DOCSLIB.ORG

Study on Cloud Computing in Arab States: Legal and Legislative

Total Page：16

File Type：pdf, Size：1020Kb

Download full-text PDF Read full-text
Study on Cloud Computing in Arab States: Legal and Legislative International Telecommunication Union Cloud Computing in Arab States: Legal and Legislative Aspects, Facts and Horizons International Telecommunication Union Report By: Dr. Janane EL-KHOURY Beirut, December 30, 2015 PLAN Executive Summary ……………………………………………………………………………….. 3 Introduction …………………………………………………………………………………………… 4 Part I: Cloud Computing …………………………………………………………………………. 6 Clause I: Practical Challenges and Legal Issues Raised in Arab States 7 Clause II: Legislative and Regulatory Situation Exclusively in Arab States 9 1. Jordan ……………………………………………………………………………………………………….. 12 2. United Arab Emirates (UAE) ………………………………………………………………………. 13 3. Bahrain ……………………………………………………………………………………………………… 16 4. Algeria ………………………………………………………………………………………………………. 17 5. Kingdom Saudi Arabia (KSA) ………………………………………………………………………. 17 6. Sudan ……………………………………………………………………………………………………….. 18 7. Somalia …………………………………………………………………………………………………….. 18 8. Iraq …………………………………………………………………………………………………………… 19 9. Kuwait ……………………………………………………………………………………………………… 19 10. Morocco …………………………………………………………………………………………………… 20 11. Yemen ………………………………………………………………………………………………………. 22 12. Tunisia ……………………………………………………………………………………………………… 22 13. Comoros …………………………………………………………………………………………………… 24 14. Djibouti …………………………………………………………………………………………………….. 24 15. Sultanate of Oman ……………………………………………………………………………………. 24 16. Syria ………………………………………………………………………………………………………….. 25 17. Palestine …………………………………………………………………………………………………… 26 18. Qatar ………………………………………………………………………………………………………… 27 19. Lebanon ……………………………………………………………………………………………………. 29 20. Libya ………………………………………………………………………………………………………… 30 21. Egypt ……………………………………………………………………………………………………….. 31 22. Mauritania ………………………………………………………………………………………………. 32 Part II: Best Practices of the Cloud Computing Legislative Framework: Comparative Study34 Clause I: United Nations, ITU and Cloud Computing …………………………………………………………. 35 Clause II: The European Union’s Leading Role …………………………………………………………….. 35 Clause III Western Local Legislations …………………………………………………………………….. 38 Clause IV Legal Standards, Regulations and Legal Suggestions …………………………….. 39 Contractual Aspect of the Cloud Computing Legislative Framework ……………………………… 40 Suggestions and Standards …………………………………………………………………………………………….. 40 National Sovereignty, Cloud Computing Security and Cross-border security Challenges 43 Regional Coordination and Cooperation between Arab States…………………………………………. 46 Arab Safe Harbor Agreement ………………………………………………………………………………………….. 47 Conclusion and Proposals ………………………………………………………………………………………………….48 Bibliography…………………………………………………………………………………………………………………… 52 2 Executive Summary This study aims at reviewing the legal and legislative aspects of cloud computing in the Arab States facts and horizons, and the multi-faced issues it raises - legislative, executive, administrative, technical and practical, in addition to other issues such as cloud computing security, data protection, processing and transfer, apps security and identity management system. The legal aspect of cloud computing is basically tridimensional: the functional and technical dimension, the legal dimension and the contractual dimension. Therefore, it is important to discuss whether there is an official (local and regional) Arab vision to set up a digital infrastructure for integration into the international digital environment, especially considering several concerns over such service in the Arab States mainly related to data security; Internet violation or weak Internet-based services; environmental concerns; contracts of adhesion imposed by the service providers which impede the movement of data, procurement of services and functioning applications. These concerns cause the Arab region to lag behind in this domain. Other legal, objective and procedural issues have also been raised, from the extent of cooperation among Sates, mainly on technical issues; the extent of cooperation among the local competent ministries; the cooperation between the public and private sectors; the financial cost for the Arab States for the integration to cloud computing; capacity building in Arab States and an academic university major, the raising of public awareness and the dissemination of a national and regional culture of cloud computing. However, what matters the most is the issue of sovereignty over databases. In fact, there are contractual challenges and several concerns particularly about where to keep the data and by what legislation should it be covered. To discuss all these issues, it is important to review and update the legislative framework of cloud computing in the Arab region in general, and at the national level for the 22 Arab States (Jordan, United Arab Emirates (UAE), Bahrain, Algeria, Kingdom of Saudi Arabia (KSA), Kuwait, Tunisia, Comoros, Djibouti, Syria, Sudan, Somalia, Iraq, Sultanate of Oman, State of Palestine, Qatar, Lebanon, Libya, Egypt, Morocco, Mauritania and Yemen), by studying the following points, mainly: the concept of cloud computing; the legal, technical, administrative, political and practical risks; and best practices in cloud computing (the European Union and US experiences). Suggestions and recommendations such as an Arab Safe Harbor are presented, as well as the active role of the ITU, with the conclusion including some findings and proposals with a focus on the future. 