C H R O N O S T H E S Y R A C U S E U N I V E R S I T Y U N D E R G R A D U A T E H I S T O R Y J O U R N A L 2
TABLE OF CONTENTS
4… Girl Power: Feminism and Class Stratification in the British Eugenics Movement by Luke Foley
16… The Wind Rises: A Swirling Controversy by Sean Mowry
26… Deng and Carter: The Normalization of Sino-American Relations by Yan Zhang
39… The Origin and Lifespan of Food Assistance Programs during the Great Depression by Vincent Gottfried Wisehoon
54… Meeting or Beating Gendered Expectations During the Holocaust by Katarina Andersen
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Letter From the Editors This edition of Chronos was brought together by a team of dedicated members with a new and exciting vision for the magazine. Through digitizing this edition, as well as creating a website, we hoped to make the journal more accessible. Staying true to years past, the articles selected are a reflection of the undergraduate history department at Syracuse University. The articles in this year’s Chronos include topics ranging from feminism in Nazi Germany, to international relations between the United States and China during the Carter administration. We would like to thank Chronos Advisor, Professor Osamah Khalil, for his patience and emotional support throughout this process. We would also like to thank Brooke Winckelmann, for guiding us through the website making process, as well as Mary Collier for her continuous assistance. This edition would not have been possible without their motivation, support, and pizza.
Thank you, We hope you enjoy, The Executive Board
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Girl Power: Feminism and Class Stratification in the British Eugenics Movement
Luke Foley ‘16 HST 401: Eugenics Professor Laurie Marhoefer
The term Eugenics, from the Greek in the latter part of the 1800s. A wide range eu (good) and genos (genes/stock), was first of human characteristics, both physical and coined by its patriarch, Francis Galton, in behavioral, were perceived to be his 1883 publication “Inquiries Into Human predictably inheritable. With this Faculty and Its Development.” 1 As its knowledge, it was thought, mankind could Greek derivations would suggest, eugenics take charge of its destiny, “What Nature is the science of better breeding, the does blindly, slowly, and ruthlessly, man embodiment of the notion that the human may do providently, quickly, and kindly.”2 species can be hereditarily engineered so as Had Galton lived to witness more of the to elevate its overall physical and twentieth century, he may have chosen to intellectual capacities. This assumption, alter his adverbial choices in that sentence, when processed in conjunction with other but the overarching sentiment would hold popular 19th century beliefs such as social true; man would indeed attempt to take the Darwinism and racial hierarchy, became biological reins in the hopes of eliminating immensely popular within parts of the the defects nature had permitted. scientific community and intellectual elite
1 Robert Bernasconi and Tommy L. Lott, The Idea 2 Francis Galton, “Eugenics, Its Definition, Scope of Race, (Indianapolis: Hackett, 2000), 79. and Aims” (presented at a meeting of The Sociological Society, London, May 16th, 1904).
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Though most of the scientific seem vulnerable to the rhetoric of assertions behind its original conception population control, were occurring in the were long ago debunked, eugenic thinking birthplace of eugenic thought. Why then, has permeated human history for over a did eugenics not realize political success in century, preying on the insecurities, Britain? “The Role of Feminism and Class prejudices, and societal pressures of Stratification in the British Eugenics mankind while simultaneously Movement” will seek to identify the reason marginalizing and endangering those for this failure, while also examining the deemed genetically undesirable. The role of socio-economic stratification and numerous manifestations of eugenics have feminism in the hopes of diagnosing the proven its interpretation and subsequent causal and finalizing agents at work. application to be highly subjective, Positing that the confluence of the urban rendering the respective repercussions population crises and the rise of the New equally diverse. Some, such as the fatality- Woman ideal created an avenue of heavy Nazi iteration, have proven grossly influence for upper class British feminists, inhumane, whereas others, for example the this paper will then discuss the constructive contraceptive efforts of Margaret Sanger, and detrimental ramifications of this have toed the line between eugenic and influence. 3 health conscious. Some eugenic initiatives Leading British feminists of the have targeted specific ethnic groups, some early twentieth century frequently relied on have focused on mental functioning and popular political and scientific journals to behavioral deviance, while others have disseminate their opinions. A number of taken aim at a particular socio-economic these journals, as well as conference class. Some have resulted in sterilizations, memorandums and book reviews, will some in abortions, and some in death. Many therefore be drawn upon to answer the have been justified on the grounds of questions and support the claims of this population control and social cost. paper. In addition, several academic articles Nevertheless, all have attempted to impede and books will be referenced to provide the procreation of the undesirable. background information. While eugenic policies attained Existing Literature significant political influence in a number of countries, most prominently the United The existing historical literature States and Germany, the British eugenics surrounding the British eugenics movement movement failed to gain the same degree of is vast and comprehensive, touching on formal traction. A number of the leading aspects such as class conflict, feminist eugenic advocates, Galton included, were involvement, political and scientific British, and The Eugenics Society, a opposition, and the varying schools of London-based lobby group of world eugenic thought of the period from 1870- renown, was founded and chaired by Brits. 1940. A number of analytical journal Furthermore, there was a dire need for an articles have been written about the very improvement to the urban infrastructure in aspects of the movement examined in this post-industrial Britain; urban landscapes paper, such as feminism, classism, and the were swelling beyond sustainable levels eventual decline of the Eugenics Society. and crime, disease, and poverty ran Because of this, much of the knowledge rampant. These conditions, which would that informs this piece has been garnered directly from these articles. However, no
3 Henry Friedlander, The Origins of Nazi (Chapel Hill: The University of North Carolina Genocide: From Euthanasia to The Final Solution Press, 2005). (Chapel Hill: The University of North Carolina Press, 1995); Joanna Schoen, Choice and Coercion
6 publication has, to date, been encountered decline of the movement in Britain. that addresses the relationship between “Eugenic Love,” a book by Angelique class and gender and its role in the Richardson, provided an essential movement’s popularization and decline. understanding of the motivations of the This paper will therefore explore an New Woman awakening and introduced analytical vacuum, drawing upon primary key actors, authors of both fiction and sources to provide evidence of the prose, who strongly advocated for eugenic sentiments held by politicians and activists. legislation.7 The most prominent, informed, and Richard Soloway’s “Demography insightful pieces that could be found on the and Degeneration,” as well as Matthew topic are as follows. “Eugenics in Britain” Thomson’s “The Problem of Mental is an article by Donald Mackenzie that was Deficiency” will also be relied upon to extremely helpful in understanding the provide insight into the political historical background behind the infiltrations, or lack thereof, made by the movement and also brought into movement in Britain.8 consideration other historical events, such British Eugenics: An Issue of Class as the Boer War, that would have otherwise gone unconsidered. 4 The article, while The British eugenic movement, as lacking some specifics, provides a solid and mentioned earlier, was born out of a socio- cohesive account of the eugenic movement economic shift in the second half of the from 1900 to 1914. “Feminism and nineteenth century. As late-industrial urban Eugenics in Germany and Britain, 1900- migration increased, Britain’s cities, 1940: A Comparative Perspective,” by Ann especially London, began to swell to unruly Taylor Allen illustrates the crucial role of sizes. Poverty and unemployment ran British feminists in the movement, rampant and living conditions bred disease. detailing their achievements and Crime rates spiked, violence intensified, 5 and a large swath of the population was involvement in legislative reform efforts. 9 While she discusses feminism as a causal forced into life on the streets. “Not only agent, Allen does not touch on its role in the does [overcrowding] conduce to the spread movement’s failure. of all ordinary infections,” wrote Dr. Mary Scharlieb in 1917, “but also to the John Macnicol’s “The Voluntary propagation of tuberculosis and venereal Sterilization Campaign in Britain, 1918- diseases. Worse… is the inevitable disaster 39” provides an in depth account of the of the blunting of the moral sense of people, attempt to legalize sterilization, and was the impossibility of decency and of self- crucial to understanding the significance of respect.”10 its failure.6 Macnicol also proposes some very thought-provoking ideas related to the
4 Donald Mackenzie, “Eugenics in Britain,” Social 8 Matthew Thomson, The Problem of Mental Studies of Science 6 (1976). Deficiency: Eugenics, Democracy, and Social 5 Ann Taylor Allen, “Feminism and Eugenics in Policy in Britain c. 1870-1959 (Oxford: Oxford Germany and Britain, 1900-1940: A Comparative University Press, 1998); Richard Soloway, Perspective,” German Studies Review 23 (2000). Demography and Degeneration: Eugenics and the Declining Birthrate in Twentieth Century Britain 6 John Macnicol, “The Voluntary Sterilization (Chapel Hill: The University of North Carolina Campaign in Britain, 1918-39,” Journal of the Press, 1995). History of Sexuality 2 (1992). 9 Richardson, 19. 7 Angelique Richardson, Love and Eugenics in the 10 Late Nineteenth Century: Rational Reproduction Mary Scharlieb, “National Baby Week,” and the New Woman (Oxford: Oxford University Fortnightly Review (1917), 98. Press, 2003).
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After the failure of more and H.G. Wells. In 1907, the Eugenics commonplace solutions to urban strife, Education Society (EES) was established such as social work and charitable with Galton as its president.14 By the turn investment, the eugenic alternative, social of the decade the society would be joined control through procreative inhibition, by a slew of likeminded organizations. began to gain steam. Though Francis Together they committed themselves to the Galton’s initial musings had focused on goal of eugenic institutionalization, hoping positive eugenics, or tactics that to permeate legislation surrounding family encouraged better reproductive choices, planning and population control using its towards the end of the century he wrote better breeding rhetoric. As a result, in increasingly of the need for negative 1913, the Mental Deficiency Act was eugenics, practices that would prevent the signed into law, mandating the birth of undesirable offspring 11 . These institutionalization of the allegedly intrusive measures were validated by feebleminded and mentally deficient. 15 reports like the following from the British While the law did not directly address Medical Journal, “The poor and degenerate sexual reproduction, it was eugenically class of parents naturally lived in poor and inspired. By confining members of the unsuitable areas, e.g., slum districts, and the ‘unfit’ to hospitals and other centers, the feebleminded person was usually found to law sought to eliminate potentially come from parents of these types.” 12 procreative interactions with the general Intellectual elites, concerned that British public. Though this was a step in the right imperial superiority was being undermined, direction for eugenicists, it would by no found themselves desperate for an answer means suffice. Over the course of the next to “the residuum.” 13 Presented with a two decades, the EES would push for more solution that was thought to be eugenically influenced legislation, even scientifically sound and which changing its name to ‘The Eugenics simultaneously touted their innate Society’ in 1926 in a presumed attempt to superiority as members of ‘the streamline its message. 16 Though some sophisticated,’ much of the professional quasi-eugenic laws – the National middle class latched on firmly to Galton’s Insurance Act, Family Allowances, and the proposals. These people viewed eugenics Maternal and Child Health Act -- were as a scientific revolution, one that would passed around the time of WWI, the British forever alter the reproductive norm while eugenic effort culminated in a late 1920’s serving two mutually perpetuating push for legalized voluntary sterilizations.17 purposes; the elimination of the As the third section of this paper will degenerative lower class and the examine in more depth, the sterilization bill solidification of upper class privilege. was defeated and the British eugenic This reverent fascination would movement was thenceforth a futile cause, continue through the turn of the century, unable to gain any semblance of political gaining more diverse public approval, traction. including that of notable politicians and Feminist Influence free thinkers such as Neville Chamberlain
11 Donald Mackenzie, “Eugenics in Britain,” Social 14 Allen, 480. Studies of Science 6 (1976): 509. 15 Mackenzie, 517. 12 “Voluntary Sterilization: Eugenics Society’s 16 Allen, 593. Conference,” The British Medical Journal 1/3726 17 (1932), 1046. John Macnicol, “The Voluntary Sterilization Campaign in Britain, 1918-39,” Journal of the 13 Mackenzie, “Eugenics in Britain,” 503. History of Sexuality 2 (1992), 427.
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Though eugenics is contemporarily become the organization’s first president. conceived of as a fundamentally Because of her ties to a number of suffrage misogynistic practice, British feminists of societies and advocacy groups, Gotto was the late nineteenth and early twentieth able to recruit a large body of likeminded centuries were perhaps the most vocal and women to the Society, resulting in an initial influential eugenic activists involved with female membership of over forty percent. the British movement. Half of the first board of directors were As ideas about a ‘New Woman’ -- women, and Gotto, as secretary, oversaw an one who is emancipated from patriarchal office of female volunteers; not only were control, sexually liberated, and civically women heavily involved in the Eugenics participatory -- started to gain widespread Education Society, they possessed 20 popularity in the 1870s, feminist writers positions of authority. Such a significant and thinkers began to advocate for a greater support base gave credence to these empowerment of women in the realm of women’s aspirations in a political reproduction. These educated and defiant establishment that was still a male women were typically found in the middle dominated arena. Over the course of the and upper classes, giving them a dually next two decades, women would prove important identity for the purposes of this themselves as the most effective analysis. Acutely aware of the ‘threat’ proponents of eugenic legislation, posed by an increasingly violent, succeeding in passing several bills aimed at unhealthy, and impoverished lower class, increasing maternal health and feminists took this opportunity to display independence. Though these bills their uniquely feminine utility. Adopting a sometimes carried much more blatantly eugenic rhetoric of decreased procreation eugenic stipulations than their female among undesirable families, these early lobbyists intended, they would not have feminists argued that if women were come about at all had it not been for the empowered with more reproductive relentless advocacy of the feminist 21 authority, fewer children would be born to contingent. ill-equipped or degenerative couples, Though most male eugenicists had societal tensions would hence be eased, and no interest in furthering the civil liberties of Britain could regain its imperial women, they were responsive to initiatives superiority. 18 Upon establishing Britain’s centered on principles of population control first free birth control clinic, Marie Stopes and family planning. Feminists thus wrote, “here Mothers will be considered not structured their arguments so as to only as the producers of mere babies, but as emphasize the eugenic impact of their the creators of splendid babies. Only proposals. Maternal health, they asserted, Motherhood which is in the control of the benefited not only individual mothers, but Mother can now truly advance our race.”19 also the community at large. Healthier Accompanying this rhetoric was the mothers produced healthier children, who more-than-substantial involvement of would grow into productive members of feminists, and women in general, in eugenic society, unlike the offspring of the organizations and societies. The Eugenics malnourished and destitute. This Society itself was actually the brainchild of association between maternal and societal notable feminist activist Sybil Gotto, who fortitude was evidently forged successfully. in 1907 persuaded Francis Galton to
18 Richardson, 30. 20 Allen, 480. 19 Marie Stopes, The Mothers’ Clinic for Birth 21 Ibid, 490. Control, (London: The Clinic), 3-4.
