Landscaping Prevalence and Trends in Child Work and
Schooling and their Intersection in India Ellina Samantroy Landscaping Prevalence and Trends in Child Work and Schooling and their Intersection in India Ellina Samantroy
The findings, interpretations and conclusions expressed in this paper are those of the authors and do not necessarily reflect the views of UNICEF. Any part of this publication may be freely reproduced if accompanied by the following citation: Samantroy (2021). Landscaping Prevalence and Trends in Child Work and Schooling and their Intersection in India. Compendium Paper. UNICEF Innocenti, Florence, Italy.
Correspondence should be addressed to: [email protected].
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© 2021
Landscaping Prevalence and Trends in Child Work and Schooling and their Intersection in India Ellina Samantroy
1. The context determinant in understanding the situation of The Sustainable Development Goals (SDG) child workers, the deficit of decent work, and emphasize a global commitment to end all youth employment generally. Estimates forms of child labour. SDG Target 8.7 under indicate that a very large number of children Goal 8 (Decent Work and Economic Growth) in child labour are completely deprived of calls for a need to “take immediate and education: globally, in the 5–14 age group, effective measures to eradicate forced there are 36 million children engaged in child labour, end modern slavery and human labour who do not go to school – 32 per cent trafficking and secure the prohibition and of all those child workers in this age range elimination of the worst forms of child (ILO, 2017). However, those who attend labour, including recruitment and use of child school also suffer on account of their soldiers, and by 2025 end child labour in all engagement in child labour during out-of- its forms” (UNDP, n.d.). The International school hours: the time spent in work Labour Organization’s (ILO) Global Estimates activities interferes with their ability to of Child Labour report (ILO, 2017) reflects on engage in the learning process, and affects the challenges of ending child labour, and their performance. In the Indian context, child states that globally a total of 152 million labour and early school leaving are children (64 million girls and 88 million boys) intertwined, and the reasons for both include are involved in child labour – almost 1 child poverty, access to education and gender- in 10 worldwide. The regions of Africa and related social pressures. Furthermore, the Asia and the Pacific together host 9 out of gendered vulnerabilities associated with every 10 children involved in child labour school leaving have important implications (ILO, 2017). Alongside factors such as low for the child labour situation and children’s household incomes, agricultural economies activities. There is no denying the fact that commonly using child labour, and children in girls face particular difficulty in entering and family units engaged as contributing family remaining in school, owing to such factors as workers, the role of education and its early marriage and the demands of domestic relationship with child labour are extremely responsibilities within their own homes. Girls important. In countries where a high level of are also particularly vulnerable to the worst education is not required for the jobs forms of child labour, such as commercial available, many parents prefer not to spend sexual exploitation and hidden forms of child money on their children’s education, but to labour in domestic work. Young women in put them straight to work. On the other hand, many regions have fewer opportunities in the in countries with a high requirement for labour market and face greater difficulties in skilled labour, parents prefer to invest in their transitioning to decent work; they are often children’s education (ILO, 2015). confined to a narrower range of occupational opportunities than are their male The intersection of schooling and child counterparts (ILO, 2015). labour is considered an extremely significant
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Landscaping Prevalence and Trends in Child Work and Schooling and their Intersection in India Ellina Samantroy
Against this background, the present paper is in rural areas.1 This implies that a based on analysis from the Indian context, proportionately higher percentage of children and tries to construct a broad overview of the in rural areas are engaged in marginal trends and patterns of child labour among activities, mainly agricultural activities, which boys and girls, and of schooling in India, are seasonal in nature (Samantroy et al., including vocational training. The paper aims 2017). to understand the linkages between child Figure 1: Child workers in India, 2001–2011 work and schooling (access and learning), and their potential determinants. The age- 5.0% and gender-specific challenges related to 5.9% 2001 12.7 11.3 3.9% child work and schooling are also outlined in 2011 10.1 4.3% the paper. It also reflects particularly on the Incidence in 8.1 percentage and linkages between education and child labour magnitude in in the context of COVID-19. The paper is numbers (million) based on an analysis of data derived from 2.9% the Census of India and the Periodic Labour 2.1% 2.0 Force Survey (PLFS) of the Ministry of 1.3