3 Introduction Every human generation has its own stake, around which all organizations, negotiations and structure of the aligning of balanced international relations, directly or indirectly, revolve. Today, the globalization of technology has primary influence on the development of the global society, and its major production is what is known today as cloud computing. Cloud computing is considered as one of the greatest technological transformations and breakthroughs in the world, offering many long-term and large-scale services on the web, particularly services related to data storage, backup, networks, cybersecurity, management systems, data transmission, use and development of software, creation of job opportunities, and the development of the ICT industry. On the other hand, cloud computing creates lots of challenges in the Arab States in general, and in every single country in particular, mostly at the legislative, executive, administrative, technical and practical levels, in addition to the loss of data control1, and the efforts necessary to ensure that the operations of cloud computing are in line with the existing local and regional legal regulations and rules2. Also to be considered are other issues such as cloud computing security, data protection, processing and transmission, application security, material security and identity management system. The legal aspect of cloud computing is located in three dimensions: functional and technical, legal and contractual. This is why many international organizations that are watching over security and evolution of the international community - including the ITU - are working to find new technical, legal, administrative and practical frameworks for cloud computing, in order to assure privacy of the personal data that may belong to individuals, companies and countries, by reconsidering the current situation at the national level and the applicable rules related to the cloud computing. Internationally speaking, the world is currently oriented towards cloud computing services. Several countries, particularly the developed ones, such as the United States, the European Union countries and China, elaborated national strategies and policies aimed at taking benefit from cloud computing services, particularly at regulating their relations with large corporations which requires an extended infrastructure, local data centers, in addition to small and medium sized enterprises. In the Arab States, the international reports3 show an annual constant cloud computing usage growth. Therefore, it is important to discuss its status in these States, and whether there is an official Arab (national and regional) vision to lay a digital infrastructure for the integration into the continuously and fast changing digital world. Considering the several concerns about such service in the Arab States, related to the information security, the information safety for governmental data, the breakage of the Internet service or the non-adequacy of the services in addition to the environmental concerns, the adherence contracts imposed by the service providers on the local clients, or the sudden ban imposed by the companies on the Software as (SaaS) services, or the Platform as (PaaS) service, or the Infrastructure as 4 (IaaS) service, which hampers the movement of data, procurement of services and functioning of applications and thus keeps the Arab region backward in this area. There are also several legal, objective and procedural difficulties4, the question of the extent of cooperation amongst these States, mainly technical problems5, the extent of cooperation amongst the national competent ministries, the cooperation between the public and private sectors, the financial costs of engagement of the Arab States in the cloud computing world, the issue of specialized capacity building in the Arab States and a specialized academic college, the public awareness, and the spread of a national and regional culture of cloud computing. Still the most important issue is related to the national sovereignty over the databases6. There are contractual challenges and concerns especially concerning by what legislation should data
Load more

Recommended publications
  • North Korean Cyber Capabilities: in Brief
    North Korean Cyber Capabilities: In Brief Emma Chanlett-Avery Specialist in Asian Affairs Liana W. Rosen Specialist in International Crime and Narcotics John W. Rollins Specialist in Terrorism and National Security Catherine A. Theohary Specialist in National Security Policy, Cyber and Information Operations August 3, 2017 Congressional Research Service 7-5700 www.crs.gov R44912 North Korean Cyber Capabilities: In Brief Overview As North Korea has accelerated its missile and nuclear programs in spite of international sanctions, Congress and the Trump Administration have elevated North Korea to a top U.S. foreign policy priority. Legislation such as the North Korea Sanctions and Policy Enhancement Act of 2016 (P.L. 114-122) and international sanctions imposed by the United Nations Security Council have focused on North Korea’s WMD and ballistic missile programs and human rights abuses. According to some experts, another threat is emerging from North Korea: an ambitious and well-resourced cyber program. North Korea’s cyberattacks have the potential not only to disrupt international commerce, but to direct resources to its clandestine weapons and delivery system programs, potentially enhancing its ability to evade international sanctions. As Congress addresses the multitude of threats emanating from North Korea, it may need to consider responses to the cyber aspect of North Korea’s repertoire. This would likely involve multiple committees, some of which operate in a classified setting. This report will provide a brief summary of what unclassified open-source reporting has revealed about the secretive program, introduce four case studies in which North Korean operators are suspected of having perpetrated malicious operations, and provide an overview of the international finance messaging service that these hackers may be exploiting.