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In 1911 the National Insurance Act feminists were moving from the status of was implemented, providing coverage for fringe contributor to influential actor, the cost of childbirth and delivery to all new embedding themselves in the movement’s mothers. Six years later, buoyed by wartime inner workings. “As voters and office- pronatalist concerns, leading feminists holders they now worked within political Eleanor Rathbone, Mary Stocks, and systems and sought alliances with male Maude Royden founded the Family politicians.” 24 In 1921, Cora Hodson, a Endowment Society (FES), which awarded strong advocate for the legalization and government subsidies to child-rearing utilization of contraceptives, was appointed mothers. “The nation has awakened to the as secretary of the Eugenics Society, taking importance of ‘child supply’,” Rathbone over “day-to-day administration of the stated, before going on to explain that organization.”25 By 1928 Hodson had been family allowances were “shifting the promoted to Education Secretary, making primary cost of rearing future generations her one of the Society’s foremost members. from the shoulders of individual fathers to In another instance, Eleanor Rathbone, in those of the state.”22 The 1918 Maternal addition to founding the FES, also started and Child Health Act was similarly the National Union of Societies for Equal advantageous for women, allocating Citizenship (NUSEC). With the help of co- subsidies to local municipalities for the founder and fellow Eugenics Society purpose of “intervention in the health of member, Eva Hubback, Rathbone women and children.”23 established NUSEC as the “umbrella By securing the prioritization of organization” for middle-class feminist 26 maternal health and safe childbirth, groups. With support from NUSEC and feminists had succeeded in equating the FES, Rathbone, Stocks, and Royden health of the average mother with that of the championed the reformation of family nation’s future generations. While this allowances, successfully campaigning for development was a prominent victory for endowments to be given directly to 27 women’s rights, it was less of a victory for mothers. eugenicists. Both acts helped to ensure the While these developments health of newborns -- an important building constituted a significant progression for block in the establishment of a better women’s rights, feminist leaders and Britain – but they targeted neither low- activists often found themselves income families nor the feebleminded, compromising so as to appease the eugenic whose procreation was perceived as appetite of important backers, most weakening the gene pool. From their importantly the Eugenics Society. The perspective, British eugenicists needed to family allowances issue aptly illustrates direct the movement in a more purist this trend. As detailed by Rathbone in her direction, one that focused not only on 1917 publication, “The Endowment of healthy reproduction but also on the active Motherhood,” the FES proposal would prevention of undesirable births. However, “pay to every mother an allowance… this transition from positive to negative beginning during the last eight weeks of eugenics would prove difficult. pregnancy, and lasting so long as she has a 28 Legitimized by their ability to enact child below the age of 5.” Though they change, more and more prominent intended to provide endowments to all
22 Eleanor Rathbone, “The Endowment of 25 Ibid, 494. Motherhood,” The Anthenaeum 4634 (1918), 427. 26 Ibid, 495. 23 Allen, 488. 27 Ibid, 495. 24 Ibid, 489. 28 Rathbone, 428.
10 deserving families, Rathbone and Co. were leadership of the influential Ellen Hume forced to concede further standards of Pinsent, who also had ties to feminists qualification, namely income and ‘fitness.’ organizations.”32 The higher a family’s income, the more Despite its feminist origins, the act 29 money it would receive. If the parents failed to promote gender equality in any were considered unfit in any way; if they perceivable way. The institutionalization of suffered from any disease or condition, if those identified as suffering from a mental they were alcoholics, or if their living handicap did not advance the wellbeing of conditions were considered inadequate, mothers or women. The act was put in place they were deemed ineligible for with the intent to remove supposedly 30 compensation. While the initial proposal detrimental DNA from the British gene from the FES would have covered all pool, an issue with distinctly eugenic families, raised the overall support for implications. In fact, not only did the act not British children nationwide, and strive to protect women, it actively encouraged social mobility, the amended endangered a segment of the female version of the bill protected only the middle population, namely those who bore class. Without mention of income and children while on “poor relief.” 33 Such fitness, the family allowances bill had only women were, according to the act, residual eugenic undertones. Once it considered feebleminded and therefore met incorporated these stipulations, the bill had the qualifications for institutionalization. outright, class-based eugenic practicality. Feminists had lobbied into law an act that With their provision installed and the would potentially strip scores of women of ‘valuable’ portion of the population the right to the most basic form of prioritized, the Eugenics Society was happy independence. Electing to throw their to lend its support for the bill. support behind the elimination of mentally Though this portrayal might so far defective genes at the expense of a have led one to believe that the feminist woman’s right to life outside a state-run movement had only begrudging eugenic facility, the eugenic concerns of Sybil ties, this was not the case. A number of Gotto, Pinsent, and many other feminists prominent and outspoken feminists were evidently took precedent over their feminist also stringent supporters of class-based agendas. eugenics. “Many feminists were as The decision to support the act also impressed with the claims of science as indicates that these women’s allegiance to other progressives of their era, and they did middle and upper class socio-political not simply manipulate eugenic theory, but interests was perhaps stronger than their 31 critiqued, expanded, and promoted it.” advocacy for family allowances and health Take, for example, the aforementioned insurance might have suggested. By Mental Deficiency Act of 1913. As Ann targeting women on welfare, the Mental Taylor Allen mentions, feminists played a Deficiency Act contained definitively significant role in the implementation of the classist implications. A financially stable act. “Many [feminists] supported the single mother would certainly have been Mental Deficiency Act which… arose from frowned upon at the time and would have the collaborative efforts of the Eugenics faced social marginalization, but her sanity Society and the National Association for would not have been brought into question, the Care of the Feebleminded, under the whereas after 1913 her impoverished
29 Ibid. 32 Ibid, 486. 30 Allen, 496. 33 Thomson, 90. 31 Ibid, 479.
11 counterpart was classified as requiring are weakened and handicapped.” 37 In a institutionalization. convincing display of commitment to this However, Pinsent and Gotto were ideal of ethnic purification, Stopes not representative of all feminists. The allegedly disowned her son for marrying a 38 Mental Deficiency Act was extremely woman who required eyeglasses. Like controversial and a number of feminists Stopes, many of these feminists were vehemently opposed its passage, citing the aligned with more classically eugenic inequity and misogyny its policies positions on classist racial cleansing. proliferated. Among the opponents were Forced to accept the income gradation of Emmeline Pethick-Lawrence and Dora family allowances (or perhaps just jaded), Marsden, the latter condemning the act as a Rathbone apparently adopted the class- “rascally conspiracy against the poor.”34 based argument for negative eugenics, “Experience shows that while the The divergence of opinion over the intelligent, prudent, and thrifty of all classes Mental Deficiency Act reflected a broader are practicing an increasingly rigid fissure between two schools of feminist limitation, the slum population continues to activism. Lead by women such as Mary multiply as recklessly as rabbit, so that the Scharlieb, a contingent of social welfare national stock tends to be recruited in reformers strove to bring protective increasing proportion from the most legislation to mothers and their children. unfit.”39 This camp espoused a rhetoric of positive eugenics. Arguing that an increased It is here that the intersection population “is to the advantage of the between class and gender becomes evident. State,” Scharlieb deduced that “it would Despite the social welfare-oriented therefore seem to be advisable that the State accomplishments of those behind the should devise means for assisting National Insurance Act and the Maternal individuals to rear families.”35 This branch and Child Health Act, feminists were of feminism connected women’s rights to responsible for the most truly eugenic piece the support of better motherhood and of legislation that ever passed the British contended that the state should incentivize parliament. Just as the family allowances reproduction from all corners of society by act favored wealthier families, so too did offering universal support. the Mental Deficiency Act privilege upper class women, exempting them from the In contrast, a more radical faction of threat of institutionalization. In both feminists sought to entrench negative instances, wealthy feminists were the eugenic practices into the British legal instrumental actors; the Rathbone’s were of code. Marie Stopes was one such aristocratic stock, while Pinsent’s status individual. Well known as a zealous can be garnered from the fact that she was proponent of contraception, Stopes spoke married to a relative of David Hume.40 of creating a “new, irradiated race.”36 Her article, “Wise Parenthood,” problematized Wealth and elite status provided “the thriftless who breed so rapidly tend by these women with a platform from which to that very fact to bring forth children who express their views to a receptive
34 Dora Marsden, “The Poor and The Rich,” The 37 Marie Stopes, “Wise Parenthood,” (London: Freewoman 2 (July, 1912); Allen, 487. Putnam’s Sons, 1923) v-vii. 35 Scharlieb, “National Baby Week,” 95. 38 Allen, 496. 36 Marie Stopes, Married Love: A New 39 Rathbone, 429. Contribution to the Solution of Sex Difficulties 40 Daniel Kevles, In the Name of Eugenics: (London: AC Fitfield, 1918), 25. Genetics and the Uses of Human Heredity, (University of California Press: 1985), 98.
12 intellectual forum. To forward their this assessment when in 1931 he declared feminist interests, Rathbone and others then himself as a feminist. 42 As the merged their passion for gender equality organization’s figurehead, this with the pressing issue of the day, eugenic proclamation verified the widely held population control. Realizing that this sentiment that the Eugenics Society had conceptual union could be used to further become synonymous with feminist both the empowerment of their gender and activism. This evaluation deterred many the solidification of their class privilege, eugenic proponents from collaborating wealthy feminists purported that the with the Society and simultaneously fueled limitation of undesirable, lower class births the antagonism of its opponents. Parliament would fortify the national gene pool. In member Josiah Wedgewood, in reference to some cases, previously unbiased policies the Mental Deficiency Act, went as far as to were appropriated and given classist twists. call the law evidence of “eugenic cranks,” The original intention behind such policies ridiculing Ellen Pinsent for her “wonderful was therefore rendered irrelevant, as they ability, such as only ladies seem to possess served the same purpose as those with pre- these days.” 43 Shared by many of ordained classism. A somewhat symbiotic Wedgewood’s colleagues, this disdain relationship was thus formed between would manifest itself in the failure of the eugenics and feminism. In the cases of sterilization bill. family allowances and the Mental In 1928, hoping to capitalize on a Deficiency Act, this mutuality resulted in report issued by the Board of Control the implementation of two laws; both of claiming an increase in nationwide mental which disenfranchised poor women, and deficiency, the Eugenics Society both of which were catalyzed by the efforts formulated a bill proposing the legalization of wealthy women. of voluntary sterilization for “individuals The Decline of British Eugenics and others who suffered from a genetically Despite its integral role in the or congenitally transmissible mental or 44 successes of the British eugenic movement, physical disability.” Asserting that the feminism’s effect would prove to be argument for sterilization “is advanced on double-edged. By the mid-1920’s, the humanitarian no less than eugenic feminist movement’s entanglement with grounds,” the Society’s President, Bernard the eugenics movement had become not Mallet, wrote that under the proposed only obvious but also scorned. Male framework, sterilization would be “applied, politicians and activists regarded the not as an alternative but as an adjunct to 45 Eugenics Society with disdain, stigmatizing segregation and socialization.” At a it as a front for women’s rights. conference in May 1932, Cora Hodson, Epitomizing these sentiments, the Society’s who had recently been replaced by Blacker General Secretary, Carlos Blacker as General Secretary of the Society, was commented, “The Eugenics Society is still reported in June by the British Medical regarded by many scientific men… as a Journal as having drawn “attention to the propagandist society, which derives its considerable body of experience that had main inspiration from enthusiastic lay been accumulated in some American states, women.41 Blacker’s own actions validated where sterilization of mentally defective
41 Carlos Blacker, Letter to Ruggles Gates, 44 Allen, 496-497. February 22, 1933: EES, SA/Eug./C.120, cited in 45 Bernard Mallet, “Sterilizing Mental Deficients,” Allen, “498. Saturday Review of Politics, Literature, Science 42 Allen, 497. and Art (1930), 632. 43 Kevles, In the Name of Eugenics, 98.
13 persons had been carried on for years.”46At mentally defective were determined to be the same conference, Hilda Pocock, a unable to provide informed consent. 50 Canadian eugenicist, cited the effectiveness Guardians, it was contested, could not of Alberta’s sterilization law as vindication provide legitimate consent on behalf of the for sterilization measures. Pocock alleged individual in question. As the that all thirty-two patients who had been memorandum on the “Practice of Eugenic released after sterilization were either Sterilization” conference concluded, “The “improved in body and mind,” “physically alleged dangers in connexion with well with no mental change,” or “in fair sterilization against which safeguards condition both physically and mentally.”47 might have to be provided were the As the organization that conceived following: (1) the danger that the 51 the bill, the Eugenics Society was logically application might not be truly voluntary.” its most active proponent, but non-affiliated Worried that involuntary sterilizations feminists also supported the cause. would abound, opponents to the bill surely Previously a member, Marie Stopes felt justified in their concern when Blacker disassociated herself after the Society himself said that the proposed measures refused to include birth control in its were lacking and that not only the mentally agenda. Arguing that sterilization would defective, but also the entire “social 52 rightfully permit only those able to produce problem group” needed to be sterilized. In “healthy, well-endowed future citizens” to addition, the medical pretext for the bill was breed, Stopes contended that the deemed by many to be insufficient. reproduction of the “feebleminded” would Scientific theories on the inheritability of “make probable the introduction of feeblemindedness were far from weakened, diseased or debased future unanimous, a fact conceded by Mallet, citizens.”48 The bill was also endorsed by “While fully acknowledging how little we NUSEC President Eva Hubback, the know about the aetiology of defectiveness, Women’s Cooperative Guild, and the and while clearly recognizing the need for 53 Women’s Section of the Labour Party. The further research in this field.” The male segment of the Party, a previously scrutiny that was applied to the sterilization reliable ally for the Eugenics Society, debate would taint the entire eugenic refused to risk alienating their Catholic movement. In combination with the fascist constituency and rejected the bill outright, connotations eugenics was acquiring on leaving the Society and its cohort of continental Europe, this disillusionment feminist organizations to lobby the bill effectively erased the movement’s political unassisted.49 legitimacy. Despite these efforts, the bill was Although such objections never passed and sterilization remained presumably carried the most clout, the illegal in Britain. Among the most stigmatization of the Eugenics Society for prominent reasons for defeat was the its perceived descent into a glorified concern that the bill did not propose feminist lobby group was also impactful. genuinely voluntary procedures, as the The high level of visibility of women like
46 “Voluntary Sterilization: Eugenics Society’s 50 Allen, 497. Conference,” The British Medical Journal 1/3726 51 “Practice of Eugenic Sterilization: Safeguards (1932), 1046. and Indication,” The British Medical Journal 47 Ibid, 1046. 1/3812 (1934), 166. 48 Marie Stopes, Radiant Motherhood, (London: 52 “Voluntary Sterilization: Eugenics Society’s Putnam’s Sons, 1920), 171. Conference,” 1046-1047. 49 Allen, 497. 53 Mallet, 632.
