The Internationalization of Higher Education: International Graduate Students'

Perspectives on How to Enhance University Stakeholders' Glocal Competence

A dissertation presented to

the faculty of

The Gladys W. and David H. Patton College of Education of Ohio University

In partial fulfillment

of the requirements for the degree

Doctor of Education

Mary Kristin Diki

August 2020

This dissertation titled

The Internationalization of Higher Education: International Graduate Students'

Perspectives on How to Enhance University Stakeholders' Glocal Competence

MARY KRISTIN DIKI

has been approved for

the Department of Educational Studies

and The Gladys W. and David H. Patton College of Education by

Emmanuel Jean-Francois

Associate Professor of Educational Studies

Renée A. Middleton

Dean, The Gladys W. and David H. Patton College of Education 3

Abstract

DIKI, MARY KRISTIN, Ed.D., August 2020, Educational Administration

The Internationalization of Higher Education: International Graduate Students’

Perspectives on How to Enhance University Stakeholders’ Glocal Competence

Director of Dissertation: Emmanuel Jean-Francois

Institutions of higher learning in the United States have been admitting students from different countries since the 18th century. These universities have arguably had difficulty with the challenge of integrating such students into the life blood of the institutions due to their institutional overriding purpose of developing and sharing knowledge, oftentimes of a highly specialized nature. Given the constraints of time, resources and purpose, universities have struggled to capture the richness of their cultural diversity due to the highly peripheral nature of most cross-cultural engagements. The reality has been that what cross-cultural learning has occurred is largely unidirectional and such students have largely been made to feel that it is their responsibility to conform to local administrator, faculty, staff, and student expectations. Efforts have largely been aimed at recruitment and settlement assistance for such international students.

Much of the existing scholarship on internationalization in the context of higher education places the emphasis on one dominant culture, thereby implicitly marginalizing the international student voices. Although careful planning and implementation of internationalization could contribute greatly to curriculum that embodies multi-cultural perspectives, the lack of the international student perspective in the planning and 4 implementation of internationalization is problematic. It ignores the value that they could contribute as stakeholders in such institutions of higher education.

This study explored the notion of glocalization, an enriching term suggesting the blending of mutual local perspectives in a global context when it comes to exploring the experiences and perspectives of international graduate students on internationalization planning and implementation in an effort to foster university stakeholders’ glocal competence, a cosmos of global proportions. Twenty-nine students from five global regions patiently sat for interviews revealing their experiences in the planning and implementation of internationalization at their university. They also provided their perspectives of how institutions could foster glocal attitudes, knowledge, skills, and understanding in all stakeholders at a university using Jean-Francois’s (2015) framework of glocal competence. It is hoped that the perspectives uncovered through such interviews can add to the existing conversation of how to effectively plan and implement internationalization in higher education.

Dedication

I would like to dedicate my work to my father whose decision to take me overseas to live with him in Malaysia at the impressionable age of thirteen forever changed the course of

my life. I am eternally grateful. This is for you. I love you.

I would also like to dedicate my work to my incredible friends with whom I have had the privilege to cross paths, who have greatly influenced the person I have become, who have

shared their hearts with me, who come from all over the world and yet have taught me

the same lesson - the importance of love, kindness, and character. This research was

inspired by all of you from whom I have learned so much. Thank you.

Acknowledgments

I would like to begin by extending my deepest gratitude to my advisor and committee chair, Dr. Emmanuel Jean-Francois. From the first time I joined your course in the summer of 2015, I was incredibly inspired by your scholarship and your ability to create a learning environment that welcomes, values and embraces diverse perspectives. I sincerely thank you for all of the time and attention you have devoted to helping me through to the end of my doctoral journey. Merci beaucoup!

To Dr. Charles Lowery, my professor and committee member, thank you for all of the time and feedback you have given me during my doctoral journey. I have gained so much from being in your presence. You are not only an incredible intellect, you are also one of the kindest individuals I know.

To Dr. David Bell, my former professor in my master’s program and committee member, I could not have been more thrilled when you graciously agreed to join my committee. One of my greatest educational experiences was with you as a professor in linguistics. To have you be part of my doctoral journey as well means so much to me. I am forever grateful!

To Dr. Greg Obi, my final committee member, your willingness to take a leap of faith and join my committee when you did not know much about me is humbling. I vividly remember our conversation in the coffee shop in Chillicothe during which time you provided me some invaluable insight and advice that I will never forget. I sincerely thank you for your time and being a member of my doctoral committee. 7

To Dr. Frans Doppen, my former advisor in Teacher Education, I learned so much from working with you. You provided me opportunities that I would never have had if it had not been for you. Under your supervision, I was able to teach courses, help organize a conference, get an article published, etc. Thank you for your incredible mentorship.

To my dear friends Yanhui Liu and Mona Sulaimani, you both tried tirelessly to push me to excel at a time when I just was not ready to move forward. I will always appreciate your love and friendship.

To my father, Dr. John Keifer, thank you for inspiring me to always be intellectually curious and open to learning from others that are different from me.

To my husband, Simon Diki, you have been an incredible role model to me. I have never met someone who was so focused and determined to achieve their goals, even facing adversity. The harder a task is for you, the harder you work to accomplish it. You will never know how much you have inspired me to finish this journey.

To my entire family, I apologize for my bad attitude each time you all wanted to encourage me, and I did not want to listen. Your love and support mean everything to me.

It has been a long seven years, but I finally made it.

And finally, to Elizarni, Nina Adjanin, and Preeti Patil, if it were not for you three, I would never have made it to the end. Many people helped to get me moving forward, but the three of you carried me to the finish line. I will never forget the late nights in Alden and McCracken. Your love, humor, guidance, and companionship have been the best part of this journey.

Table of Contents

Page

Abstract ...... 3 Dedication ...... 5 Acknowledgments ...... 6 List of Tables...... 11 List of Figures ...... 12 Chapter 1: Introduction ...... 13 Background of the Study ...... 16 International Students in the United States ...... 18 Internationalization and International Students ...... 20 Statement of the Problem ...... 22 Purpose of the Study ...... 26 Research Questions ...... 27 Significance of the Study ...... 27 Limitations of the Study ...... 28 Delimitations of the Study ...... 29 Definition of Terms ...... 29 Summary ...... 31 Chapter 2: Literature Review ...... 33 Globalization and Higher Education...... 33 Internationalization ...... 35 Glocalization and Higher Education ...... 37 Glocal Leadership in Higher Education ...... 42 Internationalization: Planning and Implementation...... 51 Internationalization and Global Competence ...... 52 Internationalization and Glocal Competence ...... 54 Experiences and Perspectives of International Graduate Students in Internationalization Planning and Implementation ...... 57 Perspectives of International Graduate Students on University’s Glocal Competence: A Conceptual Framework ...... 59 Summary ...... 60 9

Chapter 3: Methodology ...... 61 Research Questions ...... 61 Research Design ...... 62 Research Setting and Sample Population...... 63 Participants ...... 64 Instrumentation ...... 67 Data Collection ...... 68 Interview Process ...... 68 Data Analysis ...... 70 Trustworthiness ...... 71 Credibility ...... 71 Transferability...... 75 Threats to Credibility ...... 75 Threats to Transferability ...... 80 Dependability and Confirmability ...... 82 Consideration of Data Saturation ...... 82 Ethical Considerations ...... 87 Limitations of the Study ...... 87 Delimitations of the Study ...... 88 Summary ...... 89 Chapter 4: Findings ...... 90 Participants ...... 90 Coding ...... 92 Research Question #1: How Do International Graduate Students Experience Internationalization Planning and Implementation at Their University? ...... 93 Internationalization Planning ...... 93 Missed Opportunities in Internationalization Planning ...... 100 Internationalization Implementation ...... 106 Research Question #2: What Are the Perspectives of International Graduate Students on How to Foster University Stakeholders’ Glocal Competence? ...... 121 Glocal Attitudes ...... 122 Participant Perspectives of Desired Attitudes for Glocal Competence...... 124 Participant Perspectives on Fostering Glocal Attitudes ...... 138 10

Glocal Knowledge ...... 158 Participant Perspectives of Desired Knowledge for Glocal Competence ...... 159 Participant Perspectives on Fostering Glocal Knowledge ...... 171 Glocal Skills ...... 186 Participant Perspectives of Desired Skills for Glocal Competence ...... 188 Participant Perspectives on Fostering Glocal Skills ...... 197 Glocal Understanding ...... 202 Participant Perspectives of Desired Understanding for Glocal Competence ...... 204 Participant Perspectives on Fostering Glocal Understanding ...... 210 Summary ...... 237 Chapter 5: Discussions and Conclusions, Implications for University Leadership, and Recommendations for Future Research ...... 239 Revisiting the Study’s Problem Statement and Purpose ...... 239 Revisiting the Study’s Research Questions...... 241 Revisiting the Study’s Methodology ...... 242 Revisiting the Findings ...... 242 International Students’ Experiences with Internationalization Planning and Implementation ...... 249 Perspectives of International Graduate Students on How to Foster University Stakeholders’ Glocal Competence ...... 251 Discussion of Findings and Researcher’s Conclusions ...... 253 Implications for University Leadership ...... 261 Recommendations for Future Research ...... 262 Summary ...... 264 References ...... 265 Appendix A: Interview Protocol for International Graduate Students ...... 282

List of Tables

Page

Table 1. Enrollment of International Grad Students by Region at OHIO (Fall 2018) ...... 64 Table 2. Sample Size Based on Enrollment at the University Serving as the Setting ...... 66 Table 3. Demographic Data of International Students Interviewed ...... 91 Table 4. Levels of University Stakeholders Who Can Contribute to Fostering Glocal Competence on a Campus ...... 243 Table 5. Participant Involvement in Internationalization Planning and Implementation on Their Campus ...... 246

List of Figures

Page

Figure 1. The Conceptual Framework based on Jean-Francois’s (2015) ...... 59 Figure 2. International Grad Students’ Experiences in Internationalization Planning ...... 94 Figure 3. Integrating International Grad Students in Internationalization Planning ...... 101 Figure 4. International Grad Students’ Experiences in Internationalization Implementation...... 107 Figure 5. Glocal Attitudes ...... 123 Figure 6. Glocal Knowledge ...... 159 Figure 7. Glocal Skills ...... 187 Figure 8. Glocal Understanding ...... 203

Chapter 1: Introduction

As a young teenager grappling with my narrow perspective of the world, my father made a decision that has forever changed my life. He chose to have me spend a year living in Malaysia with him. Until that point, my view of the world did not extend much outside of my small community other than the yearly, standard vacation to whichever city in the U.S. was playing host to my parents’ professional conference.

Although I did not realize it at the time, when I reflect back on that time in Malaysia, having the experience of living in a culture much different from my own and being educated in an international school at such an impressionable time in my development was pivotal. It was significant in shaping my comportment, the manner in which I reflect, my conception of the world and my place in it, as well as my understanding of people and the value the infusion of different perspectives adds to the richness of knowledge.

The cultural context in this case happened to be Petaling Jaya, Malaysia, a suburb of its nation’s capital, Kuala Lumpur, an area inhabited by a rich mix of the local

Bumiputera (“people of the land”) living alongside a large population of Chinese Malays and Indian Malays. I acquired considerable local knowledge over the span of the year, including farming techniques I learned spending time on rubber and palm plantations. In addition, I acquired new skills, such as batik and learning how to eat rice and sauce using my hands. I can remember thinking at the time how I grew up being told to never eat with my hands, that it is reflective of poor manners. Then here I found myself somehow enjoying the flavor of the food more with my hands than I did when I was first offered a fork. The experience had an even greater impact on my behavior. I was taken aback by 14 the humanity of a simple gesture like touching one’s heart after shaking hands with a person.

Whether it was Malaysia or another country in which I would have absorbed different behaviors, skills, knowledge, and understanding, what made the experience a transformative one was the appreciation I gained of learning from people who perceive the world so differently than I do, nurturing the appetite for knowledge that my father had cultivated in me from a young age. Upon my return to the U.S. my junior year in high school, I began noticing my propensity to make connections with the international students knowing full well that a relationship with them, with someone who had a different perspective on the world than I did, would greatly enrich my own life.

As a doctoral student at Ohio University (i.e., OHIO), a large, Midwestern university whose master’s and doctoral population is approximately 30% international

(OUIR, 2018), I find myself once again in an educational setting that thrives with opportunity to learn from multiple perspectives. The internationalization of colleges and universities in the United States is growing at an exponential rate as more institutions recognize the need to prepare students for the interconnectedness of the global community, diversify their campus population, and appeal to both domestic and foreign recruits (ACE, 2017). Yet, I am curious if universities have been able to embrace the objective behind the internationalization of higher education or if, as some scholars have suggested (Caruana, 2010; Khoo, 2011; Patel, 2017; Patel & Lynch, 2013), it merely reinforces the hegemony of Western perspectives, leaving the potential value that international perspectives bring to their host-country peers on the periphery. Leask (2013) 15 emphasized the importance and challenge of “engaging faculty in the process of internationalizing the curriculum in their disciplines” (p. 6). She continued:

Faculty need courage if they are to challenge existing ways of thinking (the ‘taken

for granted truth’), the existing paradigms of their discipline communities; the

very construction of knowledge in their disciplines; including the assumptions

about what and whose knowledge ‘counts’ and will therefore be included in the

curriculum. (Leask, 2013, p. 6)

In her lecture, Leask (2013) shared an example of a workshop she conducted with professors in a college of medicine in Australia who felt strongly that their job, being situated in a Western country, was to teach Western medical practices. After some discussion, the direction of the conversation altered upon consideration of their population, which was roughly twenty percent Chinese. They began discussing the gaps in their curricula, such as the absence of eastern medical philosophies (e.g., acupuncture).

Upon recently sharing Leask’s (2013) lecture with an instructor in an accounting department that also happens to have a considerable Chinese population, her response conveyed the ‘ridiculousness’ of embedding the discussion of Chinese accounting practices in her curriculum when ‘they’ are the ones choosing to come to study accounting in the United States. This particular incident serves as an example of Leask’s

(2013) presumption that faculty may not be ready to challenge their preconceived notions of what knowledge they consider to be of value considering their geographical location. 16

Background of the Study

In my conversation with this particular accounting instructor, it became very apparent why some campuses may struggle to achieve their vision to internationalize.

One of the core values behind internationalization is the recognition of the benefit of international education to the stakeholders at a university and its focus on incorporating global perspectives across campus in their curricula. However, failure to fully understand and recognize the value multiple perspectives bring to all stakeholders at a university

(i.e., administrators, faculty, staff, and students), will likely result in a continued perpetuation of Western, ethnocentric philosophies delivered through the curricula.

The concept of internationalization in higher education has been broadly defined by one scholar as “the process of integrating an international, intercultural, or global dimension into the purpose, functions or delivery of postsecondary education” (Knight,

2003, p. 2). This definition was later refined by a team of scholars to include:

[T]he intentional process of integrating an international, intercultural or global

dimension into the purpose, functions and delivery of post-secondary education,

in order to enhance the quality of education and research for all students and staff,

and to make a meaningful contribution to society. (de Wit et al., 2015, p. 29)

The rationale behind internationalization is four-fold: academic, political, economic, and sociocultural (Childress, 2009; de Wit et al., 2015; Knight, 1997; Siczek, 2015). Students who are globally competent are enriched with a more comprehensive, diversified education in which their ability to think critically is enhanced; they are better equipped to 17 engage politically; they have exposure to more diverse job opportunities; and they develop more intercultural sensitivity to interact effectively with diverse communities.

The American Council on Education (ACE) Center for International and Global

Engagement (CIGE) has identified five internationalization priorities of institutions of higher education. These “priority activities” include “increasing study abroad for students, recruiting international students,…followed by developing partnerships with institutions and organizations abroad, internationalizing the curriculum/co-curriculum, and faculty development” (ACE, 2017, p. 5). Efforts to internationalize have therefore focused heavily on student mobility by sending domestic students overseas through study abroad initiatives that only attract ten percent of students (IIE, 2019), rather than placing an emphasis on curriculum that services the entire student population. As the ACE (2017) indicates, “The external orientation for internationalization efforts is ultimately problematic in that it neglects the core of the academic enterprise. At its heart, higher education is about student learning” (p. 38).

To create a learning environment that is student-centered and fosters the attitudes, knowledge, skills, and understanding to cultivate the necessary competency to effectively interact and function across cultures, all stakeholders’ perspectives must be considered.

However, the process of internationalization planning and implementation mostly includes the input of faculty and administrators (Biddle, 2002), often neglecting the contributions of other stakeholders. An incredible asset to higher education institutions who can offer insight into the successful planning and implementation of 18 internationalization is their international student population, a valuable resource for on- campus internationalization (Siczek, 2015; Zhang, 2017).

International Students in the United States

Institutions of higher education in the United States have been enrolling international students since the eighteenth century, a population which has continued to grow since universities first witnessed a dramatic increase in admissions after World War

II (Staley & Trinkle, 2011; Trice, 2003) due to political reasons of “national security and foreign policy” (de Wit & Merkx, 2012, p. 49) rather than the proclaimed peace effort.

The more recent drive to internationalize over the past few decades has been namely economic (Guo & Guo, 2017). Just over the past decade, the number of international students enrolled in colleges and universities in the United States has increased from

671,616 in the academic year of 2008-2009 to 1,095,299 in 2018-2019 (IIE, 2019).

Whereas the total international student population represented a mere 5.5% of the total student population of 19,828,000 in 2018-2019, the percentage of international students pursuing an advanced degree is much higher at approximately 15% (CGS,

2019), resulting largely from an economic need for universities to internationalize, making “internationalization in universities…an income-generating activity” (Khalideen,

2008, p. 267). According to Khalideen (2008), “The opportunities to capitalize on diversity and the development of global cultural competencies among graduates are viewed as spin-offs of the internationalization process and are relegated to secondary outcomes” (p. 267). The international students, who contributed $36.9 billion to the U.S. economy and were instrumental in the development or support of 450,331 jobs in the 19 academic year 2016-2017 (NAFSA, 2017), come from a myriad of countries, with the highest percentages hailing from China (37%), India (22%), Europe (7%), and the Middle

East (6%) (CGS, 2019). The vast majority of the students are entering programs in engineering (28%), mathematics and computer science (22%), and business and management (12%) (CGS, 2019).

Although profit is one of the main contributing factors driving internationalization, it is not the sole motivation. According to Altbach and Knight

(2007), nonprofit universities seek international students “to enhance research and knowledge capacity and to increase cultural understanding” (p. 292). Traditional forms of internationalization include activities that are meant to enrich both students’ perspectives of the world and its varying cultures, as well as institutions’ curricula (Altbach & Knight,

2007). In addition, many countries lack the infrastructure and capacity to provide adequate higher education to meet the demand of their citizens (Altbach & Knight, 2007;

Trice, 2003); internationalization can therefore enable people around the world to achieve their academic needs regardless of their country’s circumstances. Some of the students come from countries with governments who sponsor their education under the premise that the students return to their home country with the new knowledge and expertise they gained from their studies (Perna et al., 2015).

Every college and university approaches the process of internationalization in a different manner that will meet the needs of its stakeholders (Olson et al., 2006).

According to Olson et al. (2006), the term internationalization encompasses a variety of activities that are both home- and abroad-based. Home-based internationalization entails 20 internationalizing the curriculum and viewing international students as a valuable resource on campus, whereas abroad-based internationalization focuses on “student and faculty mobility programs, delivery of programs abroad, and international projects” (p. viii). The unique goals of individual institutions, nevertheless, will determine whether the priority is on recruiting more international students or, for instance, providing more opportunities for faculty and students to spend time overseas. Yet, regardless of an institution’s main priorities, it is undeniable that the international student population on any campus is a key asset in helping institutions of higher education realize their internationalization goals (Brennan & Dellow, 2013; Siczek, 2015).

Internationalization and International Students

Higher education institutions inevitably not only vary in regard to the planning phase of internationalization, but also the process by which it is implemented. For the past few decades, universities have been releasing strategic plans to articulate their efforts to internationalize. As indicated in the strategic plan of the institution serving as the setting of this study, the university “has the opportunity and responsibility to cultivate global leaders who are globally competent, confident, compassionate, cooperative and connected and ready to enter the marketplace with enthusiasm and a vision for a better world” (OGA, 2017, p. 20). This would require the global strategy’s intended outcomes to actualize, which are: “globally engaged faculty, staff and students; globally diverse and inclusive campus, curriculum, scholarship, and community; and a global brand in higher education” (p. 20). 21

Amid universities’ commitment to internationalization is their focus on inclusion of learning through a multi-perspective, multi-cultural lens, which could be achieved through the utilization of higher education institutions’ international graduate population.

Whereas the international undergraduate population is a meager 2% of the total undergraduate student body at the university setting of this study, the international graduate population, according to the university’s enrollment statistics taken in the fall of

2018, constitutes 26% of the master’s student population and 38% at the doctoral level

(OUIR, 2018).

Although the percentage of international students at the master’s and doctoral levels are considerably higher, merely having a substantial international enrollment is not indicative of effective internationalization on the part of an institution (Leask & Carroll,

2011). Moreover, previous studies tend to focus on international students’ experiences in adapting to the preexisting environment, which, as Siczek (2015) points out, presents a possibly “harmful assumption” (p. 10) that could interfere with the goals of internationalization: “Even though colleges and universities are actively recruiting more and more international students, a one-way assimilation for international students seems to be preferable” (Siczek, 2015, p. 10). Internationalization in higher education, according to some scholars, contradicts the notion of assimilation as it seeks to have institutions make necessary changes to integrate multiple perspectives and create a climate that reflects and respects the dynamically diverse, global society (Ellingboe,

1998). Other scholars, however, problematize the notion of internationalization, claiming its objectives represent Western hegemony. 22

Statement of the Problem

According to Patel (2017), internationalization continues to rest on the margins of higher education curriculum. Patel and Lynch (2013) argue that a major concern of internationalization is that it places the emphasis on one dominant culture, thereby implicitly marginalizing the international student voices. Although careful planning and implementation of internationalization could contribute greatly to curriculum that embodies multi-cultural perspectives (Olson, 2005), the lack of the international student perspective in the planning and implementation is problematic considering their value as stakeholders in institutions of higher education.

Previous studies have focused mostly on the perspectives and experiences of faculty and administrators in the planning and implementation of internationalization.

Knight (1997) conducted a study in Canada in which the perspectives of educational and government leaders, as well as leaders of organizations in the private sector, were considered. Interestingly, one finding of the study indicated a barrier to successful internationalization was a lack of collaboration amongst stakeholders. Childress (2009) also explored the planning of internationalization and the roles of the stakeholders. The findings of her study indicate that the “influential” stakeholders in the planning of internationalization are: “(a) campus wide internationalization taskforces, (b) chief international education administrators, and (c) presidents and chancellors” (Childress,

2009, p. 300). Yet, a missing voice in Childress’s (2009) study is the perspectives of the international students. Those interviewed, faculty and university leaders, were thus the ones recognizing the significance of faculty and university leaders in internationalization 23 planning. Dewey and Duff (2009) also contribute to the literature by seeking “faculty perspectives on the goals, strategies and processes of internationalization” (p. 491) to provide insight to college administrators.

Although several studies have sought the perspective of international students regarding their lived experience of internationalization (Guo & Guo, 2017; Leask, 2010;

Osmond & Roed, 2010), only one study has looked specifically at how international students experience internationalization planning and implementation. Zhang (2017) interviewed two master’s and two doctoral students at the University of Prince Edward

Island in Canada regarding their engagement in the decision-making and implementation processes at the university. Her findings suggest that they recognize themselves as valuable resources for internationalization, yet their low participation in the process was due to their belief that they were not invited to participate in the process. In addition, participants indicated a lack of culturally responsive curriculum and pedagogy in their courses. The students, in other words, felt that approaches to learning were non-inclusive.

The findings also suggest that adjustments should be mutual in that international students should receive adequate support to adjust to their new surroundings, yet domestic students and faculty also need to embrace the international campus, “see[ing] internationalization as a norm” (Zhang, 2017, p. 118).

Patel and Lynch (2013) might argue that Zhang’s (2017) findings are a result of the problem with internationalization and its Western, hegemonic focus. Patel and Lynch

(2013) indicate that a shift in focus to glocalizing higher education, an alternative to the 24 traditional notion of internationalization, would better enable the symbiotic exchange of knowledge among all administrators, faculty, staff, and students.

The term glocalization is a blend of globalization and localization, a recognition that the goals of globalization are not necessarily in harmony with local realities (Jean-

Francois, 2015). In regard to higher education, glocalization integrates local and global perspectives and “introduces a socially just and responsible framework that situates learning and teaching within a respectful, equitable and inclusive learning space” (Patel

& Lynch, 2013, pp. 224-225). Internationalization, higher education’s response to the globalization phenomenon (Maringe & Foskett, 2010), focuses on global standardization, one of the three underlying ambitions of global higher education (Jean-Francois, 2015).

Global standardization, according to Jean-Francois (2015), ultimately leads to homogenization as universities are competing to not only attract students but produce global leaders who ultimately are acquiring a set of homogenized “skills, knowledge, and attitudes through curriculum, practices, and quality assurance” (p. 53). In fact, a major criticism of globalization is the idea of oneness it tries to convey rather than a focus on difference and diversity that the concept of glocalization emphasizes (Robertson, 2013).

The homogenization perpetuated through efforts to internationalize tends to overshadow the recognition of the “underlying local values and beliefs” (Vinther & Slethaug, 2013, p.

805) when considering a global perspective of higher education. Killick (2017) asserts:

Disconnects between higher education and student cultures are not only a matter

of concern in international contexts; locally, also, we need to interrogate how

prevailing academic values and beliefs are enacted, and be willing to respond with 25

urgency when we see that aspects of our practice impinge upon the equity of any

of our students’ learning experiences. For diverse students at home and overseas,

in virtual or physical learning spaces, socioculturally appropriate and relevant

learning, teaching, and assessment practices are the roots of equitable learning

experiences. This means, above all else, attending to the voices of all our

students, and all the faculty who shape and deliver their experiences. (p. 14)

Glocalization is a means by which a third culture (Patel & Lynch, 2013) is cultivated that values the diverse perspectives and contributions of every member of the glocal community.

Another point of contention is the notion of global competence. According to

Jean-Francois (2015), “[G]lobal competence is an ultimate goal that nobody can achieve”

(p. 147) considering that every culture is rich and complex in diversity. Though one may have a mindset of tolerance and be open to learning from and interacting with people from other cultures, it is impossible to have developed the necessary dispositions, skills, knowledge, and understanding to successfully engage in every local context to which one is newly exposed. Therefore, the idea of glocal competence is a more appropriate term to employ as it “signif[ies] an ever-partial global competence that is valid mainly in the context of specific local intercultural interactions” (Jean-Francois, 2015, p. 147).

Although the term internationalization remains widely used, it is worth considering the integration of a glocal competence framework into the planning and implementation of internationalization in order to cultivate a learning environment that values all perspectives. To incorporate a glocal competence framework, it is essential to 26 determine what the necessary attitudes, knowledge, skills, and understanding one would have that would reflect glocal competence. Internationalization planning and implementation at a university should aim to foster glocal competence in a comprehensive manner that requires the perspectives of all stakeholders, including international students. Obviously, international students bring unique multiple international perspectives to a university campus. Graduate international students, especially, carry with them maturity and oftentimes professional experiences that can serve as an asset when a university plans and implements internationalization initiatives.

However, few studies have investigated the perspectives of international graduate students on how to foster university stakeholders’ glocal competence through internationalization planning and implementation. This research study aimed to fill that gap.

Purpose of the Study

The purpose of the study was to explore the experiences and perspectives of international graduate students on internationalization planning and implementation to foster university stakeholders’ glocal competence. Although one previous study provided valuable findings regarding international students’ experiences in internationalization planning and implementation, Zhang’s (2017) research was limited to four participants from China, Korea, Nigeria, and the United States. Moreover, it was conducted in a small liberal arts university setting with a population of only roughly 4,400 total students. This study explored the perspectives of 29 participants from countries representing five major regions of the world and was conducted at a large, Midwestern university on their main 27 campus of over 20,000 students. Although the university has 5 regional campuses as well, bringing the total student population to nearly 40,000, the focus of this study was solely on the university’s main campus since it services the international student population.

Research Questions

The study was guided by the following two questions:

1. How do international graduate students experience internationalization

planning and implementation at their university?

2. What are the perspectives of international graduate students on how to foster

university stakeholders’ glocal competence?

Significance of the Study

Although there exists extensive research on international students’ experience in higher education (Almurideef, 2016; Andrade, 2006; Aydinol, 2013; Constantine et al.,

2005; Evivie, 2009; Gautum et al., 2016; Kearney & Lincoln, 2017; Leask, 2010;

Montgomery & McDowell, 2009; Urban & Bierlein Palmer, 2014), the majority of the studies targeted students’ experience, often emphasizing the challenges the international students tend to face in regard to language barriers, cultural adjustment, financial stress, etc. Few studies have focused on the asset the international population is in the successful planning and implementation of internationalization policies in institutions of higher education (Brennan & Dellow, 2013; Siczek, 2015), including international students’ willingness to engage in intercultural education of domestic students (Breuning, 2007).

However, the literature currently lacks studies that seek international graduate students’ perceptions of what a university that is globally minded and locally engaged would 28 resemble (i.e., what types of attitudes, skills, knowledge, and understanding would administrators, faculty, staff, and students possess) and the students’ perceptions on how that could be accomplished through the planning and implementation of internationalization in order to move away from the notion of internationalization reflecting Western perspectives.

The findings of this study add to the existing conversation on internationalization, infusing a glocal perspective provided by some of the most valuable resources to our glocal higher education community: the international graduate student body.

Limitations of the Study

The study explored international graduate students’ experiences in the planning and implementation of internationalization at their institution of higher education, as well as their perspectives on how to enhance the process in order to foster glocal competence.

One limitation of the study is that the results are confined to the experiences of students on one specific campus and therefore not generalizable to other institutions of higher education. In addition, a second limitation is the choice of participants. Only those willing and interested in participating were selected, which may cause the findings to be non-reflective of the typical experience of an international graduate student at a university.

Furthermore, the interviews were conducted in English. Therefore, another limitation of the study is the researcher’s inability to conduct the interviews in the participants’ native language. For the students whose language background is not

English, they may not have been able to express their ideas to the full extent as they 29 would have been able to do in their native tongue. Lastly, the scope of the study focused primarily on internationalization planning and implementation rather than the specific aspects of how to effectively internationalize (e.g., how to specifically internationalize the curriculum).

Delimitations of the Study

The delimitations of this study outline the scope of the research project. The focus of the study was confined to one particular setting (i.e., Ohio University). Although the setting was also listed as a limitation of the study, it was purposely selected due to my insider knowledge of the international graduate student population, as well as my familiarity with the university. Future research can explore whether participants on another campus share a similar experience as the participants of this study. Moreover, there was a specific target population. The only participants selected for the study were international graduate students who had completed their undergraduate studies in their home country.

Definition of Terms

The following is a list of key terms that will be used throughout the study:

Global competence: Global competence can be defined as:

…the capacity to examine local, global and intercultural issues, to understand and

appreciate the perspectives and world views of others, to engage in open,

appropriate and effective interactions with people from different cultures, and to

act for collective well-being and sustainable development. (OECD, 2018, p. 7)

Globalization: Globalization is a concept that can be discussed with regard to politics, culture and economy. Broadly speaking, it is:

…a set of processes by which the world is rapidly being integrated into one

economic space via increased international trade, the internationalization of

production and financial markets, and the internationalization of a commodity

culture promoted by an increasingly networked global telecommunications

system. (Gibson-Graham, 2006, p. 120)

Glocal awareness: Glocal awareness denotes “an understanding that cultural identities, values, assumptions, pride, and behavior are lived as local or national experiences, but contribute to the larger global atmosphere of a multicultural world” (Jean-Francois, 2015, p. 89).

Glocal competence: Glocal competence encompasses “the knowledge, skills, comprehension, and attitudes that one acquires through the interwoven of previous global abilities with the curiosity, personal interactions, and immersion in a specific society”

(Jean-Francois, 2015, p. 148).

Glocal higher education: Glocal higher education refers to “the interwoven of the global with the local to design, plan, and deliver higher education programs based on the principles: Think globally, act locally; and think locally, act globally” (Jean-Francois,

2015, p. 87).

Glocal knowledge: Glocal knowledge pertains to “the mastery of facts and information about the relations of interdependence among countries and societies, as well as 31 experiential knowledge of specific cultures as they relate and are compared to other cultures in the global world” (Jean-Francois, 2015, p. 90).

Glocalization: Glocalization is “the merger of global and local perspectives on the socioeconomic and political impact of all phenomenon that affects local and global communities” (Patel & Lynch, 2013, p. 223).

International graduate students: In the context of this study, international graduate students refer to the student population arriving at Ohio University on a student visa from a country outside of the United States in pursuit of a master’s or doctoral degree.

Internationalization of higher education: The following description of the internationalization of higher education is a modification of Knight’s (2003, p.2) popular definition:

[T]he intentional process of integrating an international, intercultural or global

dimension into the purpose, functions and delivery of post-secondary education,

in order to enhance the quality of education and research for all students and staff,

and to make a meaningful contribution to society. (de Wit et al., 2015, p. 29)

Summary

The chapter attempted to convey the importance of the study, which argues that the international graduate student population in higher education is a critical and invaluable resource to all administrators, faculty, staff, and students in efforts to make all stakeholders’ experiences truly transformative. The terms internationalization and global competence are problematized to address the issues raised in relevant literature of the homogenization of higher education and the idea that there exists one set of attitudes, 32 knowledge, skills, and understanding that people can acquire to effectively interact across cultures. A glocal competence framework (Jean-Francois, 2015) was therefore utilized to recognize the value of developing glocal attitudes, knowledge, skills, and understanding based on the glocal community. This study sought to gain input from the international graduate student population on how their university can move towards a framework that nurtures glocal competence through the planning and implementation of its internationalization. The glocal competence framework will be more thoroughly discussed in the next chapter.

Chapter 2: Literature Review

The following chapter presents a review of literature pertinent to the focus of this study. It covers the broad topics of globalization and higher education, glocalization and higher education, glocal leadership in higher education, internationalization planning and implementation, global competence, glocal competence, and the experiences and perspectives of international students. The research questions below guided the development of the literature review:

1. How do international graduate students experience internationalization

planning and implementation at their university?

2. What are the perspectives of international graduate students on how to foster

university stakeholders’ glocal competence?

Globalization and Higher Education

Prior to a discussion on internationalization of higher education, it is critical to understand the role globalization has played. Globalization is a complex term that encompasses several components, mainly cultural, economic, political, and ideological

(Steger, 2003). In a broad sense, globalization has been recognized as “a new form of modern capitalism” (Jean-Francois, 2015, p. 36) and has been defined by some scholars as “the creation of world relations based on the operation of free markets” (Maringe &

Foskett, 2010, p. 1). Steger (2003) suggests that there are four distinctive characteristics of globalization:

…the creation of new and the multiplication of existing social networks and

activities that overcome traditional, economic, cultural and geographic 34

boundaries;…the expansion and the stretching of social relations, activities, and

interdependencies; …the intensification and acceleration of social exchanges and

activities; …[and] the creation, expansion and intensification of social

interconnections and interdependencies… (pp. 9-12)

Steger (2003) offers a thorough explication of the qualities of globalization based on a culmination of various definitions of the term. However, the aforementioned characteristics are not meant to provide a full, comprehensive definition, as scholars tend to disagree on what constitutes globalization as various societies and cultures around the world experience it differently.

As previously mentioned, four general dimensions of globalization have been addressed in the literature: economic, political, cultural, and ideological. Economic globalization involves the trading of goods and services on a global scale. Organizations such as the World Bank and the International Monetary Fund (IMF) assist in the exchange of funds across borders, as well as the World Trade Organization (WTO), which oversees trade agreements between countries. Political globalization refers to the growing political interconnectedness of the world through international organizations, such as the United Nations, and the political joining of countries, such as the convergence of European nations who have become members of the European Union (Steger, 2003).

Cultural globalization denotes the cultural flows that circulate the globe through a myriad of means: cross-cultural interactions, music, human mobility, technology, the spread of religion, imperialism, etc. (Hopper, 2007). Finally, ideological globalization and its belief 35 in free market activity underlies the notion that globalization aids in the elimination of abject poverty around the world.

Internationalization

The catalyst for universities around the world to plan and implement strategies that address the influence globalization is having on institutions of higher education is known as internationalization (Maringe & Foskett, 2010). Maringe and Foskett (2010) emphasize the symbiotic relationship that exists between the concepts of globalization and internationalization of higher education. As universities plan and implement strategies to tackle the needs that result from globalization, the increase in global student mobility that internationalization has created has reinforced and escalated globalization.

Universities therefore serve as integral contributors to the world economy.

