Notes 1 Terrorism: Concepts and Causes 1. Frederick Schulze, “Breaking the Cycle: Empirical Research and Postgraduate Studies on Terrorism,” in Andrew Silke (ed.), Research on Terrorism: Trends, Achievements and Failures (London: Frank Cass, 2004), p. 183. 2. Michael Dartnell, “A Legal Inter-network for Terrorism: Issues of Globalization, Fragmentation, and Legitimacy,” in Max. Taylor and John Horgan (eds.), The Future of Terrorism (London: Frank Cass, 2000), pp. 199, 204, and Paul R. Pillar, Terrorism and U.S. Foreign Policy (Washington, DC: Brookings Institution, 2001), p. 13. 3. Cf. Noam Chomsky, “Wars of Terror,” in Carl Boggs (ed.), Masters of War: Militarism and Blowback in the Era of American Empire (New York: Routledge, 2003), pp. 131–48. 4. James M. Lutz and Brenda J. Lutz, Global Terrorism (London: Routledge, 2004), p. 10. Cf. also David Claridge, “State Terrorism: Applying a Definitional Model,” Terrorism and Political Violence, Vol. 8, No. 3 (1996), pp. 47–63, and Bruce Hoffman, Inside Terrorism (New York: Columbia University Press, 1998), Chap. 1. 5. James M. Lutz and Brenda J. Lutz, “State Uses of Terrorism,” in Andrew T. H. Tan (ed.), The Politics of Terrorism: A Survey (London: Routledge, 2006), pp. 89–102. 6. Thomas J. Badey, “Defining International Terrorism: A Pragmatic Approach,” Terrorism and Political Violence, Vol. 10, No. 1 (1998), p. 93, and Peter Chalk, West European Terrorism and Counter-terrorism: The Evolving Dynamic (Houndsmill, Basingstoke, UK: Macmillan, 1996), p. 17. 7. Bruce Hoffman, “ ‘Holy Terror’: The Implication of Terrorism Motivated by a Religious Imperative,” Studies in Conflict and Terrorism, Vol. 18, No. 4 (1995), p. 281, and Harvey W. Kushner, Terrorism in America: A Structural Approach to Understanding the Terrorist Threat (Springfield, IL: Charles C. Thomas, 1998), pp. 82–3. 8. Chalk, West European Terrorism, p. 13; Bruce Hoffman, “The Emergence of the New Terrorism,” in Andrew Tan and Kumar Ramakrishna (eds.), The New Terrorism: Anatomy, Trends and Counter-strategies (Singapore: Eastern Universities Press, 2002), p. 45; Bruce Hoffman and Gordon H. McCormick, 158 Notes “Terrorism, Signaling, and Suicide Attacks,” Studies in Conflict & Terrorism, Vol. 25, No. 4 (2002), p. 269; Assaf Moghadam, “Palestinian Suicide Terrorism in the Second Intifada: Motivations and Organizational Aspects,” Studies in Conflict & Terrorism, Vol. 26, No. 2 (2003), pp. 65–92, and Michael Stohl, “Expected Utility and State Terrorism,” in Tore Bjorgo (ed.), Root Causes of Terrorism: Myths, Reality and Ways Forward (London: Routledge, 2005), p. 201. 9. Michael T. Klare, “The New Face of Combat: Terrorism and Irregular Warfare in the 21st Century,” in Charles W. Kegley, Jr. (ed.), The New Global Terrorism: Characteristics, Causes, Controls (Upper Saddle River, NJ: Prentice Hall, 2003), p. 31. 10. Hoffman, Inside Terrorism, p. 65, and Brian M. Jenkins, “International Terrorism: The Other World War,” in Kegley (ed.), The New International Terrorism, p. 22. 11. Cf. Paul Wilkinson, Terrorism versus Democracy: The Liberal State Response (London: Frank Cass, 2000), p. 174, for example of how the Assassins cen- turies ago launched their attacks in circumstances that guaranteed the spread of the news without the presence of the media. 12. C. J. M. Drake, “The Role of Ideology in Terrorists’ Target Selection,” Terrorism and Political Violence, Vol. 10, No. 2 (1998), pp. 53–85. 13. Andrew Tan, “Armed Muslim Separatist Rebellion in Southeast Asia: Persistence, Prospects, and Implications,” Studies in Conflict & Terrorism, Vol. 23, No. 4 (2000), p. 268. 14. James M. Lutz and Brenda J. Lutz, Terrorism: Origins and Evolution (New York: Palgrave, 2005), p. 159. 15. Mark Juergensmeyer, “The Worldwide Rise of Religious Nationalism,” Journal of International Affairs, Vol. 50, No. 1 (1996), pp. 1–20. 16. Jonathan Fox, “Religion and State Failure: An Examination of the Extent and Magnitude of Religious Conflict from 1950 to 1996,” International Political Science Review, Vol. 25, No. 1 (2004), p. 66, and Mark Juergensmeyer, “ ‘Holy Orders’: Religious Opposition to Modern States,” Harvard International Review, Vol. 25, No. 4 (2004), p. 37. 17. T. David Mason and Christopher Campany, “Guerrillas, Drugs and Peasants: The Rational Peasant and the War on Drugs in Peru,” Terrorism and Political Violence, Vol. 7, No. 4 (1995), pp. 140–70, and Alex P. Schmid, “Terrorism and the Use of Weapons of Mass Destruction: From Where the Risk?” in Horgan and Taylor (eds.), The Future of Terrorism, p. 114. 18. Lutz and Lutz, Terrorism: Origins and Evolution, pp. 105–6. 