WOMEN AT WORK IN CULTURAL AND COMMUNITY CONTEXT : A CASE FROM DARJEELING TEA GARDENS A Thesis submitted for Ph.D .. Degree in Arts ( Sociology and Social Anthropology) University of North Bengal ;' ( : • ', 1 DECEivH3ER. 2004 Smt. Indumati Rai CE·NTRE FOR HIMALAYAN STUDIES UNIVERSITY OF NORTH BENGAL District- Datjeeling, Pin- 734 430 West Bengal India Ret 3ot.Lif 2 oqs-414 R 14'1 w 17~)117 ~ 3 DE~ 2B05 Pro/ o/ Socio/og'j and Social __Anthropo/og'jJ Centre Jor ..JJimalq'Jan Studie6 UniverJit'J o/ Y/orth Bengal ::biJt. ::barjeeling) WB. J-ndia- 734430 Prof. Sekh Rahim Mandai, M.Sc.; Ph.D Dr. Charuchandra Sanyal Chair Professor of Anthropology and Sociology Centre for Himalayan Studies & Head, Department of Anthropology University of North Bengal Dt. Darjeeling (W.B.), India, Pin- 734430 RefNo ...................... Phone (Res.)- 91·353-2581-123 Fax (Off.)- 91-353-2581-546 Date ...... .•.. .0 email : [email protected] t!{ .~.(2.. 1 CERTIFICATE It gives me immense pleasure to certify that the thesis entitled "Women at Work in Cultural and Community Context : A Case from Darjeeling Tea Gardens" has been prepared by Smt. lndumati Rai under my supervision and guidance. · Smt. Rai has prepared this thesis on the basis of her own investigation, observation and analysis. She has fulfilled the rules and regulations governing the preparation of doctoral thesis of the University ofNorth Bengal. This is an original research work. To the best of my knowledge, realization and belief this thesis or any part of it has not been submitted to any other University or institution for any degree or qualification whatsoever. I forward the thesis for adjudication as per rules of the University. (l'-GL1 i~SSOR SEKH RAHIM MONDAL RESEARCH SUPERVISOR. CONTENTS Pages Preface (i)- (iv) List ofTablcs (v)- (vii) Map (viii) Chapter- 1 : INTRODUCTION 01 - 27 1.1 Background 1.2 Theoretical Perspectives on Women's Studies 1.3 Conceptual Issues 1.4 Statement of the problem 1.5 Review ofLiteratures 1.6 Aims and Objectives ofthe Present Study 1. 7 Research Questions 1.8 Importance ofthe Study 1.9 Methodology 1.9.1 The Study Area 1.9.2 Research Design 1.9.3 Selection oflnformants 1.9.4 Tools and Techniques ofData Collection 1.95 Data Processing and Analysis 1.9.6 Presentation ofData and Contents 1.9.7 Limitations Chapter-2: THE PLACE AND THE PEOPLE UNDER 28-66 STUDY : A PROFILE 2.1 Historical Background ofthe District ofDarjeeling 2.2 Physical Features 2.2.1 Geophysical Setting 2.2.2 River System 2.2.3 Flora 2.2.4 Climate 2.3 Origin and Development of Tea Industry in Darjeeling Himalayas 2.3.1 Size and Landuse Pattern ofTea Gardens in Darjeeling Himalayas 2.4 Tea Plantations and Labour Force 2.5 Problems and Prospects ofTea Industry in Dmjeeling Himalayas 2.6 Profile ofTea Gardens under Study 2.6.1 Badamtam 2.6.2 Vah-Tukvar 2.6.3 Pandam 2.6.4 Happy Valley 2.6.5 Castleton 2.6.6 Springside- 2.6.7 Singell 2.6.8 Comparative Profile of the Tea Gardens Findings Chapter- 3 : WOMEN, WORK AND WORK ORGANIZATION 67- 106 3.1 Work Organization in Tea Plantation 3.2 Management: Women in Management 3.3 Staff: Women in Staff Category 3.4 Sub-Staff : Women in Sub-Staff Category 3.5 Coolie or Worker: Women Workers 3.5.1 Women as Factory Workers 3.6 Recruitment Policy and Women Tea Garden Workers 3.7 Recruitment ofWorkers in the Tea Garden ofDarjeeling Hills 3.8 Recruitment System in Seven Tea Gardens under Study 3.9 Women and Types ofWork 3.9.1 Plucking oftea leaves (Patti Tipai) 3.9.2 Pruning (Kalam Katai) 3.9.3 Weeding 3.9.4 Manuring and Fertilizing 3.9.5 Nursery Work 3.9.6 Chilling and Colon Thully 3.1 0 Thika System and Women 3.11 Amenities for Tea Garden Workers 3.12 Women Workers and Thin Wages. Findings Chapter- 4: ETHNIC, SOCIAL, OCCUPATIONAL AND 107- }:JQ CULTURAL BACKGROUND OF THE WOMEN TEA PLANTATION WORKERS 4.1 Migration History 4.2 Population Structure in Tea Plantations 4.3 Ethnic and Caste Structure in the Tea Plantation 4.4 Nepali Caste Groups in Tea Plantation 4.5 Nepali Caste System in Tea Plantation : Caste Hierarchy and Caste Structure 4.6 Ethnic/caste Background of the Women Workers 4.7 Occupational Background of Women Tea Plantation Workers 4.8 State of Education of Women Tea Pl~mtation Workers 4.9 Marriage and Family Life of the Women Tea Workers 4.9.1 Women and Rules ofMarriage 4.9.2 Marital Status : Age at Marriage 4.9.3 Widowhood and Remarriage. 