Although globalization became a more prevalent topic of conversation during the latter half of the twentieth century when technological advances allowed for greater interconnectivity between people around the world and the conclusion of World War II led to a mass distribution of products on a global scale, the concept has been in existence for thousands of years (Hopper, 2007; Steger, 2003). Globalization has been categorized as existing in three different phases (Hopper, 2007): premodern or prehistoric times during early human migrations (prior to 1500), modern times between 1500 and 1945, and the contemporary era (after 1945) during which time the world has witnessed “the dramatic creation, expansion, and acceleration of worldwide interdependencies and global exchanges” (Steger, 2003, p. 35). The role for higher education has mirrored somewhat such phases and now requires an effort to provide the necessary skills and 36 competences to serve a largely modern, hyper-integrated, hyper-independent world involving highly sophisticated technologies across a number of domains.

Van Damme (2002) identifies several tendencies that have emerged with globalization: the development of the Internet, the restructuring of the global economy, the changes in political and national boundaries due to the end of the Cold War, the rapid rise in the global mobility of people (both physically and virtually), the attenuation of the nation-state, and the increase in cultural complexities due to cultural and linguistic imperialism. Recognition of these tendencies is critical when considering the landscape in which institutions of higher education operate. The impact on universities, according to

Van Damme (2002), is four-fold: universities have become the core centers of knowledge, there is an increase in the demand for higher education, there is a boost in the market for higher education, and the rise in the global society has disrupted the national frameworks that regulated university policies. Although some may argue that globalization has “de-territorialized” the world by eroding national borders, others argue globalization has done just the opposite (Robertson, 2013).

Hudzik (2015) introduces the concept of comprehensive internationalization (CI), which he characterizes as a never ending “journey,” an insight shared by Jean-Francois

(2015). Among the four drivers identified by Hudzik designed to encourage institutional

CI is social responsible drivers, about which he says:

The social responsibilities of higher education have expanding global dimensions.

It is not global vs. local but local and global because increasingly local prosperity

is tied to global co-prosperities…As part of these global social responsibilities, 37

higher education institutions have a role to play in fostering global relationships,

peace, and justice; enhancing peoples’ position in the global economy; improving

peoples’ position in the global economy; and improving cross-cultural

understanding. (p. 56)

To foster global relationships in higher education, efforts must begin by bringing together international and domestic students through internationalization efforts. A central issue then becomes how to create a curiosity and inquisitiveness in students to be open to embracing and learning from one another. While the literature does acknowledge the importance of empathy in a person to understand differences in others foreign to them, it fails to instruct on how to engender such empathy (Calloway-Thomas et al.,

2017). It suggests that respect plays a critical part in building international competence.

However, left unanswered is the question of how empathy can be aroused in the learner, a process that might be a greater challenge for the domestic student given the hegemonic, ethnocentric nature of the American culture. This is particularly true for the American culture due to its higher level of social conformity (Lewis, 2006).

Glocalization and Higher Education

A criticism of the notion of globalization is that it projects a mindset of oneness, which becomes problematic for the appreciation of the diverse, local contexts that exist

(Robertson, 2013). In today’s society, it is insufficient to simply refer to globalization without emphasizing the role of the interconnectivity of global and local perspectives.

According to Brooks and Normore (2010), globalization is “underdeveloped and underexplored” (p. 53) in the field of education due to the fact that educators tend to 38 focus on more immediate, local concerns. They indicate, though, that educators also increasingly recognize that globalization is affecting their local practice.

The impact of globalization varies across cultures and localities. Even UNESCO’s definition of global citizenship underpins a glocal (i.e., a blend of global and local) framework: “[Global citizenship] emphasizes political, economic, social, and cultural interdependency and interconnectedness between the local, national, and the global”

(2015, p. 14). The concept of glocalization, therefore, stresses the necessity of making local adaptations of global initiatives (Oliveira, 2013). Originating in the business realm, the term glocalization was first used as a means of emphasizing that international products needed to be adapted to local cultures in which they were sold. Borrowed from the Japanese word dochakuka, which is an agricultural term used to describe the modification of farming methods to meet specific local needs (Robertson, 1995), the popularity of the term glocalization is attributed to sociologist Roland Robertson in the

1990s (Oliveira, 2013). Robertson (2013) proposes that the concepts of global and local are no longer relevant in today’s discourse due to the current glocal realities that have resulted from globalization’s failed attempt to seek global uniformity.

Glocalization is a way in which people and communities are empowered, whereas globalization reinforces the already privileged, dominant groups (Bauman, 1998).

According to Bauman (1998), “Glocalization is first and foremost a redistribution of privileges and deprivations, of wealth and poverty, of resources and impotence, of power and powerlessness, of freedom and constraint” (p. 43). While globalization retains the focus on the dominant population in the context of higher education, glocalization 39 recognizes the essential role each member of the glocal community plays and the importance of each member’s perspective.

Kettaneh (2016) conducted a study in Canada on the potential impact glocalization would have on international student retention and found that glocalization would “improve the voice, participation and prosperity of international students by offering a unique platform for mutual understanding of needs, problems, and solutions”

(p. 2). The international students interviewed in Kettaneh’s study revealed that recognition of their viewpoints and abilities through curriculum and pedagogy would aid in building a bridge between the international and domestic populations.

Patel (2017) proposed a glocal engagement framework (GEF) to provide an inclusive, equitable and diverse approach to higher education that does not focus on the economic benefits of internationalization but instead on the human-oriented, social engagement of all stakeholders who come together for the collective good. The GEF is comprised of the glocal engagement dimensions of intellect, morality, emotion, and action, as well as principles of glocal engagement adapted from principles of intercultural communication. The ten principles of glocal engagement include a cultivation of new meaning among glocal community members and a consideration of glocal perspectives

(Patel, 2017). In a glocal higher education institution, stakeholders discover their shared perspectives, exploring and celebrating everyone’s strengths and sharing of their cultural wealth (Patel, 2017). Patel argued that “[g]localized learning requires participants to engage their minds in the glocal learning space to reach consensus seeking solutions and 40 actions to overcome natural disasters, human peril, and to withstand religious, land and familial conflicts” (p. 71).

Jean-Francois (2015) discussed a model of glocal higher education that is a fusion of local and global higher education in which the notion of ‘think globally, act locally’ carries equal weight as ‘think locally, act globally’ (p. 87). The aims of glocal higher education include (but are not limited to): glocal awareness, glocal knowledge, and glocal competence (Jean-Francois, 2015, p. 89). This study was based primarily on Jean-

Francois’s (2015) glocal competence framework. Glocal competence, discussed at greater length later in the chapter, “results from an accumulation of glocal awareness and glocal knowledge, and the ability to make indigenous adaptation of global frameworks or approaches in local contexts” (Jean-Francois, 2015, p. 90). Glocal awareness is a recognition of local cultures (i.e., local beliefs, values, identities, etc.) existing within a greater global context. Glocal knowledge, on the other hand, requires an understanding of the interdependence of societies, as well as firsthand knowledge of specific cultures

(acquired through immersive experiences in host countries) and their relation to the world.

In addition to the aims of glocal higher education, Jean-Francois (2015) also shared the principles of glocal higher education, which were significant to the framing of this study. A significant principle of glocal higher education involves an awareness of oneself and one’s assumptions and biases they bring into interactions with people from other cultures, as well as an awareness of the value of others and a recognition that others bring their own assumptions and biases into interactions. Additionally, principles of 41 glocal higher education include: global awareness with a local curiosity (i.e., glocal awareness); global planning that takes local accommodations into consideration; global inquiry that includes valuable and meaningful input and contributions from local stakeholders (i.e., locally based participatory inquiry); the blending of global and locally- informed pedagogy; outcomes that are significant globally and locally; programs based on a global framework that have a global impact, but are also sustainable and “rooted in local assets, capabilities, and commitments” (Jean-Francois, 2015, p. 95); and finally, glocal symbiosis in which all partners (global and local) engage in a respectful collaboration meant to empower and not exploit. Effective glocal higher education programs result in glocal communities where all stakeholders are viewed as assets, a strong commitment to the programs’ success, effective communication across cultures in the glocal community, and a plan in place to resolve cross-cultural conflicts as they are bound to occur (Jean-Francois, 2015).

Patel and Lynch (2013) emphasized the importance of building a third culture in glocal higher education. Third culture building creates an environment that embraces “the respectful exchange of cultural wealth among learners and teachers to inform and enhance higher education pedagogical practice” (p. 225). In glocal learning, stakeholders bring their diverse cultural lenses to conversations that will ultimately lead to charting their shared futures. In third culture building, glocal discourse revolves around issues of socio-economic and political significance and promotes the common good for all, not giving preference to one culture over another. Patel and Lynch (2013) recognized storytelling as an example of an effective means of incorporating opportunities for critical 42 sharing to occur in glocal classrooms. Conversely, internationalization, Patel and Lynch

(2013) argued, tends to minimize the valuable contributions the international student population can contribute through their diverse perspectives.

In a study conducted on the concept of glocalization in Taiwanese institutions of higher education, Tien and Talley (2012) surveyed a combination of 50 professors and

503 domestic students to gain insight into their understanding of glocalization. Roughly ten percent of the professors and less than one-third of the students had any grasp of what is meant by think globally, act locally. Yet, the vast majority of respondents indicated an interest in learning more about it and reported that glocalization could only be achieved through “the skills and knowledge of foreign languages, cultural issues (both multi- cultural and local cultural), the global mind-set, and knowledge about both foreign and

Taiwan products” (Tien & Talley, 2012, p. 128). In addition, both professors and students expressed an interest in coursework that incorporates a “think globally, act locally” framework. Tien and Talley (2012) concluded that their findings suggest educators and institutions of higher education are not prepared to meet their goal of producing global citizens and that they must take into consideration the importance of the local context of

Taiwan when developing curriculum.

Glocal Leadership in Higher Education

Globalization has had a significant impact on how leaders need to manage their organizations (Yukl, 2010). Not only is it imperative to consider individual differences, but leaders should also take into account the various backgrounds, beliefs, values, etc., 43 that are represented in their company, organization, or institution. According to Yukl

(2010):

Leaders are increasingly confronted with the need to influence people from other

cultures, and successful influence requires a good understanding of these cultures.

Leaders must also be able to understand how people from different cultures view

them and interpret their actions. (p. 437)

The merging of multiple cultures can lead to inter-cultural misunderstandings and possibly missed opportunities when leaders have not properly prepared themselves, as well as the other stakeholders, to work in a culturally diverse environment. Leaders in higher education have the same responsibilities as leaders in other fields to be prepared to lead in an environment that embraces and values all cultures, regardless of their linguistic, racial, ethnic, and cultural backgrounds.

The term globalization is more prevalent in discussions, both in scholarly discourse and casual conversation, than the term glocalization (Niemczyk, 2019).

However, to be a global citizen is a glocal endeavor. According to Tichnor-Wagner

(2017), “Caring for the world and its people begins at home…to understand the world and take action to improve global conditions, people need a firm grounding in their own identity and local context” (p. 70). Educational leaders who are unaware of the interconnectedness of global and local matters, or at least ignorant of the importance of the interconnectedness of the two, risk not adequately preparing university stakeholders for the 21st century. First of all, educational leaders may not be incorporating curricular materials and events that are directly relevant to their students. Secondly, a focus that is 44 mostly or solely based on local perspectives (such as Western or American-focused curricular materials) will not serve students well as they enter their professional fields

“where they will compete for and work with people, institutions, and economies on an international scale” (Brooks & Normore, 2010, p. 54). One attempt to help university stakeholders experience the local-global connection is through program development that promotes global engagement in the local community.

In a liberal arts college located in The Netherlands, university leaders have developed programming to help foster glocal citizenship (Sklad et al., 2016). Their program, Going Glocal, helps students understand that in order to achieve global change, they need to begin at the local level. The program incorporates a “pedagogy that emphasizes the importance of [the college’s] inherently internationally-focused student body also rooting locally, in the sense of learning about local issues, establishing connections with the local population and actively contributing to the community” (Sklad et al., 2016, p. 327). The program was established as a means of helping students to understand that they did not need to travel in order to be of service; there are plenty of opportunities to volunteer in the local community. Typically, students at the liberal arts college sign up for voluntourism, which places them overseas to volunteer in communities around the world. Voluntourism is the practice of people from the ‘Global

North’ taking short vacations to the ‘Global South,’ during which time they are volunteering, mostly for the purpose of building their Curriculum Vitae (CV) while having fun (Jakubiak, 2012). Going Glocal, however, provides opportunities for students 45 to do the same type of service locally. A critical component of the program is to have students be able to identify global issues and take action in the local region.

Another approach the Dutch college takes in their Going Glocal program is to send students overseas to help break down stereotypes Western students tend to have of non-Western cultures that are mostly regarded in the media as countries plagued with poverty and disease. Students must apply to participate before they are able to enroll in the yearlong experience involving different learning modules. During the first module, the students reveal their background knowledge of Namibia. Since Namibia is located in

Africa, most students assume the experience abroad will be one in which they are there to help local communities. On the contrary, the experience is designed for them “to share time and space with their Namibian peers and to share themselves with others, all the while unlearning and re-learning as they go” (Sklad et al., 2016, pp. 327-328).

An additional aspect of the first module is to learn about Namibian history and culture, including in-depth studies of its colonial and apartheid past. The university students then spend time in local elementary and secondary schools, creating learning materials, to share their insights about Namibia with local K-12 students. After the second module, which takes place over a four-week period in Namibia, the university students return to the local schools in The Netherlands to share their practical experiences they gained in Namibia. During their summer experience in Namibia, the university students also work with youth populations after partnering with Namibians to work on community-based projects at a youth center in the town of Opuwo, Namibia. The experience not only creates an opportunity for the university students to unlearn previous 46 misconceptions they had about people from countries in Africa, but it also provides them a platform to help future generations not adopt those same stereotypes of people from non-Western countries. As the researchers indicated, “To be effective in transforming students and addressing global challenges, education for global citizenship thus has to be education for glocal citizenship” (Sklad et al., 2016, p. 336).

Mannion (2015) also supported the notion of focusing on glocal citizenship as opposed to global citizenship through the incorporation of glocal pedagogies that address ecological and social issues. In his article, Mannion (2015) provided a list of the main components that should be included in glocal pedagogies:

[A] concern with transnational and global issues through and within local

experience; a realization that it is through being situated in local places that we

encounter differences; the idea that we are all local and cosmopolitan to some

degree on a cosmopolitan-local continuum; and the need for challenging

educational encounters that change ourselves and our relations. (p. 19)

Mannion (2015) further articulated the importance of having a lived experience in a local context, whereas discourse uniquely centered on globalization can end up being too abstract of a concept.

Oomen (2015) also highlighted the notion of glocal citizenship, emphasizing that global issues cannot be addressed without people taking action locally. She provided examples of what people can do locally to help alleviate feeling powerless when it comes to trying to tackle global issues:

[R]ecycling your waste water is easier than directly addressing desertification in 47

the Sahara; helping refugees feel at home in your city is more doable than

stopping boats from sinking in the Mediterranean; working for the local foodbank

is easier to achieve than combating famine in Africa. (p. 13)

When discussions are centered around global issues, it is important that students know how to take action locally. University leaders can make strides in fostering a glocal environment not only through the curriculum and pedagogy that is being delivered through courses, but also in the opportunities that are offered to engage students in the local community in which the university is situated.

Some scholars may argue that international service-learning experiences may offer a richer opportunity to immerse oneself in the community than local experiences can. This is partially due to the fact that many students would most likely reside with host families overseas and, therefore, remain out of their comfort zone for a sustained period of time, rather than returning to their dorm room, etc. (Santulli, 2018). However, university leaders need to consider that most of their student body might be made up of what Choudaha (2012) referred to as ‘glocals’ or students who may not have the opportunity to leave their local community, due to academic, immigration, or financial constraints, but nevertheless want a global education. Choudaha (2012) argued that institutions of higher education must be creative and innovative in establishing programs and collaborations that will meet the glocal needs of all students, as well as administrators, faculty, and staff.

Unlike the recent assent of large investments in diversity and inclusion programs and their supporting administrative structures on American campuses (Mac Donald, 48

2018), interest and development of international structures on American campuses has followed a much more gradual and varied path (Hudzik, 2015). For instance, the

Association of International Education Administrators (AIEA) dates from only 1982, and while it has considered an accreditation program, it has yet to implement one (K.

Rosenbaum, Associate Director of AIEA, personal communication, February 5, 2020).

Additionally, research reveals a path-dependent approach to the development and programming of internationalization and institutional administration across campuses worldwide (Hudzik, 2015). It is further highlighted by the call for a professional track for

“senior international officers (SIOs)” (Deardorff, 2018, p. 73) rather than their serendipitous selection based on their interest or experience alone.

AIEA has formulated Standards of Professional Practice for SIOs, which are sectioned into four categories: international expertise, leadership and management, advocacy, and personal effectiveness. The following is a list of standards for leadership and management, as well as for advocacy, which speaks more directly to engagement

(AIEA, 2020, paras 10-15):

Leadership and Management

Standard Six: Is able to provide vision, leadership and strategic planning for

internationalization.

Standard Seven: Has the administrative ability and insight needed to manage the

complex administrative functions associated with internationalization, including

enlisting the support and actions of individuals and campus units across the

institution. 49

Standard Eight: Understands how to facilitate the professional development of

faculty and staff in support of internationalization.

Standard Nine: Is able to effectively and appropriately communicate the work of

campus internationalization to internal and external stakeholders.

Standard Ten: Gathers and uses assessment data to strengthen internationalization,

communicate successes and gaps, refine processes and practices, and strengthen

student learning outcomes.

Standard Eleven: Applies principles of equity and inclusion to all aspects of

internationalization, including the hiring and retention of diverse staff.

Standards 12 through 17 below pertain to advocacy (AIEA, 2020, paras 16-21):

Advocacy (Working Through and With Others)

Standard Twelve: Is able to effectively advocate for the institutionalization of

internationalization within the context of an institution’s mission and vision.

Standard Thirteen: Works collaboratively with local communities to engage them

in the institution’s internationalization efforts.

Standard Fourteen: Recognizing the agency of students, actively enlists their

knowledge, imaginations, and energy to advance internationalization.

Standard Fifteen: Recognizing that the faculty are the central agents for

internationalization, works to create an institutional culture that recognizes and

rewards faculty for their work in advancing internationalization.

Standard Sixteen Is able to leverage networks to develop partnerships with

individuals, institutions and organizations to advance campus internationalization. 50

Standard Seventeen: Understanding that governments, non-profit organizations,

and the private sector help shape the environment for internationalization, is

prepared to advocate for the importance of international education with these

entities.

The standards tailored to leadership recognize the fundamental role leaders play in every aspect of internationalization, from the strategic planning to the hiring, retention, and training of a diverse body of faculty and staff. Under the advocacy standards, the focus lies on the importance of collaborative efforts amongst all stakeholders to realize the goals of internationalization. Standard Fourteen, for example, identifies the important role students play in advancing the efforts to internationalize a campus.

As inferable from the insight of Jean-Francois (2015), the degree of cultural hegemony can and does have a negative impact on the extent to which a truly glocal academic environment is attainable. It also suggests that better utilization of the international students among a largely domestic student population can be an ideal source of diverse learning opportunities when it comes to moving towards a glocal learning environment when and if properly utilized. Such utilization depends on leaders within higher education who understand its importance and the structures required to achieve its accomplishment. This has caused some to call for such leaders to come increasingly from a profession with its own career trajectory (AIEA, 2019). Among the characteristics needed in such leaders is an entrepreneurial sense of adventure (Deardorff, 2018), an admittedly atypical trait for many members of the academic community. 51

To attain glocalization in higher education, leaders need to recognize that international students play a fundamental role. Bender (2018) offered suggestions when it comes to connecting students to the local community outside the university and a recital of possible best practices when it comes to the utilization of international students on campus. These include engaging and training students shortly after their arrival on campus to serve as “intercultural facilitators” through well designed orientation programs, cross-cultural programs designed to create cross-cultural dialogue among diverse groups, and the creation of cross-cultural living centers that mix and match students with different cultural backgrounds. In addition, the use of school newspapers and digital forms of communication can be implemented to highlight national and religious holidays from around the globe throughout the school year.

Internationalization: Planning and Implementation

Though the notion of the internationalization of higher education has been in practice for more than a century, the conversation surrounding the urgency to explicitly plan and implement it into a university’s larger strategic plan came about in the early

1990s as administrators began to reach out to faculty to assist in the internationalization of their institutions (Biddle, 2002). The term strategy was purposefully incorporated into the discussion of internationalization to imply more than mere international activities

(Knight, 2004). Internationalization strategies indicate “a more planned integrated, and strategic approach” than what had previously been done in institutions of higher education (Knight, 2004, p. 13). 52

In regard to strategies at the institutional level, Knight (2004) differentiated between program strategies and organization strategies, both relevant to the planning of and implementation of internationalization. Program strategies include academic programs targeting student learning, research and academic collaborations, external relations involving community-based international service and partnerships, and extracurricular opportunities. Organization strategies, on the other hand, involve leadership and faculty involvement, operational structures, services offered, and human resources. Though much of the planning and implementation of internationalization at institutions of higher education vary in regard to details, the broader categories of initiatives are similar and tend to fall under the six areas identified by the American

Council on Education (ACE) Center for Internationalization and Global Engagement

(CIGE) as part of a comprehensive approach to planning and implementing internationalization: a strong commitment from leadership to allocate the financial resources to internationalize; the necessary institutional structures put in place for successful implementation; attention given to curriculum and learning outcomes that foster the attitudes, knowledge, skills, and understanding to effectively integrate cross- culturally; faculty development; student mobility; and international collaborations (ACE,

2017).

Internationalization and Global Competence

One of the desired outcomes of internationalization is the cultivation of global competence. CCSSO and Asia Society, an educational organization determined to prepare students for their future global citizenry, was one of the initial organizations to 53 develop a set of global competency standards to address the significant role that global interdependency will have in students’ futures where “civic expression, self-expression, social life, and health” (Mansilla & Jackson, 2011, p. 7) will all play out in a global context. A key element of the global competency standards is for students to develop the capacity to take action for the betterment of their global community, assisting in finding solutions to global issues. The standards call for taking action, no longer being a passive bystander to the world’s growing concerns.

The following is a list of the global competency standards proposed by CCSSO and Asia Society:

• Investigate the world: Students investigate the world beyond their immediate

environment.

• Recognize perspectives: Students recognize their own and others’ perspectives.

• Communicate ideas: Students communicate their ideas effectively with diverse

audiences.

• Take action: Students translate their ideas into appropriate actions to improve

conditions. (Mansilla & Jackson, 2011, p. 12)

The Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development (2018) expanded upon the global competence framework and defined global competence as:

…the capacity to examine local, global and intercultural issues, to understand and

appreciate the perspectives and world views of others, to engage in open,

appropriate and effective interactions with people from different cultures, and to

act for collective well-being and sustainable development. (p. 7) 54

Institutions of higher education, however, have yet to successfully assess whether internationalization efforts are indeed fostering global competence (Shcheglova et al.,

2017).

In recognition of the lack of literature assessing universities’ ability to increase students’ global competence through internationalization initiatives, Shcheglova et al.

(2017) conducted a quantitative study of 33,784 undergraduates at 15 major research universities. The findings show that the students’ global competence increased over their years spent at the university due to their exposure to courses with an international emphasis, participation in study abroad, as well as their interactions with international students in social settings. The students, however, self-assessed their global competence, and a major recommendation from the study was for universities to increase the international student population to assist in “developing global competence of domestic students” (Shcheglova et al., 2017, p. 7). An emphasis on the importance of increased global competence of domestic students reiterates the problematic nature of internationalization. Rather than focusing on a development of attitudes, knowledge, skills, and understanding that benefit the entire learning community, the attention is placed on the dominant culture.

Internationalization and Glocal Competence

A major criticism of the concept of global competence is the unattainable goal it communicates of one’s ability to achieve global competence (Jean-Francois, 2015). Even the OECD (2018), in their global competence framework document, indicated,

“Acquiring global competence is a life-long process – there is no single point at which an 55 individual becomes completely globally competent” (p. 7). A person’s ability to successfully attain the competence required to successfully integrate into one specific, local culture does not necessarily translate to another local context.

Glocal competence, according to Jean-Francois (2015), “is the knowledge, skills, comprehension, and attitudes that one acquires through the interwoven of previous global abilities with the curiosity, personal interactions, and immersion in a specific society” (p.

148). Unlike global competence, glocal competence is achievable as it positions a global framework within a local context.

The glocal competence framework encompasses six attributes that Jean-Francois

(2015) coined with the acronym E.N.G.A.G.E.:

• Explore self-awareness and otherness;

• Nurture risk taking;

• Grant access to vulnerability;

• Acknowledge and respect, and value diversity;

• Grow through critical ethnographic understanding of culture-specific intercultural

interactions and communications, history, processes, and systems;

• Exhibit the ability to serve with efficiency and effectiveness in multicultural or

local contexts that involve an adaptation of a global approach or framework. (p.

149)

To acquire glocal competence, it is essential that one has not only a deep knowledge of oneself, but also an understanding and awareness of others who are situated in the target local context. In addition, one must be able to embrace risk taking when it comes to 56 engaging with people who may have a different cultural mindset and established beliefs and practices that may be radically different than one’s own, requiring one to be willing to be vulnerable and open-minded to new ways of thinking and experiences. Furthermore, one must acknowledge and value diverse perspectives and beliefs, and be willing to grow in their “awareness, knowledge, and understanding” (p. 149) of the local society’s history, culture, socioeconomic and political contexts, education, and language. Finally, achieving glocal competence requires one to successfully function and interact in a local cultural context other than their own.

Whereas a plethora of literature exists that addresses global competence, few studies mention the notion of glocal competence. Gichiru (2016) conducted a self-study to examine her professional practice as a professor. She designed a graduate course in international and comparative education that included an objective of nurturing a glocal mindset in students. Her course evaluations revealed that students felt challenged to reconsider their future roles as educators in dealing with social issues globally and locally. Another study by Mathew (2016) examined how digital participatory research can be used to foster glocal competence. The study was conducted in a middle school where students were engaged in investigating local issues (e.g., littering) and examining how the same issues exist around the world through the use of digital methodologies

(e.g., photos). 57

Experiences and Perspectives of International Graduate Students in

Internationalization Planning and Implementation

Although the literature is scarce in regard to research seeking the insight of international students’ experience and perspectives of the actual planning and implementation of internationalization at their respective university, many researchers have reported on the international student experience in general as a result of internationalization initiatives.

Any student transitioning into higher education will face difficulties adjusting to their new surroundings. However, international students encounter unique challenges that could gravely impact their educational experience. One of the most prevalent issues is a lack of proficiency in the English language (Almurideef, 2016; Domville-Roach, 2007;

Unruh, 2015; Yeh & Inose, 2003). Not only can a language barrier affect a student’s academic performance, but it can also hinder their level of comfort in integrating socially, especially in the United States where international students tend to shy away from developing friendships with Americans (Kuo, 2011). Students also expressed challenges in regard to culture shock and adjustment, the change in learning environment, financial constraints, lack of support, and feelings of isolation and discrimination (Almurideef,

2016; Aydinol, 2013; Evivie, 2009; Khalideen, 2008; Zhang, 2017). In addition to the aforementioned challenges, international students can face other challenges when pursuing their studies on a campus located in a small, rural area. One study revealed that international students in small towns in the U.S. face unique challenges of public transportation and a lack of religious diversity (Gautum et al., 2016). 58

Though most studies focus on international students’ general experiences and challenges in higher education, one study directly sought international students’ lived experience and understanding of internationalization. Leask (2010) conducted a study in

Australia in which both domestic and international students were interviewed regarding how they conceptualize and experience internationalization. One of the findings revealed that domestic students identify the importance of cross-cultural interactions, yet rarely engage in them. An international student interviewed commented that she could not understand why “beside [her] is an empty chair” (p. 8), indicating that she felt a sense of isolation in her courses. Another study by Osmond and Roed (2010) in a university in

England found that students, both domestic and international, found working together in cross-cultural groups to be an overall positive experience, yet it created additional work in many cases due to language barriers and unfamiliarity with group work.

Of all of the literature reviewed regarding the experience and perspectives of international students, Zhang’s (2017) study was the only one found to seek international graduate students’ experience and perspectives of the internationalization planning and implementation processes. Although her study included only four international graduate students, Zhang (2017) found that the students wanted to be included in the decision- making process yet felt excluded from participating. In addition, the participants revealed a lack of culturally responsive pedagogy and curriculum that would engage their unique cultural perspective. 59

Perspectives of International Graduate Students on University’s Glocal

Competence: A Conceptual Framework

Due to the lack of sufficient literature surrounding international graduate students’ experience of internationalization planning and implementation, as well as the absence of studies seeking the perspectives of international graduate students on fostering a university stakeholders’ glocal competence through internationalization planning and implementation, this study employed a conceptual framework that targeted international graduate students’ experiences and perspectives. Figure 1 is a graphic representation of the conceptual framework of the study:

Figure 1

The Conceptual Framework Based on Jean-Francois’s (2015) Glocal Competence

Framework

Experience and Internationalization Glocal Competence Perspectives

Glocal Attitudes

Internationalization Glocal Knowledge Planning

Graduate International Glocal Skills Students

Internationalization Glocal Implementation Understanding

The conceptual framework is a merging of internationalization planning and implementation, and Jean-Francois’s (2015) glocal competence framework. The glocal competence framework includes four components of competence (Jean-Francois, 2015, p.

147):

• Glocal attitudes (being): social and emotional values

• Glocal knowledge (knowing): facts, information or data

• Glocal skills (doing): cognitive, physical, emotional

• Glocal understanding (comprehension): cognitive, emotional

The conceptual framework served as a foundation of the study. It was used as a guide in the development of interview questions (see Appendix A) and was utilized to assist in the coding process during the analysis of the data.

Summary

The focus of chapter two was intended to provide an overview of the literature that is relevant to this study. It covered important research surrounding the notions of globalization and higher education, glocalization and higher education, glocal leadership in higher education, internationalization planning and implementation, global competence, glocal competence, and the experiences and perspectives of international students in internationalization and the fostering of glocal competence in institutions of higher education.

Chapter 3: Methodology

This study employed qualitative research methods, which depended mostly on human perception and interpretation of phenomena through the use of observations, interviews, and the analysis of various documents (Ali & Yusof, 2011; Miles et al., 2014;

Patton, 2015; Stake, 2010). Although critics of qualitative research focus on the subjectivity of the results as a negative component of the methodology, proponents claim that its subjective nature is a strength and “essential element of understanding human nature” (Stake, 2010, p. 29).

The purpose of this study was to understand international graduate students’ experiences in the planning and implementation of internationalization at their university and to seek their perspectives on how to foster university stakeholders’ glocal competence through internationalization planning and implementation.

Research Questions

The choice in research design was determined based on the methodology that would best address the research questions. The following questions were used to drive the research:

1. How do international graduate students experience internationalization

planning and implementation at their university?

2. What are the perspectives of international graduate students on how to foster

university stakeholders’ glocal competence?

Research Design

In considering the focus of the study, a basic interpretive qualitative research approach was chosen as the methodological framework. Interpretive research relies greatly on researchers’ ability to make meaning of their observations and what they hear

(Stake, 2010). According to Imel et al. (2002), a basic interpretive research design is utilized “when the goal of the researcher is to understand how participants make meaning of a situation or a phenomenon” (p. 6). Merriam (2002) explained that a basic interpretive qualitative research study has the underpinnings of phenomenological, constructivist and social interactionist philosophies. Researchers engaging in basic interpretive qualitative research are searching to understand: “(1) how people interpret their experiences

[phenomenology], (2) how they construct their worlds [constructivism], and (3) what meaning they attribute to their experiences [symbolic interactionism]” (Merriam, 2002, p.

38).

In basic interpretative qualitative research, data may be collected through the use of document analysis, observations, or interviews. For this study, the main form of data collection was a semi-structured interview questionnaire to “uncover and interpret”

(Merriam, 2002, p. 39) meaning constructed by the participants. Semi-structured interviews are utilized when the researcher wants to learn about a topic for which they have specific information they are seeking, as opposed to an unstructured interview where the researcher merely has a general topic in mind but no clear line of questioning prepared ahead of time (Rubin & Rubin, 2012). In order to obtain “depth, detail, and richness” (Rubin & Rubin, 2012, p. 6) in the data, three types of interview questions were 63 employed: main questions, probes, and follow-up questions. According to Rubin and

Rubin (2012), main questions are generated to ensure the researcher has covered the necessary questions targeting the theoretical or conceptual framework of the study; probes are employed to encourage participants to provide more details; and follow-up questions are used for the purpose of having participants speak more in depth on key points.

Research Setting and Sample Population

The research setting was the main campus of Ohio University (i.e., OHIO), a large 4-year research institution located in Athens, Ohio. OHIO’s main campus is home to over 17,000 undergraduate students and approximately 3,000 graduate and medical students (OUIR, 2018). The university consists of 5 regional campuses as well. However, the international student population attends the main campus. Therefore, the setting was limited to OHIO’s central location in Athens. The colleges offering a broad spectrum of programs at OHIO include arts and science, business, fine arts, health science and professions, medicine, education, engineering and technology, and communication.

According to OHIO’s enrollment statistics, last released for the fall of 2018, there were a total of 730 international graduate students (i.e., master’s and doctoral) on campus. Table 1 indicates a breakdown of regions from which the international students came:

Table 1

Enrollment of International Graduate Students by Regions at OHIO (Fall 2018) ______

Region # of Students % of Population

Latin America/South America/Caribbean 46 6%

Africa 142 19%

Middle East 140 19%

Australia/North America/Europe 67 9%

Asia 333 46%

______

Note. Taken from OHIO’s Enrollment Statistics from fall semester, 2018 (OUIR, 2018).

Participants

Previous research was used to guide my methodology in ensuring that I had reached data saturation. First, based on research findings from Guest et al. (2006) and

Creswell (2015) regarding sample size, I chose to interview 29 participants, which is more than the original 20 participants I had planned to interview. Although choosing more participants may diminish the possibility of providing an “in-depth picture”

(Creswell, 2015, p. 208), roughly thirty percent of the master’s and doctoral students were international on the campus serving as the setting for the study. Therefore, as the researcher, I sought to get as complete of a picture as possible by representing the major five regions that were identified in the previous table. 65

Once the university’s Internal Review Board approved the research, purposive sampling was used to select the participants to be interviewed. The population of participants for the interviews were chosen based on multiple criteria to ensure a range of cultural backgrounds, gender, field of study, and time spent at the university. For the purpose of the study, I employed purposive sampling to identify participants from each of the five following major regions: (a) Latin America/South America/Caribbean (b) Africa,

(c) Middle East, (d) Australia/North America/Europe, and (e) Asia. The selection of participants was based on the following three criteria:

• Being a current graduate student at the time of the interview.

• Being a national of a country outside of the United States and, therefore,

identified as an international student.

• Having completed their primary and secondary education in their home country

(i.e., participants who spent a significant part or all of their childhood in the

United States were not selected).

The criteria were based on the academic maturity level of participants (i.e., they had already completed their undergraduate studies), their exposure to a higher education institution in a different cultural setting outside of the U.S., and their familiarity with their university environment.

Although the percentages of international students interviewed from each region did not correspond with the percentages of overall international students present at the university that served as the setting for the study (according to the enrollment statistics 66 taken in the fall of 2018), each region was represented. Table 2 represents the sample size used for each region:

Table 2

Sample Size based on Enrollment at the University Serving as the Setting of the Study ______

Region Sample Size % of Interviewee Population

Latin America/South America/Caribbean 4 14%

Africa 7 24%

Middle East 6 21%

Australia/North America/Europe 3 10%

Asia 9 31%

______

Note. The population percentages reflect the overall percentage that each region represented of the total number of interviews conducted.

The length of each interview depended upon the insight that was garnered from each participant, which included “their interpretations…opinions…insights, explanations, and meanings related to certain occurrences” (Yin, 2014, p. 111). Interviews were completed in one sitting, during which time I felt I had adequately “capture[d] the voice”

(Onwuegbuzie & Leech, 2007, p. 107) of each participant. The combination of interviews from multiple participants, member checking, and analysis of documents enabled 67 triangulation to increase the credibility of the findings (Creswell, 2015; Lincoln & Guba,

1985; Patton, 2015; Stake, 2010; Yin, 2014).

Instrumentation

The instrument used to collect data was a semi-structured interview questionnaire consisting of three sections. The first section was geared towards gathering demographic information of the participants, such as their country or origin and their language background. Most of the other questions in the first section were targeting the participants’ background experience prior to coming to the United States for their graduate studies.

The second section of the interview focused on the international graduate students’ experience in the planning and implementation of internationalization at their university. An example of a question posed to identify the participants’ experience during the planning phase of internationalization was: “How would you describe your involvement in the strategic planning process for internationalization at _____

University?”