    [Show full text]
  • Never Agains IV February 2010
    the Availability Digest www.availabilitydigest.com More Never Agains IV February 2010 It is once again time to reflect on the damage that IT systems can inflict on us mere humans. We have come a long way in ensuring the high availability of our data-processing systems. But as the following stories show, we still have a ways to go. During the last six months, hardware/software and network faults shared responsibility, each causing about one-third of the outages. The rest of the outages were caused by a variety of problems such as power failures, construction mishaps, and hacking. Rackspace Hit with Another Outage Techcrunch, June 20, 2009 – On June 20, Rackspace suffered yet another outage1 due to a power failure. The breaker on the primary utility feed powering one of its nine data centers tripped, causing data center’s generators to start up. However, a field excitation failure escalated to the point that the generators became overloaded. An attempt by Rackspace to fail over to its secondary utility feed failed because the transfer switch malfunctioned. When the data center’s batteries ran out, the data center went down. Failovers do fail. Have a contingency plan no matter the extent of your redundancy. NYSE Suffers Several Outages in Less Than a Month Reuters, July 2, 2009 – On Thursday morning, July 2, brokers on the floor of the New York Stock Exchange found that they could not route orders, causing the NYSE to halt trading in some stocks and to extend the trading day. During the previous month, a software glitch halted trading; and an order-matching problem affected timely order reconciliation.
    [Show full text]
  • Availability Digest
    the Availability Digest www.availabilitydigest.com Help! My Data Center is Down! Part 3: Internet Outages December 2011 Long gone are the days of the isolated data center. Back then, batch jobs were submitted to update databases and to generate reports. Back then, turn-around times were measured in hours or even days. In today’s competitive environment, IT services are online; and instant response times are expected. What good is a data center if no one can talk to it? Orders can’t be placed or tracked. Medical records can’t be accessed. Online banking comes to a halt. Today’s data centers must be connected. They depend upon the networks that allow users to access them online reliably and with fast response times. In the old days, a company had control over its communication network. It leased lines that it used exclusively for its purposes. If it lost communications, it had direct access to its communication carrier for rapid repair. For critical applications, companies installed redundant communication facilities so that they could continue in operation even in the presence of a communications failure on one of their lines. Not so true today. More and more, companies are relying on the public Internet to connect their users with company data centers. But how reliable is the Internet? In our previous articles in this series, we related horror stories of unimaginable power failures and storage failures that took down the best-designed data centers. In this article, we explore some notable Internet failures that rendered data centers useless even though they were otherwise fully operational.
    [Show full text]
  • Potential Human Cost of Cyber Operations
    ICRC EXPERT MEETING 14–16 NOVEMBER 2018 – GENEVA THE POTENTIAL HUMAN COST OF CYBER OPERATIONS REPORT ICRC EXPERT MEETING 14–16 NOVEMBER 2018 – GENEVA THE POTENTIAL HUMAN COST OF CYBER OPERATIONS Report prepared and edited by Laurent Gisel, senior legal adviser, and Lukasz Olejnik, scientific adviser on cyber, ICRC THE POTENTIAL HUMAN COST OF CYBER OPERATIONS Table of Contents Foreword............................................................................................................................................. 3 Acknowledgements ............................................................................................................................. 4 Executive summary ............................................................................................................................. 5 Introduction....................................................................................................................................... 10 Session 1: Cyber operations in practice .………………………………………………………………………….….11 A. Understanding cyber operations with the cyber kill chain model ...................................................... 11 B. Operational purpose ................................................................................................................. 11 C. Trusted systems and software supply chain attacks ...................................................................... 13 D. Cyber capabilities and exploits ..................................................................................................