19. George J. Aditjondro, “Ninjas, Nanggalas, Monuments, and Mossad Manuals: An Anthropology of Indonesian State Terror in East Timor,” in Jeffrey A. Sluka (ed.), Death Squad: The Anthropology of State Terror (Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Press, 2000), pp. 158–88; Bruce B. Campbell, “Death Squads: Definition, Problems and Historical Context,” in Bruce B. Campbell and Arthur D. Brenner (eds.), Death Squads in Global Perspective: Murder with Deniability (New York: Palgrave Macmillan, 2000), pp. 1–26; Claridge, “State Terrorism”; Richard Gillespie, “Political Violence in Argentina: Guerrillas, Terrorists, and Carapintadas,” in Martha Crenshaw (ed.), Notes 159 Terrorism in Context (University Park, PA: Pennsylvania University State Press, 1995), pp. 211–48; Patricia Gossman, “India’s Secret Armies,” in Campbell and Brenner, (eds.), Death Squads, pp. 261–86; Tim Judah, Kosovo: War and Revenge (New Haven: Yale University Press, 2000), pp. 286–90; and Douglas A. Macgregor, “The Balkan Limits to Power and Principle,” Orbis, Vol. 45, No. 1 (2001), p. 103. 20. JoAnn McGregor, “The Politics of Disruption: War Veterans and the Local State in Zimbabwe,” African Affairs, Vol. 101, No. 402 (2002), pp. 9–37; David Rieff, “Suffering and Cynicism in Burundi,” World Policy Journal, Vol. 18, No. 3 (2001), pp. 61–7; Ian Taylor and Paul Williams, “The Limits of Engagement: British Foreign Policy and the Crisis in Zimbabwe,” International Affairs, Vol. 78, No. 3 (2002), pp. 574–65; and Wilkinson, Terrorism versus Democracy, p. 73. 21. Lutz and Lutz, “State Uses of Terrorism,” p. 100. 22. Adam Dolnik, “Die and Let Die: Exploring Links between Suicide Terrorism and Terrorist Use of Chemical, Biological, Radiological, and Nuclear Weapons,” Studies in Conflict & Terrorism, Vol. 26, No. 1 (2003), p. 21; Alan O’Day, “Northern Ireland, Terrorism, and the British State,” in Yonah Alexander, David Carleton, and Paul Wilkinson (eds.), Terrorism: Theory and Practice (Boulder, CO: Westview Press, 1979), p. 131. 23. Florian Bieber, “Approaches to Political Violence and Terrorism in the Former Yugoslavia,” Journal of Southern Europe and the Balkans, Vol. 5, No. 3 (2003), p. 47; Martha Crenshaw, “Introduction: Reflections on the Effects of Terrorism,” in Martha Crenshaw (ed.), Terrorism, Legitimacy, and Power: The Consequences of Political Violence (Middletown, CT: Wesleyan University Press, 1983), p. 20; Judah, Kosovo, p. 137; Andrew H. Kydd and Barbara F. Walter, “The Strategies of Terrorism,” International Security, Vol. 31, No. 1 (2006), pp. 49–80; and Wilkinson, Terrorism versus Democracy, p. 11. 24. Bruce Hoffman, “Rethinking Terrorism and Counterterrorism since 9/11,” Studies in Conflict & Terrorism, Vol. 25, No. 5 (2002), p. 311. 25. Andrew Silke, “The Road Less Travelled: Recent Trends in Terrorism Research,” in Silke (ed.), Research on Terrorism, p. 242. 26. James C. Davies, “Revolution and the J-Curve,” in Claude E. Welch, Jr., and Mavis Bunker Taintor (eds.), Revolution and Political Change (North Scituate, MA: Duxbury Press, 1972), pp. 122–53, and Ted Robert Gurr, Why Men Rebel (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 1970). 27. Lawrence A. Kuznar, “Risk Prone Peasants: Cultural Transmission or Sigmoid Utility Maximization?” Current Anthropology, Vol. 43, No. 5 (2002), pp. 787–9. 28. Martha Crenshaw, “Causes of Terrorism,” in Kegley (ed.), The New Global Terrorism, p. 94, and Feliks Gross, Violence in Politics: Terror and Assassination in Eastern Europe and Russia, Studies in the Social Sciences 13 (The Hague: Mouton, 1972), p. 90. 29. Zachary Abuza, “Tentacles of Terror: Al Qaeda’s Southeast Asian Network,” Contemporary Southeast Asia: A Journal of International and Strategic Affairs, Vol. 24, No. 3 (2002), p. 434; Robert I. Rotberg, “Failed States, 160 Notes Collapsed States, Weak States: Causes and Indicators,” in Robert I. Rotberg (ed.), State Failure and State Weakness in a Time of Terror (Cambridge, MA, and Washington, DC: World Peace Foundation and Brookings Institution Press, 2003), pp. 1–15, and Alex P. Schmid, “Prevention of Terrorism: Towards a Multi-pronged Approach,” in Bjorgo (ed.), Root Causes, p. 232. 30. Barry R. Posen, “The Struggle against Terrorism: Grand Strategy, Strategy, and Tactics,” International Security, Vol. 26, No. 3 (2001/2002), p. 41, and Leonard Weinberg and William Eubank, “Terrorism and Democracy: What Recent Events Disclose,” Terrorism and Political Violence, Vol. 10, No. 1 (1998), pp. 108–18. 31. Fernando Reinares, “Nationalist Separatism and Terrorism in Comparative Perspective,” in Bjorgo (ed.), Root Causes, p. 125, and Wilkinson, Terrorism versus Democracy, pp. 20–1. 32. Klare, “The New Face of Combat,” p. 33, and Peter Waldmann, “Social- Revolutionary Terrorism in Latin American and Europe,” in Bjorgo (ed.), Root Causes of Terrorism, p. 157. 33. Michael Mousseau, “Market Civilization and Its Clash with Terror,” International Security, Vol. 27,