The final section of the interview sought the participants’ perspectives on how to foster glocal competence in university stakeholders. The majority of the questions in the third section were developed specifically around the glocal competence framework (Jean-

Francois, 2015), eliciting participants’ perspectives on glocal attitudes, glocal knowledge, glocal skills, and glocal understanding. For instance, participants were asked: “What are the attitudes, dispositions, or behaviors that you would expect from students, staff and faculty of a university that is globally minded and locally engaged?” 68

Data Collection

While document analysis and field notes were forms of data gathered for this study, the primary data collection method was semi-structured interviews. Once participants were identified, a thorough review of informed consent was conducted with each participant at which time they were informed that they may choose to remove themselves from the study prior, during or after the completion of each interview. The interviews were audio recorded using Audacity and they lasted between 30 and 120 minutes. A backup device was used for recording purposes in the event that the Audacity program malfunctioned.

Interview Process

The interviews were conducted in seven distinct stages: (a) the two initial stages of thematizing and designing, (b) the actual interviewing process, (c) transcribing the interviews, (d) analyzing the interviews, and (e) the final two stages of verifying and reporting (Brinkmann & Kvale, 2015). According to Brinkmann and Kvale (2015), the first two stages, thematizing and designing, are critical in that they concern the why (i.e., purpose), the what (i.e., knowledge of the subject of the interview), and the how (i.e., deciding upon the best methods of interviewing and analysis) of the study. The interview questions were designed (see Appendix A) to yield responses purposeful to the focus of the study. A pilot study was conducted beforehand to consider the validity of the interview protocol. The pilot study was used to gather feedback from a small group of participants in order to make necessary revisions and potentially pilot again if necessary

(Chenail, 2011). 69

The pilot study aided in the preparation of the third stage of the interview process, the actual interviewing, which took place on the university campus in a quiet location that was most convenient for each participant. I conducted all of the interviews myself. As the researcher of this study, I served as the primary research instrument through which the data were gathered (Stake, 2010). In qualitative research, the critical role of the investigator could potentially lead to research bias. According to Poggenpoel and

Myburgh (2003), “The researcher as instrument can be the greatest threat to trustworthiness in qualitative research if time is not spent on preparation of the field, reflexivity of the researcher, the researcher staying humble…” (p. 320). Researchers should have or develop the personal skills necessary to serve as the instrument in data collection, be flexible in order to adapt to unexpected occurrences during the interview and provide a rich description of the context (Brinkmann & Kvale, 2015).

The fourth stage of the interview process is the transcription of interviews, which

“are translations from an oral language to a written language, where the constructions on the way involve a series of judgments and decisions” (Brinkmann & Kvale, 2015, p.

204). Although I, as the researcher, used a professional transcription service company to transcribe the interviews (Rev, 2019), I carefully read through each transcription while listening to the audio in order to capture the aspects (e.g., social, emotional, etc.) of the interview that would have not been apparent to someone who was not present. Listening to the audio while reading the transcriptions also enabled me to begin the process of analysis as I relived each conversation. Field notes were utilized during the interview process to capture not only detailed descriptions of the interviewees and surroundings, 70 but also to provide a reflective account of the researcher’s thoughts throughout the interviews. The use of field notes enables researchers to deliver a complete picture of the context and meaning conveyed in the interviews (Bogdan & Bilken, 2007).

The final three stages, analyzing, verifying and reporting, will be discussed in the next section.

Data Analysis

The process of analysis began during the interview as I, the researcher, began interpreting the participants’ responses (Brinkmann & Kvale, 2015; Stake, 2010). Once the interviews were completed and transcribed, I used a coding method to analyze the data using both concept-driven and data-driven approaches. A code, according to Saldaña

(2016), is “a word or short phrase that symbolically assigns a summative, salient, essence-capturing, and/or evocative attribute for a portion of language-based or visual data” (p. 4). A concept-driven approach allowed for codes to be created prior to data analysis based on the conceptual framework, and the data-driven approach allowed the development of codes that emerged through the data rather than assigning codes beforehand (Brinkmann & Kvale, 2015). Since qualitative research is interpretive and the researcher is the instrument of interpretation, my process of coding was a subjective process. Researchers’ coding varies depending on the filter through which they view the data (Saldaña, 2016). Once I, as the researcher, generated the codes, they were clustered into categories to determine any themes that emerged from the data. 71

Prior to stage seven of the interview process, the dissemination of the findings

(Brinkmann & Kvale, 2015), the necessary steps were followed from the beginning of the process to ensure the trustworthiness of the results.

Trustworthiness

The construct of trustworthiness in qualitative research is the foundational paradigm under which internal and external validity (i.e., credibility and transferability) can be discussed. Although the concept of validity traditionally applies to quantitative research, several qualitative methodologists continue to evaluate their research using the term validity due to the fact that it suggests a certain level of rigor in their work (Ali &

Yusof, 2011; Miles et al., 2014). Trustworthiness, a term used in conjunction with the idea of rigor in qualitative research (Patton, 2015), addresses responses to questions surrounding the areas of truth value, applicability, consistency, and neutrality of qualitative findings (Lincoln & Guba, 1985).

Credibility

The question of validity is at the core of all research, quantitative and qualitative alike. Research that fails to produce valid results becomes useless and possibly dangerous if action is taken based on a researcher’s interpretations of the data. In qualitative research, the credibility of the researcher is essential (Brinkmann & Kvale, 2015).

Truth value answers the question: “How can one establish confidence in the

‘truth’ of the findings of a particular inquiry for the subjects (respondents) with which and the context in which the inquiry was carried out” (Lincoln & Guba, 1985, p. 290). In order for a researcher to adequately represent or show the truth value of the findings, it is 72 imperative that the representation of the “multiple constructions…[and] reconstructions

(for the findings and interpretations are also constructions)…are credible to the constructors of the original multiple realities” (p. 296), the key word being credible. In qualitative research, credibility serves as the indicator of the internal validity of findings and is thought to be the most important criterion in one’s approach to qualitative studies

(Baxter & Eyles, 1997). Credibility is viewed as the “connection between the experiences of groups and the concepts which the social scientist uses to recreate and simplify them through interpretation” (Baxter & Eyles, 1997, p. 512). It assumes that multiple realities exist, rather than a single one, through various perceptions.

Lincoln and Guba (1985) identified several techniques that can be used in one’s approach to qualitative research to enhance the credibility of a study and potentially use as criteria to evaluate the credibility of another researcher’s published study. Three of their techniques were used for the purpose of establishing credibility in this study. The first technique to improve the chances of producing credible results is the use of

“prolonged engagement, persistent observation, and triangulation” (Lincoln & Guba,

1985, p. 301). The ideas of prolonged engagement and persistent observation are for the researcher to spend the necessary amount of time in the field observing and interacting with the target population and culture to build trust and ensure that that interpretations and depictions being made are accurate.

A deep understanding of the context in which a study is being conducted is essential to qualitative research methods. In considering the validity of a researcher’s findings, depending on the context and purpose of the research, it is important to have 73 knowledge of the author’s background familiarity with their participants (Lincoln &

Guba, 1985). As the researcher, prior to each interview, I spent considerable time with most of the participants. Of the 29 international students interviewed, I had prior interactions with 21 of them either through campus events, courses, or mutual acquaintances. Of the remaining 8, I spent time getting to know them prior to each interview to ensure that their experience met the criteria for the study.

Triangulation is also crucial to increase the credibility of the findings in qualitative research (Creswell, 2015; Miles et al., 2014; Patton, 2015; Stake, 2010).

Triangulation, as indicated by Creswell (2015), “is the process of corroborating evidence from different individuals…, types of data…, or methods of data collection…in descriptions and themes in qualitative research” (p. 259). Lincoln and Guba (1985) referred to Denzin (1978) who proposed different approaches to triangulation: the use of several sources, methods, investigators, and theories. The triangulation of sources suggests that either multiple sources are used to verify information (e.g., documentation to support an interviewee’s responses) or multiple points of input are used to verify a certain type of source (e.g., interviews from multiple participants). In addition, the use of different methods (e.g., interviews, observations, and document analysis), different investigators (i.e., different researchers) and different theories, or the employment of

“multiple perspectives to interpret a single set of data” (Patton, 2015, p. 316), can also enhance the validity of the findings. Triangulation was accomplished in this study through the use of multiple perspectives and document analysis to verify the truthfulness 74 of the participants’ responses, in addition to peer debriefing and member checking discussed below.

Another technique identified by Lincoln and Guba (1985) that was employed to ascertain credibility was peer debriefing, or working with an impartial peer or colleague

“in a manner paralleling an analytic session…for the purpose of exploring aspects of the inquiry that might otherwise remain only implicit within the inquirer’s mind” (p. 308).

The use of a peer allowed for me to fully explore my position as I entered into the research (biases, etc.), examine my initial hypotheses, and reflect on emotions that may have potentially interfered with my judgment as the researcher.

A third technique described by Lincoln and Guba (1985) that was used to establish credibility in the study was member checking. Member checking involves having participants from the study review the findings to determine if they are accurate

(Creswell, 2014; Miles et al., 2014; Patton, 2015; Stake, 2010) by asking them “whether the description is complete and realistic, if the themes are accurate to include, and if the interpretations are fair and representative” (Creswell, 2014, p. 259). 5 of the interviewees were asked to review the findings. The 5 selected each represented one of the major five regions of the world previously identified. They all indicated that they felt my interpretations of their experience and insight were accurate.

Creswell (2014) suggested an additional technique, which is to administer an external audit by employing a researcher who has no connection to the study to review and evaluate the findings. This study, however, did not use an external audit due to the use of peer debriefing throughout the research process. The two techniques are similar, 75 however, an external auditor is “further removed and unaffiliated with the study”

(Privitera & Ahlgrim-Delzell, 2019, p. 608).

Transferability

In addition to notions of credibility, presenting findings that have external validity is also essential. External validity refers to the extent to which the results of a study can be “generalized to and across alternative measures of the cause and effect and across different types of persons, settings, and times” (Cook & Campbell, 1979, p. 37). Lincoln and Guba (1985), questioning the applicability of the concept of external validity and its notion of generalizability, instead employed the idea of transferability. A qualitative researcher should provide a rich, thick description that enables those looking to apply the study enough information as to make a proper decision as to whether it can be transferred to the context of their study.

As the researcher, I have provided a description of the context in which I conducted my study, including information regarding the setting in which the study took place and an account of the international population that is represented in the setting. In addition, I have provided the interview questions that were used to garner insight into the participants’ experiences in internationalization planning and implementation, as well as their perspectives on how to foster glocal competence in stakeholders at a university.

Threats to Credibility

Researchers must be aware of the potential threats to credibility when conducting their studies. Therefore, I took the potential threats to credibility into careful consideration upon conducting the research. Brink (1993) categorized four sources of 76 error that can occur which pose a threat to a study’s validity: error on the part of the researcher, the participants, the social context, and the methods employed.

Researcher Error. In qualitative research, the person conducting the research is often the one who is gathering all of the data. As a result, bias and level of competency play significant roles in the credibility of the findings. The presence of the researcher can have an impact on the participants’ responses and/or behavior. Therefore, as Lincoln and

Guba (1985) indicated, continual engagement and observation are critical to a study’s credibility to establish an atmosphere of trust between the researchers and participants. If a researcher is too much of an outsider, their interpretations may not be credible.

However, if a researcher becomes too integrated into the population and culture that is being studied, it may further bias their results if they lose the capability to be objective.

Reflexivity. Reflexivity refers to the process that a researcher undergoes when continually reflecting upon their research, recognizing and respecting their own positionality and its potential effect on the outcome of the study (Berger, 2015).

According to Malteraud (2001), “A researcher’s background will affect what they choose to investigate, the angle of investigation, the methods judged most adequate for this purpose, the findings considered most appropriate, and the framing and communication of conclusions” (pp. 483-484). Therefore, a researcher’s self-awareness of their own research process becomes a critical step in minimizing the probable bias that will exist in their study.

Attia and Edge (2017) discussed two types of reflexivity in qualitative research: prospective and retrospective. Prospective reflexivity refers to the effect the researcher of 77 a study has on their research. In contrast, retrospective reflexivity refers to the effect the research process has on the researcher. Having a deep understanding of this bidirectional relationship between the two, research and researcher, can assist a researcher in identifying where their biases may affect their research process. In an attempt to decrease potential bias as the researcher of this study, I engaged in ongoing dialogue with some of my participants, as well as with peers with whom I consulted throughout my research process. In addition, I also maintained a reflective journal in which I kept my field notes, as well as my thoughts on my positionality as an insider and outsider of my study (Dwyer

& Buckle, 2009). Although I would be considered an outsider since I am not an international student in the United States, I have insider knowledge of their experiences having been an international student in another country, as well as a graduate student at the university that was used for the setting of the study.

Participant Error. Brink’s (1993) second source of error is the participants themselves who can also cause a threat to a study’s credibility if they are not authentic in their responses and/or behaviors. It can be the result of a variety of reasons, including a participant who “may make unwarranted assumptions about the researchers’ interest in them” (Jacobsson & Åkerström, 2012, p. 728) and feel a need to provide a positive account of their experiences. Also, to establish trust with participants, researchers must also make the purpose behind the research clear, and if possible, interview the participant on several occasions to verify their responses. In addition, the use of triangulation, as previously mentioned, allows for the researcher to corroborate the findings using multiple sources, etc. 78

In order to minimize participant error, I carefully explained the purpose of the research to the participants and stressed to them the value their insight can provide in helping universities maximize the learning experience for all stakeholders. In carefully observing the participants during the interviews, it was apparent that they took to heart the significance of their contributions. Each participant took the time they needed to answer each question and elaborate where they felt they could. I did not have any encounters with participants trying to avoid answering any questions.

Social Context Error. Qualitative researchers should also be mindful of potential error due to the social context. Participants might exhibit different behaviors in different settings, thereby leading researchers to draw false conclusions based on their limited exposure. It requires, therefore, a researcher to “specify the physical, social, and interpersonal contexts within which data are gathered” (Brink, 1993, p. 37) and spend time with the participants in various environments.

In an attempt to make sure my participants were as comfortable as possible, I asked them to choose the location where they would prefer to speak with me. If they did not provide any suggestions, I offered a choice of three different locations: a library, a private study room in a building on campus, or a private outdoor table area on campus.

The majority of the participants chose to be interviewed in the university’s library or a private study room, with a few requesting to be interviewed in their homes.

Methodology Error. The fourth category of error extends from the implementation of the methodology. Thorough accounts of methods and strategies used must be displayed and transparent as to ascertain whether a study is credible. One 79 possible risk regarding methodology is sampling bias (Blair et al., 2014; Brink,1993).

Sample bias occurs when “members of a sample differ from the larger population in some systematic fashion” (Blair et al., 2014, p. 13). The researcher may come to rely solely on the informants who are more easily accessible, but they may not be representative of the target group. Brink (1993) suggested selecting participants who “know enough, can recall enough, and are able to respond precisely to questions asked” (p. 37). Furthermore, the subjects should be able to provide information that the researcher is unable to gather from mere observations. If the researcher is unable to adequately select participants, it becomes crucial to seek experts to help identify people who are representative of the population

(Brink, 1993).

The sample chosen for the study was selected based on the criteria previously mentioned: (a) being a current graduate student, (b) being a national of a country outside of the United States and, therefore, identified as an international student, and (c) having completed their primary and secondary education in their home country. Once the criteria were selected, a careful glimpse into the graduate student enrollment at the university that served as the setting of the study revealed that there were students representing each major region of the world at the university. Those regions were grouped into the following categories: (a) Latin America/South America/Caribbean, (b) Africa, (c) Middle

East, (d) Australia/North America/Europe, and (e) Asia. Through purposive sampling, international graduate students were identified from each region. I selected several participants based on my knowledge of their active participation on campus and their 80 level of comfort with me, enabling them to feel open to sharing their authentic and genuine perspectives.

Threats to Transferability

In regard to transferability, LeCompte and Goetz (1982) identified four possible threats that I, as the qualitative researcher of the study, considered: selection effects, setting effects, history effects, and construct effects.

Selection Effects. Selection effects address the notion that the constructs under evaluation are specific to a certain group, and the participants chosen may not meet the needs of the research. According to LeCompte and Goetz (1982), “The researcher’s initial task is to determine the degree of match between the categories and the reality of the group, culture, or setting under investigation” (p. 51). Failure to do so could ultimately lead to erroneous comparisons being made. In selecting my participants for the study, I was careful to abide by the criteria that I had set prior to identifying people who could meet those criteria.

Setting Effects. Settings effects also pose a threat to the transferability of qualitative research (Brink, 1993; LeCompte & Goetz, 1982). The researcher will invariably have an impact on the setting of the research. Constructs that develop in one context may not be applicable to other contexts because they serve as “a function of context-under-investigation rather than of context only” (LeCompte & Goetz, 1982, p.

52). The authors also point out that it is feasible for oversaturation, in regard to researcher exposure in settings, to occur, which could lead to the population being transformed to some degree. 81

For this study, the potential setting effects were minimal. Only one interview took place with each participant, and the interviews occurred in a neutral location except for the few who chose to have me interview them in their home environment.

History Effects. History effects take into consideration that comparisons of constructs made between groups may be made invalid due to the unique experiences of a specific group. Although the participants interviewed for this study were all chosen from one setting, they come from a variety of cultural, linguistic, and academic backgrounds.

In addition, the focus of the interviews was gaining insight into their perspectives on how to foster glocal competence in stakeholders at a university, which could reflect their actual experience of what they find is working well at their university, or possibly what they wish they could experience. Regardless, additional studies conducted would serve to just further add to the conversation, not invalidate one or the other due to their different experiences.

Construct Effects. The final threat to transferability introduced by LeCompte and

Goetz (1982) is construct effects, which recognizes that not all constructs generated from a particular group are transferable to other groups. This particular study focused on a specific population, international graduate students, and chose a framework that targeted their experience in internationalization and their perspectives on fostering glocal competence, which is transferable to any group of international graduate students at a university. Their experiences may differ, but the overall constructs would remain the same. 82

Dependability and Confirmability

Dependability and confirmability in qualitative research address the consistency and neutrality of a research process (Korstjens & Moser, 2018). The dependability of a study relies on a researcher’s ability to analyze their data using a consistent method that produces valid outcomes. A researcher’s evaluation of their findings and interpretations should be carefully documented, leaving an audit trail of reflective notes that can be verified independently.

Transparency is also essential in establishing the confirmability of a study. A researcher’s interpretation of their data must emerge from the data itself, and not be an extension of potential biased viewpoints they have. The confirmability of a study is determined based on the extent to which the results of a study can be confirmed independently (Korstjens & Moser, 2018).

The dependability and confirmability of this study were established through peer debriefing and member checking. Detailed, reflective notes were kept throughout the research process. Through lengthy discussions of the findings and conclusions, the reflective notes were shared to provide an understanding of my thought process as the researcher.

Consideration of Data Saturation

Data saturation refers to the idea that a sufficient amount of data has been collected as to ensure that the likelihood of any new information or themes emerging is highly unlikely (Creswell, 2015; Guest et al., 2006; O’Reilly & Parker, 2012; Rubin &

Rubin, 2012), what Glaser and Strauss (1967) termed the saturation point. According to 83

Morse (1995), “Saturation involves eliciting all forms and types of occurrences, valuing variation over quantity…It is more important for the researcher to ‘know it all,’ than to hear things over and over, forcing a false sense of saturation” (pp. 147-148). A detailed description is more significant to ensuring rich data than the repetitiveness of the findings. The narrower the focus of the research, the more quickly saturation will be achieved (Morse, 1995).

A concern presented by several researchers, though, is the lack of transparency in numerous studies as to how the point of saturation was reached by those conducting the study (O’Reilly & Parker, 2012). Transparency is critical for researchers; it instills a dedication to a high level of quality in qualitative work since other scholars will be able to comb through their methodology and analysis (Moravcsik, 2014). Some researchers may avoid being transparent due to their lack of data saturation; however, Morse (1995) expresses that the failure to reach saturation does not necessarily invalidate the findings, but rather implies further researcher should be conducted to continue studying the observed phenomena. The point of saturation in this study was reached after conducting approximately 18 interviews. At that point, I noticed that the participants were expressing similar perspectives, even though they were unique to their own experiences. However, I continued to conduct interviews to ensure that each region was fairly represented. In order to be transparent in my research protocol, I employed Moravcsik’s (2014) methods of research transparency.

Research transparency refers to the notion that researchers “should make the essential components of his or her work visible to fellow scholars” (Moravcsik, 2014, p. 84

48). Moravcsik (2014) suggested three dimensions of research transparency: “data, analytic, and production transparency” (p. 48). Data transparency raises the issue of access to sources (evidence, data, etc.) being incorporated to support the study. The transparency of a research study includes the capability of scholars reviewing a piece of research to find the other studies referenced in the text, which is not always the case

(Moravcsik, 2014). Analytic transparency requires for researchers to be clear as to how they analyzed their data to reach their specific conclusions, “the precise interpretive process by which an author infers that evidence supports a specific descriptive, interpretive, or causal claim” (Moravcsik, 2014, p. 48). The Center for Evaluation and

Research published a brief article that describes analytic memos and their importance to researchers. Analytic memos, which are brief mini analyses that one writes during the course of a study, provide researchers with an on-going account of their process and can be used to more successfully analyze results. The final dimension, production transparency, compels researchers to provide details as to how they selected their body of background research. A potential risk is selection bias, a result of “conscious manipulation, unconscious ‘confirmation bias,’ or just plain sloppiness” (Moravcsik,

2014, p. 49).

Consideration of Sampling. Unlike quantitative approaches, an important consideration in qualitative research is purposive sampling to “obtain insights into particular educational, social, and familial processes and practices that prevail within a specific location” (Onwuegbuzie & Leech, 2007, p. 106). Onwuegbuzie and Leech

(2007) provided insight into generalizations that are frequently made by researchers when 85 collecting qualitative data from a sample and have important implications for data saturation. First, it is imperative that researchers collect an ample amount of “words from the interviewee” to “capture the voice” (p. 107) in order to present a fair and accurate representation of the sample. Interviews for this study were mostly 60 minutes in length, with one of them lasting only 30 minutes, and a couple of them lasting up to 120 minutes.

Another generalization frequently made, according to Onwuegbuzie and Leech

(2007), is the notion that “taking observations from a setting involves sampling” (p. 108) and includes the techniques, proposed by Lincoln and Guba (1985), of prolonged engagement and persistent observations leading to data saturation.

In addition to capturing a fair representation of a participant’s voice and conducting observations, a third generalization made is the importance of key informants representing the study’s population. Onwuegbuzie and Leech (2007) emphasized that it is critical for the key informants to not only be truly representative of the study participants, but also the words captured in interviews must represent the informant’s voice and should therefore be extensive. Finally, an adequate amount of data must be collected in order to generalize interpretations and extractions from interviews and observations to other members of the population who were not selected to be participants in the study.

Sample size plays an important role in data saturation, even though many qualitative researchers choose the size with little consideration (Onwuegbuzie & Leech,

2007), which could serve as one explanation as to why the number of participants and sites vary a great deal across qualitative studies (Creswell, 2015). According to Creswell

(2015), it is not uncommon to find qualitative studies that focus on just a couple of 86 individuals or cases. The more in-depth a study looks into each participant, the more likely the researcher will focus on a small number, possibly even just one individual.

Whereas some studies include one to two participants, others may generate numbers between thirty and forty (Creswell, 2015). Creswell (2015) warned, though, “Because of the need to report details about each individual or site, the larger number of cases can become unwieldy and result in superficial perspectives” (p. 208). In his discussion on sample size, Creswell (2015) referred to an ethnographic study conducted by Rhoads

(1995) as an example of triangulation involving the use of twelve formal interviews, eighteen informal interviews, observations, and document analysis.

Guest, Bunce, and Johnson (2006) proposed the use of approximately twelve interviews based on their findings after interviewing sixty women, thirty from Ghana and thirty from Nigeria (the researchers used purposive sampling and had three specific criteria they used to select their participants). After careful coding of their data, the researchers found that the vast majority of their codes were generated after twelve interviews (i.e., 92%), at which point they declared they had reached data saturation.

Through the process of analysis, it was determined that the point of saturation for this study was reached after 18 interviews. It was at that point that approximately 90% of the codes had been generated (Guest et al., 2006). However, as previously stated, it was important to me, as the researcher, to have a comprehensive representation of the different international populations present at the university used as the setting of the study. 87

Ethical Considerations

As the researcher, I followed all necessary protocol to ensure that I abided by ethical practices for the sake of my participants. Prior to collecting data, I underwent the proper training to conduct research using human subjects through the Institutional

Review Board (i.e., IRB). After applying for and being granted permission by the IRB to conduct my study, I thoroughly explained the purpose of my study to my participants and provided them a copy of a consent form to read and consider prior to beginning the interview. I also ensured them that they could stop their participation at any time before, during, or after the interview, and all of their data would be destroyed.

During the process of consent, I also ensured the participants that all of the voice recordings would be destroyed, leaving only transcriptions with pseudonyms to protect their privacy and anonymity. After specifying the details of the research process, all of the 29 participants chose to remain and be part of the study.

Limitations of the Study

The study explored international graduate students’ experiences in the planning and implementation of internationalization at their institution of higher education, as well as their perceptions of how to enhance the process in order to foster glocal competence.

As with any study, there were limitations that impacted my findings:

• The setting of the study was one specific university. Although it is a large, 4-year

research institute, the experiences of my participants are nevertheless limited to

their context. Therefore, it is not possible to generalize the findings to the 88

experience every international graduate student has on a university campus

elsewhere.

• Participants had to be willing and interested in participating. Due to the subjective

nature of the interviewing process, it is possible that the findings do not reflect the

average experience of an international graduate student on the campus where the

study was conducted, or on another campus for that matter. Nonetheless, the

voices of the participants in this study and their experiences are as valid as any

other potential participant’s would be.

• All of the interviews were conducted in English. Although every participant was a

fluent speaker of English, their levels of proficiency varied. If I had been able to

conduct the interviews in my participants’ native languages, it may have produced

more in-depth findings as the participants would have been able to express their

perspectives to a greater extent.

• The scope of the study focused primarily on internationalization planning and

implementation and how to foster glocal competence in the stakeholders at a

university. It did not, however, specifically explore the details of how to more

effectively internationalize. For instance, participants indicated that the

curriculum needs to reflect more diverse, global perspectives. However, they did

not express explicitly what a revised curriculum would entail.

Delimitations of the Study

As with any research project, there were also boundaries by which I defined the scope of my project: 89

• A limitation of the study was its setting. However, it also serves as a delimitation

as Ohio University was specifically chosen rather than another university. This

particular setting was selected based on my familiarity with the university’s

international graduate community, as well as their efforts to internationalize. It

offered me, as the researcher, an opportunity to have insider knowledge.

• There was a specific, target population chosen for the study. International

graduate students were selected based on their level of maturity and their

exposure to a different cultural setting in higher education outside of the United

States (i.e., the completion of their undergraduate studies in their home country).

Summary

This study used a basic interpretive qualitative research approach to examine the experiences of international graduate students in the planning and implementation of internationalization at their university and sought their perspectives on how to foster university stakeholders’ glocal competence through internationalization planning and implementation. As the researcher, I interviewed 29 international graduate students whom I selected using purposive sampling. This study sought to understand the students’ experience of internationalization and their perspectives on enhancing the glocal competence of the university community.

Chapter 4: Findings

The main objective of the study was to elicit the perspectives of international graduate students in regard to their experience in the planning and implementation of internationalization, as well as their perspectives of how to foster university stakeholders’

(i.e., administrators, faculty, staff, and students) glocal competence. This study was guided by the following research questions:

1. How do international graduate students experience internationalization

planning and implementation at their university?

2. What are the perspectives of international graduate students on how to foster

university stakeholders’ glocal competence?

Participants

The participants chosen for the study were selected based on the following criteria:

1. Being a current graduate student at the time of the interview.

2. Being a national of a country outside of the United States and, therefore,

identified as an international student.

3. Having completed their primary and secondary education in their home

country (i.e., participants who spent part or all of their childhood in the United

States were not selected).

A total of 29 participants were interviewed for the study, representing 23 countries around the globe. A purposive sampling strategy was employed to identify possible participants. Table 3 provides the participants’ gender, their academic program, and their current graduate level of education (master’s or doctoral). They were grouped by the 91 major five regions previously identified. In addition, pseudonyms were assigned to help maintain their anonymity.

Table 3

Demographic Data of International Students Interviewed

______Participant ID Gender Program Level ______Latin/South America/Caribbean

Soledad Female Teacher Education Doctoral Lotus Female Music Performance Master Kathina Female Journalism Master Vianey Male Coaching Education Master

Africa

Bruno Male Telecommunications Master Victor Male Media/Comm. Doctoral Kamnan Male Instructional Technology Doctoral Bodhi Male Instructional Technology Doctoral Bakti Male Educational Administration Doctoral Loday Male Educational Administration Doctoral Kamilah Female Public Administration Master

Middle East

Bankei Male Educational Administration Doctoral Malika Female Teacher Education Doctoral Kan Male Teacher Education Doctoral Oliver Male Chemical Engineer Doctoral Rashid Male Biological Sciences Master Carter Male Chemical Engineer Doctoral

Australia/North America/Europe

Dharma Female Educational Administration Doctoral Zen Male Educational Research Doctoral Arya Female Instructional Technology Doctoral 92

Table 3 continued.

Asia

Budro Female Educational Research Doctoral Mateo Male Comm & Develop Master Farida Female Individual Disciplinary Doctoral Putroe Female Educational Administration Doctoral Amida Female Educational Administration Doctoral Sawyer Male Electrical Engineer Doctoral Rafael Male Hospitality/Tourism Master Samsara Female Instructional Technology Doctoral Krishna Male Math Education Doctoral ______

The length of the interviews varied depending on the participant. The majority of the interviews lasted approximately 50 – 60 minutes. The shortest interview conducted lasted roughly 30 minutes, whereas the longest interviews conducted were close to two hours in length.

Coding

The interviews were transcribed through a professional online transcription service (Rev, 2019). The accuracy of the transcriptions was verified using a process of reading through each one carefully while simultaneously listening to the audio of the interview.

The data gathered was first coded using the study’s research questions and conceptual framework to generate topics. The topics selected were: (a) internationalization planning, (b) internationalization implementation, (c) glocal attitudes,

(d) glocal knowledge, (e) glocal skills, and (f) glocal understanding. The data was then examined in three stages. The first stage involved carefully reading through each 93 interview in order to section it apart by topic. The data gathered under each topic was then analyzed to begin the coding process. In the second stage, codes were assigned to the data based on commonalities identified in the data. Codes were then clustered into categories in order to identify the themes and subthemes that emerged from the data.

Research Question #1: How Do International Graduate Students Experience

Internationalization Planning and Implementation at Their University?

The findings to the first research question were divided into two sections, internationalization planning and internationalization implementation, to distinguish the students’ experiences at the different stages of a university’s efforts to internationalize.

The findings are shared organically, directly representing the voice of the participants.

Internationalization Planning

The data revealed different avenues through which the participants were involved in the planning phase of internationalization. Figure 2 below provides a snapshot of the themes that emerged from the findings for graduate student experiences in internationalization planning, followed by an explanation of each theme.

Figure 2

International Graduate Students Experiences in Internationalization Planning

Cultural Event Development and Promotion

Feedback: surveys, student organizations, open forums

Professional Development

Recruitment

Cultural Event Development and Promotion. A few of the participants expressed that they had been asked to be involved in developing activities for various cultural events representing their home countries around the campus of their university.

Farida, a doctoral student from Thailand, indicated that she had been involved in developing activities to promote Thai culture, as well as Southeast Asian culture in general. Mateo, a master’s student from Cambodia, also voiced his involvement in developing activities, as well as engaging fellow Cambodians, to share the Cambodian culture. He explained:

I was approached about how to get Cambodian students to be part of the

cultural events because they were in middle of planning to have Southeast Asian

night. Students from all over Southeast Asia had the opportunity to 95

participate in the event, including the Cambodian students. We cooked

food and performed something like a traditional Cambodian traditional dance and

presented some traditional costumes. We had to come up with a plan of

how we could best be involved.

Krishna, a doctoral student from Nepal, was also involved in the planning stages of how to promote Nepalese tourism and culture:

I was on the executive committee of the Nepalese Student Association and was

working with the association to publish or to disseminate things that Nepal was

doing, to advertise the Nepal beauty and encourage people to go to Nepal.

Other participants shared their participation with other cultural events, including

Indian and Iranian evening celebrations. It was evident from the interviews that those who had the opportunity to share their culture with others were pleased with their involvement and wished there were more occasions to do so.

Feedback. Several participants indicated that at various times throughout their studies, they were asked to provide feedback through different means: surveys, student organizations, and open forums.

Surveys. One means of providing feedback was through surveys sent either at large to international students or sent to those directly involved with an activity or event.

Soledad, a doctoral student from Guyana, articulated her contribution to providing feedback:

I did some surveys that I gave feedback on. I did two of those. They wanted my 96

feedback on the student orientation and how I think international students might

respond to certain events. For example, at the beginning of the semester, we did a

workshop an entire morning with four different groups, that is like 45 minutes

each or so, about what international students might experience in the dorms. So

this was a workshop with resident assistants. I can tell you from the time I came

here, I think more people are asking my opinion…So I think you’re being asked

more to give your input or feedback than when I first arrived.

Soledad commented that she had noticed a trend of most international students at her university being asked to provide more input over the few years she has been there.

Student Organizations. Participants also expressed that the university obtained their feedback through student organizations. Kathina, a master’s student from Peru, shared how student organizations provide an opportunity to international students to voice their opinions and concerns, though she wished there were more opportunities to do so:

I think that within the university systems there are a lot of international student

organizations, and it tends to be a very well-organized structure. Sometimes they

raise very important questions or concerns…If you go to the Latin American

student association or the African student association, the Indian student

association, the Chinese student association, they get together every year. They

have ideas that they discuss among themselves and sometimes those ideas are

ideas of how to make our living here okay. How to make sure that when we get

here we get along with the people who welcome us here. How do we make sure 97

we get the best out of our experience here, and what are the challenges we face.

Sometimes, unfortunately, we discuss those things among ourselves and then,

that’s it. No one is hearing us.

Kathina expressed the invaluable asset of using student organizations as a platform to openly communicate with university administrators. Her narrative is an illustration of how a university can benefit from legitimate context expert advice from international student organizations if they are intentionally involved in the internationalization planning process.

Rafael, a master’s student from China, concurred with Kathina: “In [my] university, there are a lot of organizations. We can use these to share the international student voices.” Whereas some participants remarked that their university was not utilizing the platform student organizations provided to have students voice their opinions, others felt the organizations did indeed give them the space to connect and share the experiences and struggles they endure.

Open Forums. Additionally, some participants shared that the university collected feedback from them through open forums. Soledad, who is a doctoral student in

Teacher Education, also communicated that events organized specifically with the objective of hearing student voices has also been an effective venue to provide feedback:

I’ve attended dinner with the Dean and been able to talk about my goals and

objectives and whether I feel that it’s in keeping with what we do. I remember

clearly that I told her I’m already coming in with teaching experiences. How

would the college validate my teaching experiences? And how would that add to 98

what I would need when I go back home? So these were questions that came up

– how will they validate and prepare teachers who are here but who aren’t

necessarily looking for licensure in the U.S. So for me, [dinner with the Dean] is a

great way to engage with your department and make time to actually go and let

them listen to your voice. I always try to go because whatever it is I bring up, I

would see steps in place – even if it’s small steps – to rectify the problem.

Rafael, a master’s student in hospitality and tourism, also discussed his support of open forums to bring people together to provide feedback. He indicated his desire to see them implemented more frequently:

I have attended a few meetings where I could express my thoughts, but I think it

could be more. We can hold some activities or events every month or twice a

month where international students can come and let administrators or faculty

know what they need. ‘What’s your problem and what do you want to share and

what do you think we can do to better address your needs as an international

student?’ We have about 1,300 international students, something like that. So

even though it’s not that big, it’s still a big number. So, we need to focus on this

group of people and hear their voices.

Rafael expressed the need for universities to provide a platform for international students to share their experience and provide input. Bruno, a master’s student from

Cameroon, exclaimed that the successful open forums he has attended at his university were thoughtful in attracting students by providing food. He suggested having food creates an environment that encourages people to come together and feel comfortable 99 openly communicating: “Food brings people together. That’s the culture I grew up with, and I think it’s the same for a lot of other cultures. I am more likely to come to share my opinions if we are gathered around food.”

Professional Development. Professional development is an additional avenue through which participants contributed to the planning phase of internationalization. In fact, several participants shared instances in which they were provided opportunities to participate in the professional development of university stakeholders that allowed them to share input in the internationalization planning phase. Kathina, for instance, shared that international students were contacted via email to participate in a professional development for the culinary services staff:

I was recently sent an email that requested international students to meet with

people from culinary services because they wanted their employees to learn more

about other cultures so that they could serve them better. Not only as far as food is

concerned, but also they wanted them to know how they have to treat other people

that are not American. I really like that. It’s a good chance for cultures to come

together to learn from each other.

Kathina’s experience reflects the university’s attention to internationalizing aspects of the campus found outside of the academic context.

Putroe, a doctoral student in Educational Administration from Indonesia, shared that she was invited to talk to a class of preservice teachers. During her presentation, she challenged them to think about how an international student in elementary or secondary 100 school, who has recently come to the U.S., might handle their new educational environment.

