Lingnan University Digital Commons @ Lingnan University Theses & Dissertations Department of Visual Studies 10-17-2016 World cinema beyond the periphery : developing film cultures in Bhutan, Mongolia, and Myanmar Nis GRØN Follow this and additional works at: https://commons.ln.edu.hk/vs_etd Part of the Visual Studies Commons Recommended Citation Grøn, N. (2016). World cinema beyond the periphery: Developing film cultures in Bhutan, Mongolia, and Myanmar (Doctor's thesis, Lingnan University, Hong Kong). Retrieved from http://commons.ln.edu.hk/ vs_etd/8 This Thesis is brought to you for free and open access by the Department of Visual Studies at Digital Commons @ Lingnan University. It has been accepted for inclusion in Theses & Dissertations by an authorized administrator of Digital Commons @ Lingnan University. Terms of Use The copyright of this thesis is owned by its author. 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WORLD CINEMA BEYOND THE PERIPHERY DEVELOPING FILM CULTURES IN BHUTAN, MONGOLIA, AND MYANMAR NIS GRØN PhD LINGNAN UNIVERSITY 2016 WORLD CINEMA BEYOND THE PERIPHERY DEVELOPING FILM CULTURES IN BHUTAN, MONGOLIA, AND MYANMAR by Nis GRØN A thesis submitted in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the Degree of Doctor of Philosophy in Visual Studies LINGNAN UNIVERSITY 2016 ABSTRACT World Cinema Beyond the Periphery Developing Film Cultures in Bhutan, Mongolia, and Myanmar by Nis GRØN Doctor of Philosophy According to UNESCO’s Universal Declaration on Cultural Diversity there exists a need in light of the “imbalances in flows and exchanges of cultural goods and services at the global level” to enable “all countries, especially developing countries and countries in transition, to establish cultural industries that are viable and competitive at a national and international level” (2001). The dissertation explores ways in which viable cultural industries can be established in developing countries. More specifically, the focus is on the development of film industries in countries in transition. Three national film industries, examined in light of their historical development and contemporary situation, provide the empirical basis for the dissertation’s claims and arguments. The three developing countries under investigation are Bhutan, Mongolia, and Myanmar, and in each case the study traces the historical trajectory of the relevant film industries leading to the mapping of the recent trends and tendencies. The examination of the individual cases foregrounds industrial and commercial challenges and solutions rather than the aesthetic or stylistic properties of specific films. That is, the study seeks to explore how educational practices, production modes, approaches to distribution and exhibition, and cultural policy measures have facilitated or thwarted the emergence of film industries in three developing countries in the Asian region. The approach taken builds on the call for a more inclusive approach to the study of world cinema (Nagib 2006). Equally important is an analytical approach derived from the field of small national cinema studies, one that underscores the need to explore solutions to problems facing filmmakers in countries sharing similar developmental challenges (Hjort & Petrie 2007). Following this conceptual perspective the study aims firstly, through its historical examination, to contribute to expanding the historiography of world cinema, where little to no attention is given to these largely unexplored national cinema cultures. Secondly, following the mapping of the contemporary situation of the institutional and organizational make-up of the film industries in question, the aim is to identify the systematic challenges and opportunities that are embedded in specific film sectors. The approach is applied with the intention of facilitating a constructive discussion that explores and compares proactive strategies. The point ultimately is to identify models that might be more generally relevant and thus transferable across national boundaries. CONTENTS ACKNOWLEDGEMENT ……………………………………………………… iii LIST OF ABBREVIATIONS ………………………………………………….. iv Chapters INTRODUCTION 1. Conceptualizing the Study of Developing Cinemas in the Asian Region ……………………………………………………………….. 1 BHUTAN 2. Developing a Local Film Culture: Between Gross National Happiness and Small Nation Collaboration …………………….. 43 MONGOLIA 3. Exploring the Potential of Cinema: From a Communist to Commercialized Cinema …………………………………………. 86 4. The Mongolian Film Industry in the New Millennium: A Commercialized Cinema with International Ambitions ……… 116 MYANMAR 5. Tracing the Historical Development: Filmmaking under Authoritarian Rule and the Emergence of a Video Film Industry ………………………………………………………………………. 