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"',?4 -'!E &&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&\K #N8>" !* ''?4'$ ++ $ &&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&K[ #[8>,$!%"$?4'$"J (!$ &&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&IK [&@7 &&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&@HB #K8> #+! !!]#?4'$ "7,1!+$ &&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&@NB K&@ 7,1!+$ &&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&@NI K&G L$(% &&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&@[N K&\ L$1' &&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&@KH #A8&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&GHA 1$&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&GG\ CHAPTER 1 INTRODUCTION Macbeth , probably written in 1606, is Shakespeare’s shortest play, except for the Comedy of Errors (Bradley 401). It is also his bloodiest, as if the whole story echoed King Duncan’s first line, “What bloody man is that?” 1 Indeed, bloody men—and women, and children —are quite excessive in Macbeth . As Francis Barker points out, the main narrative action of the play consists of murder after murder (59). There are, in effect, six very violent scenes in the play: first, when Macbeth kills the saintly king; second, when he kills Duncan’s servants; third, Banquo’s murder; fourth, when Banquo’s ghost appears at the banquet; fifth, the massacre of Macduff’s whole family; and sixth, the final act, in which Macbeth kills young Siward, and is then killed by Macduff, who brings his head on a pike. Judging from the few stage directions in the playtext, only the first two of the events just cited happen off stage. Harold Bloom claims Duncan’s murder has connotations of sexual violence, and that is why his stabbings occur off stage (Shakespeare 530-1). But David Norbrook offers the more mundane explanation that Shakespeare wrote the play for James I, and that the spectacle of a king being killed on stage would be far from amusing, not to mention impossible (93-4). Macbeth is also a play with a long history of what Freud calls the uncanny, that is, “that species of the frightening that goes back to what was once well known and had long been familiar” (124), or, in a definition that Freud borrows from Schelling, “everything that was Macbeth , 4.1.45. The Riverside Shakespeare . 2nd ed. Ed. G. Blakemore Evans. Boston: Houghton, 1997. All subsequent references to Macbeth are to this edition. intended to remain secret, hidden away, and has come out into the open” (132). It is not in vain that Macbeth has been associated for centuries with bad luck and referred to, superstitiously, as “the Scottish play,” so that the play's actual name is never uttered in rehearsal. Not only are the witches’ supernatural traits uncanny, but many other elements are as well. Here is a play in which a king (Duncan) is murdered, a queen (Lady Macbeth) is consumed by guilt for having aided her husband in the regicide and goes insane, a father (Banquo) is killed in front of his son, a whole family (Macduff’s) is massacred, a king (Macbeth) talks to a ghost in the middle of a banquet, and this same man starts thinking he is indestructible because he can only be killed by a man not born of woman. James Calderwood notes that “the action of Macbeth assumes the contours of a purgation ritual in which a Scotland polluted by violence and evil is cured by excising the tyrant Macbeth” (98). But how much of Macbeth can really be excised, if even the title of the playtext bears his name? He is the uncannny presence which cannot be repressed. Yet, to me, the most uncanny element in Macbeth is its very violence. Not only is this a play depicting “strange images of death”—we could say it also shows strangely familiar images of death. In his famous essay, “The Uncanny”, Freud analyzes Ernst Hoffman’s short story “The Sand-Man,” published in 1817, to rebut Ernst Jentsch’s notion that the uncanny has to do with intellectual uncertainty. For Freud, the uncanny represents something that is both strange and strangely familiar. As he stresses, “the uncanny [the ‘unhomely’] is what was once familiar [‘homely, ‘homey’]. The negative prefix un- is the indicator of repression” (151). Linking this notion to violence, we may argue that even if we repress and try to tame our primitive instinct for violence, it will always and ominously be there. In Civilization and Its Discontents , Freud affirms that this primitive instinct, although hidden, remains latent and appears most potently in times of war. Since Macbeth too, according to Barker in The Culture of Violence , starts and ends with crisis and invasion (72), it will prove interesting to investigate five productions of the play to see how these uncannily violent scenes are presented, on or off stage, on or off screen. In this dissertation I will analyze two Brazilian productions, both from 1992: Ulysses Cruz’s Macbeth and Antunes Filho’s Trono de Sangue . Each of them, which I saw at the time, in São Paulo, has distinct ways of dealing with violence and the uncanny. I will also examine a British production that is perhaps the most acclaimed Macbeth ever done, Trevor Nunn’s 1976 production for the Royal Shakespeare Company. Comparing these three productions is relevant, since the RSC is considered “official” Shakespeare, and it seems fascinating to measure what is seen as mainstream against what happens to Macbeth once it is performed in Portuguese, as in the case of the Brazilian productions. After all, by not owing anything to Elizabethan English, Shakespeare in other languages could, theoretically, be freer to experiment with visual elements (Bulman 8): a production in Portuguese is probably less reverential toward the language. Since my focus is on the play’s violence and the uncanny, experimentations with visual elements might make the Brazilian productions more brutal than their British counterparts. But I do not want to stop there. I want to deal with film as well,