Recruitment. Another means of participating in the planning of internationalization acknowledged was recruitment. Farida, the doctoral student from

Thailand, was involved in the plan to recruit students into her language program when she was a master’s student:

As a TA teaching Thai, I was encouraged to help recruit more students into the

program, but I was not asked to try to promote or to help recruit students from

Thailand. Back then, I didn’t actually participate in any form of like a strategic

plan, like how do we bring in more students from Thailand because, I think, back

then somehow people were very careful of who can get the information to be

delivered to a home country.

Farida’s narrative illustrates the missed opportunity for the university to utilize her potential connections with universities in her home country. Farida could have been instrumental in helping to recruit future students from Thailand if provided the chance and resources to do so. In addition to Farida, several students suggested how they could be utilized to recruit future students from their home countries. The following section discusses the recommendations offered by the students.

Missed Opportunities in Internationalization Planning

The data revealed insight into how the students believe they could better contribute to internationalization planning at their university. Figure 3 illustrates the 101 themes that emerged from the data of the participants’ recommendations on how to integrate international graduate students in the strategic planning process.

Figure 3

Integrating International Graduate Students in the Internationalization Planning Process

Sharing Expertise

Curriculum Development

International Outreach: international organizations, inter-university project collaborations, student mentorship

Sharing Expertise. A recommendation provided by participants involves including international graduate students in internationalization planning around their areas of expertise. For instance, Budro, a doctoral student from Vietnam, expressed how international graduate students could be better utilized:

I think students can become more involved depending on what the international

graduate student studies or where they work. If they work for, let’s say for

example, the international women’s center. Or the Center for International

Studies. Over there, they will probably have more contribution in the planning, 102

helping with finding the alumni who can also help with talks and lecture series

and stuff like that. And maybe help organize events and recruit some students.

Amida, a doctoral student from India, also shared how to involve international graduate students by focusing on their area of specialization:

I think it would be a great idea to have international graduate students organize

talks to share their area of expertise, their research. They can play a major role in

bringing together other international students and domestic students to share, like

in a TED Talk type of format. I have seen this done, but I think it could be done

on a bigger scale and include a more diverse group of people.

Several other participants also acknowledged the wealth of knowledge that international students bring to campus and expressed that it could be better explored and utilized to help the university in their planning for internationalization.

Curriculum Development. Putroe, the doctoral student from Indonesia, expressed the contribution international graduate students could make to internationalizing the academic curricula present in a university:

International students are an important resource on campus. Consider the different

backgrounds and nationalities and ethnicities of people and bring them together to

help plan and develop curriculum based on their cultural experience and expertise.

We have so much knowledge we bring to our universities, but they do not take

advantage of that. 103

Putroe further stressed that international students would “be so proud” to be included in the development of educational materials for the different academic departments around the university campus.

International Outreach. A few of the participants commented that their connections to the universities and organizations in their home countries would be a huge asset to the university. They suggested that universities engage their international student population through international organizations, inter-university project collaborations, and student mentorship.

International Organizations. Bakti, a doctoral student from The Gambia, recognized an opportunity to include international graduate students in the strategic planning process for internationalization through overseas work fairs and organizations:

I think there is an opportunity because students belong to different bodies across

campus. These are the regions they are coming from, or the very international

body that governs every international student. I think that’s a body, or an

institution they can tap into so that the recruitment process for potential

participants can be diverse. So that they can partake in any pre-planning to

strategize, or to come up with any strategic plan regarding internationalization of

higher education. For instance, looking deeply at the work fairs that the

universities organize, in my view because of immigration requirements here and

there, I think they tend to cut out the international students, but I feel there are

many organizations whose work extends beyond the confines of the U.S. There

are many international nonprofit organizations that are headquartered in the U.S. 104

but that operate across the world. I think looking at that, they should be inviting

international students to partake and invite those potential recruiters. I think that’s

an opportunity to internationalize the higher education system.

Bakti emphasized a possible advantage universities have in employing their international student population to help attract recruiters who can provide international job opportunities or internships to their graduates.

Inter-University Project Collaborations. Bodhi, a doctoral student from Kenya in instructional technology, highlighted the potential to involve international graduate students in inter-university project collaborations:

International students should be involved in collaborative projects involving

universities from their home countries. I have heard of a couple of programs

where [my university] collaborates with other universities back where we come

from because I remember one project that my university back home and [my

university] had. I would have liked so much to be part of it, but sometimes you

don’t know how these things happen. There are people who sit down at a table

and they decide things on their own, but I think they should put it out there and

recruit people from the countries where these universities are located to become

involved if they have an interest.

Bodhi expressed that he felt excluded from the process and believed he could have added value to the collaboration.

Budro, the participant from Vietnam, also touched upon an experience she had that she interpreted as a missed opportunity for both her and the university: 105

There was a time when [my university] had collaboration with one of the

universities in my home country. So we had a person from my country. I think she

was an officer from an agency that tries to recruit people who want to study

abroad. She reached out to us on social media once she was here, but it wasn’t

anything official through the university. So obviously, even though the university

is reaching out to other countries and other populations outside of the States for

potential students and potential collaboration, the existence of and the reflection

of true acknowledgement of the validity of other ways of being in the knowledge

system elsewhere is kind of missing in the current strategic planning.

Although Budro did not feel intentionally overlooked, she believed the university could make more of an effort to consider their current international student population when planning for internationalization and engaging with universities overseas.

Student Mentorship. International outreach can be achieved through student mentorship as well. In addition to inter-university project collaborations, several participants also indicated they would like to become more involved in preparing domestic students to go abroad. Bodhi articulated the valuable resource international students are in serving as mentors to domestic students:

International students could get involved with study abroad. For instance, if

people are going to places that I know, I’ll be happy to be part of the team

because I would play the role of a mentor and I would play also the role of

someone who has more knowledge on an area than the people who are here who

most of the time haven’t been there, but they have been reading about studies in 106

that particular region. It’s good to have someone who has more background

information on those particular issues. Then we could also get involved with the

university the local students attend in our home countries.

Bodhi’s interest in serving as a mentor to domestic students who are planning on studying abroad in a culture with which he is familiar demonstrates an opportunity for universities to integrate their international students with the domestic students. Although universities may not have study abroad programs in every country around the world, especially the ones from which their international students come, international students are still valuable resources since they have the lived experience of going to another country and studying in a language that may not be their native tongue.

Whereas approximately only one-third of the participants were involved in the planning phase of internationalization, every participant expressed some involvement in the implementation of internationalization at their university.

Internationalization Implementation

The participants had a greater deal of experience with relation to the implementation of internationalization at their university. Figure 4 illustrates the themes that emerged from the data in regard to internationalization implementation, followed by narratives from the participants.

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Figure 4

International Graduate Students’ Experiences in Internationalization Implementation

Global Programming

Local Community Outreach

Employment Opportunities: teaching and graduate assistantships, university housing

Study Abroad Preparations

Classroom Engagement: classroom participation, guest lecturing, cultural consultation

International Student Organizations

Cultural Events

Cultural Accommodations

Global Programming. Participant involvement in global programming through their respective field of study was a theme that emerged in the data. Krishna, a doctoral 108 student in mathematics education, became involved in a partnership through his advisor soon after his arrival at the university from Nepal:

I came here in 2017 and went to a conference in Columbus with my advisor. He

put me in touch with the director of a global teaching program. It’s a US-based

organization that sends US math educators around the world to Guatemala,

Ecuador, Kenya, and other places. I was so fascinated by what they were doing

that I proposed that they should go to Nepal. He called me a week later and said

he was ready to go to Nepal! And since then I have been helping facilitate the

program to Nepal. In 2018, seven of us went there and conducted several

professional development programs for teachers. Later that year, 21 of us went to

Nepal and worked in three different cities to conduct about 20 professional

development programs and three conferences. It was a wonderful opportunity to

internationalize the mathematics practices.

Other participants expressed their involvement in the development and implementation of conferences that were being organized by faculty in their university but taking place in their home countries.

Employment Opportunities. An additional theme that emerged from the data was the participants being offered job opportunities through their university. These opportunities include teaching assistantships, graduate assistantships, and employment through housing.

Teaching Assistantships. An additional theme that emerged from the data was the participants’ teaching assignments at their university. Several of them expressed they 109 were able to attend a university overseas because of their assistantship funding. Farida was actively involved in not only teaching Thai courses, but also contributing to the promotion of Thai culture and Southeast Asian studies through her experience. Samsara, a doctoral student from China, found employment teaching Chinese courses during her time as a doctoral student in instructional technology. Krishna, the doctoral student in math education, also expressed his enthusiasm in assisting with courses at his university:

“I’m informally working as a TA in a quantitative reasoning course, helping to develop course materials and assessing student learning. It’s one of the best opportunities I have had.”

Victor, a doctoral student in Media Studies from Burkina Faso, shared his experience teaching a course on Media and Islam through a teaching assistantship. He remarked the advantage one can have to address important, glocal issues through teaching:

I taught a class on media in the Muslim world. So I took students to the local

mosque here to meet Muslims and then I realized that the Muslims in Athens are

Muslims who came from somewhere else. So I was telling [the students], can you

do some research to find out if there is any Athenian who is Muslim, who has that

kind of a faith background? If yes, how do they engage with that? So I challenged

students to do that. Of course, they didn’t find much. They did find people who

weren’t necessarily Muslim but that knew a great deal about Islam. So they talked

to those people to have their perspective on Islam.

Victor further explained: 110

So to me, that was a way for me to help my students engage the global and local

at the same time. You need to have faculty, though, that are willing to engage

with students at that level. I’ve seen a professor here try to do the fracking and his

students have to, like he’s talking about like journalism, environmental journalism

and stuff. So he had to engage students with fracking in Athens County. I’m like,

yeah! That’s a global issue, global warming. Temperatures are changing, the

weather is changing. It is not just affecting people here, but it is affecting

everyone around the world. But how do we find some elements here that can

allow us to articulate it? Like local grammar to talk about global issues? How do

we do that? So you need to have individuals who are really grounded and also

able to think beyond the local ground.

Victor’s narrative illustrates how the discussion of glocal issues is not limited to specific academic environments.

Graduate Assistantships. The majority of the participants were not given teaching assignments, however, most of them had experiences with graduate assistantships.

Kamilah, a master’s student in public administration from Egypt, mentioned that she had been very active in working with her university’s women’s center to help create a space for international students to share their hardships, in addition to strategies to help facilitate their experience while they are studying in the U.S. She explained:

I’m working in the women’s center as a graduate assistant. Basically, I am

working with them on all of their international projects and events. So yeah, that’s

my role in the women’s center. We have the international women’s coffee hour, 111

so it happens every month, once a month. We’re trying to create a space for

international students to share their challenges and struggles in a different

environment. I make themes for every month. For example, this month we are

going to talk about different educational systems in different countries. So how

this is affecting our mental health coming from a different country with a

different system. What are the similarities, challenges, and how we adapt, how we

are dealing with it, and how we are adapting to it because the first year was really

challenging.

Kamilah’s involvement in the women’s center highlights the importance of the social integration of international students. Through the organization of coffee hours every month, students are able to come together to share their experience, an event that provides an opportunity for all students at a university to meet.

University Housing Employment. Rafael, the master’s student from China in hospitality and tourism, reported that he was able to obtain a job opportunity in university housing, which enabled him to be a support to international students living in on-campus housing dormitories, as well as an educator to domestic students who may not have much experience interacting with culturally diverse groups. Rafael expressed how he is able to contribute to internationalization through his employment:

Right now, I am working for housing. My supervisor and my directors want me

to share my international background and culture with students. They told me to

share my perspective and share my uniqueness. This past winter break, I oversaw

the winter housing for the students who stayed here. Some of them are 112

international because they cannot go back home. My supervisor said, ‘You are

international so I bet you have more knowledge about how to handle or manage

international students’ needs - you can share your experiences.’

Raphael further explained that his background as an international student did indeed help him to address some of the concerns that the residents had who were unable to return home during the break.

Study Abroad Preparations. Several of the participants also mentioned their involvement with helping domestic students prepare for study abroad trips to their home countries. Mateo, for instance, was asked to speak to a group getting ready to depart to his home country of Cambodia:

I was invited to an event at the Global Leadership Center (GLC) to speak with

students who were in a Cambodian language class and preparing to travel to

Cambodia. They offered this class to students, to the undergrad students. I was

asked to share my experience about Cambodia with them. Something about the

places in Cambodia, the preparations, what should they have, what should they do

before going to Cambodia, and then when they get to Cambodia, what should they

do.

Classroom Engagement. A major theme that emerged from the data was specific to the students’ involvement in both their own courses and in other courses that they were invited to attend. Classroom engagement entails four subthemes: class participation, guest lecturing, cultural consultant, and local school outreach. 113

Class Participation. Many participants specified that they felt their presence in the classroom was indicative of the university’s implementation of internationalization.

Bakti, a doctoral student in educational administration, stated, “I think at the implementation phase in the classroom where I am an actor, I participate and, in that way,

I make the strategic plan for internationalization attainable somehow.” Amida, also a doctoral student in educational administration, indicated, “When a classroom has international students, there is so much knowledge present in the room. Professors and students can learn so much from each other by simply sharing their own experiences.”

Guest Lecturing. Another aspect of classroom involvement present in the data was guest lecturing where participants were invited to speak about their background experience in other classes. Putroe, a Muslim woman, expressed that she had been invited to talk to several classes during the course of her studies:

Some professors invite me to classes to talk about religion and women because

when students listen to stories about Muslim women from Saudi Arabia or

another Islamic country, being from Indonesia, my story is different. I don’t want

my Islam to be generalized based on stories in Saudi Arabia or another

place...When we build connections, things change. Interaction changes things. We

can help people move to acceptance and tolerance, and then transformation can

come. When you don’t even see me, only you listen, it’s hard. But when you see

me, you touch me, you can transform.

Putroe continued explaining the benefit of people coming together across differences:

I have received a lot of positive feedback from undergraduate students when I 114

speak in classes. I have gone to visit a few schools also where the kids have never

seen a Muslim before in their life. When I first talk to them, they are

uncomfortable and don’t want to answer my questions. By the end, we are taking

pictures together. That’s how change happens – through interaction. We share a

common experience. The kids are from a poor region and marginalized. Their

pain is that they don’t have enough food to eat or good clothes. I am marginalized

in a different way – I’m a minority. I don’t want people to judge me based on my

hijab, but on my heart. I tell the students, if you want to make a change in this

world, it won’t be based on the clothes you wear; it will be based on your heart.

That’s why I like to be working on these kinds of issues.

Putroe’s narrative illustrates how the use of guest lecturing can be a way for international students to build connections with the local community.

Other participants communicated that they had given presentations not only on their countries or ethnic/religious backgrounds, but also on how their field of academic study is conducted in their own country, as well as the political situation. Kathina, the master’s student in journalism, indicated that she had conducted several presentations about her home country of Peru:

I have been invited several times to different classes of undergrads to present my

country. In one, I was presenting journalism in my country – how it works. And

then in another course, I was presenting the political situation of my country and a

little bit about the region because there had been a lot of turmoil and protests all

over Chile and Bolivia and Ecuador last year, and even in Peru. 115

Kamilah from Egypt also shared that she was invited to speak about her activism in her country of Egypt in the university’s Global Leadership Center.

Cultural Consultation. Participants also indicated that they are sometimes asked to participate as a cultural consultant in their university’s language classes. Bodhi, for example, has been active in helping undergraduate student have an authentic experience with the Swahili culture:

I was a cultural consultant in the Swahili language program. So we teach them so

many things that we do culturally, coming from the Swahili perspective. So they

learn the language, they learn the culture. Those are undergraduate students and

they appreciate it so much. Because I have been there for the past three

consecutive years, I would teach them how to make food in the Swahili way.

They would be part of the cooking. Not that I was the one cooking, I would just

go to the kitchen with all of them and I would bring in the kanga. Kanga is the

thing you wear when you are cooking. So that engagement, that is part of the

learning.

Bodhi continued explaining how engaged students are to experience others’ traditions and the opportunities that can provide:

They were so eager to learn and to know and to engage with what we

were doing. So those are some of the activities – learning less common languages

and cultures. That’s part of the diversity we’re talking about. They go there, in

fact this is what happens. Students who have gone through programs have ended

up being in organizations like ActionAid, American Red Cross, organizations in 116

part of Africa, because we have the advantage of the language and the culture. So

you see this connectivity also provides opportunities for local students to go out

there and do projects. And I know so many of them who are there right now in

Tanzania. They’ve gotten the opportunity to work there. So the diversity, it should

be seen as an advantage, not a disadvantage. We also took a group up to

Columbus for a cultural festival for people from East Africa. There were

Kenyans, Tanzanians, Ugandans, etc. And they were part of the group from the

university that also presented in that particular event because when we engage,

we also get to learn more.

Local Community Outreach. Participants also shared their experience connecting with people in the local community to work on projects. Bodhi, in addition to being a cultural consultant, also worked on a technology project with students in an elementary school. He emphasized the importance of international students connecting with the local community and learning from one another:

In 2018 we had a group project in our program where we were involved in

advising some of the local primary school. It was called Coolville Elementary

School, and we were part of a team that we were trying to come up with ideas of

technology, building a system that can help kids when they go home. They would

still continue learning even when they are home and we built some of these

applications for them. All of the members of our team were from different

countries – not one was from here…Coming in as a student and then getting

involved in the local communities is important. We learn more because we are 117

bringing some set of skills which are not here. And I think it can be very helpful

and also we are gaining skills which we can later transport to where we come

from. So when people talk about brain drain, I also talk about brain gain. They go

together. So people are gaining skills, they are taking skills all over, but this is the

idea of connectivity. Transporting skills from all over the world for the well-being

of everyone in the world. So they should be involved in these local community

projects.

Another participant, Krishna, described his experience connecting with the local community, working on projects with adults who had dropped out of school:

I’m partly working for the student literacy center and the professor in that center

has engaged me in a project to support maybe high school dropouts – adults –

here in town and in the surrounding areas by developing a math curriculum for

them. It has allowed me to implement the knowledge and experience that I have

coming from mathematics education in Nepal, and it has also given me the

opportunity to explore educational practices here in the US.

Kamilah, the participant from Egypt, also described her connection to a community project:

I volunteered with the Athens Photo Project to see the community and how it’s

working. The Athens Photo Project is a project working with people living with

mental illness in southeastern Ohio, teaching them photography and how to

express themselves using different kinds of art and photography. I used to

volunteer with them as a teacher assistant and that exposed me to a lot of 118

community members, and it was a really good experience for me.

Kamilah was also active in organizing a space for local artists to congregate, in addition to developing art projects for interested community members:

My colleagues and I started two initiatives in the community. The first one was

creative mornings. We had a regular meeting every month at Arts West. It’s an

artistic presentation every month to talk about different kinds of art. We would

have coffee together. It’s a community gathering for people to listen to any kind

of art and have coffee and breakfast together. We had another initiative of

placemaking, which is like growing and doing pieces of art. The park, Armory

Park, we did that, placemaking. We started the communication and development

work. I’m a project manager, so I usually assess projects and look at both the

positives and the negatives. The negative side was the students never use the park,

but the community members sometimes use it for events.

International Student Organizations. Every participant noted the presence of multiple international student organizations on their campus as evidence of their university’s internationalization implementation. In addition to specific countries’ organizations being mentioned (e.g., African Students’ Union), participants also shared the role of the International Student Union (ISU). Amida, the doctoral student from India, explained how the ISU is involved with other international organizations: “ISU oversees all the other international organizations. So they help organize events like International

Week or other cultural events that countries will host, like India night or African night.” 119

Cultural Events. A common theme also present throughout most interviews was the presence of multicultural events on their university campus. Rashid, a master’s student in biological sciences from Iran shared, “You usually have some events every month that are for the international students and our society. The Iranian society also usually has two events per year that they will host and talk about culture.” Mateo, the participant from Cambodia, indicated his willingness to participate in events that were focused on a culture other than his own: “I have a friend from Bangladesh who organized a Bangladesh cultural night event. He wanted me to participate in this event. He wanted me to wear the Bangladesh traditional dress and perform, walk on stage for one or two minutes and walk back.”

Several of the participants also referred to an international week and an international street fair that takes place in the spring time. Bruno from Cameroon, a master’s student in telecommunications, specifically commented:

[The university] offers so many events that celebrate international cultures. Once

a year, they have an international week with lots of activities. I participated in a

university World Cup soccer event a few times. There is also a street fair with lots

of cultures represented. You can buy food from different countries and see

dancing from different cultures and traditional outfits. There are also flags from

all over the world.

Other participants commented on events that took place during international week. Putroe shared her experience at one event in particular called international trivia night: 120

There was an event that had so many local students and international students

come together to answer trivia questions about the world. The room was filled,

and many of the international students had to sit with local students that they

didn’t know. Everyone had fun playing the games, but we also learned a lot from

the questions and sharing the knowledge that we had with our teams. It was fun

and informative at the same time. The top teams won prizes. There was also food

from different countries and pizza provided. So there was a mix of international

and local food for everyone to taste.

Cultural Accommodations. Another theme that emerged from the data was attention to the cultural accommodations that the university had implemented. Kamnan, a doctoral student from Ghana, praised the university for implementing a meditation room:

“I have to commend the university for the fact that they have a meditation room for the

Muslim students where they’re able to go and pray. I think that alone is enough in terms of acknowledging the fact that we cannot all be Christians.” Participants also brought attention to the diverse cuisine offered in the dining halls. Putroe from Indonesia remarked:

I went through a difficult period when I lost my housing due to a fire, so I was

staying for a short time in the dormitories and ate in the dining halls. I was so

happy to see that there was a number of food selections from different continents

to address international students’ needs, such as Asian, Mediterranean cuisine,

and others. For example, there was a section with fried noodles, friend rice, and

white rice. Asians like myself, we eat a lot rice and noodles. Although the taste 121

might not be the same, it helps me to see food there that I usually eat in my

country. It was great to see so much international variety.

Putroe, along with the other participants, affirmed the positive contributions they believed they were able to make through their involvement in the implementation phase of internationalization at their university. Examining the combination of their experiences, there were not any additional recommendations voiced by a participant that other participants had not already reported.

Whereas the first research question targeted international graduate students’ experiences in the planning and implementation of internationalization at their university, the second research question addresses international graduate students’ perspectives of how to foster glocal competence (i.e., glocal attitudes, glocal knowledge, glocal skills, and glocal understanding) in university stakeholders (i.e., faculty, staff, and students).

Research Question #2: What Are the Perspectives of International Graduate

Students on How to Foster University Stakeholders’ Glocal Competence?

The glocal competency framework (Jean-Francois, 2015) encompasses four components: attitudes, knowledge, skills, and understanding. In the development of a strategic plan to internationalize higher education, consideration could be given to a glocal competence framework consisting of the attitudes, knowledge, and skills that universities could foster to lead to glocal understanding in the plan’s implementation. In speaking with the 29 participants, the following themes emerged in regard to attitudes, knowledge, skills, and understanding required to achieve glocal competence in all stakeholders of a university. 122

Glocal Attitudes

For the purpose of this study, attitudes refer to the “social and emotional values”

(Jean-Francois, 2015, p. 147) the participants identified as being necessary to achieve an atmosphere of glocal competence on a university campus. Participants were asked what kinds of attitudes they would expect to see from university stakeholders on a campus that was globally minded and locally engaged.

Figure 5 displays the attitudes that the participants identified as necessary to help establish an atmosphere that fosters glocal competence. In addition, the participants made recommendations as to how the glocal attitudes can be cultivated on a university campus.

A narrative follows from one or more participants behind each attitude and recommendation identified.

123

Figure 5

Glocal Attitudes

Participant Perspectives of Desired Attitudes for Glocal Competence

• Empathy • Acceptance • Open-mindedness • Inclusivity • Reflection • Engagement • Curiosity

Participant Perspectives on Fostering Glocal Attitudes • Self • Willingness to challenge one's own beliefs • Approach of mutual respect (i.e., respect is a two-way street) • Attitude of lifelong learner

• Faculty • Attention to implicit curriculum • Class blogs • Program-based international celebrations • Cultural presentations

• Leadership • Offering adequate support • Transparency in communication • Approaches to internationalization that reflect inclusivity • Ambassadors appointed to combat stereotypes • International representations present • Creation of a third culture

124

Participant Perspectives of Desired Attitudes for Glocal Competence

The participants began by sharing their perspectives on the attitudes they would expect to see in a university that is globally minded and locally engaged. The themes that emerged from the data are: empathy, acceptance, open-mindedness, inclusivity, reflection, engagement, and curiosity.

Empathy. Participants of the study identified empathy as an essential attitude to foster glocal competence. A common message conveyed by the participants was the notion of people being able to recognize how challenging it can be for an international student to be in a school setting far from home, often studying in a language that is not their first language. Lotus, from Honduras, commented:

I think it is necessary to be understanding of how hard it is to be in a different

country. Not just the experience of being far away from home, but also how we

struggle when we come here and, yes, we get talks about it when we first come

and the faculty’s very understanding and asks if we are doing well. But for some

cultures, [opening up] is not the easiest thing to do.

Lotus highlighted that not every student is going to be comfortable sharing their struggles, which is why she feels empathy is important.

Additionally, Krishna expressed a similar perspective on the importance of empathy: “No one can know all the languages in the world, right? But knowing how difficult it is to learn another language, if you understand the pain of learning French or learning Arabic, then you can understand my pain in learning English.” Amida, from

India, also commented on her experience in the importance of empathy: 125

I have been in classes where faculty of international students are aware that [we

international students] don’t understand the language properly because English is

not our primary language. So [the professors] speak very slowly and even though

we don’t understand, they can read the facial expressions of the students saying

that it looks like this student is not following my dialect, or my accent, or the pace

of English while I’m speaking, so they repeat it slowly.

Arya, a doctoral student from Serbia, shared that along with empathy comes patience:

“It’s good for people to have empathy. When someone has empathy, they will be patient, especially when speaking to someone whose first language isn’t English.”

Budro from Vietnam shared her perspective on how empathy can lead to advocacy on the part of the faculty and staff in a university environment. In her case, she appreciates the kindness of her faculty advisor, yet feels his lack of understanding of her situation creates a barrier:

My advisor is a super nice person. I mean, super, super nice. He supports our

academic pursuits. He’s very nice in terms of that and a very smart, dedicated,

and accomplished scholar. In one way or another, however, I always see this

detachment between us, between my experience as an international student and

him as an American scholar, because when I come here and I live here and I study

here, I have issues like when people tell me to go back to my country, and when

they ask me about the political affairs in my country. [Someone] asked me how

my country can let that happen with socialism, socialism versus capitalism, and

she abhors socialism and praises capitalism, and asked me why the people in my 126

country can let that happen…I start to question myself if I, in one way or another,

am implicitly becoming one of them, and becoming detached to the issues that

humankind is facing outside of the U.S.

Budro continued to address the importance of faculty being aware of issues international students face so they can advocate for them:

This is something that my professor has never touched upon and never addressed.

We only talk academic issues. We don’t really talk about how [I] am experiencing

difficulty adjusting to the American life. He won’t address these issues, and, at

times, I see that he’s trying to avoid political issues and activism issues and

advocacy for students with a diverse background. So it is something that I expect

from my professor that this would be advocacy for international students. Maybe

because he is an accomplished scholar and a very respectful person, at least some

encouragement and I’ll just say advice on how to deal with situations and

insensitive comments like that would be welcoming. Although I wouldn’t say

they always work, acknowledgement and encouragement from his part rather than

avoidance would be something I would expect.

Budro also clarified that her advisor’s intentions are always “good” in her opinion. She shared that his lack of empathy stems more from his inexperience in facing similar struggles.

Victor from Burkina Faso expressed that he does not necessarily expect anyone to understand him or his experience, but he does expect people to have empathy for his experience. He indicated: 127

So I feel like in terms of understanding, sometimes I don’t necessarily want

people to understand me. I just want them to empathize. I don’t even want

agreement often times but I want them to be able to empathize and say okay,

which is another form of understanding. If you can empathize and say okay, well

this is a situation that is different. I don’t necessarily know but I want to

understand. It doesn’t mean I’m putting up or pushing it out of my mind to deal

with later. But I’m just saying I’m not going to make an issue out of this but also

I’m going to look beyond the person who is there. I’m going to look beyond this

issue and see the person who is standing in front of me. How do I empathize

with that person who is in this thing that I don’t understand right now? So I really

think empathizing would be a good way to build understanding in that regard.

Especially when you’re opening yourself to that global complex world.

Victor’s perspective on the importance of having empathy is critical when bringing together multiple cultures with varying worldviews.

Acceptance. Another theme that emerged from the data was the attitude of acceptance. Bruno, the master’s student from Cameroon, expressed the importance of accepting people who come from different backgrounds:

I think the first thing is to accept each other…Meaning that when the international

person who doesn’t have the American accent starts talking, you have to at least

listen to [them], have that exchange, show that you are part of the conversation

and want to learn more about what [they] are saying…I think that is the attitude

that is important – the attitude of acceptance. 128

Bodhi from Kenya also shared his perspective on the importance of acceptance:

Being accepting of people from all over the world. The world is huge, and if you

have a narrow mindset, that is a problem. Faculty, staff and students who attend a

university that is globally minded and locally engaged must accept it is a world

university with people from different backgrounds and different perspectives, and

they should accept that.

Bakti from The Gambia also revealed how feeling accepted leads to classroom engagement: “The classroom atmosphere should foster a sense of everybody feeling valued and feeling they belong. I think if that atmosphere flourished in a classroom, every student would feel very welcome and be willing to participate.”

Open-mindedness. Several participants indicated that it is critical to have an attitude of open-mindedness in order to foster an environment of glocal competence.

Sawyer from India expressed, “Being open-minded is critical in the sense when someone makes a point, try not to look for what’s negative in there because they might have a different way of expressing something.” Sawyer further stressed that people from different backgrounds will have different perspectives of the world and will interpret the world differently. He explained:

It’s important to listen to others’ viewpoints without criticizing them. There’s a

difference between challenging someone’s viewpoints and criticizing them. What

might look like a challenge to someone in the US might be a luxury to someone

from a developing country. But just because the other person from that part of the

world does not feel your problem is a big thing does not mean they can’t 129

appreciate it or respect that it’s a problem for you.

Dharma, a doctoral student from England, shared her perspective on being open minded to people’s individual differences by not assuming that people coming from the same culture will necessarily share the same traits or desire to be identified by their cultural background:

On a campus that is globally minded and locally engaged, I would expect to see

an elimination of stereotypes and not always…maybe not always assuming that

because you’re an international student that you embody that identity either. That

you might be a fully immersed international student that completely is within

the culture of the US and actually don’t want to bring any of your cultural

identity, whichever country that might be, to the table. You’re an individual that

maybe calls yourself a global citizen.

Putroe from Indonesia expressed the importance of not only being open-minded to the people coming from around the globe, but also the importance of internationals being open to the domestic population:

I mean, we also, international students, when we come, we need to also be open-

minded to the local, not stay exclusive. And also staff, students and faculty, not to

be exclusive with their own culture. But this is already us. I mean, this is global

already when you accept students from international. We also have to be very

open-minded and accept different perspectives…I mean, see issues, global issues,

as our issues. See local issues also as our issues that we need to work together to

provide some solutions. 130

Putroe highlights the interconnectivity that occurs when people from different backgrounds are open to one another and can observe the connection between global and local issues.

Victor from Burkina Faso shared that university stakeholders also need to have an openness to learning:

Being open to learning, an attitude that comes with a lot of humility. I have been

[at this university] for six years, but I don’t know everything [about this town]

and I have to be humbled to learn. We need a lot of humility and we need to be

prepared to unlearn what we already learned and learn new things. I think that

there’s so many missed opportunities because we already hold onto

something…They have faculty that did research in Burkina Faso in the 1970s, and

it is not the same Burkina. A student who came here to this university ten years

ago – it is now not the same. But anytime I am engaged with someone, my

attitude should be like, okay, of course I have this history of knowing this place.

But when I am meeting someone new…I feel my attitude should be open in a

very humble way. I feel like the academic setting, people tend to be arrogant and

no one wants to present themselves as someone who doesn’t know.

Victor also shared his experience coming to the U.S. with a limited view of diversity and communicated his opinion on the necessity of being open to learning about other cultures that may drastically differ from one’s own:

Culturally, I don’t know American culture that much. I don’t. But I believe I have

a certain cultural predisposition that allows me to engage with what I don’t know. 131

So any time I meet the thing that I don’t know, the cultural element that I don’t

know, I’m shocked and stuff but I try to control myself, learn to adjust and get to

know it. I feel like that kind of a cultural predisposition, a lot of people don’t have

that. They don’t even try to grow it. It’s either my way or no way. That kind of

attitude is really rigid. I think having that kind of cultural predisposition or just

being that culturally open-minded to know that, okay, I don’t know this. I’ll give

an example.

Victor expressed his own limited mindset upon his arrival in the United States to attend the university:

When I came from Burkina Faso here, I heard about like LGBTQ people, like in

Burkina at the time, you never heard about it. We hear these stories, and it’s like a

fairy tale. Like if you go to Europe, you might find like a man and man married or

women married to each other. It’s like a fairy tale, seriously. It wasn’t part of our

everyday conversation and boom, I got to the US, I go to a school and I see girls

and girls holding hands. That was a time when within the Mennonite education

system, the younger people are fighting for the Mennonite church to accept

homosexuality. I realized I could freak out, ask Fulbright to remove me, or

question myself – what is it about me that I don’t accept this or have difficulty

accepting it, having come from a small town in Burkina Faso where couples in

general do not show affection in public, nevertheless homosexual couples? So,

culturally speaking, can we have that kind of a mindset that we are not the center 132

of the universe? You’re going to come across culture, you’re going to come

across ways of doing things that are completely different from our usual way of

doing things. How do we cope with that, those kinds of things without necessarily

getting hurt or hurting people in the process? So, to me, that’s really important.

Victor highlights a key component of cultivating a glocal mindset. It is crucial to develop the ability to move away from an ethnocentric perspective to one which embraces diversity and is open to new ways of thinking.

Inclusivity. Participants of the study also mentioned the importance of having an attitude of inclusivity. Kathina from Peru revealed:

I would expect that inclusivity will be more than just the word and would

manifest or translate itself to actual events or actions that have international

students and their whatever they have to share included. It’s mainly as if the only

thing or the main thing that the university cares about is just to have a certain

number of international students so they can say we’re various and

inclusive…When you learn about other cultures in other parts of the world, you’re

also learning about yourself. It’s okay to be proud of where you’re from, but you

cannot just be watching your own self and pretend the rest of the world doesn’t

exist.

Soledad from Guyana also shared the importance of being inclusive in regard to language variety:

As a student who has been writing in British English all of my life, if there is

consistency and clarity in my academic English, then I don’t expect [a professor] 133

to correct my orthography. Yes, I know I am in an American university but just

allowing a student to shine how they know to shine is not contravening any law of

academic policies….People shouldn’t put their ideology on other persons.

Kan, a doctoral student from Saudi Arabia, expressed that in an academic atmosphere, it is essential that everyone feel equally included: “I want to see there is no difference between any students. Students should never be treated differently, especially due to their color or their background or their religion.” Putroe from Indonesia also highlighted that in order to achieve a glocal mindset, it requires everyone to begin with an attitude of inclusivity to work towards mutual engagement:

It is important to be inclusive, not exclusive. When you are international, don’t be

exclusive. Also local student, don’t be exclusive. I expect that as a university, we

have to be engaged in what culture is, right? I mean, I see you as my friend and

you see me as a friend, so I need to learn your culture and you also need to learn

my culture. That’s where engagement happens. That’s where attitudes change.

Reflection. Participants of the study also revealed the importance of being reflective. Soledad, one of the doctoral students in teacher education, shared her perspective on how university stakeholders need to have an attitude of self-reflection, being open to learning:

I wouldn’t expect [faculty, staff and students] to know everything. I would expect

them to be willing to learn as I am willing to learn. Because we could have gone

to the same university, have the same degree then we come away with two

different knowledge senses. So it’s just showing that you’re willing to listen, 134

willing to learn. As a professor, you should be reflective. This is what I taught

today - if I have to teach this lesson again tomorrow, how would I go about doing

it? How would I do it differently for a different set of students? How would I do it

different for students from a different continent? How much of the learning

process involves you giving the students a chance to grow or that chance to share?

Because if I am in a class with you and I’m in a class with someone from Kenya, I

should come out with different knowledge than if I am in a class with someone

from South Africa or Benin or elsewhere.

She continued:

I would expect [faculty] to continually want to learn and improve themselves.