Statistics and Programme Implementation Rural Urban Total Source: Census 2001 and 2011. (MoSPI), Government of India. It also relies on secondary literature for a broader The number of child workers (magnitude) in analysis. the 5–14 age group declined from 12.7 million in 2001 to 10.1 million in 2011. 2. Decline in child workers in Census Similarly, child workers as a percentage of An analysis of Census data reveals that, total children (incidence) in that age group between 2001 and 2011, child labour also decreased between the two periods, decreased in terms of both magnitude and from 5.0 per cent in 2001 to 3.9 per cent in incidence. However, the decline is limited to 2011. While the incidence of child labour rural areas. A report by UNICEF highlighted decreased significantly in rural India, from the fact that the number of child workers in 5.9 per cent in 2001 to 4.3 per cent in 2011, urban areas has increased, indicating the urban India showed a marginal increase – growing demand for child workers in low- from 2.1 per cent in 2001 to 2.9 per cent.2 paid informal jobs in these settings. Low This increased incidence of child labour in incomes and the lack of employment opportunities in rural areas continue to push 1 The Census categorizes child workers as either main families out of their rural homes. There was a workers – meaning they work all year round – or marginal, meaning they work for 6 months or less per significant growth in the number of marginal year. 2According to the 2011 Census, child worker workers, with the difference between main magnitude is defined as the absolute number of child workers, and child worker incidence as the proportion and marginal workers being more prominent of child workers as a percentage of total children in the corresponding age group.
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Landscaping Prevalence and Trends in Child Work and Schooling and their Intersection in India Ellina Samantroy urban areas needs further investigation, as problem of child labour persists. This the increase could be attributed to the requires a systematic investigation, growth of new census towns (CTs) particularly of the relationship between (Samantroy et al., 2017).3 trends in education for children and their participation in the workforce. It was evident With regard to the sectoral participation of from the Census estimates that, out of a total children, it was also evident from the 2011 of 4.4 million main child workers aged 5–14 Census that agriculture had emerged as a in the country in 2011, 2.8 million were prominent sector employing children. In rural literate – 65.3 per cent, up from 47.6 per cent areas, it was mostly child workers in the 5–14 in 2001. This improvement could be age group who were engaged in agriculture attributed to education reforms, such as the (40.1 per cent as agricultural labourers and Right to Education (2009) (Samantroy et al., 31.5 per cent as cultivators).4 Meanwhile, 2017). However, only 4 per cent of child according to the Census, in urban areas, 83.4 workers had received education up to the per cent of children in the 5–14 age group school-leaving certificate and beyond. It is were mostly engaged in other (occupations also true that children continue to work, other than household industry). Apart from despite improvement in literacy levels. Some this, children were also engaged in studies have documented several reasons for household industries (rural: 4.6 per cent; children leaving school, such as: i) distance urban: 7.3 per cent). to school; ii) dilapidated school buildings; iii)
absence of drinking water and toilet facilities; 3. Educational levels and trends in child iv) lack of separate toilets for girls; v) labour insufficient number of teachers; and vi) The role of education as an effective strategy irregular attendance of teachers. Such things for ameliorating the problem of child labour make education an ordeal for children. The cannot be denied: there is a close link timing of the formal school day is rigid and between education and child labour. With the often conflicts with children’s other activities, introduction of proactive education policies especially in rural areas. Even when children in India, access to education has improved do go to school, they do not find any significantly. But despite these efforts, the incentive to complete the various school 3 Places that satisfy the following criteria are termed stages, since the post-school employment census towns (CTs): (a) a minimum population of 5,000; (b) at least 75 per cent of the male main scenario remains bleak and there are no working population engaged in non-agricultural pursuits; and (c) density of population of at least 400 additional financial returns to schooling. All per square km. 4According to the Census, a person who works on these factors combine to persuade children another person’s land for wages in money or kind or to leave school, although the decision is share is regarded as an agricultural labourer. A person is considered to be working as a cultivator if generally taken by their parents (Mukherjee, he/she is engaged in the cultivation of land owned or held by the government, private persons or 2011). Despite all this, it is important to institutions, in return for payment in money, kind or share. Cultivation includes effective supervision or explore the linkages of child work and direction in cultivation.