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Stopes and Hodson, as Allen phrased it, Others, such as Marie Stopes and “damaged the scientific credibility and Eleanor Rathbone, openly professed class- public image.”54 Furthermore, sterilization based eugenic ethics predicated on the was not susceptible to the same rhetoric that conceptualization of reproduction as a had championed the National Insurance Act privilege restricted to those of desirable and Maternal and Child Welfare Act. When genetic stock. Rathbone’s inconsistent it came to a matter as morally pivotal as remarks suggest that her prejudices may state sterilization, the ‘healthier-mother- have been inauthentic, strategically equals-healthier-Britain’ line of reasoning designed to secure the necessary political was not applicable; outright and unfettered support for her campaign for family negative eugenic policy was at stake. allowances, but she nevertheless espoused, Arguing strictly as eugenicists on an issue at least nominally, an agenda of negative that transcended gender, Hodson and eugenics. These rather radical views on Stopes found their legitimacy subverted. behalf of self-proclaimed feminists pose Largely responsible for British eugenics’ another fundamental question. Were all of legislative victories, feminists thus found these women feminists? Marie Stopes was that they had little utility in the sterilization an internationally recognized political and debate. Feminism had reached its eugenic social force who published several books ceiling in British politics. arguing for the protection of women’s right Conclusion to birth control. However, she also wanted to strip countless British women of the As the involvement of feminists in opportunity for motherhood. Clearly, the British eugenics movement has Stopes’ passion for female empowerment evinced, eugenics is inherently laced with was not universal; rather it extended only to ambiguity. What constitutes a genuinely those she deemed worthy. eugenic policy or action? Must we prioritize the desired result, the actual This mentality of ‘feminism-for- effect, or is a confluence of both required? the-few’ epitomizes the convergence of Is there a grey area of overlap, or must an feminism and class stratification as enabled undertaking be definitively eugenic or not by eugenics. With both class and gender- at all? Mary Scharlieb explicitly employed centric interests in mind, wealthy women a rhetoric of positive eugenics, arguing that capitalized on the upper echelon’s plea for the solution to Britain’s residuum could be drastic population control, proposing found in the empowerment of wives and female empowerment as a solution. To fit mothers. It cannot be discerned whether her the eugenic paradigm, these designs were true allegiances lay with gender equality, made to disenfranchise certain classes of the dissolution of poverty, or the women. In doing so, feminist activists strengthening of the national stock, perhaps privileged their specific demographic at the all three. Regardless of motive, her efforts expense of poor women. contributed to the establishment of the Proving themselves to be effective National Insurance Act, the Maternal and activists, women such as Sybil Gotto Child Welfare Act, and ultimately, the propelled the conjoined movement to Mental Deficiency Act. Should history several legislative victories, one of which, therefore label her a eugenicist? She was the Mental Deficiency Act, was certainly implicated in the movement, but unequivocally eugenic. However, as the at no point did she promote the campaign for legalized sterilizations would institutionalization of the mentally reveal, this womanly dependence was not handicapped. sustainable in the face of a debate that many
54 Allen, 498.
15 considered to represent a moral crossroads for Britain. This was the paradox of feminism’s relationship with British eugenics; had the two never joined forces, the Eugenics Society may not have formed and a concerted eugenic campaign may never have materialized. Conversely, this separation may have fostered the establishment of a more cohesively eugenic organization capable of steering Britain on a distinctly eugenic course.
16
The Wind Rises: A Swirling Controversy
Sean Mowry ‘16 HST 401: World War II in Cinema Professor Alan Allport
In the summer of 2013, Japanese recent history, and its messages are director Hayao Miyazaki released his final important to examine. This is especially the movie as a writer and director, The Wind case in the current context of Japanese Rises.55 Miyazaki is a legend in Japanese desires to remilitarize under its cinema, and is often referred to as the “Walt conservative leadership. 56 Disney of Japan.” He is a founder, and the The Wind Rises tells the story of Jiro most famous member of the Tokyo-based Horikoshi, the real life designer of the animation studio, Studio Ghibli, which has Mitsubishi A6M Zero fighter plane, the produced 5 of the 15 highest grossing most famous airplane in Japanese history 57 anime movies in Japanese history. In fact, and an icon of the Pacific War. The film The Wind Rises takes the tenth spot on that begins in Jiro’s childhood dreams as he list, and it also is the highest grossing flies acrobatically in a plane, but above him 58 Japanese film from 2013. This makes the he sees dark clouds hiding aircraft all influence of this movie very prominent in marked with the Nazi Iron Cross. Jiro’s
55 Roy Akagawa, “Excerpts of Hayao Miyazaki’s 57 “Top Grossing Anime,”Box Office Mojo, News Conference Announcing His Retirement,” Accessed December 16, 2015 The Asahi Shimbun , September 6, 2013 http://www.boxofficemojo.com/genres/chart/?id=a http://ajw.asahi.com/article/behind_news/people/A nime.htm J201309060087. 58 “Miyazaki’s ‘The Wind Rises’ Top Earning Film 56 Tim Morrison, “Hayao Miyazaki: In an Era of in Japan 2013”, Japan Today, 01/13/14, High-Tech Wizardry, the Animé Auteur Makes http://www.japantoday.com/category/entertainment Magic the Old Way,” Time Magazine Asia, 2006. /view/miyazakis-the-wind-rises-top-earning-film- in-japan-in-2013 17 childhood is spent longing to be a pilot but want to allow her to stay because they are he is prevented because of his unmarried, so they marry then and there nearsightedness. In another dream he is despite Naoko’s grim health. Jiro continues told by the famous Italian airplane designer, to work, and he successfully tests his new Giovanni Battista Caproni, that designing plane, the Mitsubishi A5M, the first planes is better than flying them. He monoplane shipboard fighter and the follows Caproni’s advice and 5 years later, predecessor for the A6M Zero. Despite the when travelling by train to study at success of the test, and his cheering University in Tokyo, the Great Kanto coworkers, Jiro feels the wind change and Earthquake of 1923 strikes the city and he he runs home fearing that something is reunites a lost young girl Naoko with her wrong with Naoko. When he returns he family. After graduating with his friend and finds letters left by her before she returned future designer Kiro Honjo, they both work to the mountains, and shortly after she dies. for Mitsubishi to design planes for the The film ends right after Japan loses the war military. Frustrated with the lagging and is left devastated by air raids. Jiro Japanese technology, Jiro and Kiro are sent dreams again of meeting Caproni and to Germany and meet famed designer Hugo confesses that he regrets that his planes Junkers who is kind to them while his Nazi were used for war but Caproni comforts subordinates refuse to help. him by saying that at least his beautiful After returning to Japan, Jiro is dream was realized. Naoko makes a final promoted to chief designer and he builds appearance to tell Jiro to move on from her the Mitsubishi 1MF10, which fails in the death, and live life to the fullest. prototype stage. To recover from his When The Wind Rises was released, disappointment, Jiro goes to a summer it was met with massive commercial resort where he runs into Naoko, the girl he success and critical acclaim. It was the helped during the Great Kanto Earthquake. highest grossing film in Japan in 2013, They become engaged, but she refuses to receiving $110 million. 59 Critically, the marry him until she recovers from film was praised universally, especially in tuberculosis. A German guest at the resort, America and Europe, earning an 83 on Castorp, who is critical of the Nazis assists Metacritic, an aggregator that averages out in their relationship but is eventually chased all of the available reviews from established out by the Japanese secret police. The film critics on the Internet. Scoring over an police’s eyes turn to Jiro due to his relation 80 categorizes the film as having “universal with Castorp, so he must leave and take up acclaim.”60 The film was so popular in the residence at his supervisor’s home in order United States it was even nominated for to work on a new project. While there, he Best Animated Feature by the Academy is informed that Naoko suffered a lung Awards. 61 This praise was not all hemorrhage and is recovering up in the international, as the Asia-Pacific Journal mountains, but she cannot bear being away called it “one of Miyazaki’s most ambitious from him so she lives with him at his and thought-provoking visions.” 62 supervisor’s house. His supervisor does not However, thought provoking might be the
59 Kevin Ma, “The Wind Rises Tops 2013 Japan 61 “2013 Academy Awards Nominations and B.O.,” Film Business Asia, January 1, 2014 , Winners by Category,” Box Office Mojo, Accessed http://www.filmbiz.asia/news/the-wind-rises-tops- December 16, 2015 2013-japan-bo http://www.boxofficemojo.com/oscar/chart/?view= 60 “The Wind Rises,” Metacritic, Accessed allcategories&yr=2013&p=.htm. December 16, 2015 62 Matthew Penne, “Miyazaki Hayao’s Kaze http://www.metacritic.com/movie/the-wind-rises. Tachinu (The Wind Rises),” The Asia-Pacific Journal: Japan Focus, August 5, 2013
17 18 most key part of this review, because the pacifist whose father earned his income film stirred up plenty of controversy as during the war working for a fighter parts well. In South Korea, activists “accused the manufacturer, and a committed artist who director…of lionizing the creator of one of also tried to appreciate the realities of the most potent symbols of Japanese life.”66 So this final film can be understood militarism, and pointed out that among the as a heavily conflicted and tragic personal workers who assembled more than 10,000 reflection. However, despite its intentions of the state-of-the-art fighters were forced as a film it became part of the political laborers from the Korean peninsula.”63 In dialogue after it was released. Politically, addition, “Japanese Miyazaki addressed his pacifism in Studio nationalists…denounce[d] Miyazaki…as a Ghibli’s “July issue of Neppu, Ghibli’s free ‘traitor’ and ‘anti-Japanese’ for the film’s self-publicized monthly booklet.” 67 This focus on the futility of war.”64 If his film is booklet “featured a special section on Prime attracting criticism from both sides of the Minister Shinzo Abe and his political spectrum, those fearful of a administration’s campaign to revise militarized Japan, and those in favor of it, Japan’s pacifist Constitution. Miyazaki then it must be worth asking what makes declared his unequivocal opposition to this film so divisive. Is the film an anti-war revising the war renouncing Article 9.”68 film, or is it a pro-war film? There can also Article 9 of the Japanese Constitution be another option, because The Wind Rises states, “Aspiring sincerely to an is superficially incapable of simple international peace based on justice and categorization and in that case a more order, the Japanese people forever renounce nuanced label must be applied. To war as a sovereign right of the nation and understand what position The Wind Rises the threat or use of force as means of takes on World War 2, it can be useful to settling international disputes. In order to first understand the intentions of Miyazaki accomplish the aim of the preceding himself. paragraph, land, sea, and air forces, as well It is interesting why Miyazaki chose as other war potential, will never be to end his career on such a controversial maintained. The right of belligerency of the 69 movie but he explains, “He was drawn to state will not be recognized.” When The Horikoshi’s alleged statement that ‘All I Wind Rises was released in 2013, Shinzo wanted to do was to make something Abe, Japan’s Prime Minister had been beautiful’.”65 This reflects Miyazaki’s own pushing to amend Japan’s Constitution to 70 inner contradictions because “Miyazaki is a allow for “collective self-defense.” This http://japanfocus.org/-Matthew- 67 Roland Kelts, “Backlash Against Miyazaki is Penney/3976/article.html Generational,” The Japan Times Accessed 63 Justin McCurry, “Japanese Animator under Fire December 16, 2015, for Film Tribute to Warplane Designer,”, The http://www.japantimes.co.jp/culture/2013/10/08/ge Guardian August 22, 2013 neral/backlash-against-miyazaki-is- http://www.theguardian.com/world/2013/aug/23/ha generational/#.VnIXkd-rSu4. yao-miyazaki-film-wind-rises. 68Ibid. 64Ibid. 69 “The Constitution of Japan”, The Prime Minister 65 Sam Byford, “‘The Wind Rises’: The Beauty and of Japan and His Cabinet, Accessed December 16, Controversy of Miyazaki’s Final Film,” The Verge, 2015, January 23, 2014 http://japan.kantei.go.jp/constitution_and_governm http://www.theverge.com/2014/1/23/5337826/the- ent_of_japan/constitution_e.html. wind-rises-the-beauty-and-controversy-of- 70 Jeremy A. Yellen, “Shinzo Abe’s Constitutional miyazakis-final-film. Ambitions,” The Diplomat, June 12, 2014 66 Ibid. http://thediplomat.com/2014/06/shinzo-abes- constitutional-ambitions/.
18 19 would allow Japan to rebuild its military called for the Japanese government to and use it if their allies were attacked, “apologize for the so-called comfort which was seen as a stepping-stone to a women, the Imperial army’s corps use of more militarized Japan. In Neppu, wartime sex slaves that remains a highly Miyazaki wrote, “It goes without saying sensitive matter, especially between Japan that I am against constitutional reform.”71 and South Korea.”76 While Miyazaki and This was not a surprise to the Japanese his political allies face a bold nationalistic public because Miyazaki was known for his movement that holds a political majority “history of leftist postwar positions.” 72 with the Liberal Democratic Party, he is Thus, Miyazaki’s intention when writing also fighting another depiction of the Zero the film as a personal tragedy was now in a competing film. irrelevant, much like Jiro’s intentions for The Wind Rises stands in sharp designing the Zero. Miyazaki now was contrast to the Japanese War film Eternal fighting to promote pacifism in Japan and Zero. Released in the winter of 2013, to stand against Abe’s militaristic Eternal Zero was a live action film about a government and to remind his audience of boy searching for the truth about his the tragedy of World War 2, despite his grandfather, a great Zero fighter pilot who film’s contradictory, and ambivalent died executing a kamikaze mission. The narrative. film was written by Naoki Hyakuta who Miyazaki’s goal of reminding the “has publicly denied the 1937 Rape of Japanese of their shameful role in World Nanking really took place.”77 Eternal Zero War 2 and to promote pacifism in Japanese exalts the skill and courage of the Zero foreign policy is very controversial in fighter pilots and glorifies Japanese Japan. “Japan has not been as repentant as military power during World War 2. The Germany” for the atrocities they carried out Wind Rises does not have battle scenes and during World War 2, and their apologies does not discuss how Japan waged the war. have “often been undercut by revisionist It is focused less on war and more on the statements from senior politicians.” 73 To individual. Eternal Zero, however, honors make the situation worse, “Japan has Japanese sacrifices during the Pacific War. offered relatively little compensation to the The protagonist Kentaro Oishi is a failed victims. And to this day there are no law student who becomes obsessed with nationally sponsored museums or learning the story of his grandfather, Kyuzo monuments that acknowledge Japanese Miyabe, a kamikaze pilot. At first he is told aggression or atrocities.”74 This is an insult about how cowardly his father was, but then to China, who became victims of the he discovers that his father was always the brutality of the Japanese military in events first to leave the battles because his main like the Nanjing Massacre, which resulted goal was to get home safely to his wife and in the deaths of “200,000-300,000” Chinese young child. However, after a fellow pilot civilians. 75 In Neppu, Miyazaki has also Kenichiro saves him during a dogfight,
71 McCurry. 76 Kelts. 72 Kelts. 77 “Conservative Firebrand Hyakuta Sticks to His 73 Kirk Spencer, “Why Japan Is Still Not Sorry Guns, Hardens Stance Against Okinawa, Other Enough,” Time, December 11, 2012 Newspapers,” Japan Times, June 29, 2015 http://nation.time.com/2012/12/11/why-japan-is http://www.japantimes.co.jp/news/2015/06/29/nati still-not-sorry-enough/. onal/conservative-firebrand-hyakuta-sticks-guns- hardens-stance-okinawa-newspapers/#.VnIakd- 74 Ibid. rSu4. 75 “Nanjing Massacre,” History, Accessed December 16, 2015 http://www.history.com/topics/nanjing-massacre.
