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BIBLIOGRAPHY Paul III, who had authorized the founda- Acts of Last Will. Receuils de la tion of the Portuguese Inquisition, six years laterסActes a` cause de mort socie´te´ Jean Bodin pour l’histoire comparative des insti- tutions LX–LXII. 3 vols. Brussels, 1992. (1542) revived the Holy Office of the Inquisition in the Italian Papal States. Here, however, the Roman Goody, Jack, Joan Thirsk, and E. P. Thompson, eds. Family Inquisition’s concern was not Judaizing, but the and Inheritance: Rural Society in Western Europe, 1200–1800. Cambridge, U.K., and New York, 1976. threat to from . Soon, other states in the reinstated local tribu- Howell, Martha C. The Marriage Exchange: Property, Social nals of the Inquisition: Naples and Venice in 1547, Place, and Gender in Cities of the Low Countries, 1300– 1550. Chicago, 1998. and Milan in 1562. Sabean, David. Kinship in Neckarhausen, 1700–1870. Cam- INSTITUTIONAL STRUCTURE bridge, U.K., and New York, 1998. AND PROCEDURE Seccombe, Wally. A Millennium of Family Change: Feu- The modern generally followed the dalism to Capitalism in Northwestern Europe. London body of jurisprudence developed by the medieval and New York, 1992. Inquisition, compiled in 1376 by Nicolau Eimeric GOVIND P. SREENIVASAN into the Directorium inquisitorum, revised in the late sixteenth century by Francisco Pen˜a. Unlike their medieval predecessor, however, the Spanish and Portuguese Inquisitions were controlled by the INQUISITION. Scholars distinguish between crown, and in Italy, there was considerable secular the medieval, or papal, Inquisition, which evolved oversight as well, except in the Papal States. In in the thirteenth century to combat the Cathar Spain, Ferdinand created a government board, the heresy in southern , and the modern Inquisi- Council of the Supreme and General Inquisition, which established policies and procedures, oversaw tion, reestablished in parts of Europe during the the appointment of officials and functioning of tri- fifteenth and sixteenth centuries. bunals throughout the Spanish realms, and served as the court of appeals. Until 1560, the number and FOUNDATIONS territories of the Spanish districts fluctuated consid- The first two modern Inquisitions were established erably; thereafter they remained stable at fourteen in Spain (1478) and Portugal (1536) to deal with a peninsular tribunals and four island tribunals (Mal- heresy peculiar to the Iberian Peninsula, Cryptoju- lorca, , , and the Canaries). Additional daism, or a reversion to Judaism among converts to tribunals were added as the empire expanded: Mex- (conversos). To punish this form of ico, Lima, Cartagena de Indias, Manila, and finally, apostasy, the monarchs Ferdinand and Isa- the at Madrid. bella obtained authorization in 1478 from Pope Sixtus IV to establish a new Inquisition in Castile, Portugal’s Inquisition was also placed under the and later, in 1483, to revive Arago´n’s medieval tri- direction of a royal board, known as the General bunals. Nonetheless, cases of Judaizing continued Council. Ultimately, there were tribunals in Lisbon, to occur, so the Catholic monarchs took the ex- Coimbra, and Evora, plus another in Goa, the Por- treme decision in 1492 of ordering all to either tuguese colony in India. convert to Christianity or leave Castile. Many Jews In Italy, the papacy attempted to exert some crossed the border to Portugal to join the large control over the Inquisitions outside the Papal numbers of conversos who had already fled there States; this process culminated in the establishment from Spain. In 1496, the king of Portugal, John II, of the Congregazione del Sant’ Ufficio in 1588. As ordered the expulsion of Jews from his territory, and was the case in Portugal and Spain, the Congrega- in 1497, the conversion of any who remained, who tion functioned as the supreme appellate court for joined ranks with the Spanish refugees. The pres- the tribunals in Italy. In each of the states with ence of this group of New eventually Inquisitions, the network of local tribunals followed forced John III to bring the Inquisition to Portugal the preexisting structure of bishoprics. For example, in 1536. in the , aside from the head tri-