4.9.4 Household Composition and Family Types Among Plantation Women 4.9.5 Structure and Organisation ofFamily 4.10 Religious Practices ofthe Women Tea Plantation Workers Findings Chapter- 5: SOCIO-ECONOMIC ROLE AND STATUS OF WOMEN TEA PLANTATION WORKERS 5.1 Women and Economic Activities 5.2 Women Economic Contribution and Position in the Family 5.3 Women and Domestic Responsibilities 5.4 Women in Decision-Making Process 5.5 Women's Participation in Social organizations 5.6 Leisure and Recreational Activities of the Women 5.7 Patriarchy and Women's SelfPerceive Status 5.8 Adaptation and Adjustment ofWomen Plantation Workers Findings Chapter- 6 : TRADE UNIONS AND WOMEN TEA PLANTATIONS WORKERS 6.1 Origin and Growth of Trade Unions in Tea Plantations ofDarjeeling Himalayas 6.2 Trade Unions in the Tea Gardens ofDarjeeling Himalayas 6.3 Trade Union Activities in Tea Plantations ofDarjeeling Himalayas 6.4 Participation ofWomen Plantation Workers in Trade Unions 6.5 .. Women Membership in Trade Unions ofTea Plantations in Darjeeling Himalayas 6.6 Reasons for Joining Trade Unions 6.7 Women and Trade Union Movement in Badamtam Tea Garden- A Case Study Findings Chapter -7 : MAJOR FINDINGS, CONCLUSION AND RECOMMENDATION References 231-241 Appendix-! : Abbreviations I I • Appendix-II : Glossary of some Nepali Terms Appendix-III : Interview Schedule , . \ • " • ~ : I Preface In recent years there has been an increasing awareness and recognition of the fact that women who fanned one half of the society can not be ignored at all. An increasing role of women in building the nation is extremely vital. Women issues are the key factors in the process of social change and development. The improvement of the status of women has now been recognized all over the world as an important aspect of national progress and development. It is also felt that the problem of poverty can not be tackled without providing opportunities of productive employment to women of a country. The conference on International Women's Year held at Mexico City in 1975 and the World Conferences of the United Nation's Decade for Women Organised at Copenhegan in 1980 and subsequent conferences on Women's issues has attracted a number of Sociologists and Social anthropologists to study the various problems of women. There has been a remarkable increase in the study and researches on the issues of women. But an important area of women's work which escapes the attention of the scholars is working female in the agro-· industrial setting of tea plantations in India. In tea plantations, women constitute overwhelming majority of the working force. There are a very few writers who have turned the focus of their enquiry on women tea plantation labourers. Hence, there is no serious study available on women workers of the tea gardens of Darjeeling Himalayas. The basic objective of the present study is to examine the changing role and status of Nepali women in tea plantations of Darjeeling Himalayas in the context of their community, culture and society. Unlike the women plantation workers ofTerai and Dooars regions ofNorthern part of West Bengal, the Nepali Women workers oftea gardens in Darjeeling Himalayas have come from diverse social, cultural, religious and linguistic backgrounds. About 90 per cent of women tea workers belong to middle caste Nepalis who were originally the indigenous communities of Nepal Himalayas and later Hinduised by Hindu rulers of Nepal. (ii) The middle castes or communities like Khambus (Rai), Limbus (Subba), Yakhas (Dewan), Tamangs (Murmi), Gunmgs, Mangers, -Newars, Sunuwars (Mukhia), Bhujels (Gharti), Thamis, Jogis are found in tea gardens of Darjeeling Himalayas. Among them Rai and Tamang women workers are numerically dominant in the tea gardens. The number of Nepali Women workers belonging to higher castes (Bahun, Chhetri, Thakuri) and lower castes (Kami, Damai, Sarki, Sunar, Majhi etc.) are very few: The predominance of women workers over the male workers is a distinctive feature of tea gardens in Daijeeling Himalayas. The family based recruitment policy of colonial planters and t~e nature of tea plantation works are mainly responsible for the numerical majority of women in working force in tea plantations. The present study was conducted on seven tea gardens of Darjeeling Himalayas. The name of these gardens are Badamtam, Pandam, Happy Valley, Vah-Tukvar located in Sadar Sub-division and Singell, Springside and Castleton located in Kurseong sub-division of the District ofDarjeeling in West Bengal. The present study would not have been comple"ted without the assistance received from many persons and institutions. First of all, I owe my gratitude to University Grant Commission for providing me Junior Research Fellowship through the Centre for Himalayan Studies, University of North Bengal during the period from April 1994 to May 1996. But I discontinued the J.R.F. for joining the service in May 1996. I did my Ph.D. registration under Prof. B.P. Misra of the Centre for Himalayan Studies. But unfortunately I could not complete my work under him as he retired from the University in April 2003.