19 20
Miyabe makes him promise that if he dies notion that it is noble to sacrifice Kenichiro must take care of his wife and themselves for Japan. While it does child. Before Miyabe and Kenichiro go off criticize the government of Japan during on their assigned kamikaze mission, World War 2, Miyabe goes on the kamikaze Miyabe notices that his plane is having mission because he is loyal to his friend and engine trouble and decides to switch planes he wanted to repay him for saving his life. with Kenichiro so he can repay his debt to Miyabe also develops sympathy for his him. Kenichiro crash lands en route and fellow soldiers so his sacrifice is not only a lives through the end of the war. He keeps personal one but one for the people of his promise to Miyabe and takes care of his Japan, including his wife and young wife and child and he eventually becomes daughter. Kentaro Oishi’s step-grandfather. The directors of The Wind Rises and The message of the film is loyalty to Eternal Zero are fiercely at odds due to the country and comrades, because even debate over the constitutional amendment. though Miyabe is initially hesitant to fight Thus, the next question to answer is does and die for Japan, he becomes willing to die The Wind Rises successfully communicate for the man who saves his life, and that man the political position of its director, despite then saves the lives of Miyabe’s wife and the protagonist being the designer of an daughter. Japan’s Prime Minister Shinzo infamous war machine, the fictionalization Abe “declared himself ‘moved’ by the film. of his life, and the original intention of the Naoki Hyakuta, the author of the best- film as a personal reflection on a selling novel on which it is based, is close contradictory life? In order to answer this to Prime Minister Abe. Last year, the Prime question it is important to first consider the Minister chose Hyakuta to serve as a expectations of a Japanese audience when governor of NHK, the public watching a movie about their role in World broadcaster.”78 While this is disturbing to War 2. The themes and characters in these many pacifists in Japan, Eternal Zero has movies might have been used as models succeeded at the box office earning “$84.5 when writing The Wind Rises and the best million.” 79 Miyazaki has publically place to start would be the Japanese classic, denounced the film by saying “they’re The Burmese Harp. The Burmese Harp trying to make a Zero fighter movie based tells the story of Japanese soldiers on a fictional war account that is just a pack retreating through Burma in 1945. The of lies.”80 This is quite interesting because soldiers sing to keep their spirits up and are The Wind Rises is actually a fictional accompanied by a harp player, Mizushima. account of Jiro Horikoshi’s life but if that He is injured while the British capture his fact is ignored it is evident what point he is group and he recovers with the help of a trying to make. While Eternal Zero might Monk, who he later impersonates to avoid be a dramatic movie about a boy trying to his own capture. Along the way to finding connect with his grandfather, the film’s his group, Mizushima buries the fallen exciting battle scenes and eventual Japanese soldiers, and by the end of the kamikaze mission might lead viewers to the movie when the soldiers escape the camp,
78 “Japan’s Right Wing, Mission Accomplished?,” http://variety.com/2014/film/asia/frozen-outlasts- The Economist, March 1, 2014 eternal-at-japan-box-office-1201157455/. http://www.economist.com/news/asia/21597946- 80 Mark Schilling, “Debate Still Rages Over Abe- film-about-kamikaze-pilots-gives-worrying-boost- Endorsed WW2 Drama,” The Japan Times nationalists-mission-accomplished. Accessed December 16, 2015 79 Mark Schilling, “‘Frozen’ Outlasts ‘Eternal’ at http://www.japantimes.co.jp/culture/2014/02/20/fil Japan Box Office,” Variety, 04/15/14, ms/debate-still-rages-over-abe-endorsed-wwii- drama/#.VnIbtN-rSu4.
20 21 he informs them that he cannot go back film quite contradictory and ambivalent. with them until he buries the bodies of all As engineers they work for Mitsubishi, of the fallen Japanese. This film was so which has contracts with the Imperial popular because “the lack of graphic Military. Because of this they keep making violence and the antiwar message [made] it and designing airplanes for them because suitable for family viewing… [and] the those were the circumstances they were avoidance of discussions of war handed down rather than finding some way responsibility.” 81 By not analyzing the of resisting the war, which would depict origin of the conflict, and only depicting the Miyazaki’s own pacifism. Rather, the film conflict itself, it is easier to digest the movie is sympathizing with the civilian Japanese for entertainment because the Japanese who couldn’t even imagine leaving Japan audience is less likely to feel guilty for the much like most of the parents and colonial ambitions of the empire. “The grandparents of the audience, which would soldiers are presented as cultured men and make the film more palatable for the they do not pillage, but ask the villagers Japanese. Like The Burmese Harp, there politely for food… [and] in one are no combat scenes; rather the war is scene…when they realize they are animated in a style that suggests it to be surrounded by the British…rather than get more of a natural storm than something into a firefight, the British and Japanese caused by human hands. During the film’s join together in a rendition of ‘Home Sweet dream sequences, especially at the Home’, which sentimentally portrays beginning and the end, war is made to look soldiers on both sides as men who simply natural with the German airships want to go home.” 82 This appeals to the resembling little parasites cloaked in storm human nature of the audience and doesn’t clouds. The Zeros fly up into the sky to join divide them with a political stance, which others in what looks like a migration of helped the film become so popular. white birds. However, both of these fleets In the case of The Wind Rises, it was are intended for war despite the fact that the a box office and critical success despite its German fleet is black while the Zeros are mixed messages, but it is similar to The white. The reason this movie might be so Burmese Harp because it avoids blaming commercially appealing is because it Japan for the war. Most of the blame is put visually shifts blame from the Japanese to on the Germans, who are depicted as the Germans, which makes it easier to manipulating the Japanese and withholding digest. information from them. In the opening In mainstream Japanese World War dream sequence, Jiro’s flying is brought to 2 films, the protagonist is often an ordinary an end when he sees the aircraft of person that is the victim of the war’s Germany who are bombing him and Japan. circumstances and who struggles to survive Although the film does not depict soldiers the tragedy of the war. A classic antiwar in combat with desires to go home, the film example of this is Twenty-Four Eyes, a film depicts all of the characters as sharing one about a teacher and the experiences of her common goal to make the best aircraft twelve pupils during the war. The tragedies possible as they wait for the war to end. of this movie are continuous, “the teacher’s However what fails to ever be addressed is husband is killed in battle and her young that the technological ambition of the daughter dies; her male pupils go to the war characters is directly contributing to the and are killed or maimed; one of the girls prolonging of the war. This actually makes dies of disease and malnutrition, while the characters, and thus the message of the another is forced into poverty and
81 Philip A. Seaton, Japan's Contested War 82 Ibid. Memories (New York: Routledge, 2007), 157.
21 22 prostitution. Nevertheless, the bond of the crew when they ridicule a between teacher and pupils survives, and at crewmember whose mother is American. the end of the drama there is a nostalgic Even though this film depicts dangerous reunion in which they remember the old combat from the war and its message is times and find hope in the future.”83 The more militaristic because it praises sacrifice film shows how the war victimized many and loyalty, “the drama takes an ‘antiwar’ Japanese civilians while not focusing on the stance against the militarists in the crew, political causes of the war. The film is and presents a message of peace based on pacifistic and anti-responsibility because it the tragic deaths of sailors who just wanted dramatizes the horrible costs of World War to be reunited with their families.” 85 2 but the film is not ashamed of Japan’s role Battleship Yamato is similar to Eternal in the conflict. Twenty-Four Eyes, like The Zero because the crewmembers might Burmese Harp, does not depict acts of disagree about the politics of the empire but violence. It only demonstrates the social they are all motivated by loyalty and duty, consequences of war. The film focuses on just like how Miyabe and his team are individuals trapped in a crumbling empire, motivated by fighting courageously and for whether they are fighting abroad or at the sake of their fellow soldiers. So despite home, and uses the power of cinema so that their verbal disagreement with war and we are able to sympathize with those we see empire, the crew of the Yamato is in reality onscreen. The audience relates to them and the aspect of the movie that relieves the their difficult circumstance and sees that Japanese of war responsibility because they war is horrible and traps all who are within are acting within the orders of their it. These people are ordinary and even if superiors. These men are soldiers and due they were against the war, what were they to their presence on the battlefield it is to do? They would have to reject their harder for them to defect from Japan government, their culture, and their friends because the American Military is actively and families if they took that stance. These trying to kill them. Also, the strong films try to depict that Japanese civilians Japanese culture of loyalty would make it could not mount any substantial rebellion near impossible for an officer to defect and that would alter the outcome of the war. make any realistic change to the mission Where the pacifist depiction wants because the rest of the crew, especially the to portray ordinary citizens or soldiers more nationalistic members, would stop wanting to return home, a militaristic them. example of this same antiwar model would The Wind Rises definitely falls into be Battleship Yamato, a film about the both the pacifist and the militaristic patterns battleship’s final kamikaze mission in of these World War 2 films because Jiro is 1945. This film is evidently more a civilian victim of the wartime conditions militaristic because it depicts combat and and he is also helping the military through the “‘survivor’s guilt’ of the officers who his aircraft designs. This is mostly due to beg the captain to go down with the ship.”84 Jiro’s circumstance as a character. In These men are so deeply invested in their Twenty-Four Eyes, “the selflessly duties that they are willing to die even dedicated teacher preempts postwar though they are not simplistic mouthpieces pacifism by cautioning her boys against for the Japanese Empire. The protagonist is volunteering for the war, for which she is Yoshioka who is a kind officer who stands reprimanded. The bravery of the characters up against the more nationalistic members in the face of adversity accentuates the pity
83 Seaton, 163. 85 Ibid, 164. 84Ibid, 164.
22 23 of war.”86 Jiro, however, does not stand up could dedicate his skills to making to the Japanese government; in fact he is passenger airplanes. This makes Caproni a contributing to their war efforts. This mixed questionable role model for a young Jiro message confuses the audience because because it makes it easier for Jiro to justify while he says how the war is foolish and he his work for the Imperial Navy because he would rather build passenger planes, his is following in the footsteps of his idol. If dreams of building the best fighter plane the plot of the movie is fictionalized, then allows Japan to use it for combat. Like the perhaps Miyazaki, if he had the foresight to teacher in Twenty-Four Eyes, Jiro does know how his film would be politicized voice his dissenting opinion during a after its release, could have taken some meeting when his team is trying to find a license with the figments of Jiro’s way of making the fighters lighter. Jiro imagination and these scenes could have suggests that “one solution could be, we been expressed with more guilt and remove all the guns” and the whole room devastation. They could have really bursts in laughter. 87 But where this differs weighed the consequences of Jiro’s from the teacher’s defiance is that she is ambitions and perhaps Jiro could have been punished while Jiro’s comment is taken as placed in a nightmare after he designs the a joke, and because of this his grievances Zero in order to communicate to the are given less weight than the teacher’s. audience that sometimes a person’s biggest What makes Jiro’s support of Japan’s dreams can turn out to be their worst military so interesting is that he is only nightmare. However none of this is shown, doing it for selfish reasons, which and worse off, all of the dream landscapes simultaneously undercuts the potential are on calm water or grassy fields and the militaristic and pacifistic messages of the battlefields and the carnage of war are film. Thus, the message of The Wind Rises never depicted. Artistically, this is perfect is more nuanced than just militaristic and because Miyazaki is able to depict this pacifistic, which reflect Miyazaki’s distance between the war and the designers intentions when making the film, but not his to show how it could be so easy to political intentions. This contradiction is contribute to the armament of regimes they beautifully reflected in the film because Jiro don’t agree with. However, it fails to and his team just want to design a great effectively communicate any other fighter but on a larger scale Jiro, like emotions besides wonder and Miyazaki, is against Japan’s militarization. accomplishment because all of the regret is An interesting aspect in The Wind just verbalized while the dream of flight is Rises is Jiro’s relationship to the other animated. characters from the tripartite countries, To Miyazaki’s credit, these dream most notably Caproni. Caproni insists that sequences with Caproni do not entirely Jiro become a designer of airplanes in the detract from his political motivations, but beginning of the film, but Caproni was a any ground gained is soon lost. When Jiro merchant of death during World War 1 returns to his dreams, the fields are green because he designed bombardment but some broken fuselages dot the airplanes for the Italian air force.88 Caproni landscape. When Jiro greets Caproni he seems to be justifying his own involvement says, “I remember this place, this is where in the war by telling Jiro to follow his we first met,” which indicates that his dreams, and he shows that after the war Jiro dream has come full circle. Caproni
86 Ibid, 163. 88“John Caproni,” Torinoscienza, Accessed 87 The Wind Rises, Directed by Hayao Miyazaki December 16, 2015, (2013; Tokyo, Japan: Studio Ghibli/ Toho), DVD. http://www.torinoscienza.it/personaggi/giovanni_c aproni_19858.html.