Support for students, leadership collaboration, teamwork…those are 21st century

skills as they call it. The thing is to not give students content but give them the

ability to function in whatever area they might find themselves. We should be

able to leave the university and go anywhere in the world and be able to work

collaboratively with people, have some management skills, some cultural

sensitivity, cultural competency. In a class of mine, we had a discussion about the

American dream. And I said but I’m not American, right? And at that time, the

American dream was for white people. So, what are you going to say to the

people who were disenfranchised at that time?...So you have to be able to have a

healthy discussion and agree, disagree and yet come away still as friends. If we

aren’t reflective about what we do, we won’t grow. 135

Loday from The Gambia also noted the importance of university stakeholders reflecting on their own cultural biases:

Faculty, staff, and students should be able to and willing to explore their own

cultural-orientation and examine their behaviors, values and attitudes and

appreciate cultural diversity and the existence of the multiplicity of world cultures

as well as their interrelatedness. They should be willing and prepared to question

their own cultural assumptions and biases about other people. They should be

conscious of the fact that other cultures are equally valid as their own. They

should appreciate the cultural, political, social, economic, and historical realities

of local people. They should demonstrate competence in dealing or interacting

with people of a different cultural orientation by adapting to new or local cultural

contexts and applying global approaches or frameworks to local situations in

tandem with local practices and attitudes.

Engagement. Another theme that emerged from the data was the importance of having an attitude of engagement. Participants of the study expressed how meaningful it is when people openly engage them in conversation with a warm welcome. Farida from

Thailand shared her thoughts on faculty engaging in a warm and friendly manner with international students:

I think faculty should be thrilled, excited and willing to work with international

students. [They should] have done some research or travels overseas and be able

to communicate and work with international students in a warm and welcoming

way. I mean, this is not like I expect so much because we have different parts of 136

the world, right? You can’t expect people to know Africa, Asia, Latin America,

etc. All that is impossible. But at least they should be aware of where the student

is from and what kind of culture. At least some idea about international students

and a willingness to work with them. And yeah, just basically be friendly.

Vianey, a master’s student from Brazil, admitted that he would like to feel that faculty and staff want to engage with him:

Sometimes it would be nice to have people ask how I am doing or just say, ‘Hey

let’s sit over here and talk. How are you doing? Do you have a minute? Let’s just

chat, let’s just talk.’ I’m sure [international students] will feel, ‘Oh, okay, that was

a great experience.’ [International students] live away from their family, so many

times are looking to ask for help, maybe they are homesick, so if you don’t show

that you want to engage with them and treat them well, you can make them feel

worse. We need to feel welcomed.

Mateo from Cambodia also shared his perspective on how engagement can lead to feeling a sense of belonging:

It’s hard to explain it, but every time I go to this student support center, they are

so welcoming. I just feel like there’s no bias, there’s no hierarchy or anything

considering I am an international student. I just feel like it’s easy for me to access

their systems. In a university, I want to feel like I belong and feel like I am a part

of this place. 137

Kamnan from Ghana expressed how even a greeting can go a long way to making someone feel welcomed: “When you see someone, stop and greet them. Ask them how they are doing and how their classes are going. I think these are very vital.”

Participants also commented that in order to engage, it is necessary to be an extrovert to a certain degree to be comfortable reaching out when you need help. Soledad from Guyana shared: “It’s helpful if you’re an extrovert so that you can reach out to other people and they can learn more about your needs and understand what you’re doing and how you’re doing. Until you tell me, I don’t know what you need or how you feel.”

Curiosity. Another common theme that emerged from the data was the importance of curiosity. Several participants expressed the impossibility of knowing everything about every country and culture, but how curiosity can help keep people open to learning. Kathina from Peru shared her perspective on the importance of curiosity:

I find that there’s a lot of curiosity, and necessary to be curious to learn. I find

here that there’s a great lack of global knowledge, especially from the younger

people. I have grown accustomed to saying that I’m from Peru in South America

just to situate it because many people have never heard of Peru, especially

younger people. But mostly I feel they want to engage and also they enjoy

knowing more about another culture, so that’s good. If people are curious, they

will learn so much.

In addition to identifying the attitudes they would expect to see in university stakeholders at a university that is globally minded and locally engaged, the participants also shared their recommendations on how to foster the desired attitudes. 138

Participant Perspectives on Fostering Glocal Attitudes

Although the participants’ experience did not always reflect the attitudes they would expect to see in a university setting that is globally minded and locally engaged, they shared that there are steps not only the individual student can take to become more glocally oriented in regard to their attitude, but also steps faculty and the leadership at a university can take as well. Their recommendations range from input on how international students can enhance their own experiences to what faculty and leadership can implement to help foster glocal attitudes in all students, staff, and faculty.

Self. The first recommendations mentioned reflect what international students can do themselves to cultivate their own glocal attitudes.

Willingness to Challenge One’s Own Beliefs. A few of the participants made reference to the importance of international students being willing to challenge their own beliefs when they enter into a new environment. Sawyer from India commented:

I remember reading sometime along back that many years ago an author was

saying to take the position opposite of your beliefs and then challenge our own

beliefs to the extent that you feel they’re nearly broken. So, that means you are

able to look at your own beliefs from an external point of view. It’s only when

you challenge yourself that you can answer anyone who challenges you. So if you

are not willing to challenge your own beliefs, it means that you are not in a

position to strengthen them because only when you realize the drawbacks in your

beliefs or in your understating of them, it’s only then that you can become

something better. I would recommend every new student to take this position of 139

challenging their beliefs when they come.

Soledad from Guyana also recommended students to come with an open-minded attitude and to be willing to have new experiences and meeting different kinds of people.

She expressed:

Open-mindedness comes from you as a student. Because if you have that thirst as

a student, most time it will translate into any area of your life. For example, I have

had students that said they come from very conservative households and regions.

They never saw anybody looking other than them. And coming to a university

setting with international students, listening to what they had to offer, the

atmosphere that professor promoted in the classroom opened their mind. The

ability to be involved in so many organizations, student organizations, outside of

your dominant culture is what will open students’ eyes that may not have gone

anywhere outside of their own region.

Approach of Mutual Respect. Bakti from The Gambia made a point to highlight the shared responsibility of creating a glocally competent campus. He indicated:

I will say that it’s a two-way process. It shouldn’t just be on the part of the

institutes to foster the environment for intercultural understanding and global

competence; but it should also be on the part of the international student coming

to understand the domestic cultural realities. I think if this climate is achieved, we

can have a better world.

Attitude of Lifelong Learner. Victor from Burkina Faso articulated the necessity of having an attitude of lifelong learning and recommended international students, as well 140 as other students, be open to learning during their university studies and long afterwards.

Whereas faculty can instill an attitude of lifelong learning, Victor articulated that it is also the responsibility of each student to facilitate their own learning as well. He emphasized:

The idea is that you don’t necessarily have to teach someone to know the world

on the spot in the one class that you are teaching them, but try to inspire

them to be able to be that kind of person who is a lifelong learner. And the student

needs to take responsibility in their own lifelong learning. Any occasion that is

presented to them, they can undo things, un-learn things, and learn new things.

That’s how I envision an ideal institution of higher education – critically training

students to be prepared, to be in a predisposition, to be lifelong learners, to be

constantly on the watch and to look for new things to learn and old things to un-

learn. For that to happen, though, the student must make it happen.

Faculty. Participants also provided recommendations as to what faculty can do to help foster glocal attitudes in institutions of higher education. Their recommendations included attention to the implicit (or “hidden”) curriculum, the use of class blogs, program-based international celebrations, and cultural presentations.

Attention to Implicit Curriculum. Curriculum is both explicit and implicit, or hidden (Pratt, 2020). The implicit or hidden curriculum involves a professor’s attitudes and biases that are delivered through their instruction, how they set up the course, etc., whether or not they are aware. Victor from Burkina Faso articulated how a professor’s attitudes are apparent from the first day when the course is presented and the attitude that 141 the professor has in regard to research coming from an international perspective. He shared his insight into how they can begin with a global approach:

I believe that professors have so much power beginning with the syllabus and the

description of the course. I might take a random class that might not even

necessarily need a global component, maybe it does. I may take a class like

mathematics. If I’m a professor and I’m teaching like an introduction to

mathematics, how do I make my students globally-oriented in that kind of class?

Perhaps the way I describe the course or perhaps the material that I’m putting out

there, the syllabus, the readings, and so on, maybe telling them a bit of history

about how they came up with numbers, numerical numbers. How did we come up

with these numbers? Who is the person who invented this thing? Where are they

from? So when I think about professors and their power that they have over the

student, I’m beginning to think about just the syllabus.

Victor further articulated his experience in courses where multiple perspectives were either ignored or discouraged:

I’ve seen a syllabus that had the opportunity to include global material, things

about the world, but they would miss opportunities. And the attitude of the

professor towards a more global perspective is meaningful itself. I’ve seen

research method classes that highly discouraged methods that were used

elsewhere. I’m like, okay, I don’t really have the power to speak here because I’m

a student. But this other student who was using a methodology from India, she

was told it would not work here. But when the student goes beyond school, it’s a 142

learning moment for me as an instructor to perhaps follow them a little bit or

maybe use that and say, oh, maybe next time I’m teaching this course I’m going

to try to include that element. But, again, in some disciplines, by the time people

get a PhD, they have narrowed everything down in their expertise to one single

thing. In the same process, they may have also narrowed their mind to that little

narrow thing. To be a global teacher, the globally-oriented professor should be

able to guide students in helping them learn what they want to learn and not

necessarily telling them what they have to learn.

Victor’s viewpoint emphasizes the critical role faculty play in nurturing glocal attitudes through their curricular decisions as well as their instructional approach.

Class Blogs. Another recommendation provided by a participant involved the use of class blogs to help facilitate the interaction between all students and nurture glocal attitudes by providing opportunities for students to relate to one another. Kathina from

Peru shared:

Professors can use class blogs. It’s a great way for students to share with each

other. It opens their eyes to the similarities they have, even though they come

from different backgrounds. I have a professor who every week you have to write

something in a blog from the real world with our weekly readings. And the

interesting thing is that the people in the class blog about the situations in their

own countries, like India, Turkey, Egypt, etc. When you read these blogs, you’re

learning a little bit about what happens in other countries related to what you’re

learning in class. It’s a way to bring in a global perspective. And it helps students 143

be more open-minded about the world and curious about learning more about

each other.

Program-Based International Celebrations. Participants also recommended to encourage faculty to hold world celebrations in their own classes or as a program, rather than just relying on ones that are celebrated as a university event on campus. It is an opportunity for all students to see that each academic program values their international stakeholders. Dharma from England suggested:

I think the president of the university would be able to somehow rely on the

leaders within the teams or the faculty to create more of an amalgamation of the

current year students with the international students. Faculty could focus on

hosting international events within their own programs and encourage all students

to participate. When something is offered through the university, I might not be

aware of it or might not think to go, but if my own department is hosting it and

doing something special, I would think students would likely participate.

In addition to program-based celebrations, participants also suggested the usefulness of cultural presentations in classes to foster glocal attitudes.

Cultural Presentations. Several participants recommended that faculty also provide opportunities for everyone to share about themselves and their backgrounds in class as a means of creating an environment for students to feel comfortable. Bankei, a doctoral student from Kuwait, commented, “I like to share my culture. I remember one class, the professor asked me to talk about myself and my country. It’s building a few steps to understand that I come from a different perspective.” Arya from Serbia also 144 shared that allowing students to talk about themselves in classes brings people together more effectively. She indicated:

Faculty can have students do presentations on their countries. Most students are

proud of their countries and want to share about them. Every student can do one

so even the domestic students can share about their home. I believe this is so

important. That’s how we connect with one another and see that we are all the

same on a human level actually.

Although some of the recommendations targeted the individual student and faculty, the majority of the recommendations were geared toward a university’s leadership.

Leadership. In addition to what the students and faculty can do, participants also recognized the critical role university leadership plays in creating an atmosphere that is globally minded and locally engaged. Some of the participants expressed a need for a paradigm shift in leadership in academia. According to Dharma from England, leaders who will have the greatest impact must come from a social justice perspective. She articulated:

I think you have to lead with saying they have to be a social justice leader. They

have to have the audacity and almost slight arrogance to believe this is the way

forward. This really is civic humanity in its best form, in the best way to keep

authenticism but also enriching humanity’s understanding of each other. And I

think to do that it has to come with courageousness. When we look at everyone

that’s tried to push any social movement, they a lot of the time have been in 145

isolation and they’ve faced so much backlash, and they’ve faced actually a lot of

violence verbally and physically for trying to lead the way in terms of how to

interconnect globally and how it needs to look from a community perspective and

how to embrace all these elements. It takes someone with courage and confidence

to sustain that model because eventually the hierarchies will come forward to

push enrollment. Budgets are a huge thing in this world, especially in the Western

world. So I think it’s trying to sell it enough to people to say that this is what is

best to enrich humanity and let’s give it a chance and see how it can flourish.

Farida from Thailand also expressed the need for leadership to have a wealth of international experience. She explained:

University leadership has to be globally-minded, spend time overseas, recognize

the value in international research, appreciate the value of international students

and faculty, and have a willingness to create learning opportunities both

domestically and internationally so that it will be holistic learning. This is the only

way to achieve a campus that is globally minded and locally engaged. It begins

with the right leadership.

If university leadership understands the importance of creating a glocal space for learning to take place, they will be better equipped to implement the necessary strategies to make it happen. The following recommendations provided by the participants pertain to what leaders can do to foster glocal attitudes in all university stakeholders.

Offering Adequate Support. Participants expressed the importance of having the necessary support from the university in order to feel cared for, valued, and informed. 146

The support offered, according to their recommendations, should provide support for dealing with sensitive issues that an international student may not have been previously exposed to in their own country, as well as services that address their well-being.

Kathina from Peru expressed the need for on-going wellness check-ins considering many international students will not seek help on their own due to previously ingrained biases. She revealed:

Students in graduate school struggle a lot, especially international students. One

thing that you will find is different between Latin Americans and maybe other

cultures is that we’re not very good about seeking counseling. We grew up

thinking only mental people seek help. Maybe we know it’s not like that anymore,

but we are not used to seeking help.

Vianey from Brazil also acknowledged that he would like to see more engagement with the international students to determine how they are adjusting. He expressed:

You are the first person who has asked me how I feel about being here. Maybe

people would feel better if the university did more research like you’re doing, to

ask how you are, to have someone to talk to, maybe it would be like, I mean like

here have like social events to just talk, like with coffee and then people from the

university inside of the events, just to ask people, ‘How are you? How are you

doing? How are you feeling? Are you happy?’

Soledad from Guyana shared similar thoughts, expressing the need for mentors:

I think having someone who will really listen, some real mentorship, is critical. 147

What can I really do if I have a problem? Who can I vent to? It’s a challenge to

get international students to seek help when it’s counseling. Psychological –

there’s a whole stigma with that. You might not get international students there.

Telling an American to go to counseling services might go over differently than

telling an international student.

Putroe from Indonesia added, “I sometimes feel like my voice doesn’t matter. What’s important is visa, cultural events, etc., which I understand. Promote culture with food, everything, okay. But think about people when they are suffering. We need support.”

Victor from Burkina Faso also shared the necessity of having support on how to engage with sensitive topics that international students might not have previous exposure to:

I attended a presentation that was talking about how successful

internationalization is because of the increase in the international population. And

I thought what about the challenges we are facing? Are we having conversations

about the major issues that we international students don’t understand? Like over

the past few years a major issue has been gender issues, and international students

don’t necessarily know how to deal with these things. They don’t know how to

navigate this. They don’t even know how to date someone sometimes. They’re

doing it wrong and they get in trouble. Sometimes we get together, we try to have

conversations around that. We try to invite people who are working in that

department of multi-cultural affairs and it’s just challenging. How do we engage?

Some people leave because of that. That kind of frustration including women who 148

come here and are confronted with a new reality, a different reality. Just

something that doesn’t necessarily have to do with school, but they were just not

prepared to confront that and end up leaving. We need a support system that helps

us to engage in those kinds of conversations.

Budro from Vietnam discussed the need for support in how to deal with racism when an international student faces it. She exclaimed:

There is really no venue around here for us to go and discuss what we experience

as international students. I have experienced racism but there really is not a venue

to discuss it. I believe that many other international students would have a similar

experience, but we don’t have a venue to discuss that issue, and just personally, I

don’t know how to react to people saying racist things to me. Why I’m still even

in my doctoral program and the graduation is very much where you’re headed,

right? Nobody knows what is going to happen with their dissertation. Next, so I

think including a venue and a forum and space where we can discuss this and cast

light on the nature of it and have strategies so international students like us face

less insensitive comments and we know how to deal with it effectively when it

happens.

Dharma from England included the need for adequate support for students who come from non-English speaking backgrounds. She indicated:

I would like to see a greater appreciation for but also a push towards supporting

those that come from non-English speaking countries. A greater support provided

for them, rather than bringing these students that come where English is their 149

second language and assuming just because they’ve passed a certain test to go

through that English, and that once they’re here that they’re going to be provided

naturally that support or just figure it out themselves…especially a lot more

support for doctoral students where the writing becomes a lot more complex, a lot

more analytical.

She furthered explained the need for universities to support international students who may be entering an environment that does not have a great deal of exposure to people of other ethnicities. She explained:

I think for universities to understand really the landscape and the environment

they’re in. With [my university], they are on the outskirts of Appalachia, so those

that have come from countries where they might not have seen anyone or heard

anyone even that looks like some of the students who are being brought onto

campus, and they step out of that bubble, so to speak, how difficult sometimes or

maybe even uncomfortable they might feel…My wife and I stayed in the Amish

country, and luckily for me I get to hide my sexuality, so I have the benefit and

the privilege that you can’t hide sometimes if you are from a certain country. I’ve

driven by houses just outside of town that all had confederate flags. So I think

that’s where I have been in places from a university perspective, I’ve felt

uncomfortable in thinking if I wasn’t able to hide or be able to navigate these

terrains looking like and speaking a language that people feel comfortable with,

then I wouldn’t imagine to think what it must be like being someone that might

not have that experience. I think that’s where the university has a huge 150

responsibility.

Soledad from Guyana also expressed the support international students who come here with a family need in making adjustment to the local culture. She asserted:

How does a university support a student who might be here with a family?

Transportation, for example. You might have a three-mile limit, but because of

funding, students might need to live further off campus. Which now means they

can’t get home with the late-night services. There is no consideration for that

student. There’s no case by case examination...Sometimes as an international

student with a family, you might have the community reach out to you, but

sometimes I find that they are reaching out to you for you to learn about America,

but they’re not opening themselves for them to learn about you. For instance, I

keep having to say that I don’t do sleepovers. I don’t want to offend you because

you’re my friend and you might be picking up my child and I think that you get

annoyed if I say I don’t do sleepovers. Because that’s your culture, not mine. So,

it’s like you’re still trying to impose a lot of things on me because you think that

you’re being helpful to me or you’re supporting me.

Offering adequate support to address international students’ needs is an essential element to fostering an environment that reflects a glocal mindset.

Transparency in Communication. Participants also shared the need for complete transparency regarding difficulties that international students may face upon arriving for the first time in the U.S. Soledad from Guyana shared the struggles she faced when she first arrived to explain how critical it is for “open and transparent” communication: 151

Universities need to be open and transparent so students know that when they

come they have to have two months rent and to live before their stipend actually

kicks in . Because when you’re told, it’s not communicated in a way that persons

would understand fully. So, I think you have this idea that if they tell you this is

the amount of money you’re going to get for the school year, you don’t

understand when is the first payment date for that school year. So, you’re coming

with a lot of debt and you still have to wait. Some of those things are not

translated well. If you tell me you’re going to give me $800 every two weeks, I

think it’s a lot of money because back home, I’m not going to spend that money. I

don’t know that $800 barely covers rent. So, every other expense I would have to

come up with the money on my own.

Approaches to Internationalization that Reflect Inclusivity. Another recommendation to foster glocal attitudes was a policy in place to accept different dialects of language, thereby not forcing students to conform to the forms of language or culture derived from standards set during a period of Western colonization, such as the

English spoken in the U.S. or England, or the French spoken in France. As Dharma from

England articulated:

I think I would love to see an avoidance of tokenism. So an avoidance of culture

being a buzzword to showcase to the outer world that they’re trying to be

inclusive, and be richer and robust in their education and their message to the

population. We want a university that is globally inclusive but a lot of these

environments that we see in the U.S. and in the U.K. tend to be very Westernized. 152

They’re environments that suit the colonialist mind. They’re environments that

suit an individual that’s been used to that culture or that institution and the way

that they’ve been set up.

Victor’s experience teaching French at his university exemplifies how ingrained

Western ideals are promoted through language. Even though he is a native speaker of

French, he was raised in West Africa and speaks a dialect of French spoken in Burkina

Faso. He disclosed:

I quit the French department because they were asking me to pronounce

everything like a French person would pronounce it. I said no because French is a

global language. The French that is spoken in Burkina Faso or Cote d’Ivoire or

Canada is not necessarily the same French that is spoken in Paris. The French that

is spoken in the U.S., we shouldn’t expect it to be Paris French. As long as I’m

following the grammar and language structure, it should be fine. But they were

forcing me to pronounce nasal vowels and I said no, I’m not going to do that.

Then, at some point, I just became frustrated and said I don’t need this. And the

students didn’t have a problem at all with me, and I still keep in contact with

some of them. It was the administration who didn’t like how I was pronouncing

the language. That needs to change. That colonial mindset needs to change. It’s

being perpetuated to younger generations. Students of language should have

access to all dialects of language to appreciate diverse cultures and be open-

minded. 153

Victor further explained his experience as an international student having to constantly explain himself when he feels that others are not required to do the same:

I remember writing a paper for a professor in which I kept using the word

Burkinabe. This professor commented that the first time I use the word, I should

put a comma and indicate I’m referring to the people of Burkina Faso. I

confronted him about this because I had read a book of his where he kept

referring to Americans and never specified that he meant people from the United

States of America. The word American is confusing. Last I checked Canadians are

Americans, Mexicans are Americans. I asked him why he did not clarify in his

book. He was not happy at first that I said this, but later he came to me and said I

taught him something…International students tend to write about home. We tend

to write about environments that are familiar to us, issues that are familiar to our

people. Often times it’s not that we are not writing well, it’s not that we are not

engaging well, but we have to explain everything. It’s like you’re here to explain

yourself constantly instead of engage in scholarship.

In sharing his experience, Victor raised an important issue regarding the perception of cultural dominance, a misconception that is perpetuated in the United States. There is an assumption that all people would be familiar with and accept the notion of Americans referring only to people from the U.S.

Ambassadors Appointed to Combat Stereotypes. To assist in cultivating an environment that is inclusive of all, one of the recommendations suggested was to create a team of ambassadors to challenge people’s preconceived notions they may have 154 regarding a certain cultural group based on what has been presented to them in the media or due to their own lack of awareness. Putroe from Indonesia shared:

I have an obligation as a Muslim to promote also what actually is a Muslim, in my

perspective. For example, to go against some of the stereotypes because here

people think that Muslims are passive and Muslims are terrorists or something

like that. Same if people in my country think that Americans are all bad. That’s

where I think I have a role to play. When I listen to negative stereotypes, I counter

them with positive stories. Because here I feel I am accepted by a lot of American

people as a Muslim woman. I see them as my brothers and my sisters. So that’s

why I write stories, to share my experience with my people and reduce these

kinds of stereotypes which are not true. There are good and bad people

everywhere, right? …I was so touched to see when 70 students were protesting

the Muslim ban from seven different countries. They were arrested by the police

for protesting, and they were not even Muslim. They were mostly young

Americans, there were LGBTQ people there, there were every kind of people

there, and they fought for me as a Muslim, as my brothers and sisters…I mean,

sometimes when I walk, I have been screamed at by cars, but I don’t blame them.

That’s how they were educated by someone at some point. That’s why my role to

help change these negative views is important – to share with people what they

don’t know.

Bodhi from Kenya also articulated his viewpoint:

This is something I always talk to my friends about. That they are people 155

regarded as people who cannot provide knowledge or anything by some people

somewhere. There is this mindset about other people. And when we break that

mindset, when we break the stereotypes we have about other people and we allow

people to engage from all over the world, we stop looking down upon some type

of people that this is going to have a world that is more connected, world which is

more healthy, world which is more peaceful because we need to learn from

people, we need to understand that there are other people who look like this, they

have this particular knowledge, this is their culture, this is who they are and there

is nothing you can do to change that.

Bodhi continued expressing the importance of learning from people who come from different cultural backgrounds:

In fact, what you need to do is to know how you can engage and communicate

with them and learn from them and give them an opportunity to talk. So if we

have that type of set up in the world where we’re not seeing people of this

particular region looking down upon other people from the region, we shall have a

connected world, which we’re doing, and we can have people who are bringing

skills because the world has different people with different abilities. These people

need to be moving all over the world and they change the world. If it was not

through migration (I did geography), migration brought about all these skills that

we see in the world. If people didn’t migrate, there shouldn’t be skills. It’s

because of movement. And when you move, you learn from somebody else. And

when you combine your knowledge with another knowledge, you come up with a 156

hybrid knowledge. So that’s how we grow the world, through all these projects

you’re doing. The university needs to have people who are helping to make this

happen. But in order for that to happen – to get that knowledge from each other –

we have to have people who help break the stereotypes so that people are open to

learning from one another.

In order for internationalization to thrive at a university, it should not be assumed that all stakeholders are entering academia with an already established glocal mindset.

Appointing ambassadors to help combat stereotypes could greatly enhance a university’s chance at successfully internationalizing.

International Representations Present. In order to feel welcomed, Lotus from

Honduras emphasized the value of seeing international representations around a campus and activities highlighting international history and traditions. She indicated, “Activities like the International street fair where students present their culture and signature food and international education week and seeing the flags from all over the world really help connect international students and make us feel that we are welcomed and we have a second home.” She further suggested universities could do more to include all cultural backgrounds: “I have seen a lot of students from Africa and Asia, but I don’t see a lot

Latino or Hispanic cultures. And even September, that is our independence month. There were no activities related to that. It would have been nice to see something done.” In addition, she emphasized how a global component added to all services offered to students would be meaningful: “Any student services on campus that focus on helping 157 students, like the library, dining hall, transportation, etc., we need to think about how to have a global component to everything.”

Putroe from Indonesia also added the importance of including all international celebrations in order to reflect a campus of glocal competence. She expressed:

Global consciousness needs to be strengthened. I mean, the respect. For example,

when it’s Christmas, we have a long break. But when it’s a Muslim celebration,

there’s no recognition – classes are still held. Our Islamic celebrations are very

important, too. I feel like this is a problem because some professors are good

about letting the Muslim students miss the class, but others will deduct points.

And if we’re of value to this university community, why wouldn’t all classes be

cancelled to recognize our significant traditions? It would communicate to

everyone that our holidays are just as important as the Christian holidays.

Creation of a Third Culture. Krishna from Nepal recommended the implementation of a third culture space (Patel & Lynch, 2013) where authentic interactions can take place between domestic and international students in a neutral environment. He explained:

A diverse student body helps bring equality among these students, like no matter

if they are domestic students or international students. If all of them are

interacting with one another in their new culture in the university, where no

nationality is emphasized as the dominant, that would help every student to

understand cultural differences. So that would be useful for them, right? I think

the more students are exposed to international students, the more they will be 158

accepting of international cultures. So in our society, we have a saying that you

don’t [salivate] unless you have tasted lime before. Because if you have tasted

lime before, then you will know the taste and then after seeing a lime, you would

[salivate]. So that means the more domestic students have opportunities to interact

with people from diverse cultures, the more they will be impacted and want to get

to know more people from different cultures.

Krishna also admitted to the challenge involved in creating a third culture space in which one culture is not valued over another unless significant actions are taken to change the college campus culture.

The recommendations communicated above specifically reflect the actions university members can take to promote glocal attitudes on campus. In addition to attitudes, glocal knowledge was also examined.

Glocal Knowledge

An additional component required in the planning phase of internationalization is glocal knowledge, or “facts, information or data” (Jean-Francois, 2015, p. 147) that university stakeholders should know in order to foster glocal competence. Figure 6 represents the participants’ perspectives on the knowledge necessary to achieve glocal competence, as well as their recommendations for how to promote the accumulation of such knowledge. An explanation of each desired knowledge and each recommendation follows in Figure 6, which include specific narrative from the participants.

159

Figure 6

Glocal Knowledge

Participant Perspectives of Desired Knowledge for Glocal Competence

• Knowledge of the world • Knowledge of differences • Knowledge of struggles international students face • Knowledge of global issues • Knowledge of Western imperialism • Knowledge of the global-local connection • Knowledge of culturally appropriate terminology Participant Perspectives on Fostering Glocal Knowledge • Self • Knowledge of the world

• Faculty • Workshops • Collaborative research projects with international students • Multi-cultural, multi-perspective curriculum • Academic forums

• Leadership • Fluid, multi-directional exchange of knowledge

Participant Perspectives of Desired Knowledge for Glocal Competence

Knowledge of the World. The most common theme that emerged from the data was knowledge of the world. Every participant shared that, to some degree, it is essential to know information about the world. Rashid from Iran expressed:

I want to say that having some minimum knowledge about different countries,

especially who are more abundant among the nationalities is kind of important.

Because I know for example, the Americans are not Mexicans for example, but 160

it’s kind of ridiculous and sometimes insulting that people don’t know that. For

example, the Arabs and the Iranians and the Africans are different

people…different nationalities, different races, different cultures. I think some

sort of minimum knowledge for everyone would be would be appreciated.

Kan from Saudi Arabia also shared the importance of having enough knowledge of the political systems around the world to avoid negative stereotypes:

I think universities should be mindful of educating students to have a realistic

picture of the world and politics of the world. There is a lot of negative

information about my country on social media giving the wrong idea about

tourism, the Middle East, you know. I think it’s important that universities

provide multiple perspectives and break down stereotypes.

Bakti from The Gambia also shared his perspective on the importance of having knowledge of the world:

It requires trying to gain the knowledge as well. All faculty, staff and students

across the spectrum should try to endeavor to learn more and increase their

knowledge level regarding the diverse world and the diverse student community

they have. International students also need to step out of their own box and

understand their new realities. I think if every actor dedicated themselves to put in

more effort, more knowledge can be gained.

Lotus from Honduras shared how she feels all stakeholders at a university should know about the countries that are represented at the university:

It’s important to know what countries there are in the world. People don’t know 161

where Honduras is. They just think it’s close to Mexico or whatever. I also think

that it’s important to know what’s going on in those countries. It gives you a

better idea of the people you are with. The things happening in our countries back

home affects us. Even though we are not there, our families are there, our lives are

there.

Krishna from Nepal expressed how most people he has met at his university are not familiar with his country:

When people ask me where I am from, most of them are surprised when I say

Nepal because they haven’t heard of it. I ask them if they have heard of Mount

Everest, and then they know. Nepal is a small country and it is unknown to most

people around the world. But it’s always better to know the world whether the

information is useful now or later. Knowing something is always better.

Knowledge of Differences (Cultures, People, Etc.). Participants of the study also felt it was important to have knowledge of cultural differences. Samsara from China mentioned, “Having knowledge about different cultures and social customs is important to help students.” Bodhi from Kenya also expressed the need for university stakeholders to have knowledge of cultural differences:

I think [university stakeholders] should learn about other people. There are so

many case studies which they can learn about other people. I think if it’s not

happening at the university, these are some of the workshops which can be put up

and people understand to let people think outside the box…You’re always told to

think outside the box; it is hard to solve a problem when your mindset is just you 162

and you don’t have an idea of others. Reading more about other people, you will

understand the importance of having those connections with other universities, in

organizations all over the world.

Arya from Serbia commented on the importance of knowing about cultural differences that involve religious differences: “If someone has religious needs, it’s important to know that. When we think about Arabic people, Arabic women, they don’t want to be in the group with men. Maybe to know that so when there’s thirty students in a class and you group them, don’t force Arabic women to work with men.”

Zen, a doctoral student from Turkey, shared his perspective on the necessity of people knowing about the different cultures and ethnicities that exist within a national culture:

People act according to their prejudice. They think when I see black hair or a

black beard, it’s maybe because I am from the Middle East or Latino. But they

should know that there are a lot of countries and a lot of different kinds of people

in those countries. We don’t all look the same and we don’t all think the same.

We are not the same.

Vianey from Brazil expressed that he felt Americans would be happier if they had more knowledge about how people live differently around the world:

I think Americans would be happier if they had the opportunity to interact more

with people from other countries where there’s a lot of poverty. Americans

always have a sad face because I don’t think they realize how privileged they are.

Coming from Brazil, I bring every year a lot of equipment to help poor kids in 163

Brazil. Like a house that’s like 10 people living in a one-bedroom, kitchen and

bathroom, you find so much happiness. If you have more opportunities to interact

with each other and learn how other people live around the world, maybe there

will be less depression in the U.S.

Knowledge about other cultures is especially critical when faculty and staff are interacting with students from other countries. Putroe from Indonesia shared an experience she had while trying to obtain an identification card. Her experience exemplifies the necessity of knowing about cultural differences:

It’s critical that people working at a university have an understanding of cultural

differences that will have an impact on their job. For example, when I went to get

my state ID card, I told them I only have one name. Usually they put ‘No First

Name’ before my name on the card, but this lady said, ‘No, that’s not right.’ I

asked her to call immigration or something so she can understand in my culture, it

is common to not have a first name. She didn’t know that the rule is if there is an

international student that doesn’t have a name, put FNU [first name unknown].

Rafael from China also emphasized how critical it is for people to know about cultural differences that exist within a university environment. He commented:

You need to understand that every culture is different. You need to learn the

culture because culture shock is very, very serious. For example, some of the

countries, people cannot eat beef or pork. If you don’t know this, how might you

treat that person? You have to learn the culture first, and then you update what

you do because even though we will make mistakes when you do something, the 164

more you do, the more you will learn. Or understanding that many students

coming from Muslim countries will have times during the day that they will need

to pray.

Another aspect of differences mentioned to achieve glocal competence is the knowledge of individual differences. As Kamnan commented, “We are not the same. It takes time to really understand what someone who is not like you is saying.” Kan from

Saudi Arabia also communicated the need for an understanding of individual differences.

He expressed his frustration at the results of a standardized test impacting his wife’s ability to take academic coursework, even though she is highly qualified to do so in his opinion. Kan’s wife was not able to enroll in academic coursework due to her TOEFL

(i.e., Test of English as a Foreign Language) score, a required test for non-native English- speaking international students desiring to study at American universities. He explained:

They should understand the differences between students. I know one student

whose English isn’t as good as mine, but he is studying at Harvard. He told me

that they understand his English isn’t great, but they appreciate his good work in

teaching and research. And here, like my wife, she is a very good student in terms

of research and statistics. And she’s better than I would say than all the

international students in [her] department. And she speaks English better than

them, better than me. But she couldn’t get in because she didn’t have the TOEFL

score. So she didn’t get admitted and she stays at home. Sometimes the TOEFL,

these tests, English proficiency tests, they focus sometimes on some issues…in

the reading tests, they give you some task from the science and it depends on 165

some unique technical…it’s not testing how good your English is – sometimes if

you’re not lucky, the topic is one you are not familiar with.

Sawyer also indicated the need for knowledge regarding differing viewpoints people have. He expressed:

My personal opinion is if you want to be globally minded and locally engaged,

you should realize that everyone is different, and it does not mean that you accept

all the viewpoints, but you should be comfortable getting your own viewpoints

challenged because again, you are in a different culture. The viewpoint of a

person, let’s say someone who was born and raised in a big city like New York

City, is going to be different than someone who was born and raised in a small

town in Appalachia. So basically because you’re from a completely different

environment, your viewpoints about many things are going to be different. It can

be your everyday life or it can be globally. So if you are not willing to have your

beliefs challenged, it won’t work.

Dharma from England also stressed the need to recognize individual differences when it comes to people’s learning styles. She articulated:

I think it is important to know the million and billion and one ways there is to

learn something. I think the understanding that yes someone might have come

from an educational system that might be from a country that you might as a

faculty member know a lot about, but that doesn’t always mean that they’re going

to respond to learning the same way when they’ve moved to a country where the

education might look slightly different. Every student has a different approach 166

and different way to learn.

Knowledge of Struggles International Students Face. Another important theme that emerged from the data was for faculty and staff to have knowledge of the common struggles and challenges international students face. Kamilah from Egypt shared:

Students are coming from other countries and putting everything aside to get a

better education. They left their houses, their families, and they came here for a

better life and better education. They are going to complain, and you have to

listen to know their struggles. You have to hear them and do something about it.

If it’s not your job, you need to put them with someone whose job it is.

Budro from Vietnam also mentioned the importance of knowing the struggles international students have when they study in another country, especially when they are students of color. She explained:

I would expect my professors and other students to be more aware of the issues

that non-white and non-American students like us have. Avoidance is the

tendency among professors when addressing political issues in the classroom. So

issues of racism and ethnocentrism are there. We don’t discuss that and we don’t

seem to acknowledge that. At the surface, it seems the message is everybody is

treated equally. Although, when we look at a more global level, we see that it is

not. So I would expect my professors to understand that, when we come here and

study, we face issues that American students do not. Probably, at least if no

activism is observed, acknowledgement that we are all humans but with very

different experiences would be nice. 167

Bankei from Kuwait pointed out how the struggles international students face can greatly impact one’s academic performance:

I think [faculty and staff] need to realize that there is the external and the internal

factors that affect the student performance. Sometimes, especially for

international students, any issue back home that can affect their performance, and

any financial issue can really affect their performance also. All humans

sometimes have ups and downs, but international students face an entire set of

issues that local students may not.