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Landscaping Prevalence and Trends in Child Work and Schooling and their Intersection in India Ellina Samantroy schooling through a disaggregated analysis while girls had to attend to their domestic of child and adolescent labour. This is duties (0.8 per cent) in the 5–14 age group. particularly important in the wake of a recent amendment to child labour legislation (2016), which raised the age below which an individual has protection under child labour law to 18, thus including adolescent labour.5 The new amendment is in line with ILO Convention No. 138 – the Minimum Age Convention (ILO 1973) – which India ratified on 13 June 2017, along with ILO Convention No. 182 on Worst Forms of Child Labour (ILO 1999).
4. Child work, schooling and potential determinants: exploring linkages The intersection between child labour and school and the potential determinants can be clearly understood through a disaggregated analysis of present status in education across different age cohorts, particularly the 5–14 and 5–17 age groups. With regard to current educational status in the 5–14 age group by reason for not attending school, gender differentials were clearly evident for children who had never attended any educational institution: boys did not attend school to supplement household income, while girls could not attend as they had to do domestic chores. In the same age group, for those who had attended school at some point, but were not currently attending, the same reasons were found: boys in rural areas had to supplement household income (0.5 per cent),
5The amendment incorporates “adolescent labour” and defines an adolescent as someone who has completed his/her fourteenth year but has not completed his/her eighteenth year (Government of India, 2016).
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Landscaping Prevalence and Trends in Child Work and Schooling and their Intersection in India Ellina Samantroy
Table 1: Percentage distribution of 5–14 age group, by current educational status in India
Never attended educational institution School too far To supplement Education To attend to Other household not considered domestic income necessary duties Rural Male 0.6% 0.1% 0.3% 0.0% 4.4% Female 0.5% 0.0% 0.3% 0.2% 3.8% Urban Male 0.4% 0.1% 0.3% 0.0% 2.7% Female 0.4% 0.0% 0.3% 0.2% 2.8% Total 0.5% 0.1% 0.3% 0.1% 3.7% Attended at some point, but currently not attending Rural Male 0.0% 0.5% 0.2% 0.1% 0.5% Female 0.1% 0.2% 0.5% 0.8% 0.7% Urban Male 0.0% 0.5% 0.2% 0.1% 0.6% Female 0.0% 0.1% 0.1% 0.4% 0.6% Total 0.0% 0.3% 0.3% 0.4% 0.6% Source: PLFS 2017–2018, MoSPI
Table 2: Percentage distribution of 5–17 age group, by current educational status in India
Never attended educational institution School too far To supplement Education not To attend to Other household considered domestic income necessary duties Rural Male 0.5% 0.2% 0.4% 0.0% 3.7% Female 0.6% 0.0% 0.3% 0.3% 3.3% Urban Male 0.3% 0.2% 0.3% 0.0% 2.3% Female 0.3% 0.1% 0.3% 0.2% 2.2% Total 0.5% 0.1% 0.4% 0.2% 3.2% Attended at some point, but currently not attending Rural Male 0.0% 2.1% 0.8% 0.3% 1.3% Female 0.2% 0.5% 1.0% 3.1% 1.4% Urban Male 0.0% 2.0% 0.8% 0.3% 1.6% Female 0.0% 0.6% 0.6% 1.7% 1.4% Total 0.1% 1.4% 0.8% 1.4% 1.4% Source: PLFS 2017–2018, MoSPI
Table 3: Percentage distribution of 15–17 age group, by current educational status in India