23 24 actually calls this place “our kingdom of up,” which addresses not only airplanes but dreams.” Jiro replies, “Now it’s the land of also Jiro’s ambition to make them as the dead.” This sentence makes it evident manifested in the dream they inhabit.89 But that Jiro is battling guilt regarding his in The Wind Rises, far more emphasis is contributions to the war but what is lacking given to the beauty while the curse is only is a physical, inescapable scene for this to inferred. In the movie’s environment, manifest. But because they move beyond World War 2 and Japan’s role in it was just the bone yard of planes Caproni is able to something tragic in nature like an retort, “Not quite, but in some ways yes. earthquake. But what about your ten years in the sun? Caproni’s influence on Jiro is that Did you live them well?” This is a he is making him more ambivalent towards dismissal of guilt by Caproni and a war and suffering because history is taken refocusing on Jiro’s individual story rather as unimaginable to change, despite Caproni than a true examination of his role in the only visiting Jiro in his imagination. In the war. Jiro answers, “Yes. Things fell apart middle of the film, before Jiro creates the in the end though” which acknowledges the A6M Zero, Caproni visits him in a dream to terrible aftermath of the war and the death show off his new bomber. Caproni of his love, Naoko. Caproni’s response of proposes the question, “Which will you “that’s what happens when you lose a war”, chose, a world with pyramids, or without?” while personally comforting, also avoids This question suggests that the construction responsibility. It also hints that all of the and use of aircraft, while a magnificent circumstances might be different if Japan sight and a technological achievement will was able to win against America and retain undoubtedly cause massive human its empire. Caproni’s choice of words is so suffering. As Jiro’s mentor and hero he casual that it makes war sound routine and admits, however reluctantly, “I chose a to be expected and survived. However, for world with pyramids” without ever even Japan’s neighboring countries this is a cruel considering visually or verbally what a dismissal that Japanese aggression is to be world without airplanes or pyramids would expected and it makes the carnage Japan look like. Jiro responds, “I just want to caused across Asia seem normal. His create beautiful airplanes.” 90 This is not influence is made worse when he sees the only a nod to the alleged quote that made Zero fighters and tells Jiro “there is your Miyazaki want to write this movie, but in fighter. Truly a beautiful design.” This reality is also a lazy rationalization. Jiro refocuses the legacy of the plane to the never openly considers just giving up his designer as if it was some kind of art, rather dream, pursuing it no matter what it costs than a fighter plane that was responsible for him or the people of the world, and the killing civilians and soldiers. Being more same could be said of dangerous criminals sympathetic than Caproni, Jiro mourns that or even the leaders of the regimes he “not a single one returned” which gives the disagrees with. This ambivalence to the impression that Jiro was somehow consequences of his actions, which is responsible for their deaths. However even suggested by Caproni, goes strongly Jiro’s sympathy is limited because he only against the pacifistic political arguments is focused on his own fellow Japanese and that Miyazaki writes in Neppu. While in the not on the Chinese, Korean, or Americans narrative this equates to persistence under it would kill during its use. Caproni tells the worst of conditions, manifesting as the Jiro that “airplanes are beautiful, cursed many obstacles Jiro must face to make his dreams waiting for the sky to swallow them masterpiece, it is evident that he should
89 The Wind Rises. 90 Ibid.
24 25 have never made it because it only led to national reverence in Japan. Because this more war. Even though the message is plane is an example of excellent Japanese positive on a personal level because Jiro engineering and military prowess it is chases glory and succeeds, it must be inspiring to nationalists, which is why evident to Miyazaki that the militaristic making a film about the designer of the Liberal Democratic Party is rebuilding the plane that promotes pacifism is so difficult. military not only to defend Japan but also in Admittedly, the film is artistically strong pursuit of national glory. What the Liberal and complex, but it only considers the Democrats like Abe are chasing, could be beauty of the aircraft and the adversity in phrased by Caproni as, their “beautiful making it and not the consequences of its dream” for Japan’s future. 91 The message manufacture. Miyazaki’s reverence for the of the film can be summed up as, you must fighter, evidenced in his desire to make a chase your dream no matter what internal or movie about its creator, corrupts his external obstacles get in your way, which is pacifistic stances because in the film he a very human and contradictory message, must justify why Jiro pushed so hard to but in a political context it is dangerously design the plane. In doing this he ignores open for interpretation. illustrating the destruction that the fighter While The Wind Rises was a caused visually, which is cinema’s most successful film commercially and critically, powerful tool, and settles on inconsistently it was so controversial because it distanced lamenting on the abstract consequences of the Japanese from war responsibility and war. This film could be called Miyazaki’s promoted ambivalence towards the global own Zero fighter because all he wanted to consequences of war because its focus was do was make something beautiful, but it so personal. The film does successfully might have done more harm to Miyazaki’s communicate the personal intentions of personal beliefs than good. director Hayao Miyazaki to make a Despite the protests of Miyazaki, complex contradictory film, but the subject and other pacifists in Japan, in 2014, the matter it focuses on had serious year after the release of The Wind Rises, the consequences for many people in recent Japanese government amended Article 9. history and in the present politically. While This change to the constitution gives Japan it does denounce war in the dialogue, the the power of “exercising ‘collective self- actions of the characters thrust the Japanese defense’, or aiding a friendly country under into a more competitive position against the attack.” 92 Like World War 2, and the Allies. The side the Japanese fought for was designing of the Zero fighter, the passing of totalitarian and based on obedience and the amendment might have been militarism, leading to a desire for colonial unavoidable, no matter how much the rule of their neighbors like China and pacifists protested the change. But one Korea. Despite Miyazaki’s writings in thing is for certain, the release of The Wind Studio Ghibli’s booklet Neppu, and his Rises, followed by the release of Eternal criticisms of the nationalistic and Zero did nothing but entice citizens and militaristic film, Eternal Zero, his film is politicians to revisit the glory of the Zero unable to snuff out their messages that stir fighter, and the misrepresented legacy of a longing in an audience for the glory of Japanese Imperialism. Japan’s military. This is because the film focuses on Jiro Horikoshi, the designer of the A6M Zero fighter plane, a symbol of
91 Ibid. Reuters, July 2, 2014 -japan-defense- 92 Linda Sieg and Kiyoshi Takenaka, “Japan Takes idUSKBN0F52S120140702. Historic Step Away from Post-War Pacifism,”
25 26
Deng and Carter: The Normalization of Sino-American Relations
Yan Zhang ‘16 HST 401: The Global Nineteen Seventies Professor Osamah Khalil
Introduction international affairs. Publicly, Beijing “For the first time, because the denounced Nixon’s speech as “a confession people of the world want peace, and the in an impasse” and demonstrated that “the leaders of the world are afraid of war, the U.S imperialists…are beset with profound 94 times are on the side of peace....I shall crises both at home and abroad.” consecrate my office, my energies, and all Privately, however, Mao Zedong, the wisdom I can summon to the cause of Chairman of the Chinese Communist Party, peace among nations.”93 In January 1969, grasped the speech’s subtle message and when newly elected President Richard considered rapprochement with the United Nixon delivered his inaugural speech, States. “peace” was the most salient word Three years later, in February 1972, throughout the whole address. It seemed Nixon met face-to-face with Mao in that America, trapped in Vietnam, was Beijing.95 The dramatic event shocked the seeking a new order in both domestic and world and transformed the Cold War power
93 "The Avalon Project : First Inaugural Address of 94 Chen Jian, Mao's China and the Cold War Richard Milhous Nixon." The Avalon Project : First (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, Inaugural Address of Richard Milhous Nixon. 2001): 238. http://avalon.law.yale.edu/20th_century/nixon1.asp 95 Ibid, 239. .
1 27 balance between Moscow and Washington. domestic political implications in the Nixon’s trip marked the first time a United States, especially for the Republican standing American President visited the right.98 Drawing on the declassified records Chinese mainland. The Shanghai of the Ford and Carter administrations, Communiqué signed by Nixon and premier scholars have examined how Sino- Zhou Enlai underscored the common American relations were formalized. understanding of the two countries for Warren Cohen argues in America's further recognition and expressing their Response to China that after Nixon’s basic international polices in their own resignation, President Gerald Ford needed 96 way. The communiqué symbolized the the Republican right to ensure his victory in end of the intensely hostile relations the 1976 Presidential election. Therefore, between the U.S. and China and laid the Ford hesitated to advance relations with foundation for further improvements. China and was restrained politically from By the end of the decade, abandoning Taiwan. Meanwhile, China’s Washington and Beijing established full political atmosphere was turbulent. Both diplomatic relations. Although Nixon and Mao and Zhou were in failing health and a Mao initiated the thaw, they were not leadership succession struggle followed. 99 responsible for the fulfillment of Sino- Michael Schaller argues that Carter American relations. Instead, Nixon initially delayed the rapprochement with resigned in disgrace, and progress was China due to the foreign and domestic halted under the Ford administration. A policy implications. Schaller explains that leadership crisis also emerged in China, as Carter feared that the rapprochement would Mao and Zhou were ill. Relations did not endanger détente with Moscow. The Carter proceed until 1977, after both Deng administration also needed bipartisan Xiaoping and Jimmy Carter assumed support in the Senate to secure approval for office. In this paper, I examine how and the Panama Canal Treaty. Thus, Carter had why Sino-American relations resumed to delay the diplomatic break with Taiwan under Deng and Carter. Drawing on and the normalization with the PRC.100 declassified American and Chinese documents, I argue that normalization was Melvyn P. Leffler asserts that even the result of a reciprocal process in which though Carter prioritized détente with both parties were determined to reach the Moscow, he was determined to establish final result. I conclude, however, that China normal diplomatic relations with China. has benefitted more from normalization For Carter, better relations with Beijing than the United States. would provide America with a more competitive position in the “Third World” Historiography and also strengthen Washington’s Scholars have examined the negotiations with Moscow on limiting opening of relations between Washington nuclear weapons.101 and Beijing from both sides. They have James Mann argues that Carter emphasized geopolitical and ideological selectively applied his human rights policy 97 considerations. Others have discussed the toward China. After taking office, the
96 Ibid, 275 100 Michael Schaller, The United States and China in the Twentieth Century. (New York: Oxford 97 Ibid. University Press, 1979): 204. 98 Robert Dallek, Nixon and Kissinger: Partners in 101 Melvyn P. Leffler. For the Soul of Mankind: The Power (New York: Harper, 2007), 201 United States, the Soviet Union, and the Cold War. 99 Warren I. Cohen, America's Response to China a (New York: Hill and Wang, 2007): 204 History of Sino-American Relations. 5th ed. (New York: Columbia University Press, 2010)
27 28
Carter administration emphasized human leverage against Moscow. Deng wanted to rights considerations in the formulation of boost National Security Advisor Zbigniew U.S. foreign policy. However, Mann writes Brzezinski’s hard line position against that when Carter criticized the Soviet Moscow. Deng feared that America’s Union’s oppression of dissidents, the same detente policy would ease the threat on the standard was not applied to China’s Soviet Union from Western Europe and repression of democratic movements. Thus, empower the Kremlin to concentrate on human rights were subordinated to the policies against China.105 normalization of Sino-American Thomas Borstelmann writes that 102 relations. after Deng assumed power, he realized that Daniel Sargent argues that it was China was decades behind the developed actually Deng’s success as a reformer that countries in science, technology, and revived and catalyzed the normalization of education. Therefore, he prioritized the Sino-American relations. He writes that modernization of China’s economy and normalization reintegrated China into the adopted some capitalistic approaches, world economy and also constructed a including a market-oriented economy and strategic partnership against the USSR. experiments with private property in some Meanwhile, Sargent explains that regions. Meanwhile, better relations with Washington loosened its restrictions on the U.S. could offer China more advanced technological and intelligence exchange technology after being isolated for decades. and was willing to normalize relations with Overall, China was eager for American the PRC in order to strengthen its strategic help to modernize and reduce their position against the Soviet Union103 perceived geopolitical threats. 106 Michael Schaller also emphasizes Paul Coyer contends that a shift in Deng’s succession and his pursuit of Congressional attitudes also affected Sino- pragmatic policies that led to Sino- American rapprochement. Coyer writes American rapprochement. The disastrous that after Deng initiated his reforms and Cultural Revolution launched by Mao led to appealed for American help, previously a deterioration of the economy, education, skeptical members of Congress were more and internal security. Deng abandoned amenable to support improving relations Mao’s revolutionary rhetoric and with China.107 advocated for modernization and reform. However, Robert G. Sutter He implemented a new “Open Door Policy” contends that the Carter administration by which foreign investment and trade was intentionally bypassed Congress when allowed and increased in order to stimulate dealing with Beijing. According to Sutter, China’s economic growth.104 key members of Congress were shocked Steven E. Lobell contends that and agitated about the sudden China was also trying to use America for announcement of Carter’s secret progress
102 James Mann, About Face: A History of America's 106 Thomas Borstelmann, The 1970s: A New Global Curious Relationship with China from Nixon to History from Civil Rights to Economic Inequality. Clinton. (New York: Alfred A Knopf, 1999) : 100. (Princeton, N.J.: Princeton University Press 2012): 103 Daniel J, Sargent, A Superpower Transformed: need page numbers. the Remaking of American Foreign Relations in the 107 Paul Coyer, “Congress,China and the Cold War: 1970s, (Oxford University Press,2015) Domestic Politics and Sino-American 104 Schaller, 196. Rapprochement and Normalisation, 1969-1980” , The London School of Economics and Political 105 Steven, Lobell, E, "Great Powers in a Restrictive Science, (2013): 300. International Environment." International Journal: Canada's Journal of Global Policy Analysis (2011)
28 29 with China. Sutter writes that in order to American relations in order to deal with the avoid Congressional opponents and “the Soviet Union.110 China lobby” who might block initiatives As a friendly gesture to Beijing, with Beijing, the administration avoided Nixon decided to remove all remaining involving Congress. They asserted that a passport restrictions on travel by successful policy toward China could not Americans to China. The Chinese have been reached without bypassing key immediately responded by inviting an Congressional opponents from the secret American Ping Pong team to compete in 108 negotiations. China, ending the blockade which limited I will demonstrate how final communications between the two countries normalization was accomplished under since 1949.111 In early July 1971, National Deng and Carter, and how it benefited Security Advisor Henry Kissinger secretly China. flew to Beijing and informed Premier Zhou Hindering Normalization that America was willing to establish diplomatic relations with China. When When Nixon assumed office in Nixon flew to Beijing seven months later, 1969, his administration was immediately he privately told Zhou that he would break challenged by the increasing anti-war ties with Taiwan and establish full movement and also the deteriorating war in diplomatic relations with China in his Vietnam. In his first year in office, Nixon second term. 112 Full diplomatic relations announced a new foreign policy to facilitate were expected to soon after Nixon won the Asia’s future without massive U.S troop 1972 presidential election. deployments. One significant implication was to end the U.S.-backed containment of Although Nixon was reelected by a China. Nixon put great effort into initiating large margin, he was forced to resign from secret communications with Beijing. 109 office 18 months later due to the Watergate When Nixon adopted the new strategic scandal. By 1975, China had waited three policy, the Sino-Soviet ideological dispute years for full normalization. Even though had deteriorated to the point of war. With Gerald Ford and Secretary of State Henry millions of Soviet troops deployed at Kissinger were determined to continue China’s borders, the Soviet Union had Nixon’s policies toward China, they become the severest threat to China’s struggled to avoid conservative challengers security. Meanwhile, China had to be of the Republican president who were vigilant about the threat from Taiwan in the opposed to normalization. Ford and his east and the threat from North Vietnam as advisers worried about attacks from Ronald well. At this point, China was at its worst Regan and others. He needed the support of strategic position since the establishment of conservative Republicans to win his party’s 113 the PRC. Beijing recognized that only the nomination and the general election. United States had the ability to alter Normalization was then subordinated to China’s strategic disadvantage in the face domestic political concerns. At the same of Soviet intimidation and threats. Mao was time, the waxing power struggle in the finally determined to ameliorate Sino- wake of the feebleness and death of Mao hindered normalization as well. He was preoccupied with severe domestic