    [Show full text]
  • No Internet? February 2008
    the Availability Digest What? No Internet? February 2008 On Wednesday, January 30, 2008, North Africa, the Middle East, and India experienced a massive Internet outage that was destined to last for several days or even weeks.1 How did this happen? How did companies cope? Could it happen in other areas such as Europe or the United States? The Failure The bulk of data traffic from North Africa, from the Middle Eastern countries, and from India and Pakistan is routed through North Africa. There, it is carried by a set of three submarine cables that lie under the Mediterranean Sea. The cables link Alexandria, Egypt, with Palermo, Italy, where the traffic then moves on to Europe, the UK, and the Eastern United States. On January 30, 2008, two of these three cables were severed. It is not yet known why, but the predominant theory is that the cables were severed by the anchor of a huge freighter. Heavy storms had hit the area the previous day and forced Egyptian authorities to close the northern entrance to the Suez Canal at Alexandria. As a result, ships had to anchor offshore in the Mediterranean Sea, dropping their anchors to ride out the storm. It is suspected that one of the freighters dropped its anchor on top of the cables. Reportedly, the two severed cables were a kilometer apart. The storm may have dragged the freighter’s anchor across the sea bed, thus taking out both cables. The result of this catastrophe was that 75% of channel capacity was lost from the Mideast to Europe and beyond.
    [Show full text]
  • Cyber Benefits and Risks: Quantitatively Understanding and Forecasting the Balance
    Cyber Benefits and Risks: Quantitatively Understanding and Forecasting the Balance Extended Project Report from the Frederick S. Pardee Center for International Futures Josef Korbel School of International Studies University of Denver www.pardee.du.edu September 2015 Barry B. Hughes, David Bohl, Mohammod Irfan, Eli Margolese-Malin, and José Solórzano In project collaboration with and the Table of Contents Executive Summary 4 Conceptualizing Benefits and Costs 4 Using the IFs System for Analysis 4 Background Research Foundations 5 Forecasts and Findings 9 Conclusion 11 A Final Note on Study Contributions 12 1. Introduction: Understanding and Anticipating Change in the Benefits and Costs of Cyber Technology 13 2. ICT and Cyber Development Indices 18 Indices Replicated in the IFs Forecasting System 18 ICT Development Index 18 Global Cybersecurity Index 19 Additional Indices of Importance in Cyber Security Analyses 21 Digitization Index 21 Digital Economy Ranking Index 21 Networked Readiness Index 22 3. Benefits 23 Competing Schools of Thought on Economic Benefits 23 Pessimism Versus optimism concerning ICT’s economic production impacts 23 ICT as a general-purpose technology 25 ICT’s Economic Impact: The Production Side 26 ICT as a growth sector in the economy 26 ICT investment and capital services 29 ICT and multifactor productivity 32 Comparing the Productivity Impacts of GPTs: Steam, Electricity, ICT 33 Variation in ICT Impact across Time/Pervasiveness and Countries 36 Drivers of variation in ICT impact: ICT (especially broadband) pervasiveness 36 Drivers of variable ICT impact: Beyond PCs and broadband 39 Drivers of variable ICT impact: Country development level 41 Consumer Surplus 42 Consumer surplus forecasts 46 Summary of Knowledge Concerning Cyber Risk Benefits: Modeling Implications 47 4.
    [Show full text]
  • SDN-Based Intrusion Detection System for Early Detection and Mitigation of Ddos Attacks
    Article SDN-Based Intrusion Detection System for Early Detection and Mitigation of DDoS Attacks Pedro Manso 1, José Moura 2,* and Carlos Serrão 3 1 Department of Information Science and Technology, School of Technology and Architecture, ISCTE- Instituto Universitário de Lisboa, 1649-026 Lisbon Portugal; [email protected] 2 Department of Information Science and Technology, School of Technology and Architecture, ISCTE- Instituto Universitário de Lisboa, Instituto de Telecomunicações (IT), 1649-026 Lisbon, Portugal 3 Department of Information Science and Technology, School of Technology and Architecture, ISCTE- Instituto Universitário de Lisboa, Information Sciences, Technologies and Architecture Research Center (ISTAR-IUL), 1649-026 Lisbon, Portugal; [email protected] * Correspondence: [email protected] Received: 18 January 2019; Accepted: 4 March 2019; Published: date Abstract: The current paper addresses relevant network security vulnerabilities introduced by network devices within the emerging paradigm of Internet of Things (IoT) as well as the urgent need to mitigate the negative effects of some types of Distributed Denial of Service (DDoS) attacks that try to explore those security weaknesses. We design and implement a Software-Defined Intrusion Detection System (IDS) that reactively impairs the attacks at its origin, ensuring the “normal operation” of the network infrastructure. Our proposal includes an IDS that automatically detects several DDoS attacks, and then as an attack is detected, it notifies a Software Defined Networking (SDN) controller. The current proposal also downloads some convenient traffic forwarding decisions from the SDN controller to network devices. The evaluation results suggest that our proposal timely detects several types of cyber-attacks based on DDoS, mitigates their negative impacts on the network performance, and ensures the correct data delivery of normal traffic.