Krishna also expressed the importance of knowing your students well enough to be aware of the challenges they are experiencing:

Knowing the students is important. The international students have more

challenges than the domestic students. Because here we have linguistic barriers.

Here we have all cultural barriers and many times we have financial barriers as

well. So I think faculty should know these things and they should consider the

restraints. For example, I’m from Nepal so if you, as a native English speaker,

read one paragraph in English, you may understand that at a quick glance. Right?

But that cannot happen to me. So I think those things should be considered. Also,

we are living very hard and then one thing is like when I came here for the first

time, annual insurance, which is mandatory for international students and their

dependents, it was like $1,800 per person per one year in 2017 and now it’s like

$2,800 and it’s going to be $3,500. But they have not increased the stipend. 168

Several participants commented that a mere recognition of the financial hardship they undergo while studying in the U.S. would go a long way in showing the university’s acknowledgement of their struggles. Vianey from Brazil shared his experience about a friend who underwent financial difficulty in regard to her healthcare costs:

I have a friend from Ghana; she was playing soccer with us. She was not skilled

enough to play and she hurt her knee. She doesn’t have money to afford to go to

the hospital, and the university clinic was closed. And then when she went the

next day, her knee was so bad – so swollen – so she went to the clinic. They sent

her to the hospital to get exams, and she had a bill of more than $800. How can

we afford that? And we don’t have options. International students sometimes just

don’t go to the hospital when they need to because of that. My friend will need

surgery on her knee, but she can’t afford that.

Knowledge of Global Issues. Another theme emerging from the data is having knowledge of global issues. As Victor from Burkina Faso commented:

The global issues are going on and getting more and more complex and

complicated. I don’t expect people to be able to follow the trends and know what

happened yesterday here and over there and so on. But just being aware that

things are changing and things are transforming and everything that I hold true

yesterday might not be true today. When I see someone who is capable of

navigating that kind of thing, I feel like, okay, that person is going in the right

direction. 169

Mateo from Cambodia concurred. He shared, “I would not expect [university stakeholders] to know everything about every country, but I would expect them to have knowledge of global issues that we all face.” Bakti from The Gambia commented on the importance of creating solidarity through dissemination of information to keep university stakeholders abreast of global issues. He expressed, “I think it’s importance to be aware of what is happening around the globe. For instance, if a tsunami hits Indonesia, the university should be aware and there should be some form of announcement in solidarity of what’s happening.”

Knowledge of Western Imperialism. A few of the participants brought attention to the concern globalization has imposed, which is the notion of globalization promoting

Western ideals. According to Loday from The Gambia:

[University stakeholders] should know that globalization rests on three key

factors: standardization, marketization, and linguistic imposition. However,

imposition of Western capitalization standards on traditional societies of the

developing world creates a mismatch between enforcement of world views and

practices and compatibility of these imperialist practices with local cultures and

values. University faculty, staff, and students should be aware of these differences

between local people’s cultures and practices and the values of the West that

dominate globalization of higher education and its effects in local communities.

Such faculty and staff should be conscious of the multiplicity of global realities

and the need to consider global trends and the local realities of developing

countries in higher education practice. 170

Knowledge of the Global-Local Connection. Participants of the study also mentioned university faculty having the knowledge of not only global issues but how to connect them to the local identity. As Dharma from England stated:

A university should have the ability to transcend the global knowledge to the

community and be able to not talk about them in isolation but be able to say, ‘This

is the amalgamation and this is how it looks and this is how it works and this how

it can be effectively implemented for the greater good of all of those that are

involved in that society.’ I think we hear a lot about this and how this is the

international, global element. We hear about how the community has benefits

from the global aspect, but the hard part is trying to say, ‘Hey, this is how we

connect and this is what it looks like,’ while still trying to have the knowledge of

recognizing that this is still really important to have the community identity.

Athens, especially. I love the Athenian identity. I think it’s amazing, but I’d like

to see that bricolage of bringing those two together and seeing them flourish in

their paradoxical way separately but also together at the same time.

Knowledge of Culturally Appropriate Terminology. In addition to the previous knowledge mentioned, some of the participants also voiced concern over the use of inclusive terminology by university stakeholders. Kathina from Peru offered an example of the type of terminology she would expect to be used in a university that fostered global competence:

For instance, and this just happened in a WGSS class that I just started this

semester, the professor was talking and she made a reference to ‘third world 171

countries,’ which surprised me. She’s a young woman so I plan on going to talk to

her at some point. Not right now because maybe I don’t want her to think that I’m

correcting her or anything, but those are kind of sensitivities that you might not be

aware of. But if you are globally-minded, you should know that ‘third world

countries’ or ‘developing countries’ can be pejorative. Even ‘developing

countries’ has to do with hierarchies. I have learned to refer to them as the ‘global

south’ now through my education.

In addition to the knowledge participants identified as pivotal in seeking a glocal atmosphere, participants also provided recommendations as to how universities can help foster the knowledge.

Participant Perspectives on Fostering Glocal Knowledge

Participants shared recommendations on how to foster glocal knowledge in university stakeholders, beginning with what students can do themselves.

Self. A few participants expressed the importance of students taking it upon themselves to accumulate knowledge of the world.

Knowledge of the World. Amida from India shared, “I as a student need to do my part to be knowledgeable of the world. I cannot expect my professors to teach me everything. I can learn on my own, too.” Mateo from Cambodia also expressed the need for students to build their own knowledge of the world: “There is a lot a university can do to help me in my learning. But if I want to build knowledge of the world, I have to pay attention to what I hear, what I read. I have to do my own learning to understand the world that I live in.” 172

Faculty. Participants expressed the great value that faculty can add to their glocal knowledge base through workshops, collaborative research projects with international students, curriculum, and academic forums.

Workshops. Several participants noted the benefit of implementing workshops to nurture an accumulation of inclusive knowledge. Bodhi from Kenya articulated the advantage of technology in implementing workshops:

I think even going beyond having maybe a faculty from diverse regions, I would

also maybe think of having some seminars or workshops where we can have

people coming from a particular university and these ones from this university

and they can come together and think of how they would also maybe compare for

instance their curriculum and see what you teach here and what people learn. And

also going beyond that, in this time of technology advancement, we can have a

collaborative virtual engagement with all these other universities in the world

where sometimes a professor here can also have a class in one of the universities

in Africa, and one professor there can have a class here and also we can have

projects which can be done virtually by students from here and other universities.

There are so many ways in which we can interact. It’s only sitting down and

building up a framework at which I know we can engage with, but we should also

be ready to have to stop these mindsets of like, oh we are the only ones who can

give the way forward in terms of curriculum; we are the best. No, we have to

always also respect and also learn from other people what they are doing and who

knows, you’ll end up learning something which you’re not doing over here. So 173

there should be a lot of engagement which can happen if it is not physically, it can

be virtual now. That’s the advantage in the advancement of technology. So people

can do that.

Bodhi expressed that implementing technology to connect global stakeholders is key to glocalizing a university.

Collaborative Research Projects with International Students. Participants also acknowledged the benefit of having international students on campus who come from a wealth of background knowledge. Putroe from Indonesia expressed a desire to see faculty working collaboratively with international graduate students. She expressed:

It is so important for faculty to collaborate with international students. Have them

develop projects regarding their own people. Doctoral students especially already

come with a wealth of knowledge and background expertise. We can do so much

if provided a good opportunity. And it would make us feel so good to have faculty

show that they value us as knowledgeable researchers and not just students who

come with no knowledge or experience of our own.

Dharma from England also shared the importance of faculty encouraging international research. She commented:

It has been nice to see some of my peers actually do research from where they’re

from, and they’re taking stuff back home, which has been really nice. Can we get

a Zoom call with someone that’s currently taken their doctoral research and is

now teaching somewhere maybe in the middle back end of India somewhere? Or

doing an amazing project? I don’t think we hear enough from those students’ 174

perspectives. We hear a lot from maybe here in the U.S., so I’d like to see a lot

more broadening of those examples and faculty and students working together

collaboratively on international research.

Multi-Cultural/Multi-Perspective Curriculum. Curriculum is a key component of fostering glocal knowledge. Many participants offered suggestions as to how university faculty could enhance the quality of education through curricular choices. Bodhi from

Kenya indicated:

The faculty have this authority to bring in these ideas and these projects which

can of course help in terms of connectivity. They have the biggest influence on

the curriculum. Let’s have case studies which we can learn about the other parts

of the world, not only what is happening here. So faculty can do that. Projects,

like I said, virtual projects now. You can communicate with someone from any

part of the world. You are connecting, and I think this is what you’re saying. Let’s

have that diversity of thinking other than just thinking about projects within. But

we still have to do these projects within but we engage with others, and we learn

more from other people. And I think it will be helpful for the university or the

community within.

Farida from Thailand expressed the importance of domestic students learning about international issues. She indicated, “Students have to learn international studies. If faculty came up with a class assignment that allowed domestic students to speak with international students, that would be fantastic!” 175

Arya from Serbia addressed the problem of using knowledge in a classroom that is not reflective of the world:

The knowledge brought into the classroom needs to be more diverse and

reflective of more values than typical American values. Most of the books I have

is for Americans, like one book that had all examples about baseball and

American football. As an international student, it’s hard to understand American

examples. If more knowledge is taught that uses global examples, it would be

easier and more useful.

Dharma from England expressed the need for scholarly research introduced in class to come from a variety of perspectives. She commented:

I have noticed in all of my courses, there is a lot of scholarly research that is very

American- or English-focused. Now, while that might not initially seem like a big

thing, if the leading scholars of your class are consistently from a Western

perspective, we’re always missing out on other perspectives. And the reason why

I notice this is because I’m always questioning what perspective research is from

globally and also what gender perspective is it from. And it is typically from a

Western male perspective. I think that does have a huge impact in terms of the

perspectives that we get, because if it is predominantly Western and from a male

voice, then that’s only one tone, that’s one angle, one approach.

Krishna from Nepal shared the same experience as Helena:

I believe the materials in my courses are mostly from US researchers. Well,

sometimes we use articles published from international researchers as well, but 176

mostly from US researchers. I think that is quite obvious because [faculty] are

going to teach what they’re confident in. There is a lot of research going on here

in the US, but not all the research. So, it would be better if they present the

research and the research findings from all over the world.

Putroe from Indonesia mentioned a similar viewpoint:

We need professors that have real experiences. We need more than an

international component. Diversity should be present throughout every program.

It’s not only about international – it’s about difference. Even the books that we

read in class about diversity are usually written by Westerners. We read mostly

about racism here in the U.S. But we need more than that. We have different

religions, different ethnicities, different experiences. My country, Indonesia, is a

big country. We used to be a Dutch colony, so there was a hierarchy. But I feel

there still exists this mindset that Western countries are more important than

countries in other parts of the world. I see this here with study abroad and

language instruction. It’s usually the rich countries that are prioritized. When I

don’t see my country represented as much, even though it’s a big country, does

that mean it’s less important than Western countries?

She continued by providing an example of how faculty can diversify their curriculum through class discussions:

Professors can put glocal perspectives into their curriculum. Taking an issue that

is on the topic. For example, now between Iran and US, right? For example, this

type of hot topic. Bring it into discussion. And also like I tell you when the 177

Muslim was banned, this is a local and global issue. The activism from local

population was very strong. People that are local were taking a stand. Seeing

issues as global is our responsibility, not only their responsible, but ours, too. As a

university, we have to take a stand. Might be engaged students, what we can do to

reduce this problem. At least come together, make a solution…We can’t make big

solution but at least try. Maybe sign petitions or something. At least we take a

stand and do it through curriculum. Let’s see how war impacts other people, how

a problem in U.S. impacts the globe, too.

Victor from Burkina Faso admitted his disappointment at the course materials chosen during his master’s studies:

Most of the time when I was doing my master’s in International Studies, African

Studies, most of the books for the courses were written by Western authors, even

when the professor was African. Because some of the faculty had been trained

here, they don’t know anything besides the curriculum that was passed down to

them. If you’re teaching an African history course and you’re using historians that

are non-African, that’s a problem. I didn’t see that as an issue until I learned to

undo certain things in my own approach to learning.

Budro from Vietnam shared a similar perspective:

Most of the data sets used in my coursework are from an American context. For

example, the study one of my professors uses very frequently is about students

drinking. It’s fine, but in my home country, students rarely drink, if ever. But

here, drinking is kind of popular, so I don’t really relate to the data. All the data 178

we use are all from the American context. I haven’t seen any data in my courses

that come from another context. I value scholars who react out and conduct their

research in other contexts and see if the same knowledge that we produce and we

apply here is tenable to other countries, in other populations with maybe very

different characteristics…I don’t see sufficient coverage of knowledge and

perspectives from Asian scholars… At least knowing that there are other ways of

viewing the world, other ways of thinking and being would also help us realize

that we just don’t come here and absorb an entirely new culture without having

our own reflections on it and without developing a broader perspective on how

humans from different spheres of the globe are acting and thinking and producing

knowledge, not only different perspectives but also sometimes I would even say

that we seek answers to different questions, too.

Budro continued to address the significance of preparing students for a global marketplace:

So, we differ philosophically from where we start. A university with an

internationally-minded strategy would have professors who drew materials and

relevant examples from workplaces that deal with issues globally more than just

domestically. Then maybe too, I would say, also broaden our mind and see what

issues and how people are dealing with them in other contexts outside of the

States. This is something that I think is kind of missing in our training right now

because we come here and are trained in the States, and the examples and the

knowledge and the discussions are from workplaces very restricted to American 179

students. When we graduate, we will have a visa status that disallows us to apply

for positions in those organizations. So sometimes I feel that what I’m learning is

kind of irrelevant because I’m never going to have the chance to see what it’s

really like after graduation.

Budro also shared how the material chosen for courses is critical in addressing glocal knowledge:

The knowledge delivered through the curriculum has to address more

international issues and issues that connect the US to the rest of the world. When

[faculty] relate our scholarship to the real-world issues, then broaden them so that

we can see the connections between what we are training and …in what area we

are training and how we draw knowledge from the organizations, the agencies

that deal with international issues, issues that the human race in general is facing,

and not just some of those more specific things that only addresses the US

populations.

Kathina from Peru also communicated the importance of diversifying course materials to reflect global perspectives after her experience with a mostly American- centric focus in her learning. She mentioned that international students can be an asset to helping professors internationalize their curriculum:

In this class that I have right now about women and violence, the professor let us

know at the beginning of the semester that it was mostly American-based. This is

an example of how it shouldn’t have to be that way. Maybe sacrifice a little bit

more of your local and national and introduce a little bit more of a world 180

perspective because, then again, faculty are replicating this American superiority

kind of complex where all of the sources are American. For instance, in Latin

America right now, there’s not only femicide, which is the killing of a woman by

a man. It’s a pandemic right now. It’s very serious and men and women are dying

every day. But there’s also an awakening of feminism in a massive way. It’s about

looking around at what’s going on in the rest of the world on that topic and adding

it to the course. Even paying attention to where your students are from who are in

the course and ask them to help develop the curriculum for the course to include

material from their countries or regions of the world.

Bakti from The Gambia also shared his interest in a global component being integrated into academic programs:

Looking at my background as a trained accountant, I feel every program needs an

international piece. For instance, an accountant can be trained in the U.S. with

U.S. tax schools here and there, but you also need to be exposed to international

accounting standards. Why is this important? It is important because when you

compare performance, then you can factor in the divergence, or the convergence

of views with regard to these standards.

Amida from India expressed how faculty can utilize the wealth of knowledge the international students bring to a classroom setting:

Faculty can take advantage of the international population in their classes to help

other students, both local and international, gain knowledge. In a class, I tried to

blend myself with some Americans, but I was not comfortable. Before a class 181

begins in a semester, the faculty members can familiarize themselves with their

students and the students’ backgrounds. Then they can read a bit about their

students’ cultural backgrounds to help engage them in the class and use them to

help instruct the class…Right now, everything is internationalized. You have

international companies. When university students enter the job market, they will

be working with people from so many different cultures. Even for American

students, this is one of the opportunities where you are getting the service at

home. You’re having people with you where you can learn a lot from them, which

is going to help you in the future when you join a company, international

company, or something. It’s going to build your global mindset, which will help

you in your local context.

Kamnan from Ghana also expressed the importance of incorporating diverse resources in order to bring diverse knowledge into a course:

I think the short and long of it is to try and use materials, or articles or books

from, let me say, different countries worldwide. You shouldn’t necessarily be

limited to just the U.S. For example, most of the things I learned here, I’m

learning there is such as this in the U.S. And sometimes, I think about how I can

implement them when I go back to Ghana. It’s going to be hard, but again, I feel

like there are, if not much, at least there are one or two researchers from, let me

say, where I’m coming from that can be used in their classes…Maybe an

instructor can have a case study where part of the guidelines are to give the

students the cultural context in which they should be looking at things. So, 182

basically, I think everything has got to happen in the class, just bring other views

or other perspectives into it.

Academic Forums. It was also recommended that faculty organize academic forums for students to discuss cross-cultural, global issues where an exchange of knowledge can occur. Kathina from Peru remarked:

I think there could be a lot more academic events where international students

share with local students. For instance, last year I was telling you there were

protests in Chile, massive protests in Chile and at the same time there were

protests in Ecuador, Bolivia, and Peru. The whole South American region was

burning with protests. I remember I wanted to talk to other people from Latin

American countries so we could share what’s going on – it was like the Arab

Spring belt in Latin America. I wanted to do a panel to discuss what’s behind each

of these protests. Are they connected? What things did they have in common?

What things are very exclusive of each country? So this is one recommendation I

have. And I think it could make a big difference.

Leadership. University leadership can also take an active role in fostering glocal knowledge in all stakeholders – faculty, staff, and students. The following recommendation was provided to help university leadership ensure there exists a comprehensive flow of glocal knowledge on campus.

Fluid Multi-Directional Exchange of Knowledge. Victor from Burkina Faso explained the significance of creating opportunities for a multi-directional flow of knowledge. He asserted: 183

I believe that we’re living in a world that has been globalized in a uni-directional

way whereby when we’re thinking of globalization, when we take a spot around

the world and we say this place in sovereign Kenya is globalized, what makes us

think of it as a globalized place is when it has Western elements. So when I’m

thinking of the internationalization of higher education, I see multiple trajectories.

I see people from the Global South getting an education here and also educating

people here. I see an exchange, a fluid exchange of knowledge from right to left

and left to right, going from all directions. But it’s not always fluid – it’s always

resisting.

Victor continued:

So some people don’t feel comfortable when I speak English with this

accent. They would rather have someone who just speaks in a way that is clear to

them. When I began teaching classes, I would tell the students that it will take me

time to get used to their accent when they speak English. They are always

shocked I say that because they don’t perceive themselves as having an accent. To

me, that’s the internationalization of education. It is allowing us to unfreeze that

kind of hegemonic way of seeing education – that everything that is happening in

the global south is just data that we bring here to synthesize and use to create

theories and produce knowledge. The rest – what is happening out there – is just

noise…The globalization of education is not necessarily having everyone from

around the world in the same place to get an education, but allowing multiple

perspectives to emerge and allowing a different understanding of what constitutes 184

knowledge to emerge… Our core values should emphasize our commitment to

being a globally-minded and locally-engaged institution.

Victor continued by bringing attention to the importance of not leaving our international population on the periphery:

But it goes beyond that. We must do more than an international education week

when flags are put out there and like engaging with the international community

too in the local. Bringing everyone to the table and making them feel like they

matter, I think that would be a good beginning. Bringing everyone to the table,

making sure we are on the same page on some of the issues that we talked about

would be a good thing. Sometimes you feel like it’s done on a superficial level.

Like being recognized as being from Burkina Faso – look how international. But

really, I don’t value your contribution – I don’t value that you bring some kind of

expertise that I wouldn’t already have from a Westerner here.

Victor also shared programs developed that could increase the glocal exchange of knowledge:

There’s so much that can be done in that regard by using knowledge that was

developed elsewhere. I’m thinking of the nursing students that are sent to do that

training, like internships in global contexts to come back here. When you do a

nursing degree here, you do like a three-month internship in Botswana and when

you return here to work, you should be able to relate to someone from say

southern Africa who walks into the ER and you are on duty that day. The way you

as a nurse, the way you meet that patient, the way you care for that patient, should 185

be different from someone who has not received that training. So to me, these are

the types of little things that when you put them together, they allow us to engage

with local issues using global tools. Because the issues that we have here, the

challenges that we face, are similar for everyone. We just need to find them.

Sawyer from India recommended an increase in collaborative efforts to share knowledge across universities around the world. He described what he felt could be done to facilitate the exchange:

You can collaborate with either other universities directly or through the

alumni. Whatever the terminology is, to have an exchange of visitors so that

people not only have an idea as to, I mean, at least in sciences, the scientific

developments are cleared because they get published and products get launched.

But what are the challenges people face in applying that knowledge to everyday

work? Because whether you are designing a plant in Ohio or somewhere in India,

the science of their digital is the same. So, some of the challenges which you find

in Ohio as an engineer, you were to use them and someone in India needs

something similar because they might be facing a similar problem. And if they

don’t, there is an exchange of ideas then some of these solutions that do develop

locally, the knowledge gets spread.

Krishna, the doctoral student in math education, expressed his interest in gaining knowledge about global math practices that could be applied to the local context. He explained:

I would be interested to know what kind of identical mathematical practices here 186

in Athens are around. Because maybe now this is like everyone used calculators

and everyone use sophisticated technologies to use mathematics in their everyday

life. Right? But in ancient time, when those tools were not developed or invented,

people used to have mathematics in different ways and that could be like very

important to their normal activities. So, thinking about poor countries, it does not

mean that the experience, knowledge and culture that we are representing are bad.

They are not better or worse than the experiences and culture here, right? So the

practices that could assimilate those experiences together, that knowledge or

culture together would help to bring the classroom practices together from around

the world…Mutual explorations or mutual exchange activities could help.

Because if some educators from other countries could frequently come here and

then they explore, they will learn something. And then some educators here could

go to other countries and learn.

In addition to glocal attitudes and glocal knowledge, desired glocal skills and recommendations on fostering glocal skills were also elicited from the participants.

Glocal Skills

During the planning phase of internationalization, to achieve a glocally competent environment, glocal skills, which can be cognitive, as well as physical or emotional in nature (Jean-Francois, 2015), should be cultivated. As Bakti from The Gambia articulated:

To attain a global mission, universities need to generate global citizens that are

able to engage globally and locally. The mission is not just to facilitate the 187

learning process for students, but those students graduating should have all the

skills so that they can serve as global citizens.

Figure 7 illustrates the glocal skills the participants revealed to be necessary to achieve glocal competence, as well as their recommendations for how to foster glocal skills on a university campus.

Figure 7

Glocal Skills

Participant Perspectives of Desired Skills for Glocal Competence

• Communication/Language • Collaboration • Managing diverse groups • Making cross-cultural connections • Cooperative learning • Emotional intelligence • Ability to adapt Participant Perspectives on Fostering Glocal Skills • Self • Foreign/second language proficiency

• Faculty • Foreign/second language proficiency

• Leadership • Recruitment of international faculty and students • Foreign language programs • Requirements for global component in research to acquire tenure

188

Participant Perspectives of Desired Skills for Glocal Competence

Numerous desired skills for glocal competence were identified by the participants, but most notably foreign and/or second language skills. Besides language and communication, other skills mentioned were collaboration, managing diverse groups, making cross-cultural connections, cooperative learning, emotional intelligence, and the ability to adapt.

Communication/Language. The theme that emerged the most, overwhelmingly by every participant, was communication skills, particularly the ability to speak another language. Bruno, from Cameroon, emphasized the empathy that may result from someone who has had the experience of learning another language:

I think just try to communicate. And speak at least one language other than your

own language. Even if you don’t speak the same language, you will have more

empathy for the student who is trying hard to communicate in English if it’s not

their first language. Some international students are scared to even ask questions

because they don’t know if their English will be great when asking the question

and they don’t want to be embarrassed. If I am taking a test and I have a question,

I will sometimes not ask. I don’t want to be involved in any verbal

communication with the professor.

Budro from Vietnam also stressed the importance of having the experience of learning another language other than one’s native language:

I would really expect some of my professors to know foreign languages, at least

to some extent. Students come here with diverse backgrounds, and many of us 189

have studied other European languages…It seems to me that professors here only

know English. It’s because we have always aimed at studying abroad, studying in

America. So we study English, and we study other languages…It would be useful

for them to know at least other cultures and their languages to some extent. If I

see that in my professor, it will be a very positive sign for me to relate, and not

just I come here and learn what you give me - that you are reaching out to other

people outside of the United States borders.

Amida from India highlighted the importance of language to connect with students. Although she came to the U.S. as a fluent English speaker, Amida emphasized the increased comfort of being able to approach faculty and staff who are able to speak another language:

Language is one of the things [faculty and staff] can be aware of. Everybody can

speak English, but in a population of Chinese and Indian students, and there are

other students, but they are the highest population of international students, it

would be better if you hire some faculty who can speak these languages. Because

when I was doing my research, I realized that for students to stay back in the

university, they usually look for international students, even though the

international faculty does not belong to their country, but they are more

comfortable approaching the international faculty to express their feelings

because they believe that they will understand them differently compared to the

local culture. So I believe having a diversified international faculty in the 190

university or college, who can speak other languages and who is aware about

different cultures, is important.

Another doctoral participant, Krishna from Nepal, brought attention to the lack of awareness on the part of faculty when it comes to their rate of speech in class:

I think some faculty forget that they have international students in their class. So

because if you speak slowly I may catch you. Right? So I may say at least a little

less than half the faculty speak too quickly. They do not adjust their speaking

speed even if they have more than 50% students who are international students.

Several participants noted the challenge in expecting all faculty to speak and/or understand another language fluently. However, a few participants indicated the positive impact of another person simply knowing a few words of their language. According to

Kan, one of the doctoral students from Saudi Arabia, it brings him joy to hear someone try to communicate with him in Arabic: “It’s difficult to learn another language, but I notice here when a person understands Arabic or just says ‘hi’ in Arabic with a smile, that feels so good. I immediately feel welcomed by that person and want to talk with them.”

Arya, the doctoral student from Serbia, pointed out the benefit to other university stakeholders of having people on campus who may not be completely proficient in their

English language skills:

I think having an experience being exposed to people who don’t speak a language

perfectly can open many doors for confident people. If you see some person who

goes somewhere else and struggles with the language, you will think, okay, I can 191

also go somewhere else and struggle because I saw someone who’s also

struggling.

Kathina from Peru shared her opinion about the cultural enrichment one may experience as a result of learning multiple languages:

I think the more languages you know, the more culturally enriched you are

because the language is always a path or a door to another culture. So yeah, it

makes you aware of others that are different to you and what those differences are

and maybe empathize better. I need to say that I think it enriches everyone

because of the exchange and also once you can open yourself up to one another

from another culture, you’re also shaping your own identity in a way, against that

other one that you are learning from.

Farida from Thailand believes that it is critical for everyone on campus to speak at least one foreign language:

It is very important that people are able to speak a foreign language in any

educational institution. It’s not just only they travel overseas, which can be

superficial, because they can go overseas but if they never speak the language,

they cannot connect themselves or see themselves as part of the other community,

and if they cannot connect with the other community, then it will be very difficult

for them to transform and have empathy or even try to learn from the others.

Collaboration. Samsara, a doctoral student from China who studies instructional technology, stressed the importance of not only becoming an expert in your own area of study, but also being able to contribute your expertise in collaborative projects: 192

I think it is the most important to be good at your own major. You should be good

at what you’re learning and good at what you’re doing. Then you have to be brave

enough to collaborate with other people When you are working with other people

from other disciplines, you have to be the expert of your field and bring your

skills to help with projects. When I collaborate with others, I learn a lot. We do

group projects together and I learn from others’ ideas, I learn from their [prior]

experience and I learn a lot from them when they are from different countries and

have different perspectives and we have to figure out how to work well together.

Bodhi from Kenya, who is also a doctoral student in instructional technology, concurred with Jing and indicated, “You should be able to collaborate with anybody, any person from a diverse background. If you cannot engage and collaborate with them, then you have a problem.”

In addition to collaboration, Bodhi also highlighted other 21st century skills, including critical thinking and technology:

21st century skills are brought when people come together and you try to look for

a solution outside of the box, the critical thinking skills. The world is more

connected than ever before, and people must collaborate. Those are the skills

which you have to have so that you can continue connecting more with the world.

[People] must also have technology literacy skills, and this is a wide, huge skill

everybody should have.

Managing Diverse Groups. Another skill that several participants felt was necessary for university stakeholders to have, faculty and staff in particular, was the 193 ability to effectively manage groups of people coming from different parts of the world.

Carter, a doctoral student from Iran, expressed his desire to have faculty and staff spend time abroad to nurture more skills in the management of diverse groups. He explained:

I think the skills that they should have is just how to manage a class that may

have people from different countries. If they could, for example, exchange to

some other countries and have some experience there and come back again, that’s

a good idea. But it’s expensive, so usually you can’t ask, for example, these

faculty members to go. And sometimes they do that, a sabbatical or something.

They go somewhere, and do some period of time there, and have some experience

about that culture and come here, now they know something about their new

student that comes from that country. Maybe that helps.

Making Cross-Cultural Connections. An additional skill that participants expressed they would like to see in faculty is an ability to make cross-cultural connections. Budro from Vietnam indicated the expectation she has for faculty to better prepare students to work in the global community:

I would expect my professors to draw relevant examples from the organizations

and companies outside the US context and how they are using the skills and, let’s

say, the techniques that we have, that we trained in our program, how they are

using this knowledge to deal with world problems, and not just problems here. If

they can do that, I will say we would feel better prepared to take jobs outside the

States. Sometimes it’s really hard for me to even think of going back to my

country because I did my master’s and am doing my doctoral studies here. So, 194

when I look back at the issues that people are dealing with in my country, I see a

lot of disconnection. I don’t know how to…I don’t have an idea what they are

doing and what knowledge and skills are necessary for addressing the problems

that they are working on. So, when you get trained in the States, you have this

detachment, disconnection from real issues out there. So I would really appreciate

if my professor could help us draw the relevance of what we are learning with

what is happening outside the States, happening globally.

Bodhi also commented on the importance of faculty and staff having diverse, cross-cultural skills, as well as helping students develop them through their educational experience. He commented:

Students should have all this knowledge about the world and be able to relate to

this global knowledge. So diversity skills, knowledge about other people. So

when the university has these diverse glocal connections, they can bring that in

the classroom and they can show young ones or the students some of these things

that are happening all over the world. And remember, when you’re teaching

someone to be a universal student, it’s not a local student, this is someone who

can work anywhere in the world having learned so many and gotten so many

knowledge and skills. University engaging with another university or with other

organizations all over the world. And then they bring all of that into class and let

the students have views and perspectives on what is happening. They see the pros

and cons of those projects. Students in class will give other ideas. People have

ideas all the time, and we can have so many things happen as a result of that. 195

Cooperative Learning. A skill that is already prevalent in many colleges is the ability to deliver instruction through student-centered learning. Kan expressed his desire to see the instructional skill of student-centered, cooperative learning be the norm in an educational institution that fosters glocal competence.

In their teaching, [faculty] should encourage cooperative learning and make it the

idea of constructivism, and as I mentioned, they should take care of the

democratic idea of teaching. They should teach what the students want to learn.

And they should have the skills of making it a student-centered and not teacher-

centered learning environment. I mean, students should like looking for these

ideas or information, not waiting to be told from their professors.

Emotional Intelligence. An additional skill that a few participants felt was necessary in order for achieve glocal competence was a high level of emotional intelligence. As Dharma from England indicated:

A tough skill that I have learned coming to a university and being surrounded by

so many different cultures and countries is to really listen and actually hear what

people are saying. You have to have a high level of emotional intelligence. You

have to engage with them and take on board and listen to everything that they’re

saying and understand their experiences and how that might influence the way

they navigate through an educational system…I think actually listening and

engaging with them and finding out how their previous experiences are going to

affect their way of immersing themselves in the community and immersing in the

culture that surrounds them. 196

Ability to Adapt. Participants also expressed the important skill of adaptability, being mindful that adaptation is a two-way street. New arrivals must go through a process of adapting to the new environment, just as natives need to find common ground with new arrivals to the community. Vianey shared an experience he had needing to adapt to a new environment in his home country of Brazil:

In 2008, I left Rio to move to Curitiba, south of Brazil, a very European town. So

in Rio, when you leave your house, it’s very common to walk on the street with

no shirt because it’s so hot during the summer, just flip flops and shorts and then

you put your shirt on your shoulders. You walk on the street like that with no

problem. So, I moved to Curitiba in January in the summer when it’s very hot. I

did the same thing there because it’s my culture, right? Everyone was looking

at me in a different way. I said, ‘What’s going on?’ I went to a bakery to try and

buy bread, and the security stopped me. I tried to put my shirt on, and they still

refused me. I could not enter. I was so mad. I called my friend who used to live

there for so many years. He said for me to pack and go back to Rio. He said,

‘Look, you need to understand Curitiba will not adapt to you. You need to adapt

to Curitiba.’

Vianey furthered explained the same skill is necessary in coming to a university from another country. It is crucial to have the right tools and mindset to adapt to any circumstances.

197

Participant Perspectives on Fostering Glocal Skills

The findings suggest that language is the predominant skill the international graduate students identified as pertinent to becoming glocally competent. Regarding oneself and faculty, participants recommended that the university stakeholders become proficient in another language to be able to communicate fluently with members of another language group. Malika from Saudi Arabia commented, “Learning another language opens your world. You have access to a different perspective, a different way of thinking. You see life through a different cultural lens. Every person at the university should have that experience acquiring another language.”

The other recommendations targeted changes that leadership can implement in a university to help foster glocal skills on a campus.

Recruitment of International Faculty and Students. Several participants recognized the benefit of having a diverse faculty that can bring additional skills and insight to a campus. Sawyer from India mentioned that a diverse body of faculty, regarding their perspective, will “challenge students’ thinking. They will be able to think more critically about the world.”

Putroe from Indonesia emphasized that universities should “bring more international professors to universities. Not so many professors are internationally- minded. We can learn a lot of skills from professors who have a different perspective.”

Mira from Serbia offered suggestions on how to use technology to assist in bringing international scholars onto a campus: “You can bring internationals to give a lecture or use Skype or other technology to have them engage with people here on campus.” 198

Loday from The Gambia indicated that in order to acquire glocal skills, a campus must be rich in diversity. He exclaimed:

I would expect on a glocally competent campus to see a high presence of

international students and faculty. You will see a high level of involvement in the

university activities of international students. You would see a high level of

tolerance, interracial or intercultural tolerance in the comportment of faculty and

staff as well as students among them. I would expect to see students and faculty

learning from one another.

Bakti, also from The Gambia, added that glocal skills can be learned from merely being in the presence of a diverse, global population, as long as the population does not “just represent one region of the world, but a mixture of people from across the globe.”

Kathina from Peru expressed the level of skills she has gained from having an internationally diverse group of faculty and students in her courses:

I’ve been taught by people from India, people of course from the U.S., from

Germany, from Australia. A lot of them have been living here for a while, but

their origin is not the U.S. I’ve mostly found that interesting because not only are

they top notch in their field, but also it’s interesting because you can always get to

learn something about other cultures through those people. I have become a better

communicator by being in the presence of people from around the world.

Farida from Thailand also expressed the importance of seeing a diverse population on a campus. She commented:

If you really want to get serious about the issue of internationalization on campus, 199

you need to recruit faculty members from overseas…I think diversity is the most

important thing. Perhaps like you can see it’s obviously in this case is the student

body, if they’re from different countries or not. That is to me, that is like the

significant piece to show that the university is globally engaged…If we have more

students, let’s say coming from 100 countries, I think it speaks volumes of how

the university is committed with the idea of internationalization…the diversity in

terms of where these students are coming from, which country, is the most

important thing. That’s how we enrich a campus. We can learn how to better

communicate across racial, ethnic, linguistic, and cultural boundaries.

Budro from Vietnam emphasized the glocal connection between skills used in one country that experiences the same issue present in her university community, such as the skills employed to address the issue of food scarcity. She explained her colleague’s doctoral research on hydrated foods to show the importance of recruiting international students to campuses:

Bringing scholars that can help engage international students in local problems

and help them draw similarities to what they experience in their own country and

allow and encourage them to see how the expertise as international scholars can

bring solutions to local communities. I can see it as a very potential source of

contribution. Although, we don’t really do this a whole lot. We rarely ever invite

international students to local communities and explore how the people outside

the university campus are really living their life and what struggles they go

through. That’s very relevant because many of our local people would have to go 200

through poverty and job loss due to the declining mining industry. So poverty is

everywhere. For us international students, we would at least to some extent relate

to the issue of poverty and hunger because we come from countries where, if we

do not experience hunger and poverty intimately and personally and directly, then

we would not falsely think of America as an affluent country where everybody is

enjoying a material comfort…

She specified:

There is actually an international student in my program who has a research

interest in food dehydration. She’s from India and she comes here and studies

food dehydration in relation to poverty and hunger alleviation. She goes to the

local community here and studies how people dehydrate food and then how

people deal with the shortage of food, especially in winter for example. Then she

would study how the people experience this when they don’t have enough money

to cover for basics like food. I often see her as a model for social work. I think she

can relate to food dehydration and hunger and efforts to relieve this human

suffering because she comes from India, and the problems of malnutrition are

regularly addressed in India.