108 Robert G, Sutter, The China Quandary: 110Ibid. Domestic Determinants of U.S. China Policy, 1972- 111 Ibid. 1982. (Boulder, Colo.: Westview Press, 1983) 112 Ibid. 109 Sutter, Robert G. U.S.-Chinese Relations 113 Perilous Past, Pragmatic Present. (Lanham: Mann, 94 Rowman & Littlefield Publishers, 2010): Chapter 5
29 30 ideological struggles during the last years China recover from the disastrous Cultural of the Cultural Revolution. Power struggle Revolution. Instead, it goaded the Chinese in the wake of his death became people into further class struggle and acrimonious and blatant. neglected economic reform.116 Deng the Reformer In July 1977, in a speech made at For many years, the power struggle the Third Plenary Session of the Tenth between moderates and radicals determined Central Committee of the Communist Party the direction of the PRC’s policy making. of China, Deng implicitly challenged Hua, Moderates like Deng advocated for the stating that “in saying that we should use as importance of higher education, rapid our guide genuine Mao Zedong Thought industrial growth and technological taken as an integral whole, I mean that we modernization. In contrast, radicals should have a correct and comprehensive stressed the primacy of ideological purity understanding of Mao Zedong and criticized reliance on foreign Thought...only in this way can be sure that technology and ideas. Borrowing foreign we are not fragmenting Mao Zedong 117 ideas or methods, such as material Thought, distorting or debasing it.” incentives, they argued was deviation from Guangming Daily, an influential newspaper pure Communism. Radicals had a strong run by the CPC Central Committee, antipathy towards the outside world.114 The published an article named “Practice is the so-called “Gang of Four,” who typified Sole Criterion for Testing Truth” which radicals and partially gained control of followed Deng’s permission. The article government policies during the later stage censured and countered the “Two of the Cultural Revolution, reprimanded the Whatevers,” arguing that it had betrayed rapprochement with the United States.115 the authentic Marxism that had overlooked the scientific laws, constrained people’s After the Gang of Four was purged mind and would only hamper the progress in July 1977, Deng eventually resumed his of the society. 118 It produced heated posts as the Vice Chairman of the discussion and gained support from many Communist Party of China, the Vice veteran cadres in the party. From this point, Chairman of the Central Military radically leftist ideas started to abate, and Commission, and the Vice Premier. Deng’s pragmatic approach started to However, Deng still had to contend with prevail and laid the ideological foundations Hua Goafeng, the Chairman of the Party. for further reform. Hua was a loyal advocate of Mao’s radical leftist ideology and he implemented Deng stressed pragmatic solutions policies that upheld the “Two Whatevers,” to material problems and insisted the which proclaimed that “We will resolutely primacy of economic growth and the uphold whatever policy decisions the modernization of industry, national defense 119 Chairman made, and unswervingly follow and science and technology. In a talk whatever instructions Chairman Mao with two leading comrades, Deng gave.” This extreme policy did not help emphasized that “the key to achieving
114Schaller, 196 117 Deng Xiaoping, The Selected Works of Deng 115 The “Gang of Four” included Mao’s third wife, Xiaoping, Mao Zedong (Beijing: Foreign Languages Jiang Qing, and Wang Hongwen, Zhang Chunqiao, Press, 2006), Thought Must be Correctly and Yao Wenyuan. They were the radicals who Understood as an Integral Whole,1977 almost took power after post-Mao era 118 Hu Fuming “Practice is the Sole Criterion for 116 Gong, Li, and Jingqing Zhou. Deng Xiaoping Zai Testing Truth” Guangming Daily, May 11,1978. Zhong Da Li Shi Guan Tou. Di 1 Ban. ed. (Beijing 119 Schaller, 196. Shi: Zhong Gong Zhong Yang Dang Xiao Chu Ban She, 2000), 103
30 31 modernization is the development of opening, Deng argued that, “how can a new science and technology.” 120 He further theory be evolved if it is not based on a explained the motives for the reform in a summation of the practical experiences of March 1978 speech at the Opening both past and present generations of Ceremony of the National Conference on scientists, both Chinese and foreign?” He Science that “unless we modernize our further castigated and warned people who country, raise our scientific and withheld advanced western technology technological level, develop our productive from compatriots.124 When told about the forces and thus strengthen our country and development of China’s own creativity and improve the material and cultural life of our persistence in the policy of independence people...our socialist political and and self-reliance, Deng stressed that economic system cannot be fully “independence does not mean shutting the consolidated.”121 He also stressed that, “the door on the world, nor does self-reliance more…we are modernized...the more our mean blind opposition to everything people will support the socialist system.”122 foreign...every people or country should At the same time, in order to stimulate the learn from the advanced science and economy, Deng also recognized that technology of others.”125 modernization needed to utilize and adapt In October 1978, Deng quipped that some components of capitalism such as “for a certain period of time, learning market economy. When asked whether the advanced science and technology from the adaption of market economy betrayed developed countries was criticized as Communism, Deng later argued that “It is ‘blindly worshiping foreign things’. We wrong to maintain that a market economy have come to understand how stupid this exists only in capitalist society...similarly, argument is...”126 He asserted that “China taking advantage of the useful aspects of cannot develop by closing its door, sticking capitalist countries, including their methods to the beaten track and being self- of operation and management, does not complacent.” 127 Deng, at the first day of mean that we will adopt capitalism...we use assuming of power, had been determined to those methods in order to develop the open China to the outside world. As the 123 productive forces under socialism.” most powerful country in the world, the Due to China’s economic United States undoubtedly became the stagnation, Deng and his reformist main target of his aims. comrades concluded that modernization Carter’s Final Determination could not be achieved without expanding economic relations with the rest of the While Deng was preoccupied with world. A new “Open Door policy” could reform, Jimmy Carter also showed great give China more modern technology and interest in normalizing relations with capital needed for the modernization. When China. Shortly after taking office, Carter some people still vacillated between Mao’s met with Chai Zemin, the Head of the notion of autarky and Deng’s advocacy for PRC’s liaison office, and explained that “I
120 Deng, “Respect Knowledge, Respect Trained 125Deng, “Speech at the Opening Ceremony of the Personnel,” May 24 1997. National Conference on Science,” March 18, 1978 121 Deng, “Speech at the Opening Ceremony of the 126Deng, “Carry out the Policy of Opening to the National Conference on Science,” March 18, 1978. Outside World and Learn Advanced Science and 122 Ibid. Technology from Other Countries. October 10, 1978” 123 Deng, “We Can Develop a Market Economy 127 under Socialism,” November 26, 1979 Ibid. 124Deng, “Some Comments on Work in Science and Education,” August 8, 1977
31 32 hope we can see a strong movement toward ever faced was “to negotiate and have the normalization and are concerned about U.S Senate approve a new agreement with increases in the Soviet Union’s strength...to Panama.”132 During the first few months of the extent that Western Europe, Japan, the his term, Carter made a great effort to win U.S. and China can cooperate, can be Senate approval to return the Panama Canal friends, and exchange ideas and share to Panama. Carter also understood that mutual purposes.” 128 It seemed that after normalization with the PRC meant the the succession crises in both countries, termination of U.S.-Taiwan diplomatic normalization could finally be back on relations and would incense the track. However, according to Chai’s conservative senators who regarded memoirs, the normalization was not even Taiwan as the only China. He recalled in his the primary goal for the new memoirs that the effort to secure the, “final administration. 129 Progress towards few votes necessary for treaty normalization was still on hold. ratification...working on SALT II Pursuing detente and a new arms negotiations with the Soviet Union... did control agreement with the Soviet Union not leave much time for us to pursue the 133 was one of Carter’s most important foreign China question.” At this point, Carter policy priorities. He sought to maintain had not made a decision on relations with cooperative relations with Moscow and the PRC. believed that it would ameliorate tensions However, along with the passage of around the world. 130 Secretary of State the Panama Treaty and a massive Cyrus Vance argued that China was still not unprecedented Soviet intervention aimed at a powerful country economically or helping Ethiopia’s communist regime strategically. In contrast, stable U.S.-Soviet against Somalia from July 1977 to March relations could generate an international 1978, the Carter administration became environment which would facilitate the more willing and eager to establish accomplishment of other American foreign relations with the PRC. Carter explained policies. Normalization with Beijing, that “some of the senators known to be Vance warned, could “create unnecessary doubtful about a [Strategic Arms fears on the part of other Asian friends...and Limitation Treaty (SALT)] II treaty with invite paranoid reactions from the the Soviet Union had expressed the hope Soviets...we must not slide into believing that we would develop stronger ties with that we can somehow play a ‘China card’ China.” 134 Carter determined that against the Soviet Union.”131 normalization could help him in the U.S. Relations with China were linked to Senate with the SALT II treaty because it 135 other priorities. Carter later recalled that could attract some anti-Soviet senators. “the most difficult political challenge” he In early spring 1978, Carter finally decided
128 Memorandum of Conversation, Document 5, 131 Vance, Cyrus R. Hard Choices: Critical Years in February 8, 1977, Foreign Relations of the United America's Foreign Policy. (New York: Simon and States (hereafter FRUS), 1977-1980, Volume XIII, Schuster, 1983) China. 132 Jimmy Carter, Beyond the White House : https://history.state.gov/historicaldocuments/frus19 Waging Peace, Fighting Disease, Building Hope. 77-80v13/d5 (New York : Simon & Schuster, 2007) 129 Chai Zemin, Zhong Mei Jian Jiao Feng Yu Lu: 133 Jimmy Carter, Keeping Faith: Memoirs of a Jian Zheng Li Shi Gongheguo Dashi Jiangshu. President. (Toronto: Bantam Books, 1982), 197. (Shanghai: Shanghai Cishu Chuban She): 68 134 Carter, Keeping Faith, 198. 130 Robert S, Ross, Negotiating Cooperation: The 135 United States and China, 1969-1989, (Stanford Mann, 96 University Press, 1994): 126
32 33 to proceed with the normalization with the had secretly permitted China to gain PRC. advanced arms, military equipment, and In 1978, Carter delegated National technology from the West. Brzezinski told Security Advisor Brzezinski to visit China Chinese officials that Washington would and present the idea of normalization. allow China to obtain some American Before Brzezinski’s departure, they technology which was withheld from the 140 discussed some potential outcomes of Soviet Union. normalization. They believed that “all Brzezinski later met with Deng. would consider the resulting enhancement Deng reiterated China’s three conditions of political and military stability in the for normalization: the severance of Western Pacific a benefit.”136 For Korean diplomatic relations with Taiwan, the problems, Carter and “South Korean withdrawal of American forces from President Park wanted the Chinese to help Taiwan, and the abrogation of the U.S- prevent any military moves by North Korea Taiwan mutual defense treaty. Brzezinski, and to help reduce existing tensions in that accepted the three conditions on behalf of peninsula.”137 One significant benefit that the president.141 Even though they still had Carter and Brzezinski discussed was the, disputes on how to solve the Taiwan “ability to quietly sway some third-world problems after normalization, the meeting countries with whom it was very difficult to generated positive momentum, and both communicate...most revolutionary sides agreed to start the formal negotiation governments did not naturally turn to the as soon as possible. According to Carter, United States...we saw our cooperation Brzezinski’s visit was very successful with China as a means to promote peace because Deng and other leaders knew more and better understanding between the about America’s determination and the United States and those countries.” 138 goals of his administration. Carter believed Normalization, they believed, could endow that China’s interest in improving relations America with a more competitive position with the United States was increasing and in the “Third World” in order to challenge they were prepared finalize Moscow. normalization.142 On May 20, 1978, Brzezinski China’s attitude towards America arrived in Beijing and was first met by became more hospitable. The content and Foreign Minister Huang Hua. Brzezinski tone of official newspapers has always been expressed that his primary mission was to an effective way to perceive China’s “first of all reaffirm [Carter’s] commitment attitude towards other countries. When to the full normalization process...to show Washington requested that Beijing cease our determination to move forward with the their public criticism of America’s policies, process of normalization.” Brzezinski the Chinese responded immediately. Carter added that “the United States has made up recalled that “In June, their official its mind on this issue.”139 Brzezinski also newspaper even published the full text of brought gifts. The Carter administration my address on U.S.-Soviet relations to the
136 Carter, 193 140 Mann, 98 137 Ibid. 141Memorandum of Conversation, Document 110, 138 Ibid. May 21, 1978, FRUS, 1977-1980, Volume XIII. China 139 Memorandum of Conversation, Document 108, https://history.state.gov/historicaldocuments/frus19 May 20, 1978, FRUS, 1977-1980, Volume XIII. 77-80v13/d110 China 142 https://history.state.gov/historicaldocuments/frus19 Carter, 194 77-80v13/d108
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Annapolis graduates and commented normalization, the United State would have favorably on its sentiments.” He added that to terminate its diplomatic relations with, “the newspaper even editorialized about the withdraw troops from and abrogate a Cubans’ ridiculous claim that their country mutual defense treaty with Taiwan. Third, was nonaligned…and China would explore the United States could still maintain trade joint ventures with United States oil and cultural contact with Taiwan except to companies and characterized Brzezinski’s sell arms. Fourth, no country would be visit as positive and useful.” 143 Although allowed to intervene in China’s internal Brzezinski’s visit did not begin the formal politics toward Taiwan’s liberation.145 The negotiation with China, it had brought United States intentionally set the meetings Sino-American relations to an every ten days, only addressed one unprecedented level. Huang Hua and outstanding issue at each meeting and Woodcock Leonard, Chief of the U.S. preferred to incrementally state its position. Liaison Office in Beijing, would represent Because China’s strategy was to respond PRC and the United Stated in the formal after America had stated all its conditions, negotiations held in Beijing two months the negotiation was actually one-sided and after Brzezinski’s visit. did not address core issues, especially arms Turbulent Negotiations sales to Taiwan. The Carter administration hoped to When the negotiation was hindered reach a new SALT treaty with the Soviet in Beijing, Chai Zemin, the head of the PRC Union and bring it to the Senate before the liaison office at the time, was also spring 1979. The White House determined negotiating with his counterparts in that it was better to obtain a normalization America. When he met with Brzezinski, treaty with China before submitting SALT Chai restated that China would never accept II because it would be politically risky and arms sales to Taiwan. Brzezinski argued almost impossible to fight congressional that America would only sell defensive battles for two significant treaties at the arms so it would not threaten the interests 146 same time. Meanwhile, if both sides and security of the PRC. Arms sales had delayed, the Carter administration would be become a huge obstacle to the preoccupied by the presidential campaign. normalization process. Each side was not Therefore, Carter aimed to finish and willing to compromise its own position. announce the normalization by December On September 19, President Carter 15, 1978. 144 U.S.-Taiwan relations and privately met with Chai and emphasized arms sales were the core issues during the that America was still eager to normalize negotiations. with China. He hoped that China would However, the first five sessions of understand his insistence to sell defensive negotiations from July to September were arms to Taiwan after the normalization actually unproductive due to opposite because of America’s domestic strategies used by each side. China laid out connections with Taiwan. And if America all its conditions for normalization at the could also see a peaceful settlement of the beginning of the sessions. First, Taiwan Taiwanese issue, there would be no 147 was the only issue that impeded the obstacles to the normalization. However, normalization between two countries. After the dispute on Taiwan impeded normalization. When Chai restated that
