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Between Holy Russia and a Monkey: Darwin's Russian Literary and Philosophical Critics

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Between Holy Russia and a Monkey: Darwin's Russian Literary and Philosophical Critics University of South Carolina Scholar Commons Theses and Dissertations Summer 2019 Between Holy Russia and a Monkey: Darwin's Russian Literary and Philosophical Critics Brendan G. Mooney Follow this and additional works at: https://scholarcommons.sc.edu/etd Part of the Comparative Literature Commons Recommended Citation Mooney, B. G.(2019). Between Holy Russia and a Monkey: Darwin's Russian Literary and Philosophical Critics. (Doctoral dissertation). Retrieved from https://scholarcommons.sc.edu/etd/5484 This Open Access Dissertation is brought to you by Scholar Commons. It has been accepted for inclusion in Theses and Dissertations by an authorized administrator of Scholar Commons. For more information, please contact [email protected]. BETWEEN HOLY RUSSIA AND A MONKEY: DARWIN’S RUSSIAN LITERARY AND PHILOSOPHICAL CRITICS by Brendan G. Mooney Bachelor of Arts University of South Carolina, 2012 Master of Arts University of South Carolina, 2015 Master of Arts Middlebury College, 2018 Submitted in Partial Fulfillment of the Requirements For the Degree of Doctor of Philosophy in Comparative Literature College of Arts and Sciences University of South Carolina 2019 Accepted by: Judith Kalb, Major Professor Alexander Ogden, Committee Member James Barilla, Committee Member Jeffrey Dudycha, Committee Member Cheryl L. Addy, Vice Provost and Dean of the Graduate School © Copyright by Brendan G. Mooney, 2019 All Rights Reserved. ii DEDICATION To the women who made this dissertation possible: Judith Kalb, Alice Geary, Lynne Geary, Alice Clemente, Megan Stark, Katherine Mark, Marilyn Dwyer, and, finally, Shannon, Eleanor, and Caroline Mooney. iii ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS This project began, little did I know, after reading Lev Tolstoy’s 1889 novella The Kreutzer Sonata. Tolstoy, whom I had admired for the empathy he showed his characters in Anna Karenina, championed ideas in his novella that seemed to me so wrong-headed and unlike the Tolstoy who had made a character so pitiable as Anna. As I searched for the cause of Tolstoy’s anti-Darwinism, I came to realize just how relevant evolutionary biology in general and Darwinism in particular could be to our sense of meaning and morality. As my study grew to include the journalist Nikolai Strakhov and the philosopher Vladimir Solovyov and, ultimately, into the dissertation before you, I accumulated a series of debts to people, without whom this dissertation would not have been possible. First and foremost, I would like to thank my dissertation committee: Drs. James Barilla, Jeffrey Dudycha, Alexander Ogden, and Judith Kalb. In particular, I would like to thank Dr. Kalb for her quick and invaluable feedback and guidance every step of the way. She also came up with the idea of modifying a line from the author Aleksei Remizov’s “Besties” (“Krestovye sestry”) (1910) to use as the title for my dissertation. I would also like to thank Dr. Dudycha for the many conversations we had about evolutionary biology over lunch. I would like to thank Andrew Drozd for reading a draft of my chapter on Strakhov and for the feedback he, Stephen Woodburn, Yvonne Howell, and Melissa Miller gave me on the condensed versions of the chapter that I presented at ASEEES and SCSS. I would like to thank Daria Smirnova for the trips she made to the Russian iv National Library for me and for the endless scans she made to furnish material for the section “A Note on the Language of Evolutionary Biology” in my introductory chapter. I would also like to thank Dr. Ogden and Andrew Drozd for their feedback on a draft of that same section, which I presented at SCSS. Finally, I want to thank Yuri, Caroline, and Shannon Mooney for their unconditional love and patience. v ABSTRACT This dissertation is dedicated to the response of nineteenth-century Russian writers to the English naturalist Charles Darwin’s theory of evolution by natural selection. His theory was by no means the next discovery in a series of indistinguishable scientific discoveries; the fact that its implications touched every aspect of human social life was lost on no one, despite the fact that Darwin did not discuss human evolution in any detail. The Origin changed what it meant to be human: what Darwin’s readers took to be their place in the universe and how they ought to act with regard to both other humans and other animals. But when the Origin came to Russia, the moral and cosmological significance of Darwin’s work was grafted onto Russia’s combined historical, social, economic, political, and religious conditions. With their cultural status as near-prophetic, moral authorities, Russian writers became the vehicle through which