163 6. The Prospect of Revitalizing the Burmese Film Industry in the Intersection of Censorship, Commercialism, & Socio-political Activisms …………………………………………………………. 208 COMPARATIVE ANALYSIS 7. Strengths and Weaknesses, Challenges and Opportunities: The Prospects of Viable Local Film-cultural Development ………... 260 i APPENDIX A …………………………………………………………………. 297 FILMOGRAPHY ………………………………………..…………………… 299 INTERVIEWEES …………………………………………………………….. 302 BIBLIOGRAPHY …………………………………………………………….. 304 ii LIST OF ABBREVIATIONS ACM Art Council of Mongolia ASEAN Association of Southeast Asian Nations BICMA Bhutan Information and Communication Monitoring Authority BSPP Burma Socialist Program Party DoIM Department of Information and Media EMW East Meets West Film Forum and Festival FAMU Film and TV School of the Academy of Performing Arts in Prague FDI Foreign Direct Investments GDP Gross Domestic Product GNH Gross National Happiness GNHC Gross National Happiness Commission GNI Gross National Product GRIUFF Golden Reel International Underground Film Festival HRHDIFF Human Right Human Dignity International Film Festival IDFA International Documentary Film Festival Amsterdam MFC Mongolian Film Council MMDC Myanmar Media Development Center MMPDD Myanmar Motion Picture Development Department MMPE Myanmar Motion Picture Enterprise MMPO Myanmar Motion Picture Organization MoI Ministry of Information MoIC Ministry of Information and Communication MPAB Motion Picture Association of Bhutan MPCB Motion Picture Censor Board MPCOC Motion Picture Council Organization Committee MPRP Mongolian People’s Revolutionary Party NLD National League for Democracy SDCP State Peace and Development Council SLORC State Law and Order Restoration Council UBFF Ulaanbaatar Film Festival UBIFF Ulaanbaatar International Film Festival USDP Union Solidary and Development Party WFF Wathann Film Festival YFS Yangon Film School iii ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS I am thankful for the support I have received through the The Hong Kong PhD Fellowship Scheme granted by the Research Grants Council of Hong Kong, which has provided the funding that enabled the completion of this dissertation. This research project is fuelled by the encouragement, assistance, and collaboration from a number of people in Hong Kong and beyond. First of all, I would like to express gratitude to my supervisor-cum-mentor, professor Mette Hjort, who gave me the opportunity to pursue this project, provided persisting guidance throughout, and generously shared her experience, ideas, and knowledge. In many ways I consider this dissertation a result of a collaborative effort. It is in a crucial way the distillation of the numerous talks, discussions, and meeting conducted with filmmakers, festival organizers, policymakers, journalist, institution builders, and many others during field trips. Without the helps of local stakeholders taking an interest in my project, being willing to answer my questions, and pointing me in the right direction this project would not been realized and, as such, I am grateful to all the interviewees. I would especially like to thank Jakob K. Høgel and Barbara Adler for providing me with invaluable knowledge and insights about Bhutan. In Mongolia I am particularly indebted to the support of Ariunaa Tsenrenpil, Nomintuya Baasankhuu and the rest of the staff from the Art Council of Mongolia, and Chimka Gantsogt for her help with translation. In Myanmar the assistance of Grace Swe Zin Htaik and U Aung Soe U was vital for my ability to engage with the local environment, and filmmakers and festival organizers Min Htin Ko Ko Gyi, Thu Thu Shein, and Htoo Paing Zaw Oo provided indispensable information and insights that depended my understanding. I sincerely hope that my work will do justice to efforts represented by so many dedicated individuals and organization in the local contexts. At Lingnan University a range of people has provided much valued support. In the Department of Visual Studies I would like to thanks professor Rafael de Clercq, professor Sophia Law, professor Michelle Huang, Dr. Carol Archer, and Zoie So for creating a nurturing and stimulating environment to work in. I am also indebted to fellow postgraduate travellers Samson Wong, Guan Wenbo, Hung Sheng, Felicia Zhu Yi, Jason Lau, and Estela Ibáñez-García for having provided constructive feedback in the process of chapter drafting. Much appreciation also goes to the department’s administrative backbone Kaye Wong and Claire Chan. Thanks also go to Bill Lee at the Centre of Cinema Studies who has provided practical support and much appreciated opportunity to discuss film and share ideas over lunch. Also thanks to the center’s director, professor Mark Hampton, for hosting