EUROPE 1450 TO 1789 267 INQUISITION bunal in Venice itself, there were tribunals at against him—or, once freed, to speak about his Brescia, Padua, Udine, Treviso, Cyprus, Rovigo, experiences. With the inquisitor acting as both Picenza, , Vicenza, Verona, and Capo judge and investigator, the prosecution presented d’Istria. its case first, and the defendant, with the aid of a court-appointed lawyer, could respond. At this Thanks to a shared legal tradition, the operation point, if the defendant’s confession was not seen as of the Inquisition in each area was similar. In Spain sufficient, the tribunal would vote on the question each tribunal consisted of one or two inquisitors, a of torture: what kind and how much. In reality, fiscal prosecutor, defense attorney, various employ- torture was employed rarely (in less than 3 percent ees who were charged with record keeping and care of cases) and frequently was overcome. The large of the prisoners, unpaid theological and legal con- majority of cases ended in guilty verdicts. In Spain sultants, and a network of local legal representatives and Portugal, the final act in the trial was the public (comisarios) and messengers/jailors (familiars), auto-da-fe´, where prisoners were sentenced amid also unpaid, who created an inquisitorial presence in great ceremony; actual punishments were carried the hinterland. Strict guidelines established the out separately. An important tool of the Iberian qualifications for various members of the tribunal. Inquisition was public humiliation: those convicted Inquisitors had to be at least forty years old, li- of serious offenses were required to wear the centiates or doctors in theology or . After sanbenito, a distinctive outer tunic that was also the fifteenth century, few Spanish inquisitors were displayed in the convict’s . drawn from the religious orders such as the Domini- cans, who had once dominated the medieval institu- Abolition came slowly, with the advance of the tion. Comisarios were drawn from the local secular Enlightenment and then French troops to southern clergy, and familiars were laymen of uncontested Europe. Generally, the Italian tribunals were Christian ancestry. Portugal’s tribunals were struc- disbanded between 1774 and 1800, and the Iberian tured along the same lines, while in Italy, often only ones disappeared between 1812 and 1834, al- one inquisitor led the court (in Iberia there were though the Spanish and American tribunals effec- two), while the local legal representatives, known as tively ended operation in 1820. The fate of each vicarii, held more power than their Iberian counter- tribunal’s archives is capricious: some survive virtu- parts. Unlike their Iberian counterparts, both the ally intact, while others disappeared during the Na- inquisitors and the vicars came from the ranks of the poleonic Wars. Major repositories exist in the Ar- regular religious orders, primarily the Dominicans chivo General de la Nacio´n (Mexico), Arquivo and . Nacional da Torre do Tombo (Lisbon), Archivo Histo´rico Nacional (Madrid), and in the Archivi A tribunal generated its cases in a variety of dell’Inquisizione Romana (The Vatican, opened in ways. The standard method was for the inquisitor to 1998), but substantial numbers of trials and other go on a visitation of his district. First, the inquisitor papers remain outside these repositories. would issue the Edict of Grace, a sermon that de- fined the heresies sought after and promised le- Considerable controversy exists over how many niency for those who confessed within thirty days. individuals were tried and executed by the courts, The follow-up sermon, the Edict of Faith, offered but the loss of so many records makes precise ac- no leniency but continued the exhortations to con- counting impossible. A survey of nineteen Spanish fess. Voting members of the tribunal would exam- tribunals from 1540 to 1700 yielded 49,092 cases. ine the resulting confessions and issue a warrant for The Portuguese Inquisition tried 44,817 cases be- arrest. Once detained, the prisoner disappeared to tween 1536 and 1767, the most active court being the outside world: in order to inspire fear and pre- Goa. Naples between 1564 and 1740 tried 3,038 vent reprisals, the courts attempted to conduct their cases, and Venice between 1547 and 1794 tried business in the strictest secrecy. Similar secrecy 3,592 cases. The death sentence was invoked in less within the proceedings kept the prisoner at a disad- than 5 percent of all trials. In Spain and Portugal the vantage. Not until well into the trial did the prisoner first victims were conversos, many of whom were learn the charges against him, and never was the sentenced to death (often in absentia), while the accused allowed to know who had given evidence Italian courts pursued Protestants. With time, the