Never attended educational institution School too To supplement Education To attend to Other far household income not considered domestic necessary duties Rural Male 0.3% 0.5% 0.6% 0.0% 1.8% Female 0.8% 0.1% 0.5% 0.8% 1.8% Urban Male 0.1% 0.4% 0.4% 0.0% 1.0% Female 0.1% 0.2% 0.4% 0.4% 0.5% Total Attended at some point, but currently not attending Rural Male 0.1% 7.0% 2.6% 0.9% 3.6% Female 0.6% 1.6% 2.6% 10.3% 3.8% Urban Male 0.1% 6.5% 2.4% 0.7% 4.7% Female 0.0% 2.1% 2.0% 5.5% 3.8% Total Source: PLFS 2017–2018, MoSPI
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Landscaping Prevalence and Trends in Child Work and Schooling and their Intersection in India Ellina Samantroy
Similar trends were visible in the 5–17 age training as part of the school curriculum. The group, where boys who had never attended gender differentials were also reflected: a an educational institution were engaged in greater percentage of girls (99.4 per cent) work to supplement the household income in than boys (98.9 per cent) in the 5–17 age both rural and urban areas (0.2 per cent). group had not received vocational training Meanwhile girls were participating in (Appendix Table 1). domestic duties: 0.3 per cent in rural areas Gender-specific challenges related to child and 0.2 per cent in urban areas. In this age work and schooling group, the reason for not attending school An analysis by gender of the duration of the among boys who had attended school at work of children in the 5–14 age group, some point, but were not currently attending, according to the 2011 Census (see Figure 2), was that they had to supplement the revealed that there were differences in the household income, both in rural and urban participation of males and females in main areas; while for girls it was attending to and marginal work. Females participated 1.5 domestic duties in both rural and urban areas times more in marginal work than did males. (3.1 per cent and 1.7 per cent, respectively). It While 2.66 million males participated as main is also evident a greater percentage (10.3 per workers, the figure for females was only 1.69 cent) of adolescent girls (15–17 age group) in million. The difference between main and rural areas who had once attended school but marginal work was more evident for girls in were not attending now due to participation rural areas than urban areas. One reason for in domestic duties. So it is important to have this may be the engagement of girls in a deeper examination of the adolescent age agricultural activities, which are seasonal in group to identify the gender-related nature (Samantroy et al., 2017). Socio- constraints for not participating in education. economic factors – such as female literacy, Also, the prominent factor for girls in rural family size, adult wages, female work areas was “education not considered participation rates, diversification of the necessary”. economy etc.– are also determinants of child Further, with regard to vocational training by labour (Mahendra Dev, 2004). Apart from this, age group, most children did not receive any the participation of girls in domestic work acts kind of training in the 5–14 and 5–17 age as an impediment for them to continue in groups. It is obvious that children in the 5–14 schooling and educational programmes. age group in India do not have any vocational
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Landscaping Prevalence and Trends in Child Work and Schooling and their Intersection in India Ellina Samantroy
Figure 2: Distribution of child workers by duration of work and gender, 2011, figures in millions
Source: 2011 Census.