143 Ibid, 196 147 Memorandum of Conversation, Document 135, 144 Mann, 89 September 19, 1978, FRUS, 1977-1980, Volume XIII. China 145 Chai, 84 https://history.state.gov/historicaldocuments/frus19 146 Ibid, 85 77-80v13/d135
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China would handle the Taiwanese grab this chance and try to make early liberation its own way, Carter was not achievement of normalization. 152 On the willing to accept this claim and insisted on same day, Woodcock presented the one- a peaceful settlement.148 By early October, page draft normalization communique even though the United States had accepted calling for a January 1, 1979 China’s three conditions and showed announcement. Normalization was finally willingness to normalize, the liberation of back on track. Taiwan and the arms sales were still the It was imperative for China to most obdurate obstacles to normalization. normalize with America as early as possible A normalization treaty seemed impossible due to the changing international situation. by the end of 1978. A successful and consolidated U.S.-Soviet Nevertheless, the normalization had detente might threaten China’s strategic not totally halted. During Deng’s visit to position because the two superpowers Japan in October, he signaled that might isolate China. Meanwhile, since normalization depended on the September, the Soviet Union had determination of President Carter. If Carter transferred large amount of weapons to was willing to move forward, Deng Vietnam against Cambodia, and they even asserted that China would follow. On the signed a Soviet-Vietnamese treaty on other hand, Carter also met with Brzezinski November 3. 153 If China deliberated and instructed him to prepare a draft whether to send troops to help Cambodia, communique for Woodcock to demonstrate they now had to take into account Soviet America’s determination to continue forces as well. Therefore, an early negotiations.149 The draft also included the accomplishment of normalization could date of normalization. The president reduce the geopolitical threats to China. changed the date from January 15, 1979 to After the unproductive November, China January 1, 1979 as a final push toward was ready to move forward. 150 normalization. On October 30, during On December 4, Han Nianlong, the the meeting with Chai, Brzezinski advised Vice Foreign Minister of the PRC who that any time before January 1979 would be substituted for a sick Huang, told the best time to reach the normalization Woodcock that China agreed to issue a joint because Congress would discuss SALT II communique on January 1, 1979. The and other issues in early 1979. Unless negotiations were finally in the last China could grab this last opportunity for stages.154 Although other issues like how to normalization, it would have to be delayed settle Taiwan were still in dispute, Deng 151 until late 1979. No one could promise the decided to take charge of the negotiations. normalization could be reached by then From December 12 to December 14, Deng since the presidential campaign would be in personally accepted America’s demands full swing and the opponents from the that China would not counter their Senate and Congress might impede unilateral statement which advocated for a normalization. Perceiving America’s peaceful settlement of the Taiwan issue and seriousness and eagerness for America would maintain its economic and normalization, Deng, on November 2, cultural ties with Taiwan. He acquiesced indicated to the party that China should that Washington would terminate its mutual
148 Chai, 87 153 Ross, 137 149 Ibid. 154Memorandum of Conversation, Document 159, 150 Chai, 88 December 14, 1978, FRUS, 1977-1980, Volume XIII. China 151 Ibid. https://history.state.gov/historicaldocuments/frus19 152 Ibid. 77-80v13/d159
35 36 defense treaty with Taiwan in one year a 19-gun salute and almost an when it expired, and suggested to add an unprecedented ceremonial honor in anti-hegemony statement in the Washington.157 In the public statement, he communique which reaffirmed Sino- praised the United States and verbally America opposition to the Soviet Union.155 criticized Soviet hegemony. Meanwhile, he However, the night before the scheduled also visited Atlanta and Texas, leaving a date for announcing the formal famous photo in which Deng wore a ten- communique, a dispute on arms sales gallon hat at a Texas rodeo. At the Kennedy almost hampered normalization once again. Center, after Deng put his arms around the China seemed to believe that America American performers and kissed children would terminate arms sales to Taiwan. who sung a Chinese song, many in the However, Washington insisted that it audience wept. 158 Deng had left an would continue the arms sales a year after extremely amiable impression on the the normalization. Outraged and shocked, American people. Deng saw this demand as a humiliation that However, the visit was not just 156 he could not accept. Woodcock privately about feasts and touring. Deng’s priority reminded Deng of the importance of was to gain America’s moral support for processing the normalization agreement. China against Vietnam who invaded Compelled by China’s worsening strategic China's ally, the Khmer Rouge of position, Deng decided to follow the Cambodia in November 1978. In the wake original schedule for normalization and of the Soviet-Vietnam treaty and leave the dispute to the future. Finally, on deteriorating Sino-Soviet relations, when December 15, both sides announced the China decided to attack Vietnam, it needed Joint Communiqué on the Establishment of America’s support for such an aggressive the Diplomatic Relations and officially action. During his meeting with Carter, established diplomatic relations on January Deng warned that Vietnam was the “Cuba 1, 1979. of the East,” and if China did not teach them The Aftermath a lesson, Vietnam would exceed Cuba due Normalization opened a new page to its larger population and military 159 for Sino-American relations and brought force. He further described the invasion them to an unprecedented height. From of Vietnam as an extremely grave matter January 28 to February 5, 1979, Deng made and stated that some members of the his celebratory tour in the United States and Association of Southeast Asian Nations became the first PRC leader to visit the (ASEAN) even criticized China as being United States. Normally, American too soft. Since there had been constant officials only welcomed their guests in boundary problems between China and Washington. However, Carter delegated Vietnam, and Vietnam had totally allied Woodcock and Jones Dobelle, the Chief of with the Soviets, it was necessary for China 160 the Protocol, to welcome Deng when the to teach the Vietnamese a lesson. Deng plane arrived for a short layover in Alaska. promised that the lesson would be limited On the next day, Deng was welcomed with to a short period of time and would
155 Chai, 89 https://history.state.gov/historicaldocuments/frus19 156 Ibid, 91 77-80v13/d202 160 157 Ibid, 121. Memorandum of Conversation, Document 205, January 29, 1979, FRUS, 1977-1980, Volume XIII. 158 Carter, 208 China, 159 Memorandum of Conversation, Document 202, https://history.state.gov/historicaldocuments/frus19 January 29, 1979, FRUS, 1977-1980, Volume XIII. 77-80v13/d205 China,
36 37 withdraw the troops once China’s acquiescence. Acquiescence was also objectives were achieved. However, Carter demonstrated in the limited way Carter insisted that the best way to treat Vietnam dealt with China’s human rights issues. was to isolate it from the rest of the world Human rights was a significant since it had been the first time that element in the formulation of Carter’s developing countries in the United Nations foreign policy. However, when dealing condemned Vietnam. The action initiated with the arrest of dissidents in China, Carter by China would disrupt the peaceful image decided to look the other way when the just produced in new Sino-American democracy movement initiated in late 1978 relations and might cause further Soviet was repressed in China. Wei Jinsheng, 161 involvement. Despite Carter’s along with 30 other activists who advocated insistence, it seemed that Deng had already for democracy and freedom, were put on made his decision before he visited trial in late 1979. . The Carter America. In February, China attacked administration just simply expressed its Vietnam. astonishment and disappointment instead In the face of the Sino-Vietnam of reproaching China’s violation.164 War, even though America did not directly Moreover, China had benefited give support to China, the rhetoric in its more from these new relations. The Soviet public statements actually demonstrated invasion of Afghanistan had exacerbated acquiescence to Beijing’s action. The Carter’s distrust of Moscow. When U.S. administration first stated that America was Secretary of Defense Harold Brown visited not informed about China’s intention and China in early 1980, he informed Deng that then urged “immediate withdrawal of America would export to China the Landsat Vietnamese troops from Kampuchea Earth Resources Satellite which might be (Cambodia) and Chinese troops from used militarily. Furthermore, in April, the 162 Vietnam.” This strategy maintained United States moved the PRC from export America’s role as impartial mediator while category “Y,” which contained the Soviet reducing China’s responsibility by Bloc, to category “P,” explicitly permitting censuring Vietnam. America’s statement Chinese access to nonlethal military was rather a nominal demonstration of its equipment. 165 Meanwhile, the two position and would neither undermine new countries also signed trade agreements Sino-American relations nor explicitly which gave China access to America’s reprimand its new friend. Privately, Carter textile market and granted China “Most had even expressed sympathy for the Favored Nation” status. The access to the 163 Chinese in this conflict. Although the U.S. market offered China opportunities to Carter administration did not provide obtain advanced technology and foreign material support to China during the war, its currencies needed for international trade, statement implicitly demonstrated its which in turn would consolidate its reform
161 Oral Presentation by President Carter to Chinese China Vice Premier Deng Xiaoping, Document 206, https://history.state.gov/historicaldocuments/frus19 January 30, 1979, FRUS 1977-1980, Volume XIII. 77-80v13/d216 China 163 Record of a National Security Council Meeting, https://history.state.gov/historicaldocuments/frus19 Document 214, February 16, 1979, FRUS, 1977- 77-80v13/d206 1980, Volume XIII. China 162 Backchannel Message From the President’s https://history.state.gov/historicaldocuments/frus19 Deputy Assistant for National Security Affairs 77-80v13/d214 (Aaron) and the Assistant Secretary of State for East 164 Mann, 102. Asian and Pacific Affairs (Holbrooke) to the Deputy 165 Chief of the Liaison Office in China, Doc 216, Ross, 149. February 16, 1979, FRUS, 1977-1980, Volume XIII.
37 38 at home. When the Chinese economy other. After Deng initiated China’s reform, developed more jobs and became more and Carter was determined to push labor-intensive, America would lose some normalization forward. Although Nixon jobs at the expense of the economic pioneered normalization, it was actually cooperation. Unbalanced trade relations due to Deng and Carter’s determination that would become an important conflict it was accomplished. This was a moment between Washington and Beijing in the that would forever change the world. future.166 As the less-developed nation after normalization, China has benefited more than the United States. Conclusion During the 1980s, along with increasing cultural, economic and scientific exchanges, China and America entered a new period which was named by some Chinese scholars, “the Sino-American Honeymoon.” Ties between the two countries became closer, and a wide range of agreements for cultural, scientific and technological cooperation and trade were signed by the two countries. The United States quickly emerged as the leading foreign investor in China.167 Normalization also facilitated the liberalization of U.S. control over exports of advanced technology to China. For China, normalization not only consolidated and facilitated the modernization, but mitigated threats from the Soviet Union. America, on the other hand, was given access to China’s inchoate but potentially huge market. American enterprises like Coca-Cola, American Express and General Foods entered China. The interaction between the two countries has become more frequent and dependent. After thirty years, China has already become the second largest trading partner of the United States, and the cooperation between the two countries is now vital and necessary for facilitating and easing peace and tensions around the world. Four decades ago, when Nixon’s visit to China shocked the world, few people expected Sino-American relations to play an essential role on the world stage. It was solely geopolitical concerns that brought the two countries closer to each
166 Ross, 152 167 Cohen, 230
38 39
The Origin and Lifespan of Food Assistance Programs during the Great Depression
Vincent Gottfried Wisehoon ‘16 HST 401: Food in America Professor Susan Branson
To understand the origins of the first program was not manifested as a plan to public food assistance program, we must first artificially reduce prices at the retail level, understand the origins of crisis in which the nor to take food from the fortunate and give need for emergency food came from. The it to the unfortunate; it was to relieve farms first measure taken to alleviate hunger of their surplus foods, which happened to be happened in the context of a profound unsellable goods, and help facilitate these paradox: The paradox of want amid plenty, commodities within the economy. The the paradox of hunger amid surplus, the quite redistribution of these surplus goods to the sobering reality that farmers had to slaughter hungry as a form of relief was an livestock, neglect harvest, and allow their afterthought. Only once it was clear that few existing food commodities to rot while people could comfortably support the simultaneously thousands lived in poverty government purchasing of food commodities with little to eat. It was a contradiction Janet for indefinite storage would lawmakers Poppendiek referred to as Breadlines Knee- decide to redistribute the government’s Deep in Wheat. The first food assistance procured food.
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One of the original schemes designed techniques implemented at this time revolved to address the issue of low produce prices was around tariffs and export markets.171 to raise tariffs and prevent Mexican and A number of simultaneous challenges Canadian imports from inflating the market. faced the United States government in the Impacts of these policies can be seen in a case wake of the depression, all of which it did not study of Mississippi’s Tomato industry. address equally: The difficulty of farmers to Beginning in 1925, considerable Mexican sell their produce on the market due to tomato imports were occurring frequently dramatically low prices; The economic enough that it was seriously affecting the immobility and joblessness which prevented 168 price of Mississippi’s selling power. Due consumers from facilitating the economy; to vastly lower production costs, Mexican The lack of food and nutrition available to the and Latin American imports could afford urban and rural poor. The Hoover duties and higher shipping rates and still administration had different priorities for the critically undersell domestic produce in the many issues at stake during the depression, United States. Producers, shippers, and but its solutions all incorporated a similar officials representing these constituencies theme: non intrusiveness. President Hoover had enough influence in Washington by 1929 is remembered as being ideologically laissez- to win a legislative session which drastically faire, and this shows in his opinions of how 169 increased the import duties for tomatoes. to address hunger and poverty. “The basis of However, interstate competition would prove successful relief in national distress is to to further decimate many produce industries, mobilize and organize the infinite number of and the Federal Government instead imposed agencies of self-help in the community. That quality regulations and could enforce has been the American way of relieving withholding inferior produce to increase distress among our own people.”172 Needless 170 prices. This highlights the willingness of to say, Hoover was opposed to using the government early on to intervene in the Federal government as a source of direct agricultural industry by withholding surplus relief. He believed that local governments commodities from market, but also shows the and private agencies could account for all the reluctance of the government at this time to giving required to keep the American poor buy or redistribute food, or even to pay for afloat173. For instance, President Hoover was crop plowing, all methods thought of as a strong supporter of the Red Cross and spoke unconstitutional or at least un-American. frequently with advisors and officials from Prior to the depression, officials found it this company. He typically encouraged the difficult to offer farmers the higher prices Red Cross to assume the role of a national they wanted when the farmers were clearly relief corporation in times of economic producing in surplus. The principal
168 James L. McCorckle Jr, Problems of a Southern 172 Herbert Hoover, Statement on Unemployment Agrarian Industry: Cooperation and Self-Interest Relief (Washington, D.C., 1931), accessed in Oct. (Louisiana: Northwestern State University of 2015 at Louisiana, 1978), 242. http://millercenter.org/president/hoover/speeches/stat 169 Ibid, 244. ement-on-unemployment-relief 173 170 Ibid, 249. Irvin Marion May, “The Paradox of Agricultural Abundance and Poverty: The Federal Surplus Relief 171 Rachel Louise Moran. “Consuming Relief: Food Corporation, 1933-1935” (PhD, Diss., University of Stamps and the Welfare of the New Deal” The Oklahoma, 1971), 17. Journal of American History, Vol. 97, Issue 4 (March 2011): 1001-1022.