268 EUROPE 1450 TO 1789 INQUISITION, ROMAN tribunals changed their focus and moderated their BIBLIOGRAPHY severity: in Spain, converted Muslims (Moriscos), Primary Sources homosexuals, Protestants, witches, and ordinary Del Col, Andrea, ed. Domenico Scandella Known as Menoc- chio: His Trials before the Inquisition (1583–1599). Spaniards guilty of making crude theological state- Translated by John Tedeschi and Anne C. Tedeschi. ments all at some point became the focus of the Binghamton, N.Y., 1996. tribunals’ attention. Indeed, relatively minor crimes Eimeric, Nicolau, and Francisco Pen˜a. Le manuel des in- such as blasphemy accounted for much of the Span- quisiteurs. Translated and with introduction by Louis ish Inquisition’s caseload. In addition to punishing Sala-Molins. Paris, 1973. religious crimes, all of the Inquisitions were respon- Firpo, Massimo, and Dario Marcatto, eds. Il processo inquis- sible for enforcing censorship of printed materials itoriale del Cardinal Giovanni Morone: Edizione critica. and searching for contraband. 6 vols. , 1981–1995. Simancas, Diego de. Institutiones catholicae quibus ordine ac IMPACT AND LASTING SIGNIFICANCE brevitate discritur quicquid ad praecavendas et Because of the Inquisition’s role in censorship, extirpandas haereses necessariium est. Valladolid, 1552. many have accused the institution of curbing scien- Secondary Sources tific inquiry, dampening literary , and even Bethencourt, Francisco. La Inquisicio´n en la e´poca moderna: hindering economic growth. Historians now reject Espan˜a, Portugal, e Italia, siglos XV–XIX. Madrid, these charges. A few cases achieved notoriety in 1997. their day and continue to define the image of the Grendler, Paul F. The and the Venetian Inquisition in the public’s mind. Most infamous is Press, 1540–1605. Princeton, 1977. the case of Galileo Galilei (1564–1642), who was Henningsen, Gustav, and John Tedeschi in association with summoned before the Roman Inquisition in 1632 Charles Amiel, eds. The Inquisition in Early Modern to account for his public defense of the Copernican Europe: Studies on Sources and Methods. De Kalb, Ill., system, earlier deemed heretical by the church. He 1986. was condemned to perpetual house arrest and si- Kamen, Henry. The Spanish Inquisition: An Historical Revi- lence on the issue. For many, this trial epitomizes sion. London, 1997. the conflict between scientific reason and free Lea, Henry Charles. A History of the Inquisition of Spain. 4 speech on the one hand, and religious fanaticism on vols. New York, 1906–1908. the other. The philosopher Giordano —. The Inquisition in the Spanish Dependencies. New (1548–1600) was not so lucky as Galileo; he was York, 1908. burned at the stake for his radical ideas about re- Netanyahu, Benzion. The Origins of the Inquisition in Fif- vealed religion and the possibility of an infinite uni- teenth-Century Spain. New York, 1995. verse with multiple worlds. In Spain, fear of reli- Perry, Mary Elizabeth, and Anne J. Cruz, eds. Cultural gious experimentation led the inquisitors to target Encounters: The Impact of the Inquisition in Spain and some of the leading mystics of the sixteenth cen- the New World. Berkeley, 1991. tury—St. Theresa of , St. , Peters, Edward. Inquisition. New York and London, 1988. and Luis de Leo´n—although none was executed. Vekene, Emil van der. Bibliotheca bibliographica historiae Such cases, added to the Inquisition’s role in cen- sanctae Inquisitionis. Bibliographisches Verzeichnis des sorship, the stream of Protestant propaganda di- gedruckten Schrifftums zur Geschichte und Literatur der rected against the papacy, and the Enlightenment’s Inquisition. 3 vols. Vaduz, Liechtenstein, 1982–1992. championship of basic freedoms, combined to cre- SARA TILGHMAN NALLE ate a lasting image of an arbitrarily cruel and inhumane institution. In the last twenty-five years, however, new scholarship has done much to miti- gate the fearsome image of the Inquisition and to INQUISITION, ROMAN. The Roman In- place the institution in its proper historical context. quisition was a penal and judicial institution brought into being by the in mid- See also Censorship; Conversos; Ferdinand of Arago´n; Gal- ileo Galilei; Index of Prohibited Books; Isabella of sixteenth century Italy as a response to the Protes- Castile; Moriscos; Papacy and Papal States; Persecu- tant challenge in that country. to this time, a tion. loosely knit, decentralized network of individual

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