    [Show full text]
  • A Human Rights-Based Approach to Network Disruptions CONTENTS
    JAN RYDZAK FOR THE GLOBAL NETWORK INITIATIVE A Human Rights-Based Approach to Network Disruptions CONTENTS ABOUT THE AUTHOR . 3 ACKNOWLEDGMENTS ATTRIBUTION EXECUTIVE SUMMARY . 4 INTRODUCTION .................................................................. 5 THE DYNAMICS OF NETWORK DISRUPTIONS. 6 What is a network disruption? ...............................................6 When do network disruptions occur? .........................................8 How do network disruptions occur? .........................................10 The challenges of resisting shutdown orders . 10 THE IMPACTS OF NETWORK DISRUPTIONS .........................................11 Civil and Political Rights. 11 — Freedom of expression, association, and assembly .......................11 —Right to equality and digital discrimination .............................12 —Freedom of religious belief .............................................13 —Right to life, bodily integrity, and security of persons .....................13 Economic, Social, and Cultural Rights . 15 2 — Economic rights ......................................................15 — Right to mental and physical health . 16 — Right to education ....................................................17 — Right to take part in cultural life and benefit from scientific progress ......17 Humanitarian Impacts .....................................................18 RECOMMENDATIONS: AN INTEGRATED APPROACH ................................. 19 Broaden the scope of human rights impact assessments . 19 Improve and expand
    [Show full text]
  • Ddos and Iot: How You Could Have Contributed to Breaking the Internet
    DDoS and IoT: How You Could Have Contributed to Breaking the Internet Timothy Ho Introduction to Computer Security Fall 2016 Mentor: Ming Chow Abstract Distributed denial-of-service (DDoS) attacks have been increasingly common in recent years and are frequently used to target businesses, financial institutions, and other services to block and disrupt communications and normal everyday operations. This paper covers and explains basic concepts how using Internet of Things (IoT) devices to perform such DDoS attacks can be used to take down large target servers, as evidenced by the attack on Dyn in October of 2016. While knowledge and awareness of DDoS and IoT has been rising, an encompassing goal of this paper is to increase and promote awareness of these issues, vulnerabilities, and computer security as a whole. Introduction On October 21, 2016, a large cyberattack was directed towards servers owned by Domain Name Service (DNS) provider Dyn. As a result, many major websites and services were made unavailable to a large number of users across North America and Europe. Some of the services that were affected included major well-known companies and social media and news platforms such as Amazon, BBC, CNN, GitHub, Reddit, SoundCloud, Spotify, and Twitter. The massive Internet outage lasted for hours and it was later discovered that hacked cameras and other Internet of Things (IoT) devices were used to perform a large distributed denial-of-service (DDoS) attack against the Dyn servers. Many found themselves asking these questions afterwards: How did this happen? Who was behind this? And how could a single cyberattack result in damage that affected millions of users? To the Community This paper is not merely directed towards those who are involved with computer security or careers in computer science; it is especially directed towards members of the general public.
