’” …….…………..…. 169 a. Democracy and New Religions ….....……………………………………..….. 172 b. Korean Multiple Modernities and Shamanism …....………………………..…. 176 c. Globalization and the Increased Visibility of Religion …...………………….. 180 (2) The Negative Semantics of Religion: “Religion Troubles the Nation in the New Global Era” …………………………….. 185 a. The Antisociality of Protestantism: “The Religious People Do Not Respect Others Not Belonging to Their Own Religion” ………………………….…….. 190 b. “The Cultic Anarchist”: Religious Objection to the National Obligation ……...……………………….. 196 4. Concluding Remarks …………………………………………….…..……………. 202 Chapter 4 The Re-formation of the Korean Notion of Religion in the Education System ………………………………………………………………………………….. 206 1. The Modern Educational System on Religion and Religions ….………………...... 209 2. The Structure of Religion in the Modern Korean Education: “Religion as an Official Subject” ……………………………………….………….. 213 (1) The Significance of Religion in the Modern Education ……………....……….….. 215 (2) The Re-formation of Religion in the Post 80s’ Educational System: From Proselytism to an Official Subject of Public Education ….…...…..……….. 221 3. The Semantics of Religion in the Educational System: v “Religion as an Anti-educational Entity” ……………………….…………………. 233 (1) The Real Function of Religious Education: Does Religion Foster Good and Competent Citizens in a Globalized Korea? ….…………….…………………….... 235 (2) The Change in the Semantic Construction of Religion: From the Advocate of Modern Education to the Obstructer of Educational Development ………………….……... 239 a. “Religious Education that Ostracizes Korea’s Religious Uniqueness” …...…… 241 b. “Religious
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