Russians during this turbulent time accepted, rejected, dissected, rewrote, and grappled with Darwin’s ideas and their ramifications. This dissertation focuses on the understudied responses of three writers in particular: the journalist Nikolai Strakhov, the novelist Lev Tolstoy, and the philosopher Vladimir Solovyov. As I show, despite each writer’s varying background and response to Darwin’s theory, they all shared similar moral concerns. Initially supportive, Strakhov changed his mind, once he realized that Darwin’s theory did not support his own anthropocentric philosophy of organicism. Tolstoy also initially supported Darwin’s theory, but following his conversion to an idiosyncratic Christianity, he became convinced that Darwin’s theory was being used to justify immorality and was incapable vi of serving as the foundation of an ethical system. Solovyov, on the other hand, was a lifelong supporter of Darwin’s theory, though in order to accommodate his own anthropocentrism, he had to downplay its utilitarian and relativistic nature. Ultimately, Tolstoy and Strakhov share a concern about the implications of concept of the struggle for existence for morality, whereas Tolstoy and Solovyov worried that the implications of morality as an adaptation would undermine the foundation of morality. A concern all three writers nevertheless shared was the use of evolutionary theory to justify moral and social behaviors – what was then called “evolutionary ethics,” or “Social Darwinism.” This study contributes the study of how the response to Darwinism varied by country and the moral concerns that underpin responses to scientific ideas more generally. vii TABLE OF CONTENTS Dedication .......................................................................................................................... iii Acknowledgements ............................................................................................................ iv Abstract .............................................................................................................................. vi Chapter One: Introduction…………………………………………………………...........1 Chapter Two Nikolai Strakhov: Organicism and Anti-Darwinism ...................................33 Chapter Three Lev Tolstoy: Christian Ethics and Anti-Darwinism ..................................94 Chapter Four Vladimir Solovyov: Darwinian Idealism, Darwinian Theism …………..136 Chapter Five Conclusion ..................................................................................................168 Works Cited .....................................................................................................................174 viii CHAPTER ONE INTRODUCTION The barrel of the pistol pointing straight at his face, the expression of hatred and contempt in the pose and the whole figure of von Koren, and this murder that a decent man was about to commit in broad daylight in the presence of decent people, and this silence, and the unknown force that made Laevsky stand there and not run away – how mysterious, and incomprehensible, and frightening it all was! The time von Koren took to aim seemed longer than a night to Laevsky. He glanced imploringly at the seconds; they did not move and were pale. (Chekhov 228) Thus the Russian writer and physician Anton Chekhov’s novella “The Duel” (1891) reaches its climax, as the zoologist Nikolai von Koren takes aim at the former philology student Ivan Laevsky, in an attempt to put his program of evolutionary ethics into action.1 Such programs are based on theories of human social development and maintenance that rely in some way on facts about the evolutionary process. Having come to the conclusion that Laevsky is, among other things, a congenital philanderer and liar and therefore incapable of reform, von Koren believes that he has no choice but to carry out his moral duty to protect humankind and neutralize the danger he believes Laevsky represents to it by ensuring that he will not procreate (Chekhov 142). Failing to find a non-lethal alternative, von Koren challenges Laevsky to a duel. 1 I use the term “evolutionary ethics” in place of the standard “Social Darwinism” for a few reasons. First, 1 On the day of the duel, Laevsky shoots first and makes a show of firing into the air. Then, just as von Koren is about to pull the trigger, he is distracted by a bystander’s outburst and misses (Chekhov 212; 229); unbeknownst to von Koren, the bullet grazes Laevsky’s neck (Chekhov 231), and thus brings to an end the moral transformation that had begun in Laevsky the night before as he contemplated the prospect of dying. Later, on seeing Laevsky’s transformation, von Koren realizes that he had misjudged Laevsky, who proved to be capable of changing his ways. This realization does not, however, cause von Koren to reevaluate his convictions about evolutionary ethics. In fact, von Koren confesses to Laevsky
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