    [Show full text]
  • Repression in the Digital Age: Communication Technology and the Politics of State Violence
    Repression in the Digital Age: Communication Technology and the Politics of State Violence Anita Rosemary Gohdes Mannheim, 2014 Repression in the Digital Age: Communication Technology and the Politics of State Violence Anita Rosemary Gohdes Inauguraldissertation zur Erlangung des akademischen Grades einer Doktorin der Sozialwissenschaften, Fakultät für Sozialwissenschaften, Universität Mannheim verfasst von Anita Rosemary Gohdes Mannheim, Oktober, 2014 First Examiner: Prof. Sabine C. Carey, PhD Second Examiner: Prof. Nikolay Marinov, PhD Third Examiner: Prof. Dr. Nils B. Weidmann Dean: Prof. Dr. Michael Diehl Date of Defense: 19 December 2014 Summary The effect of the digital revolution on citizens’ ability to voice dissatisfaction with their government and to coordinate dissent via social media has been the subject of much recent research. Optimistic accounts have so far failed to address the salient fact that the state maintains de facto control over the access to social media, which means that new digital technology also provides abusive governments with tools to repress challengers. This dissertation investigates how states’ strategies of violent repression are informed by the use of these opportunities to control the internet. I identify two main forms of control, which are the restriction or disruption of the internet on the one hand, and digital surveillance on the other hand. States face a trade-off: they can either restrict access to the internet and with it diminish opposition groups’ capabilities, or they can permit the digital exchange of information and monitor it to their own advantage. I argue that the choice of internet control affects the type and scale of state-sanctioned violence used against perceived domestic threats.
    [Show full text]
  • Effects of Internet Outage Felt Throughout Campus
    21st Century SPARTAN BASKETBALL NOTEBOOK "EVIEW AND Q&A SEV-.1" BACK TO THE 'OLD SCHOOL' Digital Boy Ii' IHE Feral', Wilson and Vaughn talk about Student apathy hurts their roles as fraternity leaders entire campus community PAINT OPINION 2 SPORTS 8 A&E 4 VOLUME 120, NUMBER 20 SERVING SAN JOSE STATE UNIVERSITY SINCE 1934 SPARTAN DAILY WWW.THESPARTANDAILY.COM THURSDAY, FEBRUARY 20,2003 Effects of Internet outage felt throughout campus By Paulo Hernandez People were working to correct the sit- entire campus wuld not connect with The hardware that caused Thurday's Caret said he wasn't sure about the no up-to-date information." uation all day, Judd said. Daily Staff Writer the outside and the outside couldn't Internet interruption was replaced costs to the campus because of the Robert Milnes, director of the school "Something like this should not connect with the campus." with temporary parts. The permanent Intern et outage. of art and design, said that last happen very often at all," he said. Concerning the costs to the univer- parts are on rush order, he said. "There are a lot of issues we have to Thurday's Internet incident is proof of Last Thurday's Internet outage was a "This is a highly unusual event." sity's students, classes and depart- "We take pride in the system we deal with," he said. "We have to take how reliant we are on contemporary problem of hardware, not software, The Internet could be out for about ments as a result of the outage, Judd have on campus," Judd said.
    [Show full text]
  • Underwater Communication
    www.maritimeindia.org UNDERWATER COMMUNICATION CABLES: VULNERABILITIES AND PROTECTIVE MEASURES RELEVANT TO INDIA PART-1 Soham Agarwal & Vice Admiral Pradeep Chauhan 07 April 2020 This two-part article aims to provide Indian policy-makers and lay readers alike with an overview of submarine communications cable systems in India, highlighting their criticality, their vulnerabilities, and the inadequate protection they receive under national and international law. This piece also speaks directly to authorities within the Indian Navy and the Indian Coast Guard, as well as to other organisational structures concerned with India’s national security and the physical and electronic protection of India critical infrastructure. In seeking to mitigate the vulnerabilities attending submarine cables in India, Part-2 of this article will address legal aspects that ought to be of interest (and concern) to the Indian Navy’s Judge Advocate General’s Branch, the Legal & Treaties Division of the Ministry of External Affairs, the Ministry of Telecommunications, and, the Ministry of Law and Justice, as also to legal academic and research institutes in India and the larger Indian Ocean Region. The article strongly recommends that submarine communications cables landing in India be included within India’s “Critical Information Infrastructure System” (CIIS), and, that India exercise prescriptive jurisdiction over such submarine cables even under the High Seas, under the principle of “protective jurisdiction”. Fig 1: HMN TeleGeography Submarine Cables Map Source: https://www.submarinecablemap.com/#/submarine-cable 2 While rapid technological advancements have transformed the submarine communications cable from a copper-based telegraph cable in 1850 to advanced fibre-optic cables today connecting continents across the globe1 (Figure 1 refers), the development of the legal and regulatory mechanism to protect such cables from damage and interception leaves much to be desired.
    [Show full text]