Budro continued by articulating that global issues are also local issues:

These problems exist in the States, too. We have people on food stamps and we

have local communities that experience hunger. But we don’t have a lot of

discussions on these local issues at school, and we seem to draw the picture of the

United States from a very pink camera lens. We don’t really reach out to 201

communities and see what problems and issues are there, and that we can do

research and contribute to fighting the problem, finding a solution to the problem.

We need dedicated researchers out there who have experience and who have been

trained and who have both applied and scholarly knowledge to address these local

issues globally.

Foreign Language Programs. Participants also brought attention to the necessity of offering a variety of foreign languages on campus and including more required language courses in the different academic programs. Farida from Thailand expressed the importance of diverse languages being offered:

I would like to see the universities teach or offer a lot of foreign languages on

campuses. Because the international student, when they come to campus, they

want to interact, they want to explore. However, I see that the university is also

comprised of different interests, different groups. So if the domestic students or

the faculty don’t appreciate the presence of the international students on campus,

there will be no engagement or interaction with them. Leaders need to find a way

to get more domestic students enrolled in foreign language classes and more

faculty engaging with the international students.

Requirements for Global Component in Research to Acquire Tenure. One participant, Kan from Saudi Arabia, suggested that for faculty to obtain tenure, universities should begin requiring the faculty’s research to include a global component.

He articulated:

Faculty should have to incorporate some research that has a global perspective. 202

How can a campus achieve glocal competency when faculty don’t have a global

perspective? Everyone can continue learning. I have met professors who didn’t

think about any global issues until later in their career, and it had an impact on

them. Now they have skills to interact well with people from different cultural

backgrounds.

Glocal attitudes, glocal knowledge, and glocal skills all lead to glocal understanding, the final component of the glocal competence framework.

Glocal Understanding

The fourth component of the glocal competence framework is understanding (i.e., comprehension). Glocal understanding can include cognitive and /or emotional factors

(Jean Francois, 2015). If the appropriate glocal attitudes, glocal knowledge and glocal skills are considered in the planning phase of internationalization, glocal understanding can be achieved in the implementation of internationalization.

Figure 8 displays the findings from the data, which include participants’ perspective of desired understanding to achieve glocal competence, as well as their recommendations on how to cultivate glocal understanding in a university setting.

203

Figure 8

Glocal Understanding

Participant Perspectives of Desired Understanding for Glocal Competence

• Understanding that international students are an asset • Understanding the complexity involved in cross-cultural interactions • Understanding of students' needs • Understanding/awareness of one's privilege • Mutual understanding between domestic and international people • Understanding of everyone's need to feel valued Participant Perspectives on Fostering Glocal Understanding • Self • Making local connections

• Faculty • Course requirements to facilitate engagement between international and domestic students

• Leadership • Policy implementation • International experiences for faculty, staff, and students • Needs assessment • Materials to facilitate communication • Recognition of international students as essential resources • Partnerships with local schools • Faculty and staff retreats • Exchange programs • Activities/organizations bridging international and domestic students • Balanced study abroad programs • Global and local engagement • Creating phone applications to assist international students • Support for international research endeavors • Institutions within the university supporting internationalization • Funding for cultural events

204

Participant Perspectives of Desired Understanding for Glocal Competence

The following themes emerged from the data and represent the desired understanding for glocal competence identified by the participants. They include the understanding that international students are an asset, an understanding of the complexity involved in cross-cultural interactions, an understanding of students’ needs, an understanding or awareness of one’s privilege, a mutual understanding between domestic and international people, and an understanding of everyone’s need to feel valued.

Understanding that International Students Are an Asset. The participants expressed the need for university stakeholders to understand the asset international students are. Bruno from Cameroon stated:

International students are such an asset to the university community and the local

community. We come from diverse countries where our way of doing things is

different than how many things are done in the U.S. If people understood this, I

think they would value us more.

Kathina from Serbia also added: “The most important understanding is our value as international students. That’s a game changer. If leadership understood how what valuable assets we are, it could change higher education.”

Understanding the Complexity Involved in Cross-Cultural Interactions.

Participants also indicated that to achieve glocal competence, university stakeholders should have an understanding of the complexity involved in bringing people together. As

Bakti from The Gambia indicated:

So, it’s critical not to observe everything at face value. Things can turn to be very 205

complex. For example, you know the dichotomy - developed and developing

countries - without going to the root causes, why this is happening. So I want to

see people not take the simplistic explanation. It goes beyond that, so people

should be critical enough to dig down and know better.

Samsara from China added that in order to understand complexity involved in cross- cultural interactions, it is important to know one’s history. She expressed, “You should know your history and not forget it. You have to respect your history and respect others’ histories to understand the complexities involved in effectively interacting and learning from one another.”

Understanding of Students’ Needs. Participants in the study also shared that a university needs to have an understanding of students’ needs, whether those are the needs of international or local needs. According to Rafael from China, “As an international student, I want to know how I can help the local community.” Rafael continued by sharing that it would be helpful for him to better integrate into the local community if he was aware of the needs of the local community and how he could help.

Farida from Thailand also shared her perspective on the importance of knowing the needs of the international students and how to integrate them into the local university community:

I think understanding what the international students need is critical. Because if

they understand the needs of international students, then they can decide what to

provide to them. They can design activities or provide resources that allow

international students to be able to engage locally. I think that will be meaningful. 206

But when I say engage locally, I don’t want to take international students to just

communities like the Athens community. I’d rather see international students

engage with the domestic students locally here on campus…You have to find

policies, mechanisms, and even activities that can be implemented through

faculty, administrators, and in units that help students, domestic students, so that

everything can come in concert.

Farida brought specific attention to the necessity of language programs:

Like when we talk about policy, do we keep the world languages or do we cut

them due to budget cuts? If you cut these languages, then it means that you don’t

have many students who are willing or excited to work with international

students…For example, if you don’t support research for international faculty or

faculty who would like to do research on international issues, then

internationalization won’t be successful. Also, if you focus on only recruiting

faculty domestically, then you don’t have representation of international faculty

right at the university. So I think there’s a lot of things, even activities that can

really intensify the collaboration between international students and domestic

students.

She further mentioned how universities should make an effort to integrate the different cultural populations through campus events:

I just feel that it has become fragmented, like a focus on certain groups of

students. For instance, we might have events that focus on African American

culture and other events that focus on African cultures. We need events that 207

bridge the two groups. Or Latin American, how do we bridge it to Latin American

and then South American students, right? Or how do I say it – even gender like

LGBTQ. How can we also allow them to have perspective, like international

perspective of what’s happening outside the U.S. When we talk about issues of

injustice, like discrimination in other countries, what are the issues that are

relevant in the gay and lesbian community in other countries? And I think this

way we can create something that is more organic and allows people to grow.

Understanding/Awareness of One’s Privilege. A few participants addressed the issue of university stakeholders who are from the U.S. understanding their privilege. As

Malika from Saudi Arabia indicated, “If you understand the privilege you have being from the country where you teach or work or study, you may better be able to sympathize with the international student.” Kamilah from Egypt also stressed the importance of questioning your privilege. She stated:

You need to be aware of your privilege. And you need to question your privileges.

You need to question because I feel like when you’re in your own country, you

feel okay. But when you go to another country, with another language and culture,

now you’re underprivileged. Now you’re like a baby. You don’t know anything

about the country, about the language, about the culture, so you need to learn.

Mutual Understanding Between Domestic and International People.

Participants commented on the importance of the existence of a framework that supports a common understanding between all stakeholders, domestic and international. Loday from The Gambia expressed, “There should be mutual understanding between local and 208 international faculty, staff, and students. Also, there should be mutual respect for each other’s cultures and values.” Malika from Saudi Arabia also added, “There has to be a mutual understanding between everyone at a university. I have to understand where you’re coming from, and you should understand where I am coming from. This is how we achieve glocal understanding and take what we have learned anywhere we go.”

Understanding of Everyone’s Need to Feel Valued. Several participants mentioned that they had extensive background experiences prior to entering their university in the U.S. Due to their experience, they feel that they come with a high level of maturity, more than professors might expect. As a result, they do not always feel that their experience is validated by their faculty. As Soledad from Guyana indicated:

I think they should understand that each student might come with knowledge and

experiences. And for a lot of students, their knowledge might have been informal.

Their knowledge might have been from working after high school. You will

almost always find international students are more mature because we don’t have

this high school to college thing. You have to go work to help your family. So it’s

not a straight transition into college. So you can’t be talking to mature students in

a certain way. You can’t be talking to mature students as if they don’t have

experiences. Some of these people work in ministries and whatever for years and

would have that view and those experiences that they are coming into classes

with. So, it’s understanding that knowledge is dynamic, understanding that you

are not the authority – you are there to facilitate. 209

Soledad continued to explain how critical it is for faculty to foster an environment that welcomes everyone, regardless of linguistic, cultural, ethnic, racial, etc., background in order for all students to feel of value in the class:

So your role is more of a guide than talking down to me as a student. It’s not just

about being globally-minded. A good teacher is a good teacher anywhere. If you

are a good human being, I think it would translate into everything that you do… A

student’s experience needs to be validated and not shut down. They should be

able to use comparisons and contrast based on where they’re coming from. They

feel comfortable sharing, our professors give them that feeling that it’s okay for

me to share – you’re patient with me. I’m not afraid of anxiety because my accent

might be different. Things like that…It’s not like the professors won’t make

mistakes – it’s they would admit if they make a mistake or they might have that

atmosphere that they are willing to learn. It’s not you making me feel bad today,

but is if you make me feel bad every day, that I am not of value, that’s when I

would worry.

Bruno from Cameroon also indicated that he did not feel that the background experience he has is being respected at times. He shared, “Everyone needs to feel they’re of value and be part of the conversation. This is what creates distance between the international student and the American, when one gets more attention than the other as I have experienced.”

Kamilah from Egypt also shared the difficulty she has had feeling undervalued during her time studying in the U.S.: 210

To be honest with you, I feel like this country makes me feel small, really small.

While I was back home, I was a manager of a big program. I was known back

home. I was a public figure back home on fighting violence against women. I

used to work as a partner with the youth and women, and they used to consult me.

I used to work with our Ministry of Interior. But here, I feel really small.

After identifying the understanding they would expect to see on a globally minded and locally engaged campus, participants offered their recommendations on how a university can best implement strategies to foster glocal understanding through oneself, faculty, and leadership.

Participant Perspectives on Fostering Glocal Understanding

Glocal attitudes, glocal knowledge, and glocal skills can all lead to glocal understanding. One is not likely to achieve understanding without the combination of the three. In the findings below, participants offered their recommendations on how to best achieve glocal understanding at an institution of higher education.

Self. Some participants recommended that international students make an effort to connect with the local community in which they find themselves.

Making Local Connections. Budro from Vietnam highlighted the importance of students being proactive in their own engagement with the community. She explained:

There are programs and activities that specifically target engagement of

international students in the local community. However, most of the activities are

superficial and only help us to know the geographical surroundings of the area.

They don’t really connect us to the local people and the human experience in this 211

community. We need to make an effort to find other opportunities to engage with

our local brothers and sisters.

Dharma from England thought about how she could use her background experience to engage with the local community. She expressed:

Speaking from the coaching perspective, how can I get our coaches out there in

the community to partner up and mentor with maybe girl soccer players that in

this community might not always have all the opportunities, but maybe they want

some one-on-one coaching, and we have enough coaches here at the university.

It’s just about trying to get them out to communities. And I always have coaches

coming to me because they want to coach…we did a project last semester where

we worked with Logan town, and I brought myself, two African students, a

Middle Eastern student, and a Mexican student. And who else was it? Oh, two

South African students. There were six of us. We brought them to Logan, and one

of the most amazing quotes that I had from one parent was, ‘My child has never

seen anyone that a.) isn’t white, b.) doesn’t speak English in an American accent,

c.) is from a different sexuality background, or d.) is a female coach.’ I was like –

there you go! That’s your community engagement strap.

Dharma continued explaining the value that integrating an international population into a local community can add to addressing xenophobia:

Getting the internationals out there so that the community can be enriched so

much more than what is happening now. Maybe that’s how you alleviate some of

the xenophobic conditioned behavior. It’s such a loving community, and I think a 212

lot of the xenophobia isn’t ingrained – it’s conditioned. Students don’t need to

wait for opportunities to come to them. They can be proactive and seek the

opportunities in the communities themselves.

Faculty. In regard to faculty, participants recommended faculty taking active roles to engage domestic and international students.

Course Requirements to Facilitate Engagement Between International and

Domestic Students. Several participants admitted their feelings of rejection by domestic students. As Amida from India stated, “I feel like most Americans overall don’t really want to spend time with international students because they don’t know or understand us.” She further mentioned that she believed domestic students would be more interested in interacting with international students if they had more exposure to them. In order to have more exposure to the diverse cultures, many participants felt it would be helpful for faculty to implement course requirements or offer extra credit that would draw domestic students to international events.

Lotus from Honduras expressed her desire to see faculty requiring domestic students to attend cultural events:

I think faculty could help bring together the domestic and international

communities by encouraging students to attend cultural events. They may not go

on their own, but if it was a class requirement or if a professor offered extra credit

to attend, that might encourage them to go, and they might enjoy it. It is difficult

to achieve glocal understanding if students from different cultures aren’t even

coming together to talk. 213

Mateo from Cambodia also shared his thoughts on the importance of requiring attendance to cultivate glocal understanding:

It’s great to offer various cultural events. [My] university does a good job of

offering cultural events. The question is, though, how many Americans actually

participate in these events? There has to be an incentive that gets them there.

Maybe like have more credit hours for a class or offer extra credit to encourage

domestic students to attend the cultural events, and offer credit hours to students

who help plan and participate in the events.

Bruno from Cameroon also offered insight into what faculty can do to encourage domestic students to attend cultural events. He indicated:

I think professors could have a big impact. If they can require American students

to come to international events and parties, at least twice a month, there would be

a lot of growth in everyone’s understanding of each other. If I see people making

an effort, then I am more likely to be open and trusting that they really want to

know about me and my culture.

Kamilah took a stance that without required attendance, the interaction will not occur: “There should be required attendance at different events to encourage both local and international people to come together and learn from one another. If it’s not required, it won’t happen. Period.”

Leadership. Several recommendations were made as to strategies university leadership can use to foster glocal understanding through the implementation of a plan for internationalization. These recommendations include policy implementation, 214 providing international experience for all university stakeholders, a needs assessment, materials to facilitate communication, recognition of international students as essential resources, partnerships with local schools, faculty and staff retreats, exchange programs, activities and organizations bridging international and domestic students, balanced study abroad programs, global and local engagement, the creation of phone applications to assist international students, support for international research endeavors, institutions within the university supporting internationalization, and funding for cultural events.

Policy Implementation. A few participants mentioned the importance of implementing policy that helps enforce a commitment to fostering glocal understanding.

Putroe from Indonesia suggested:

I think implementing policy that respects different cultures and gives equal

opportunity for people, that’s important. When we have policy, there is a control.

For instance, have a policy in place that brings people together for global projects

that are locally relevant. But have it be a requirement for all new students at the

university. Exposure brings people close. Faculty, staff and students all need to be

exposed to experiences that take them out of their comfort zone. If they’re only

exposed to other cultures that are similar to their own, can we say they are

globally-minded? For example, we know a major issue right now is global

warming. We know a major issue is poverty, hunger, right? Provide opportunities

for [university stakeholders] to experience poverty in a country where the

majority of the people live in poverty. That’s how you change. That’s how you

become globally-minded. That’s hard to learn in a class. Making a policy to 215

ensure this happens is essential.

Putroe also brought attention to what a university can do to foster glocal understanding and appreciation through policies that import foods from around the globe. She explained:

Support local and global economies through higher education institutions.

Universities have markets. The markets can provide food or stuff from different

countries to support farmers or producers in different local communities. Which

means that it encourages faculty, students, and staff to support local farmers here

as well as globally through purchasing their products which support the

economies of both local and global communities. This way they can organize

international students to ask them what foods they want to have in the markets.

That way they don’t have to travel to major cities – the university can provide it. I

mean, encourage faculty, staff, and students to live more local by not supporting

giant companies that often use cheap labor in poorer countries. That’s also part of

building community awareness if we want to be a globally-minded and locally-

engaged university.

Bakti from The Gambia also discussed the importance of having a policy in place to promote glocal understanding. He explained:

It's important that there are policies in place that guide. For instance, there should

be a framework that guides how to foster partners, or collaboration among

researchers of the particular university potentially with orders, and also there

should be some support mechanisms - in essence, the traveling faculty. For 216

instance, University of The Gambia, all visiting faculty to that university are

accorded free housing, things like that. So I want to see that present as well.

International Experiences for Faculty, Staff, and Students. Every participant indicated that in order to achieve a glocally competent university atmosphere, international experience is a must. As Zen from Turkey remarked, “A professor that has traveled outside of the United States, I can see the difference. Traveled or not traveled – I can easily see the difference. I can feel the difference.” Zen shared his own experience coming to the U.S. with prejudicial beliefs, acknowledging the impact having an international had on him personally:

When I came here, if I can confess, I was racist against Arabs because of the

Ottoman Empire. They left us with a lot of prejudice about Arabs. But when I

came here and began spending time with so many people from different countries,

I totally changed. I don’t care what nation or country people are from. That kind

of prejudice is so stupid.

Arya from Serbia shared an unpleasant experience she had with a staff member when trying to learn how to obtain a social security card:

I would expect that anyone working with international students would have

international experience. For example, when I went to ask about my social

security number, the woman was mad at me that I didn’t know what the procedure

was. I said in my country we don’t have that kind of thing. Some staff don’t have

that bigger picture that some areas are way different and we have different needs 217

and different paperwork, especially when you work with administration.

Traveling abroad has a huge impact.

Kathina from Peru also explained how international experience can help people empathize with international students’ experiences:

I think traveling adds to one’s capacity of putting themselves in the other people’s

shoes and how I don’t try to victimize ourselves, but how for international

students we have an extra load, emotional load that we have to carry besides the

actual academics and adjusting to the cultural environment and the language, and

the skills that you have in your own language are very different from the ones that

you have in the second language.

Farida from Thailand expressed how someone would not likely be able to obtain the necessary skills and understanding to interact with diverse cultures if they have never had international experiences. She explained:

When a skill is necessary, it is something that you have to be good at and

something that you can build on. Like if staff or faculty have expertise in doing

research or have traveled overseas before that, I mean if they’re constantly doing

it right, that can become their skill. Like they know how to do it to handle that.

So, if we have staff who never actually set foot out of the U.S., if they never

actually interact with international students, or they have limited time or

opportunity to do so, then it will be difficult to understand the needs of the

international student and try to even, how do I say, enhance the ability of the

international students to like maximize their opportunities when they are here. 218

Farida also expressed the importance of the length of time spent overseas: “You have to experience traveling, staying abroad for some time. So it’s not just the number of countries where you travel, but I think it’s the number of years that you stay in those countries.”

In addition, Farida shared her thoughts on the importance of university leadership providing opportunities for their staff in particular to spend time overseas:

I think it would be beneficial to provide opportunities for the staff to spend time

overseas. I remember when I first came here, I went to the bursar’s office. They

spoke so fast to me. I tried to understand, but it was difficult. And it was about

finances, so it was a very important conversation. Stuff is already difficult for you

to sort out because it’s a totally different system. And then when you deal with

someone who probably doesn’t have the empathy for someone in my situation

because they have never traveled and don’t know the experience of being in a

country where the language spoken isn’t your first language, not only is it

difficult when you have to speak another language, but also you have to deal with

a difficult financial issue. Like can you imagine going overseas and just trying to

buy a cup of coffee? It’s already intimidating. But to have to handle things like

your tuition fee and funding and be nervous that if you don’t handle it correctly,

you might get charged thousands of dollars. My point is that we have some kind

of training and preparations to really help people who do day to day work to

really understand and empathize with international students. And I think that

begins with them having an experience overseas to understand what it’s 219

like…They should understand how worrisome and intimidating it is so that they

can be much more helpful. Or even so that they speak at a different speed than

they do with domestic students.

Bodhi from Kenya also talked about the importance of traveling abroad to learn how to relate to people who are different from oneself:

University faculty and staff should have the opportunity to travel. They would be

able to gain more skills when they are out there. When they go out there, they can

be able to gain a couple of skills. They will be able to know how to relate with

people who don’t look like you, people who don’t talk like you, because that’s

another skill. People who don’t have the same accent as you, for example. So how

do you communicate with these people? Some people don’t communicate out of

fear. I might say something which may be wrong from the other side or from the

other perspective, but the good thing is connectivity. When you are connected,

you understand more people and how people think in a different way and you will

be able to do what they would expect you to do and you also would be able to

work well when you know each other better than if you haven’t traveled.

Needs Assessment. A common recommendation expressed was the importance of administering a needs assessment, a process universities can use to determine the immediate needs of their stakeholders in order to make necessary adjustments and allocate essential resources. Bakti from The Gambia commented, “We have to conduct a needs assessment in the university, so that all the multicultural groups can try to achieve intercultural understanding and see what programs can be ruled out so that everybody is 220 at par – at the same level.” Arya from Serbia also indicated that even an informal needs assessment could be greatly beneficial to international minority groups:

Engage minority groups on campus and ask them what their needs are. You need

to ask everyone because people’s needs are different. Not every minority group

will have the same needs. This is critical. Some people are suffering because their

basic needs aren’t being met and no one is asking them what they need.

In administering a needs assessment, university leaders can identify and address the existing gaps that are impeding their chances of achieving successful internationalization.

Materials to Facilitate Communication. Another recommendation that some participants suggested was the development of materials to facilitate communication, especially to assist international students whose English language skills are limited.

Mateo from Cambodia, for instance, stressed the importance of developing materials to facilitate communication of essential information. He explained:

Most international students have this language difficulty, language barrier. I heard

my friend telling me about how difficult it was for him to talk to the guy at the

student support center, or something like that. And then about tax aid. I know

about the visa issue that he had to go back to his country, and he needed that

paper before he goes back so that he can come back to the US. Just that issue, that

visa issue, he had a problem communicating with the person…It would be helpful

like to address or to communicate with people with minimal, with low language

comprehension proficiency, there. So, maybe just write something, a step by step

or timeline or a guide saying you have this on this date – something very precise 221

and easy to follow.

Recognition of International Students as Essential Resources. Most of the participants either directly expressed or implied the need for university leadership to recognize their value and put a system in place that utilizes their talents. Putroe from

Indonesia discussed the valuable contributions international students could make if they were valued as critical resources. She expressed:

Bring together community members from here and international students to

see how we can best serve the community while we are here. How can we be

beneficial? What support can we offer? Many students are happy to come.

Together we can do globally-minded and locally-engaged projects to benefit

everyone, right? But we have to come together. [International students] are a huge

resource. We come from so many miles, thousands of miles, away. We want to

learn while we’re here. We also have a lot of knowledge to share. It’s better than

sitting in a class. We don’t always learn much from sitting in a class. Let’s work

on community projects. Let’s come visit for elections or come visit foster care

homes. Or come visit marginalized communities. We international students come

here with a lot of experience. Many of us have worked back home, also. Engage

[us] in the development of projects, curriculum. I was active in my local

community back home. I came here already globally-minded. I carry a legacy

within me that I can share here. That’s why we should be utilized. Ask us what we

do, what we can do together. Because if we only learn global perspectives from

what a professor teaches us, that’s hard. 222

Kathina from Peru shared a similar recognition of the value international students add to a university:

University leaders should reach out and include international students, ask them

what they feel would make their contribution more visible for the school. You

have so many international students that could contribute to making the campus a

more global environment for everyone.

Partnerships with Local Schools. A suggestion that was also frequently provided was the idea of putting programs in place for international students to visit local schools.

It was mentioned by a few participants that building a glocal mindset must begin from an early age. Putroe from Indonesia shared:

Create a program where the university can benefit the local community by

bringing international students into the schools. A university has multiple

cultures, they have organizations like the international student unions. We can be

invited into schools to share our culture, language, everything. It’s globally-

minded and locally-active. A global mindset is easier to have from childhood.

Amida from India also shared experiences she has had with younger children who may have not had much previous exposure to international people. She explained:

I feel like domestic students are scared to communicate with international

students. So when you’re a kid, you need to make them more open so that they

can talk to a lot of people. I have seen, even when I go to a place where there is

very limited international presence, kids are scared to look at us. That doesn’t

happen back home. Our parents in India make us talk to everyone so we are not 223

scared of strangers. I think in the U.S., they tell kids to not talk to strangers, so

when they see people who are different than them, they get nervous. Having

international people spending time in schools with domestic students is important

for their education and for their openness to foreigners.

Rafael from China offered suggestions as to how the university can begin partnerships with schools to begin a reciprocal relationship where they learn from one another. He commented:

The university can set up programs for international students to be in schools in

the community. The local student, the [university] student, first they can go to the

local community or the local elementary school, middle school, high school to

teach and to share with them some cultures, some language. For example, they go

to the classroom like once a week or once a month to share their country’s

background and the culture and language and just to talk to them. Where is my

country, where I am from, what my country has, what is our food, and what are

the popular tourist places there. I know in southeastern Ohio, many people are

white and they don’t have the chance to interact with international people. It’s

hard for them to see a foreigner like me. They can learn from us, and we can learn

from them.

Arya from Serbia offered her perspective on how the cultural events during which performances occur, that the university typically hosts, can also take place in local schools. She reported:

I attended an international dancing event that I thought was very useful. If that 224

kind of dancing event can travel into the local schools so they can see different

cultures and be more interested, that will make a difference for the kids. They will

better understand why someone has a fully covered face or learn about why

Indian people have a bindi so maybe they will not stare. I think when kids are still

young in school, they need to have that experience. That’s how you start to slowly

prepare. That’s what a university can do, I think.

Faculty and Staff Retreats. Another recommendation given by participants was to require all faculty and staff to attend retreats on diversity. Although a professor or staff member may be from an international region, it does not necessarily mean they are open- minded and inclusive of all cultural backgrounds present in the class. Carter from Iran shared a negative experience he had with an international professor:

I had a professor my first semester who every time he came to class, he would not

say hello to the international students. He was not American, but he would only

say hello to the American students and students from his own country. He never

treated the other international students well. It was a very bad experience for me.

Samsara from China had a similar experience with an American professor:

Professors need to have a retreat on diversity. I have noticed that some of them

are limited in their thinking to racial diversity. I had a professor who was very

sensitive to issues that African Americans face, yet it was obvious she had

prejudice against international students. I couldn’t believe it. Most international

students I have talked to were very uncomfortable in her class. It was very

difficult for me to attend that class. 225

Malika from Saudi Arabia explained the necessity of training faculty to understand the multitude of ways diversity is present in a classroom, and the important role a professor plays in maintaining the dignity of each student:

Diversity can manifest itself in a classroom setting in a number of different ways:

multicultural students, different learning styles, distinct personalities, etc. The role

of the teacher is to encourage and preserve this diversity. So ensure every student

in the classroom gets the maximum value, teachers need to recognize and view

each student as a unique individual. Faculty need to be prepared to learn about

their students and make sure they feel included, valued and respected. Faculty

need to be directly taught this and trained. They are still learning, too.

Loday from The Gambia also shared his opinion on the necessity of faculty receiving training:

As Karl Marx said, ‘The educator himself or herself must be educated.’ Faculty

need an orientation on the principle that it is the multicolored nature of the

rainbow that gives it the appealing beauty that it radiates in the sun. No single

color could create that kind of beauty. Therefore, appreciation of diversity by

faculty who teach others is key to appreciation, mastery, and display of respect

and value for diverse perspectives.

Soledad from Guyana brought attention to the importance of faculty and staff understanding the cultural distinctions that have an impact on their interactions. She indicated:

Faculty and staff need to understand all those cultural nuances. They can’t know 226

everything, but they can actively listen and show support. You’re not going to be

able to solve anything, but sometimes just listening can go a long way for some

students. So, it’s understanding all those little nuances for me would put the

faculty and staff in a position that makes you understand that they understand

where you’re coming from and that they’re really trying to be helpful and not

push you off.

Exchange Programs. Another recommendation to foster glocal understanding was to implement exchange programs in which students and professors would spend time abroad at different universities, and people from the universities abroad would come to the U.S. As Putroe indicated, “This would mean a real connection with different universities around the globe.”

Loday also expressed the benefit of incorporating intercultural exchanges in universities by sharing an interaction he had with an American colleague entering a university in The Gambia:

Intercultural exchanges are one way in which faculty, staff, and students can

create understanding and curiosity about cultures. Exploration of other people’s

ways of life will have a significant impact. That is why people become totally

changed after visiting other places with different cultures and values. I remember

an American colleague who was anxiously looking for somebody from The

Gambia because he was planning to go there and was not sure how to adequately

prepare for the trip. I gave him the simple advice that all he needed to take with

him to The Gambia was an open mind. I told him he would find Gambians to be 227

some of the most friendly and sociable people in the world. He would live a

healthier life there than in the United States because he would have access to

healthy organic foods and drinking water at such inconceivably low prices that he

would not find it easy to believe that he was not being given charity. I told him

the people are charitable that many things he would have gifts he could never

dream of in the U.S. He called me soon after his return to express his gratitude

and his love for the people and the environment of The Gambia.

Rafael, the master’s student from China, revealed how an exchange provides service opportunities:

We can use professors like products, use their knowledge to get them into

different kinds of countries to build up some program, to develop their local

environments and or help their local people. Because my major is hospitality and

tourism, my professor has one project because he is in catering. He used to be a

chef. So, one time I think there was a Brazilian professor who came to [my

university] and then they formed a connection. When they shared their

experiences, my professor wanted to help the people in Brazil to eat well. It did

not cost them too much money, and my professor created all kinds of healthy

menus for the Brazilian people. It is a good way to engage internationally. It is

better to travel 10,000 miles than to reach 10,000 bucks.

Bruno from Cameroon also shared his opinion on the idea of having exchange programs for professors:

I think it’s good to create a program to bring faculty from different countries to 228

come and share and teach classes about a specific curriculum from the other

country…It is best to send faculty off to go and learn in another country and bring

back that knowledge to people here. The way I see it, a university should impose

that each [stakeholder] spend some time outside the United States, even for a

short period of time.

Malika from Saudi Arabia also emphasized the need for universities to support student travel and how beneficial exchange programs can be:

I think student exchange programs can work good with that. Also, research

conference support, students who travel to another country for conferences.

Actually, I think what can work for any students who need to do an internship, to

go to another country to do an internship for I think almost everything you can do

and get that knowledge. When you go there and you return, I think it will be

different for you. It will help you think outside of the box and bring that

knowledge back to your university.

Activities/Organizations Bridging International and Domestic Students. The participants also expressed a need for universities to create activities and establish organizations that work to bridge the gap between international and domestic students.

As Bakti from The Gambia articulated, “There should be engagement of both domestic and international students through activities of learning and things of that nature.”

Farida from Thailand shared her experience with an administration who invites international students to participate. She expressed:

I think that for the administrative body that allows students to participate in 229

different activities, they should also have orientation and resources to support the

international students. For example, the women’s center is doing a great job, not

just only supporting domestic students on certain issues like rape, violence against

women, but they also invite international women to be part of the ongoing

dialogue on certain issues pertaining to women’s rights.

She continued:

I would like to see an organization that can bring domestic students to collaborate,

to engage with international students. I would like to see that organization become

a bridge to getting domestic students involved with international students.

Because sometimes I think that what they do is just like focus on the lives of the

international students too much. Which is great because I know that their voice

will be heard and they will be instruments to address issues that concern

international students. But at the same time, I feel that they can do more to bring

international students closer to domestic students. Diversity doesn’t only mean

having more people on campus; it means that the diverse groups are interacting

and learning from one another. It means that all of the students are becoming

globally engaged and willing to work with other people from different

backgrounds and perspectives.

Dharma from England shared how the administration could begin to integrate international students by having a certain percentage of participants in programs to be international students:

In the women’s center, they bring on 30 grad students every year to become 230

mentors to any local students that want to be part of it. So maybe they’re

thinking about going to college or maybe someone has expressed an interest in

something, like soccer, then they are put with a mentor who has a similar interest.

So you’re providing that university thread through to the community and you’re

providing them help. What I would like to see is maybe 50% of those grad

students being international students, so that not only are you getting someone

that’s a mentor in your domain that you might be interested in as a student or a

young person at school figuring out your life, but also someone you get to speak

to who’s from a different language background and a different cultural

background, and you get a chance to understand their experiences.

Rafael from China commented on the importance of the university offering more opportunities for domestic and international students to interact:

The university can provide opportunities for people to interact. For example, we

have international nights, but most of the events are separate, so we have a China

evening or an Indian evening. If we host events together, it forces the different

cultures to come together to work together and collaborate. And then we can

reach out to local people and encourage them to attend the events. Maybe the

university could sponsor some of the tickets also to get people to come since it

can be expensive for some people. Then local people will learn about other

cultures and maybe enjoy learning new things that will open their minds.

Samsara from China also shared how a university could help in bringing international and domestic students together by sharing her experience at a former university: 231

In my old school, we had international days each month where people would

come together, international people and American people, to have coffee and

conversation. Hundreds of people would come from different countries. If

universities could sponsor those types of activities, it would encourage, maybe,

people to meet that otherwise would not meet.

Balanced Study Abroad Programs. An additional recommendation voiced was the incorporation of balanced study abroad programs. Participants recognized the importance of having study abroad programs that provide students with an authentic experience. Farida from Thailand shared:

I think we have to balance things when it comes to creating a study abroad.

Taking students overseas, we definitely want them to experience the reality of the

people in that country. However, we also need to be careful because there are a lot

of things to consider in terms of security and food safety…you have to consider

all of those factors to minimize potential problems. You can make a program

engaging and still allow students to have critical ideas of what’s going on in the

country to avoid what we call colonial attitudes. Because sometimes when you

don’t include that part, it means that you don’t appreciate the culture of the local

people or you try to socialize the American students, being Western, being more

what we call modern, is more acceptable than being local.

Mateo from Cambodia shared similar thoughts on the importance of study abroad experiences incorporating a component where students are integrating with local people.

He exclaimed: 232

I think it would help to have students study abroad, but at the same time, they

need to not be just tourists. Like in the university program that goes to Cambodia,

you go to a company, you work with the company and work with the local

Cambodian students, but at the same time, those are high class, rich people and so

they take you to places that an average Cambodian could not afford to go. So,

then they have this perception, when I tell them I am from Cambodia, that I am

rich. And I feel that maybe if you’re to engage in the local community, go to the

core of it, that’s where you can really learn about other people and societies.

Arya from Serbia brought attention to the idea of promoting educational opportunities overseas that do not necessarily target popular destinations. She described a professor who takes students to uncommon study abroad locations:

There’s a professor who is taking students every year to the Balkans area

where it’s all conflict. I cannot say it’s not safe, but it’s a tricky place to take

students. But students are going there, and that depends on faculty and staff.

People love to go there because every time they return, students say how it was

amazing learning about peace, conflict, visiting mountains.

Amida from India also commented on the importance of promoting opportunities that outside of popular study abroad destinations.

Sending students to study in France or Europe will be a good experience, but it

will not be as impactful as sending them to developing countries where the culture

and traditions are very different than their own. When they go there, have them

working with domestic people from that country so they can get into that 233

community and understand the culture and the people really well.

Global and Local Engagement. Some participants also made reference to the impact of utilizing the international student and faculty presence to enhance global and community engagement. Bakti from The Gambia expressed the importance of global and local engagement:

Global engagement is important because that is part of international diplomacy.

The global engagements should benefit the local community. For instance, here

the international students coming to Athens have strengthened the local economy.

There are some indigenous businesses that are aware of this, and there are markets

or stores that try to provide goods or other services that international folks would

need. So in a way, it strengthens local businesses.

Sawyer from India shared insight on the potential benefit of including international students in local projects:

Being locally engaged would mean there are trade organizations either standalone

or something else through their local community wherein they can make use of

their knowledge in helping the local community. So an example would be

engineering students with like, for example, Habitat for Humanity. We’re in the

field and it would be a chance to work with others who actually work on using

that engineering knowledge in everyday life. Like for the houses, if they want

some electrical wiring done or those sorts of things taken care of. 234

Farida from Thailand also shared her thoughts on the importance of having a system in place that facilities the connections between local organizations and international students:

I think to assess if a university is locally engaged, you have to see how they

arranged or set up programs or activities that allow international students to be

engaged with the local organizations or even to participate in the activities that led

by local like organizations or local groups.