Child workers and participation in unpaid high for females in both rural and urban areas work and domestic duties (62.7 per cent and 47.1 per cent, respectively); Social and cultural determinants are crucial by comparison, 51.8 per cent of males in rural factors mediating the relationship between areas did unpaid work and only 23.9 per cent access to education and child labour. In this in urban areas. Overall, considering both rural regard, it is important to understand the and urban areas, in the 5–17 age group a linkages between child labour, unpaid work greater percentage of females than males and participation in domestic duties. Evidence participated in unpaid work (52.3 per cent and from the PLFS reveals that the share of 42.6 per cent, respectively). unpaid work as a percentage of total employment in the 5–14 age group was quite
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Landscaping Prevalence and Trends in Child Work and Schooling and their Intersection in India Ellina Samantroy
Table 4: Participation of children in unpaid work and domestic duties (by gender and age groups) Age Percentage of unpaid family work in total employment Rural Urban Rural + Urban Male Female Male Female Male Female 5–14 51.8% 62.7% 23.9% 47.1% 47.4% 60.8% 15–17 48.3% 56.1% 19.3% 32.5% 41.5% 50.2% 5–17 49.0% 57.6% 19.9% 34.1% 42.6% 52.3% Participation in domestic duties 5–14 0.9% 3.4% 0.7% 2.2% 0.9% 3.1% 15–17 1.5% 18.9% 0.8% 11.5% 1.3% 16.9% 5–17 1.0% 7.1% 0.8% 4.6% 1.0% 6.4% Source: Calculated from PLFS 2017–2018, MoSPI
The participation of adult women in domestic to their domestic duties. In this context, it is duties is one of the major constraints on them imperative to have an in-depth analysis of continuing in paid employment (or even time spent on domestic duties, by measuring choosing paid employment). Similarly, the all activities in National Accounts Statistics, as domestic duties of girls often constrain them there has been limited capturing of activities from continuing in education, and they carried out by females.6 This would enable an frequently drop out after primary education, understanding of the socio-cultural realities of accepting low-paid jobs when they join the female children and the constraints on their adult labour force. It was found that access to education, and would provide full participation in domestic duties was quite visibility of both their paid and unpaid work. high for females, in comparison with males, in all three age cohorts analysed in Table 3. 5. COVID-19 and its impact on child workers The 15–17 age group is also analysed, to gain The Census and the PLFS data clearly reflect a a more nuanced understanding of the decline in both the number and the incidence situation of adolescent children. of child workers; and yet recently, the COVID- 19 pandemic has had a significant impact on Interestingly, participation in domestic duties the labour market. A 2020 report by UNICEF by females was highest in the adolescent age and the ILO on COVID-19 stated that the past group – 16.9 per cent. In rural areas, it was two decades have seen a decline in child 18.9 per cent for females, while for males it labour, but the pandemic may reverse the was only 1.5 per cent. In urban areas, 11.5 per progress towards the global target to end cent of females participated in domestic child labour. There has been an increase in duties, while participation was negligible in economic insecurity due to loss of livelihoods, the case of males in the same age group. The and households may look at new ways of other age group where participation in allocating children’s time, particularly domestic duties by girls was high was the 5– engaging them in economic activities (ILO 17 age group – 6.4 per cent in rural and urban areas taken together. This correlates with the 6 Currently, the PLFS captures domestic duties under above analysis, where boys had dropped out the two codes 92 (attended to domestic duties only) and 93 (attended to domestic duties and was also of education to supplement the household engaged in the free collection of goods (like income, while girls had dropped out to attend vegetables, roots, firewood, cattle feed), sewing, tailoring, weaving for household use).
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Landscaping Prevalence and Trends in Child Work and Schooling and their Intersection in India Ellina Samantroy and UNICEF, 2020). The informal sector in in terms of access to education and India has been the worst hit by the pandemic, participation in unpaid work and domestic and certain sectors have suffered huge losses duties. These constraints often push girls to due to closure and lockdown measures. The remain marginal workers, where they tend to recent migrant crisis experienced in India and combine schooling with several other the entire process of reverse migration have activities, which further affects their further accentuated the problems of informal educational mobility and overall well-being. workers, and increased the risks for their Age disaggregated data – and particularly the families. The quarantine measures and the situation of adolescent children – need to be fact that they have been treated as ‘carriers of carefully examined in detail, to gain more the virus’ (xenophobia) during the process of profound insights into the problem for reverse migration have meant that those targeted policy intervention. workers and their families (including children) In recent decades, the country has adopted who have migrated back to their villages have proactive policies to address child labour. faced social exclusion, which affects their These include educational rehabilitation, an mental health. The experience gained from amendment to the child labour legislation previous epidemics, such as the Ebola virus (Child and Adolescent Labour (Prohibition and or HIV/AIDS, has shown that during crises the Regulation) Act 1986) and the establishment risk of child labour increases (as children have of the National Child Labour Project Scheme, to supplement household incomes), together which has rehabilitated several children. with the risk of sexual violence, domestic However, the problem of child labour work for girls, economic deprivation, etc. persists, and may have been accentuated by Such a situation, urgently requires targeted the pandemic. In this regard, there is a need policy interventions to ensure child protection to carefully examine the scenario with rapid and health care, and responses for dealing assessment surveys, to understand the with the psychosocial impact of pandemics on impact of COVID-19 on child workers. Child children (Samantroy and Sekar, 2020). The protection programmes need to be closure of schools may also lead to the strengthened, with adequate budgetary increased participation of girls in domestic provision to deal with the impact of the duties and sibling care, which often interferes pandemic on child workers and their families. with their education. Also, there is a need to improve access to
social protection for all kinds of workers, 6. Concluding observations particularly those in the informal sector and The above discussion has clearly highlighted migrant workers. It is also important to the fact that there has been a shift in the provide psychosocial support through nature of child work in the years between the effective community interventions for dealing Censuses, with a decline reported in child with the psychological distress that children work in India. The analysis derived from the tend to face during a pandemic. PLFS has reflected on the gender differentials 9
Landscaping Prevalence and Trends in Child Work and Schooling and their Intersection in India Ellina Samantroy
Appendix Table 1
Percentage distribution of 5–14 and 5–17 age groups, by vocational training
Male Female Total Did not Received Received Did not Received Received Did not Received Received receive formal informal receive formal informal receive formal informal training training training training training training
Age group 5–14, by vocational training
Rural 99.7% 0.0% 0.3% 99.9% 0.0% 0.1% 99.8% 0.0% 0.2% Urban 99.4% 0.2% 0.4% 99.7% 0.1% 0.1% 99.5% 0.2% 0.3% Total 99.6% 0.0% 0.4% 99.8% 0.0% 0.1% 99.7% 0.0% 0.2%
Age group 5–17, by vocational training
Rural 98.9% 0.1% 1.0% 99.4% 0.1% 0.5% 99.1% 0.1% 0.8% Urban 98.2% 0.6% 1.2% 99.1% 0.4% 0.5% 98.6% 0.5% 0.9% Total 98.7% 0.2% 1.1% 99.3% 0.2% 0.5% 99.0% 0.2% 0.8% Source: Calculated from PLFS 2017–2018, MoSPI
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Landscaping Prevalence and Trends in Child Work and Schooling and their Intersection in India Ellina Samantroy
References Government of India, The Child Labour (Prohibition and Regulation) Amendment Act, New Delhi, 2016,
International Labour Organization (ILO), Minimum Age Convention No. 138, ILO, Geneva, 1973,
International Labour Organization (ILO), Worst Forms of Child Labour Convention No. 182, ILO, Geneva, 1999,
International Labour Organization (ILO), World Report on Child Labour 2015: Paving the way to decent work for young people, ILO, Geneva, 2015.
International Labour Organization (ILO), Global Estimates of Child Labour: Results and trends, 2012– 2016, ILO, Geneva, 2017.
International Labour Organization (ILO)and United Nations Children’s Fund (UNICEF), ‘COVID-19 and Child Labour: A time of crisis, a time to act’, ILO and UNICEF, New York, 2020.
Mahendra Dev, S., ‘Female Work Participation and Child Labour: Occupational data from NFHS’, Economic and Political Weekly, vol. 39, no. 7, 2004, pp. 736–744.
Mukherjee, Dipa, ‘Reducing Out of School Children in India: Lessons from a micro study’, NUEPA, New Delhi, 2011.
Samantroy, E., H. R. Sekar and S. Pradhan, State of Child Workers in India: Mapping Trends, UNICEF and V. V. Giri National Labour Institute, New Delhi, 2017.
Samantroy, E. and H. R. Sekar, ‘Children Face Heightened Risk of Child Labour due to COVID-19 Pandemic in India’, Eleventh Column, 28 September 2020,
United Nations Development Programme (UNDP), ‘Goal 8 Targets’, UNDP website, n. d.,
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