Mateo from Cambodia shared how he wished there were more opportunities to volunteer in the local community that he was aware of:

I feel like this university lacks this mechanism of connecting the international

students to the local community…So, last semester, I was looking for an

internship. I was hoping to do something in the community that I lived in, like

intern at a food bank or something like that. I felt like I didn’t have enough

information to do that. So I googled and asked some American friends how I can

volunteer in the local community. I can help them in the summer or something

like that. So I feel there’s a level of engagement between the university and the

community that is not satisfactory.

Creating Phone Applications for International Students. A recommendation made by one of the doctoral students from Iran, Oliver, was the development of an application that would ease international students’ transition to the university. He asserted:

I think a missed opportunity is to have an app for international students. When we 235

come here, we have a lot of challenges. We are all looking for housing. We all

have no idea about how to establish a bank account, what we should do for these

things. We have no idea about the post office. An app could help us with this

stuff.

Support for International Research Endeavors. An additional recommendation offered was for leadership to provide support to faculty who engage in international research. Farida from Thailand stressed the importance of supporting those who are seeking to conduct research with an international focus. She indicated:

You need to support faculty who are interested in doing research that focuses on

say international issues like international studies, something like that. Because if

you don’t support these, then it will be very difficult to try to have dialogue and

also to incentivize the faculty members to internationalize their curriculum.

Because how many people will say, ‘Yeah, I’m interested in China, but I don’t

have time to develop course content that focuses on China,’ because that involves

a lot of research and resources to support that. So the university has to set aside a

budget, resources, and even structures to support faculty members who are willing

to do research on international studies. It can be on specific disciplines, but it

should also be overseas because that also will leverage a university in terms of

what they plan to do to engage with the global issues.

Institutions Within the University Supporting Internationalization. Another area identified as being essential to fostering glocal understanding is the recommendation of 236 including institutions within the greater university structure that support internationalization. Bakti from The Gambia suggested:

At an institutional level, there should be structures, such as offices that manage

internationalization of higher education in that particular university. There should

not just be a center for international studies. Every department should build its

model around the internationalization of higher education. I think if that is

accomplished, then it becomes possible to achieve global mindedness and local

engagement.

Funding for Cultural Events. Participants also recommended that there be funding allocated to events that lead to understanding others’ cultures. Bakti from The

Gambia commented:

It would be great to see money put into cultural events that educate everyone on

different cultural celebrations and traditions. Let’s take a typical Christmas

celebration. For instance, in The Gambia, the way Christmas is celebrated, there

are some traditional dances and manifestations that go along with Christmas. I

think it’s not happening here. Here, you see Christmas trees, you see the lights,

you see many things. So, if there is a particular activity that can be simulated to

show how Christmas is celebrated differently in other cultures, in a way that

everyone will understand, that can facilitate cross-cultural understanding.

Rafael from China also mentioned the importance of funding cultural events to allow a space for students to practice their foreign language skills. He indicated,

If a second language is well used, you will be less likely to forget it. If someone is 237

studying Chinese, he or she can be invited to attend Chinese events to use or

refresh their language. Through this experience, the student will think, ‘Oh, I

totally understand what the language is and what the culture is.’ The more events

the university can afford, I think the better.

Of all of the recommendations suggested by the participants to foster glocal understanding on a university campus, meaningful international experiences were regarded as having the potential to be the most impactful. As Putroe articulated,

“Spending time in another country with local people from that country can truly transform you. And if it is a positive experience, and if everyone has a similar experience, it can transform the world.”

Summary

The findings presented in this chapter reflect the voices of the 29 international graduate students interviewed for this study. Data was gathered in an attempt to answer the following research questions:

1. How do international graduate students experience internationalization

planning and implementation at their university?

2. What are the perspectives of international graduate students on how to foster

university stakeholders’ glocal competence?

The findings to the first question were separated into sections separated by internationalization planning and internationalization implementation. To address the data from the second research question, four separate sections were created to illustrate the four components of the glocal competence framework (Jean-Francois, 2015): glocal 238 attitudes, glocal knowledge, glocal skills, and glocal understanding. Participants identified what aspects of the glocal competence framework they would expect to see on a university campus that is globally minded and locally engaged, as well as their recommendations on how students, faculty, and university leadership can foster glocal competence.

239

Chapter 5: Discussions and Conclusions, Implications for University Leadership,

and Recommendations for Future Research

The findings presented in the previous chapter reflect the voices of the 29 participants with whom in-depth interviews were conducted for the purpose of the research. The final chapter begins with a review of the problem statement that led to conducting the study, the research questions, and the methodology that was employed. It then briefly summarizes the findings and examines the results that affirm or contradict the previous literature. Furthermore, the chapter includes a discussion of the findings and conclusions drawn, followed by a section on implications for university leadership, as well as recommendations for future research.

Revisiting the Study’s Problem Statement and Purpose

Although the notion of internationalizing higher education has been a focal point for many universities across the U.S., the lack of attention to its implementation has perpetuated the marginalization of culturally diverse minority groups, specifically the international student population. The intention behind internationalization is to value the multiple perspectives and experiences that represent a global community. However, emphasis continues to be placed on the dominant culture, thereby leaving the other cultures that encompass a university campus powerless. Research has shown that careful planning and implementation can lead to effective internationalization (Hudzick, 2015;

Olson, 2005). Yet, the absence of input from international students is problematic considering the valuable asset their presence offers to a university. 240

Previous studies have focused almost exclusively on seeking the opinions of faculty and administration (Childress, 2009; Dewey & Duff, 2009; Knight, 1997). Though several studies have focused on international students’ lived experiences of internationalization (Guo & Guo, 2017; Leask, 2010; Osmond & Roed, 2010), only one study was found that sought the experiences of international students in the planning and implementation of internationalization (Zhang, 2017). The findings of Zhang’s (2017) study suggest that efforts made to internationalize do not include the participation of international students, and the curriculum and pedagogy continue to be non-inclusive and focus almost solely on the dominant culture.

Patel and Lynch (2013) argued that internationalization, higher education’s response to globalization, lacks a respect for the diversity it supposedly represents due to its Western, hegemonic focus. They challenge the notion of internationalization with a shift in mindset to the glocalization of higher education that integrates global and local perspectives, with an emphasis on difference and diversity. Globalization, on the other hand, values the idea of oneness, leading to the marginalization of minority cultural groups who are expected to assimilate to the values and perspectives of the dominant cultural group (Killick, 2017; Robertson, 2013).

In addition to globalization, another problematic concept is the notion of global competence, a worthy yet impossible goal to achieve considering the complexity of the cultures that exist worldwide (Jean-Francois, 2015). In lieu of global competency, Jean-

Francois (2015) offered a model of glocal competency to address the unfeasibility of 241 being competent in every global cultural context, but rather having competence to engage in intercultural interactions in specific local contexts.

A glocal competence framework, which includes the attitudes, knowledge, skills, and understanding necessary to achieve glocal competence, can be used as a tool for institutions of higher education to better meet the objectives of internationalization. As previously mentioned, the contribution international graduate students could make to fostering glocal competence through the process of internationalization planning and implementation has the potential of being significant due to the diversity of experiences and perspectives they bring, as well as their level of maturity. Nevertheless, no previous studies were found that sought their perspectives on fostering glocal competence in university stakeholders (i.e., administrators, faculty, staff, and students) to achieve effective internationalization. Therefore, the purpose of this study was to explore international graduate students’ experience in the planning and implementation of internationalization at their respective university, as well as their perspectives on how to foster glocal competence in a university’s stakeholders.

Revisiting the Study’s Research Questions

The study was guided by the following two research questions:

1. How do international graduate students experience internationalization

planning and implementation at their university?

2. What are the perspectives of international graduate students on how to foster

university stakeholders’ glocal competence? 242

Revisiting the Study’s Methodology

For the purpose of the study, a basic interpretive qualitative research approach was chosen as the methodological framework. Data was collected through the conduction of semi-structured interviews with 29 participants using a university located in a small town in southeast Ohio as the setting. The interviews varied in length from 30 minutes to nearly 2 hours. The participants were international graduate students representing 23 different countries in Latin and South America, the Caribbean, Africa, the Middle East,

Europe, and Asia.

The credibility of the study was established using triangulation. In order to produce valid results, member checking, document analysis, and multiple points of input were used. For the purpose of member checking, five of the participants were asked to review the findings to determine if they believed them to be accurate. The five participants chosen came from countries in Asia, South America, Africa, Europe, and the

Middle East. Documents were also analyzed to gather information on the background of the international students at Ohio University, to gain a better understanding of the university’s global strategy plan, and to cross-reference information provided by the participants to ensure its accuracy. In addition, multiple points of input were sought on topics to ensure the truthfulness of details provided.

Revisiting the Findings

The study sought to examine the experiences of international graduate students in the planning and implementation of internationalization, as well as their perspectives on how to foster glocal competence in university stakeholders. Table 4 recaps the findings 243 from the first research question regarding how the participants experience internationalization planning and implementation.

Table 4

Participant Involvement in Internationalization Planning and Implementation on Their

Campus

Internationalization Experience: Missed Opportunities to Involve

Planning International Graduate Students in

Internationalization Planning

• Cultural event development • Provide platforms to share and promotion expertise • Providing feedback through • Curriculum development surveys, student • International outreach through organizations, and open international organizations, forums inter-university project • Assisting in staff collaborations, and student professional development mentorship • Recruitment

Internationalization Experience: Implementation

• Global programming • Employment opportunities: teaching assistantships, graduate assistantships, and university housing jobs • Involvement in study abroad preparations • Classroom engagement: classroom participation, guest lecturing, cultural consultation • Local community outreach • International student organizations • Cultural events • Cultural accommodations

244

The participants identified four areas in which they participated in internationalization planning (see Table 4), in addition to areas they believed were missed opportunities for them to contribute. Overwhelming, the participants believed their greatest contributions could be through enhancing knowledge on a campus by sharing their expertise, in addition to assisting in internationalizing the curriculum. Furthermore, the participants felt deeply that universities should take advantage of the overseas connections international students have. Regarding internationalization implementation, all of the participants felt that they were actively engaged in internationalizing the university.

The second research question addressed the graduate students’ perspectives on fostering glocal competence in university stakeholders. Prior to obtaining their recommendations, participants first offered their perspectives on what attitudes, knowledge, skills, and understanding they would expect to see on a university campus that is globally minded and locally engaged. The following is an outline of the findings:

• Participant Perspectives on Desired Traits for Glocal Competence

1. Glocal attitudes: empathy, acceptance, open-mindedness, inclusivity,

reflection, engagement, curiosity

2. Glocal knowledge: knowledge of the world, knowledge of differences,

knowledge of the struggles international students face, knowledge of

global issues, knowledge of Western imperialism, knowledge of the

global-local connection, knowledge of culturally appropriate terminology 245

3. Glocal skills: communication/language, collaboration, managing diverse

groups, making cross-cultural connections, cooperative learning,

emotional intelligence, ability to adapt

4. Glocal understanding: understanding that international students are an

asset, understanding the complexity involved in cross-cultural interactions,

understanding of students’ needs, understanding/awareness of one’s

privilege, mutual understanding between international and domestic

students, understanding of everyone’s need to feel valued

After identifying the desired traits of glocal competence, the participants offered their perspectives on fostering these desired traits in the stakeholders at a university. Table 5 summarizes the levels of university stakeholders who can contribute to fostering glocal competence on a campus. There are actions that oneself (i.e., a student) can take, as well as steps that faculty and leadership can take to acquire glocal attitudes, knowledge, skills, and understanding.

246

Table 5

Levels of University Stakeholders Who Can Contribute to Fostering Glocal Competence on a Campus

Themes Sub- Related Findings

Themes

Glocal attitudes Self Willingness to challenge one’s own beliefs

Approach of mutual respect

Attitude of lifelong learner

Faculty Attention to covert (i.e., informal or hidden)

curriculum

Class blogs

Program-based international celebrations

Cultural presentations

Leadership Offering adequate support

Transparency in communication

Approaches to internationalization that reflect

inclusivity

Ambassadors appointed to combat stereotypes

International representations present

Creation of third culture space

Glocal knowledge Self Knowledge of the world

247

Table 5 continued.

Faculty Workshops

Collaborative research projects with

international students

Multi-cultural, multi-perspective curriculum

Academic forums

Leadership Fluid, multi-directional exchange of knowledge

Glocal skills Self Foreign/second language proficiency

Faculty Foreign/second language proficiency

Leadership Recruitment of international faculty and

students

Foreign language programs

Requirements for global component in research

to acquire tenure

Glocal Self Making local connections

understanding

Faculty Course requirements to facilitate engagement

between international and domestic students

248

Table 5 continued.

Leadership Policy implementation

International experiences for faculty, staff, and

students

Needs assessment

Materials to facilitate communication

Recognition of international students as

essential resources

Partnerships with local schools

Faculty and staff retreats

Exchange programs

Activities/organizations bridging international

and domestic students

Balanced study abroad programs

Global and local engagement

Creating phone applications to assist

international students

Support for international research endeavors

Institutions within the university supporting

internationalization

Funding for cultural events

249

International Students’ Experiences with Internationalization Planning and

Implementation

The findings of this study both confirm and contradict previous literature. There was only one previous study identified that examined the perspectives of international graduate students and their experiences with the planning and implementation of internationalization. In Zhang’s (2017) research, the four international participants expressed their desire to feel included in their university’s internationalization planning and implementation, yet their experience revealed feelings of exclusion. In addition, the participants shared that they felt the classroom practices and formal curriculum were not culturally responsive. In the current research, participants indicated the same focus on a

Westernized, hegemonic curriculum. However, unlike Zhang’s (2017) study, the participants in the current study indicated several avenues through which they participated in the planning and implementation of internationalization: cultural event development and promotion, providing feedback, assisting in staff professional development, and recruitment.

During the planning phase, participants were involved in the development and promotion of cultural events on their campus; a few participants were involved in professional development for staff members; feedback was sought from several participants through the use of surveys, student organizations, and open forums; and some participated in the recruitment of other students into their academic programs. Yet, as similarly discovered in Zhang’s (2017) study, the participants in this study recommended that more international graduate students be involved in curriculum 250 development to reflect more diverse, multi-cultural perspectives. In addition, the participants of this study suggested creating venues to have international graduate students share their expertise, as well as involving them in international outreach through international organizations, inter-university project collaborations, and student mentorship.

The participants felt much more involved, however, in the implementation phase of internationalization. They expressed being involved in global programming, university employment (teaching assistantships, graduate assistantships, and university housing jobs), study abroad preparations, classroom engagement opportunities (classroom participation, guest lecturing, cultural consultation), local community outreach, international student organizations, cultural events, and cultural accommodations (e.g., international cuisine).

Additional studies that focused on student experiences in internationalization shared similar findings as this study. Leask (2010) conducted a study comparing domestic and international students’ experiences with internationalization. A major finding of the study revealed that although domestic students found cross-cultural interactions as important to the realization of internationalization, they rarely engaged in them. The findings from this study suggest that the majority of participants felt a similar lack of engagement with their domestic counterparts. 251

Perspectives of International Graduate Students on How to Foster University

Stakeholders’ Glocal Competence

Although there were not any studies found that sought international graduate students’ perspectives on how to foster glocal competence in university stakeholders, the findings in this study were similar to findings in other studies that examined the concept of glocalization in higher education. Kettaneh (2016) interviewed international students to determine the impact glocalization would have on international student retention.

Similar to the findings of Zhang’s (2017) study and this study, Kettaneh (2016) found that recognition of diverse perspectives in curriculum and pedagogy would help facilitate engagement between domestic and international students. The findings of this current study also revealed additional actions a university can take to integrate the students.

In order to foster glocal understanding, recommendations were made to create organizations whose sole focus is to find ways to bridge domestic and international students. Additionally, it was suggested to create collaborative cultural events between different cultural groups to bring them together (e.g., an event to bring together African-

American students with African students), as well as to host international days once a month with the intent of bringing all student populations together for coffee and conversation. It was also recommended for faculty to provide incentives to domestic students to attend international events, such as offering extra credit or even requiring attendance as part of a course. Several participants commented that they did not believe the vast majority of domestic student would be interested in attending cultural events otherwise. 252

Tien and Talley’s (2012) study conducted in Taiwan on glocalization also confirms part of the findings of the current study. In their study, professors and domestic students indicated a need for both global and local knowledge, an understanding of cultural issues, a global mindset, and proficiency and experience with foreign languages to achieve glocalization. Although they did not interview any international students, the participants of the current study expressed the same need for glocal skills (e.g., foreign language acquisition), glocal knowledge (e.g., knowledge of the world), and glocal understanding (e.g., cross-cultural issues). Tien and Talley’s (2012) study did not include, however, the fourth component of the glocal competence framework: glocal attitudes. In the current study, glocal attitudes of empathy, acceptance, open-mindedness, inclusivity, reflection, engagement, and curiosity were also deemed necessary to achieve glocal competence.

An additional finding in the current study that supports a concept introduced by

Patel and Lynch (2013) is the notion of creating a third culture in order for glocal learning to take place. Building a third culture creates a dynamic atmosphere in which a wealth of diverse knowledge can be exchanged in an environment where all perspectives are equally valued. In other words, there does not exist one dominant culture. The findings of the current study suggest that in order to foster glocal attitudes, a third culture must be created from the beginning to ensure that each university stakeholder feels equally valued, neither superior nor inferior.

The current study contradicts, to an extent, a recommendation provided in previous research conducted by Shcheglova et al. (2017). In their study, the researchers 253 recommended for universities to augment their international student population in order to nurture global competence in their domestic student population. In the current study, several participants complained of the attention given to the number of international students on a campus being recognized as successful internationalization as opposed to the focus on their successful integration into the university community.

Discussion of Findings and Researcher’s Conclusions

Every participant in the study indicated they were involved in the implementation of internationalization at their university, despite their lack of involvement in the planning phase for the most part. Those who participated in the planning phase were mostly asked to provide feedback to the university administration through the use of surveys. A few participants contributed in the other ways listed (cultural event development and promotion, professional development, and recruitment), but it was limited to roughly one-third of the participant population. Upon requesting their recommendations on how to best involve international graduate students in internationalization planning, some of the participants shared a desire to be given a platform to share their expertise, as well as be involved in curriculum development.

These findings may suggest participants’ wish to feel valued by their university community for the knowledge they bring to campus, as well as their frustration with the lack of diverse perspectives reflected in the curriculum.

In listening to the participants’ narrative of their experience in higher education, as well as their recommendations on fostering glocal competence in university stakeholders, it became evident that there are intentional actions university stakeholders 254 could take to help foster an environment in which everyone feels equally valued and embraced, a much-needed move forward in our current global climate. It is clear that in order to achieve such an atmosphere, the focus on cultivating a glocal mindset is essential. Based on the findings and previous literature, a glocal mindset encompasses the attitudes, knowledge, skills, and understanding that lead us to an appreciation and respect for the global-local connection and can be fostered through our experiences (Jean-

Francois, 2015; Patel, 2017; Patel & Lynch, 2013). When considering the major global threats of the present and past time that continue to the present, including global warming, the dehumanization of persons of different racial and ethnic backgrounds, pandemics, etc., solutions cannot wait. People must gain the attitudes, knowledge, skills, and understanding to be able to come together regardless of difference to work together to address these issues and find solutions. The global-local connection enables individuals from diverse backgrounds, countries, and cultures to embody the concept of a global citizen where boundaries, whether it be language, culture, gender, etc., to disintegrate and allow for genuine engagement with one another independent of the specific local context (Jean-Francois, 2015; Niemczyk, 2019; Sklad et al., 2016).

One of the major ideas that emerged from the data was the importance of nurturing attitudes of empathy, acceptance, open-mindedness, and inclusivity. Some of the participants, however, acknowledged the importance of nurturing these glocal attitudes beginning in early childhood. For some, it will be increasingly difficult to change their mindset once they have reached adulthood. As an institution of higher education, university-community partnerships can be created to impact not only primary 255 and secondary school children, but teachers as well who have the responsibility of educating them. Several participants recommended that universities create opportunities for international students to integrate with local school children to share with them their country, language, culture, and traditions. Whereas this is a practice that some professors have already put in place, few are benefitting from it. A widespread movement to value an international presence in all schools at different times throughout the course of a year could greatly impact a child’s mindset. If all a child ever knows about a Muslim, for instance, is what they hear at home on the news or the stereotypes perpetuated through the media, that child could forever live in fear due to ignorance. Conversely, if that same child had the opportunity to interact with a Muslim at an early age and see their humanity, hear about their families, and learn about their culture and language, it may nurture an awareness for that child who might then think more critically when they hear negative stories that contradict their lived experience.

In an attempt to integrate international students in local schools, two major potential challenges come to mind. First of all, teachers must be willing participants. If they are forced to receive an international student in their class against their wishes, their attitude could negatively impact the work the international student is trying to do.

Therefore, the question becomes how to foster a glocal mindset in teachers. When teachers enter a teacher education program, if the recommendations the participants provided are implemented, there is a greater possibility of them graduating as a glocally competent individual. Preservice teachers who go global tend to seek the opportunity to learn about different methods of approaching education to become more globally-minded 256 in their instruction (Doppen et al., 2016). Therefore, if a university campus purposely works towards fostering glocal competence, it may inspire preservice teachers who are preparing for the profession to partake in an international experience working in schools.

According to Doppen and Diki (2017), preservice teachers who fulfilled their student teaching requirement overseas, and who were interviewed two years later once they were working as classroom teachers, indicated that they had benefitted from their international experience. Not only did they gain an understanding of the importance of interacting with people from other cultures, but they also became equipped to view issues from multiple perspectives, which informed their classroom instruction.

Another possible challenge could be how to appropriately involve the international student population. If they are asked to participate without any compensation, it may understandably lead to feelings of exploitation. In a glocally competent environment, people should feel equally valued and respected for their contributions. The solution could be to offer the students course credit or some financial reward for their time.

In addition to creating university-community partnerships to help foster glocal competence in students beginning at an early age, the importance of implementing technology to engage students has become glaringly apparent during the move to online learning due to the coronavirus pandemic. Universities can assist local schools in connecting with schools overseas by creating of partnerships with international universities. Through the medium of technology, it can become a regular practice for students to learn from one another. In addition to the challenge of communities who do 257 not have adequate access to technology, another challenge will be to ensure that the learning is mutual and not uni-directional. Due to the historical context of Western imperialism, it may lead learners in the Global South to assume they are being further exploited for the benefit of those from Western countries. It will be critical to find global issues that impact both stakeholders in their specific local communities as a means of bridging any gap students may feel during their initial phase of connection with one another. Global relationships established from an early age can significantly debunk the notion of dominant versus non-dominant cultures. If solidarity amongst people from different global communities can be nurtured through education, it could positively impact future world relations exponentially.

If glocal competence is cultivated in children through education, it will become a natural transition to create a glocally competent atmosphere in university settings. In speaking with the participants, a strong impression conveyed was the need for all stakeholders to receive training in cross-cultural interactions and in the acquisition of a foreign language. Students, as part of their education, should also be required to learn another language and partake in an international experience directly related to their field of study (e.g., preservice teachers spending time working in classrooms overseas). Study abroad opportunities should, therefore, include a component of collaborative, project- based learning. Students could work directly with local university students in the international location to solve problems that will benefit both local communities, the community is which the collaboration is based, as well as the community of the students who have traveled. For instance, future school administrators could work on projects with 258 other students studying leadership to solve issues that schools face on a global scale (e.g., students who face food scarcity, effective global modes of instruction, etc.).

In addition to students, faculty and staff should also be required to learn another language. Experiences acquiring a foreign language can help bring diverse cultures together, increase university stakeholders’ knowledge of the world, and foster an atmosphere of empathy. When one has an experience of struggling to learn a new language, they are better equipped to understand, on some level, the challenge students face who are trying to not only learn another language but learn new academic content in the language. Although knowing another language can be an advantage for university stakeholders in communicating with other speakers of the language, the true benefit is their gained ability to empathize with those who are conducting their studies in a language other than their native tongue.

Furthermore, faculty should be trained on how to facilitate learning through the implementation of a multi-perspective, multi-cultural curriculum, which is congruent with the American Council on Education’s Center for International and Global

Engagement’s list of priorities (ACE, 2017). Participants agreed overwhelmingly that each faculty and staff member should also have the opportunity to engage in a meaningful and transformative international experience. It was also suggested that faculty conduct international research to be eligible for tenure. If the leadership at a university implemented the recommendations above, it would convey their serious commitment to inclusivity and help to slowly break down the mindset of Western superiority. 259

Rather than a focus on recruiting international students, it was revealed in this study that attention should be placed on the recruitment of international faculty, which is also in line with the Standards of Professional Practice (Leadership and Management,

Standard 11) put forth by the Association of International Educator Administrators

(AIEA, 2020). By having a culturally diverse faculty, it will possibly enable universities to more easily internationalize their curriculum. Moreover, faculty can assist in providing regular platforms for students from all nationalities to share their knowledge with the rest of the university community. Physical platforms could also be designed to bring together domestic and international students in what might be a series of fondue experiences in which they could engage in joint problem solving, even for credit. The platform could operate under the auspices of international graduate students, the mission of whom would be the development and training of student moderators who would facilitate such cross- cultural, problem-solving sessions. The diverse perspectives could enrich the academic experience for all students, domestic and international.

Another major area of interest expressed by the participants was a need for an institutional unit within the university dedicated solely to addressing the unique struggles of international students. The participants of this study noted the existence of an office for international students and faculty; however, its priority is dealing with concerns related to immigration. In order for students to feel comfortable and well-adjusted in their new surroundings, it is critical to have an area that addresses their well-being. The international students interviewed for this study communicated concerns involving issues of language barriers, cultural miscommunications and misunderstandings, financial 260 hardships, and racism. When an international student’s well-being is not taken into consideration, it can make it extremely difficult for them to succeed academically.

Therefore, establishing a separate institutional unit whose mission is uniquely to address international students’ well-being and adjustment to their new cultural surroundings can have a positive impact on their ability to effectively integrate.

Whereas all new students in a university have varying levels of difficulty adapting, the struggles faced by international students can differ significantly from those of domestic students. To ensure their needs are taken into consideration, an international graduate student could also be elected to be a representative on the board of trustees that oversees university leadership.

An organization within the university dedicated to meeting the unique needs of international students can also be used as an epicenter of all international correspondence and recognition. As recommended by some of the participants, such an organization could publish newsletters highlighting issues that countries are facing around the world that could be integrated into the curriculum. In addition, there could be a push to integrate the celebration of major holidays celebrated around the world on campus. Rather than solely recognizing Christian and American holidays, significant global holidays (e.g.,

Ramadan and Eid al-Fitr, Chinese New Year, Diwali, etc.) could also be recognized on the academic calendar. This type of organization could also take on the responsibilities of facilitating cultural events on campus that unite students.

The ideas mentioned, inspired by the voices of the participants, could serve as an important step in establishing an educational environment in which glocal competence 261 can flourish. Once a few major developments are implemented to a campus, it could lead to a snowball effect in which the other recommendations provided by the participants would logically follow. The next section discusses the implications for university leadership. For a university to become glocally competent, the leadership team must be proactive in ensuring its success.

Implications for University Leadership

The leadership at a university is key to the successful implementation of a plan for internationalization that infuses a glocal competency framework of desired attitudes, knowledge, skills, and understanding. It will be critical for a university to find a leader who is passionate and has a strong commitment to creating a third culture (Patel &

Lynch, 2013) on campus in which each member of the university community feels equally valued and embraced. In order to foster a third culture atmosphere, the leader should already possess the necessary attitudes, knowledge, skills, and understanding to be able to interact with and integrate into any new environment. They should be proficient in more than one language and have already lived in different communities in both the

Global North and the Global South. Although proficiency in multiple languages and diverse travel experiences does not necessarily determine a person’s glocal competence, it demonstrates a leader’s exposure to multiple, global perspectives. A leader should also have vast experience in effectively implementing strategies to bridge domestic and international populations.

A university’s leadership must also be dedicated to implementing policies that will serve to create a system of accountability for all stakeholders. For example, a yearly 262 evaluation could be administered that specifically addresses departments’ level of effectiveness in implementing the university’s strategic plan for internationalization.

Moreover, there should exist an ongoing evaluation of faculty’s devotion to research with a global focus.

Policies could also be introduced that have an impact on the culture of the university. For instance, the inclusion of all forms of language could be guaranteed.

Therefore, different dialects or orthographic representations of English, for example, would be welcomed as an accepted form of language to be used in an academic setting rather than an insistence on using only Westernized forms of the language.

Regardless of the policies that universities believe would provide the best opportunities to foster glocal competence, choosing a fearless leader who has the vision and courage to create a globally minded and locally engaged community is essential.

Recommendations for Future Research

The current study was limited in scope due to several factors. First of all, participants were selected based on their willingness and were chosen only from one campus. In addition, all 29 interviews were conducted in English, which may have inhibited some participants from fully expressing their experiences. Therefore, several recommendations should be considered for future research.

The first recommendation for future research is to broaden the setting to include multiple universities. That would enable researchers to look for patterns across campuses.

Moreover, a quantitative methodology could be employed, thus making the research generalizable. Comparisons could also be made amongst populations to determine 263 whether a student from the continent of Africa, for example, expresses the same experience as an international student coming from Europe or Asia. In addition, future studies could also compare international graduate students’ perspectives based on their disciplines or academic programs. An engineering student’s perspective, for instance, might differ from a student’s perspective who is in teacher education. Furthermore, future studies could also compare the difference between the mindset of international graduate students who plan to return to their country of origin and the ones who intend to seek employment in the U.S. after graduation.

Although it was important for the researcher in this study to only include the voices of international graduate students, another recommendation for future research would be to include domestic graduate students as well to compare their experiences and insight. In addition, other university stakeholders (i.e., administrators, faculty, and staff) should also be heard. They are invaluable members of the glocal higher education community as well. Their insight would offer, yet again, another lens through which to examine a glocal competence framework.

In addition to the aforementioned recommendations, it would also be intriguing to assess university stakeholders’ glocal competence using a scale prior and post an international experience. All of the participants in the study felt very strongly that everyone should have an international experience. Therefore, it is essential to understand the impact of such an experience to determine if it is indeed necessary. Researchers could also investigate international graduate students’ perspectives on what constitutes a meaningful and transformative international experience. 264

Another recommendation for future research is to examine the possible effectiveness of collaborative, project-based learning across cultures in specific fields of study. In other words, what contributions can be made to a student’s learning by working collaboratively with university students in another country on projects that address concerns in both their own community and the local community in the country where they are studying abroad? Furthermore, what possible effect would such collaborative projects have on the communities for which they are designed? The possibilities of conducting research around collaborative projects across cultures are exponential.

Summary

The findings of this study contribute to the ongoing dialogue on internationalization, embracing a glocal perspective through the lens of an invaluable resource to higher education: international graduate students. Though the study was limited to willing participants on a single university campus setting, their honest and thoughtful insight has the potential to advance the existing conversation on glocalizaton in higher education. The 29 participants representing five major regions of the global community each shared their experience with an open heart and offered their genuine opinion on how we, as a university community, can foster the kind of environment that will lead to an inclusive and empathetic world.

265

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Appendix A: Interview Protocol for International Graduate Students

Demographic Information: Welcome! Thank you for being here with me today! I would like to begin by asking you some basic information about yourself to get to know you better.

1.) What is your name?

2.) Where are you from?

3.) What is your language background?

4.) What are you studying at _____ University?

5.) Why did you choose to come to _____ University?

6.) How long have you been in the U.S.?

7.) What do your parents do for a living?

8.) Have you had any professional experiences in your home country or in the U.S. prior to doing your graduate studies? If so, what were they?

Internationalization of Higher Education ~ Experience in the United States: Next, I would like to ask you to share some of your experiences you have had here at

____University.

9.) Could you tell me about your experience at ____ University?

10.) What experiences have you had here that have made you feel the most comfortable?

• Where do you feel the most comfortable communicating with others on campus?

(Classes? Etc.?)

283

11.) What experiences have you had here that have made you feel the least comfortable?

• Where do you feel the least comfortable communicating with others on campus?

• Have you ever felt a sense of being unwelcomed on campus?

12.) What were your expectations before coming to _____ University?

• Were those expectations met?

• What were some positive experiences you have had that you either did or

didn’t expect?

• What are some of the challenges you have faced that you either did or didn’t

expect?

13.) Upon arriving at ____ University, what kind of orientation did you have?

• Were you required to undergo any cross-cultural training?

14.) Are you involved in any university-related clubs, associations, organizations, etc.?

• If so, what are they? Please tell me about them.

• How long have you been involved with them? In what capacity (leader, member,

etc.)?

• Who else is involved in these clubs, associations, etc.? Students from the

same cultural background as you? Other international students? American

students?, etc.

15.) Could you tell me about your experience in your classes?

• How often do you participate in your classes? How often do you contribute

to the conversations that take place in your courses? 284

• In classes where you are the most comfortable sharing your ideas, what prompted

that level of comfort?

• How often are you asked to provide your perspective in classes?

o How often do choose to participate in your classes?

• What is the cultural background of the students in your courses? Of the

professors?

o How often do your professors provide course materials (readings,

etc.) from other cultures? From your culture? How often do they

provide a multi-perspective worldview of the material/concepts

introduced?

o How often do your classmates (either in or outside of class) ask you

about your opinion on something, for help with something, or your

perspective on something (issue, etc.)? Do the classmates who engage

you tend to be mostly other international students or American

students?

16.) Have you ever participated in or been asked to participate in a program, event, class

(i.e. guest speaker), etc., that would help the ____ University community (faculty, staff, and students) learn from your experience and/or expertise?

• If so, who asked you?

• What did you do?

• Where did it take place?

• Who attended? 285

17.) Have you ever participated in or been asked to participate in a program, event, class

(i.e. guest speaker), etc., that would help the ____ University community (faculty, staff, and students) learn about your culture?

• If so, who asked you?

• What did you do?

• Where did it take place?

• Who attended?

18.) In your opinion, how important do you think it is to have multiple, worldview perspectives coming from the various cultures that represent the ____ University community addressed in courses? Campus-wide events? Orientations for all students?

Etc.?

19.) What is your understanding of internationalization of higher education? What do you think it means or what does it mean to you?

20.) How would you describe your involvement in the strategic planning process for internationalization at _____ University?

21.) How would you describe your involvement in the implementation of the strategic plan for internationalization at _____ University?

• Have you ever been asked to help or have you ever participated in the

development of programs, strategies, events, etc., to help ___University achieve

its global strategy plan?

• If so, what were they? 286

• If you did participate, what contribution did you make? (i.e. what ideas did you

have?)

22.) How do you think a university should engage its international graduate students in a strategic planning process for internationalization?

• What are some specific activities that would help confirm that international

graduate students are truly engaged in a strategic planning process for

internationalization?

23.) In the case of a university that has an existing plan for internationalization, how do you think international graduate students should be integrated in the implementation of such a plan for internationalization?

• What are some specific activities that would help confirm that international

graduate students are truly engaged in the implementation of strategic plan for

internationalization?

Perspectives on the Planning and Implementation of Internationalization to Foster

Glocal Competence: Now I would like to move on to questions to get your insight on how we as a university community could enhance our ability to embrace the multiple perspectives that our campus represents.

24.) What do you think are the characteristics of a university that is globally minded and locally engaged?

• What are some concrete facts, actions, decisions or evidence that would help you

identify such characteristics? 287

• How can a university use its global engagement to serve its local/national

purpose?

• How can a university connect its local/national purpose with a global mission or

vision?

• What should a university do to ensure that its students, staff, and faculty are

globally minded and locally engaged?

25.) What are the attitudes, dispositions, or behaviors that you would expect from students, staff and faculty of a university that is globally minded and locally engaged?

• Attitudes of students?

• Attitudes of staff?

• Attitudes of faculty?

26.) What do you think students, staff, and faculty of a university need to know to be considered as globally minded and locally engaged?

• Knowledge for students?

• Knowledge for staff?

• Knowledge for faculty?

27.) What are the skills would you expect to observe from students, staff, and faculty of a university that is globally minded and locally engaged?

• Skills of students?

• Skills of staff?

• Skills of faculty? 288

28.) What sort of understanding would you expect that students, staff, and faculty would show if they belong to a university that is globally minded and locally engaged?

• Understanding for students?

• Understanding for staff?

• Understanding for faculty?

29.) What do you think university leaders could do to better foster a multi-perspective campus where the diverse cultural worldviews that represent our university community are equally shared and valued?

30.) What do you think university faculty could do to better foster a multi-perspective class where the diverse cultural worldviews present in the class are equally shared and valued?

31.) What kinds of experiences do you think ____ University faculty, staff and students need in order to understand that issues relevant to you being from (COUNTRY X) are also relevant to them?

32.) What do you think is necessary in order for faculty, staff and students to respect and value diverse perspectives?

33.) What do you think is necessary in order for faculty, staff and students to become open-minded and curious about other cultures?

Concluding Thoughts: I just have a couple of more questions I would like to ask you to conclude.

34.) Is there anything I haven’t asked you that you would like to share? 289

35.) Would it be ok if I contact you again?

Thank you very much for your time! I greatly appreciate your contributions!

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