40 41 distress. The National Red Cross did not add California, growers united to create the relief from economic depression to its agenda Economic Conservation Committee of until 1932, although the Red Cross did accept America (ECCA) to distribute fruits on a the task of distributing some foods for the nonprofit basis to charities in every state in needy in the case of “drought emergency” in the country. The first project produced nearly 1930.174 This distant and indirect method to 40,000 gallons of peach butter.177 This entity alleviating hunger and disparity was advertised the need for surplus redistribution, ineffective. Local Red Cross county chapters and few other industries like the New York which relied on volunteerism took some milk industry would also make attempts to responsibility in procuring and transporting remove their own surplus at minimum to no food and other relief, but found themselves profit. The ECCA argued surplus overwhelmed easily, especially in rural redistribution was purely beneficial to all chapters. John Lewis, President of a mine parties, and anticipated the reproduction of workers union in the 1930’s, claimed that the these results when the Federal Government Red Cross, community chest programs, and eventually used similar methods. other voluntary or private efforts did virtually While the conservative Hoover nothing to put food in the mouths of miners ideology was opposed to intrusive central and their families, demanding that Federal government, Hoover’s insistence on not 175 action be taken to distribute relief. using federal means to offer relief of any kind The Conservative’s loyalty to the (employment, commodities, food) may have system of charity might seem to be poor come partially from his misunderstanding of judgment today, but in the early 1930s, a the condition of poverty in the country. number of charitable efforts were already Whether it was out of ignorance, denial, or being cultivated which would mimic the soon misinformation, Hoover and some of his to be Federal programs of food surplus followers insisted that actual hunger was a redistribution. Religious community non-issue, that the thought of people lining involvement provided some relief in up for food was only a caricature of how localized areas. Some churches or clergymen hunger or need in the country actually running food banks would receive tens of worked. They echoed things like thousands of bushels of fruits and vegetables Warburton’s “Unusually poor people are in the first years of the depression, and some poorer under these conditions that exist this religious centers also had gardens where year than usual” or Hoover’s “No one is urban agriculture fed the poor while going hungry and on one need go hungry or simultaneously circumventing production cold.” 178 Perhaps it was a mere issue of and shipment costs. 176 Even more aesthetics, but the need for food was a real phenomenal was the fact that some farm one even if those asking for it did not fit the industries created cooperatives which image imagined by Hoover as a needy planned to distribute surplus foods “at cost,” person. It was true that the epidemic of unfed, purely out of the moral distaste of letting their unclothed, illiterate, uneducated homeless crops rot while hunger persisted. In people filling the streets was often overstated
174 Janet Poppendieck, Breadlines Knee-Deep in 176 Poppendieck, 36. Wheat (Brunswick, New Jersey: Rutgers, The State 177 Ibid. University, 1986), 28; May, 18. 178 Poppendieck, Breadlines Knee-Deep in Wheat, 41, 175 Ibid. 51.
41 42 to arouse interest in reform, but it was freezing commodities in the agricultural precisely more of a crisis that hardworking industry. The Farm Board was an American folks with futures, families and administration chartered to assist the savings could not afford to feed themselves. struggling agricultural sector by withholding Citizens that would not typically line up to surpluses of farm commodities before the look through the trash for food were doing 1929 stock market crash. 184 This measure so.179 “It is not a rag tail outfit that is coming was much less controversial before the up here asking for money, it is the good, depression, when the economy of the United substantial farmers and citizens of the state” States could allow even the poor to buy food exclaimed a senator from Texas. 180 While and create enough demand to bring farm poverty and destitution existed in the 1930’s commodities to market, but in 1930, the like at no other time in American history, the money did not exist to bring together the food urgency to provide federal relief came from and the consumers at the retail level. Without the need of the whole nation to be fed. Hunger the wherewithal (or the liberal willpower) to was persisting because the economy could enact a more direct farm bailout bill, congress not guarantee farmers a fair profit if no one created The Farm Board to instead prevent could buy their food. commodities from reaching the market, thus The beginning of state food helping reduce the inflation of these redistribution began incrementally and commodities. The Farm Board’s first job was without much input from the executive to procure a commodity, and its most office. The Federal Government had already abundant resource was wheat. On top of tried to address the issue of low farm profits buying tons of surplus wheat from farmers at and had purchased some excesses of grain, reduced prices, many farmers found wool, and cotton in attempts to sell them themselves donating their surpluses to the overseas with legislation like the McNary- Farm Board to alleviate their own costs of 185 Haugan bill181 and the creation of The Farm storage and distribution. The Federal Board 182 , a grain procurement office. But Government now found that it owned the these measures simply planned to restrict the rights to thousands of silos full of wheat output of crops as to align with demand.183 across the nation. Immediately speculation of Once in the light of the depression, however, the future of the wheat arose. Left alone it the high demand for food illustrated the would merely devalue. Its destruction, futility of restricting farm output for the sake relocation, or consumption would require of the economy. Increasing the scarcity of some funding one way or another. The many food only worsened the pandemic of hunger avenues with which the Farm Board could during the depression, so the Federal handle this commodity were reduced to those government took action. The first step taken which demanded action. Despite by the government to redistribute food was a conservative wishes to keep the government direct reaction to pressure from newspapers, out of the economic recovery, the Farm protestors, and politicians criticizing the Board’s acquisition of unsellable wheat was USDA and the National Farm Board for too convenient not to manipulate further into a food relief program. Liberals wished to take
179 May, 19. 183 Ibid, 14. 180 Poppendieck, 41. 184 Ibid, 6. 181 Moran, 5. 185 Poppendieck, 36. 182 Ibid, 6.
42 43 this wheat -already in surplus- and satisfy the surprise of many, signed by President Herbert pressing problem of simultaneous hunger. Hoover. The radical plan would vanquish the Whether Hoover approved of the persisting paradox of hunger amid plenty, redistribution of food to the poor was because which gave it great appeal, but the suggestion the Government was intervening on the alone was an enormous step in public policy. behalf of an organization and not on behalf of The government had never regulated such a the jobless, or because he could tolerate relief basic human need on such a widespread in the form of food and not money, is not scale, and the topic of relief for those in entirely clear. 189 Nevertheless, the progress poverty reaching congress was expected to of food distribution policy during the Hoover “rock the foundations of government” as one administration was slow and incomplete. 186 Ohio official put it. The measure definitely Hoover and the conservatives did not accept did not pass without struggle. Skeptics on the the importance of the role government in one hand were assured there was no starving providing food security to millions of poor class of Americans, and conservative Americans until 1932, when it was far too politicians claimed reports of late to remain in a position of power. The undernourishment were widely over election of Franklin Roosevelt would not 187 exaggerated. The consequences on only much more aggressively meet the needs commodity price were uncertain. Even a of farmers, but it would much more “State’s Rights” affair became a hitch that graciously and efficiently deliver to the poor. 188 critics would harbor on. None of these More importantly, the New Deal government holes could sink the grain redistribution ship -for a time- would replace the fragment of the in congress though. After a few consecutive market which could not buy food as a battles in the House and Senate, democratic necessity nor sell it as a source of income. It and republican chairmen came to an acted literally as a public channel for what the agreement that there was a moral dilemma to private channel failed to do. But during the buying wheat to keep off of the market and New Deal era, surplus redistribution would sitting on it to withhold from needy and adopt some formalities. The Hoover era starving Americans. Congress did not wheat donations to the Red Cross proved to decided on an all-out welfare program for the be successful, but this was also after four poor though. Still wary of total government years of the President insisting that the Red intervention, legislators compromised on Cross, local/municipal governments, and merely donating the wheat acquired by The private entities carry the entire burden of Farm Board to private relief agencies, economic recovery. State representatives (largely the Red Cross but also to other thanked the Red Cross for its management of independent charitable organizations). The the flour and wheat given to it by the Farm Federal government agreed to make a Board, but they also demanded more massive contribution to the welfare of the extensive action on the part of the Federal poor in the form of commodities, but this Government.190 coincidental transfer of goods was still managed and manifested at the local as well Protest, boycott, and criticism of the as private level. The legislation was, to the government continued after the election of
186 Ibid, 55. 189 Poppendieck, 70. 187 Moran, 19. 190 Ibid, 72. 188 Ibid, 32.
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FDR. The New Deal Government would common hog feed193, and the resulting pork eventually provide food relief in a much more was subsequently acquired by the Farm integrated manner than before, but this was Board. In combination with the moral not until first passing the monolithic conflict of killing animals in surplus, the Agricultural Adjustment Act. (AAA). The withholding of their meat in spite of AAA was a controversial -and in some widespread hunger lead to many newspapers places, blasphemous- bill, and was even calling government policy immoral and considered blasphemous by some. While unfair. The first weeks of the New Deal contemporary opinions on the AAA’s government, while anticipated with effectiveness are mixed, its opposition would excitement, also met skepticism. Mere public also put pressure on the government to come opinion (even of the taxpayer) is seldom up with an alternative policy to paying enough to change official’s opinions, but it farmers not to grow crops as the AAA had was soon apparent that too many writers, begun to do. 191 The anger of political celebrities, politicians, CEO’s, advisors and activists over the paradox of removing food experts called for the distribution of food for from the market as people starved, especially the needy for it to remain an experimental with the hindsight of the Farm Board’s policy. That being said, despite the huge successful wheat donations, suggested that demand across government for Federal mere removal of surplus from the market was intervention to ameliorate hunger, the not enough intervention to suppress the pains democratic process would not be responsible of poverty, and that the continuance of for determining the fate of this newly redistribution was necessary to ameliorate acquired pork. hunger. The Roosevelt administration The next chapter of American food appeared to be making the same mistakes of assistance would be non-congressional, but the decade prior with the creation of the the sentiment/ideologies of food assistance AAA. While the AAA would continue to and more generally the ideology of the New manipulate farm output until it was declared Deal Government did play in the role of the unconstitutional in 1936, this spawn of the creation of the first permanent food New Deal government would also soon assistance plan. Congress, members of the inspire an idea which would later manifest AAA, and other officials all provided itself as its own corporation remembered for influence in the plan to mimic the Farm more effectively tackling the issue of over- Board’s distributive behavior, but its onset 192 production. was set up by informal presidential In early 1933, just following the approval. 194 Roosevelt convened with election of President Roosevelt, the USDA official Harry Hopkins and Jerome Frank, ordered the slaughter of piglets to hold pork heads of the AAA to be a part of the General from the market in an attempt to control Counsel for a new system to carry out pork prices the prices of both pork and corn, a distribution. 195 Chartered as an elusive
191 Ann F. White, Plowed Under: Food Policy 193 Moran, 1004. Protests and Performance in New Deal America 194 Ray Forrest Harvey, Want In the Midst of Plenty: (Bloomington, Indiana: Indiana University Press, the Genesis of the Food Stamp Plan (Washington: 2015): 7-10. American Council on Public Affairs, 1941), 24. 192 United States Department of Agriculture, 195 May, “The Paradox of Abundance and Poverty”, Stopping Waste in Farm Surpluses, (Washington 64. D.C., 1938.), 2.
44 45 executive order (unusually however, in the Many city governments receiving food from state of Delaware, as its laws were the only to the FSRC however decided that the food provide a sanction for such a corporation196), would be best distributed at commissary the redistribution of pork procurements went offices assigned with relief responsibilities, forward as it did with wheat, only this time it which were staffed by state welfare experts was simultaneously overseen by a new and social workers. Some states or localities authority called the Federal Surplus Relief required those on assistance to call-in and Corporation (FSRC), charged with the tasks then pick-up deliveries. The Chair of of balancing the budget with which the Commodity Distribution within the FSRC government could buy commodities, estimated through state reports in 1934 that choosing which methods would be used to 26 different methods of surplus food distribute these commodities, and choosing distribution existed among the many where foods would be relocated to. These practices. 198 However, the FSRC made it pork procurements were not merely donated very clear to the states that the success of to the Red Cross, however. Private government relief was up to them. The organizations would still receive goods for distribution wing of the corporation had to their own relief efforts, but food relief had communicate with each state government to now become a state effort. This time, the assure that the assigned surplus goods and FSRC would decide what states, cities, and their quantities could be utilized effectively, municipalities would receive surplus goods. and could be transported, processed, and This was of course, on a grander scale. delivered in a timely manner.199 It was also Potatoes from the northeast, for instance, up to local governments to report to the FSRC would be brought to the west and grapefruit how many families on relief they were from the south would be distributed expected to serve, or to account for what northward. 197 The methods of local crops already existed in a state as to ensure distribution would be left up to the states and shipping of a commodity to that state would municipalities to decide. The Federal not accidentally create a new surplus. 200 Government did not mandate that all surplus Thus, the effectiveness of the surplus relief foods must be distributed via public nor plan varied greatly from area to area. In one private commissaries, retail centers, or instance, the FSRC sent a three month supply delivery, but all of these channels were used. of cabbages to Massachusetts relief officials, Many recipients favored an who could accommodate only a month’s 201 unprecedented new home delivery method, in supply , recreating the issue of surplus in which qualifying families selected by local this location. Other types of problematic social work offices actually received their issues often arose in commissaries. Some relief on their front doorstep. This was were fantastically efficient, but in others, the popular for the obvious reason of avoiding same issues arose in these warehouses that stigma. Often entire counties and some states did from the Farm Board’s wheat plan where found this measure to be the most FSRC donations where merely handed to functionally effective as well, especially in other organizations for indefinite release rural areas, due to the low density population. without any prior planning. People in need
196 May, “The Paradox of Abundance and Poverty”, 199 USDA, Stopping Waste, 3. 63. 200 Ibid, 4. 197 Moran, Consuming Relief, 1005. 201 May, 197. 198 Moran, 95.
45 46 would line up to receive food in a much more purchasing practices of the hungry, and that traditional fashion, creating all too-familiar the relief food consumed by them would not “bread lines” that organizers of the FSRC had replace the food purchased at grocery stores, hoped not to replicate. although little evidence of this was unearthed Just as the Farm Board’s Federal to show that this was the case. Grocery store bread donations were received positively, owners, retailers, and the middle-men of the those receiving commodity relief via the food industry complained that ameliorating FSRC were also supportive of the program. hunger was done in the favor of farmers and Though there were imperfections, ranging at the expense of everyone else, and they from late deliveries 202 to limited dietary would be long standing enemies of Federal options (relief packages sometimes consisted food relief until a better system was designed of prunes, citruses and jelly), the first food to feed the hungry. assistance program in the United States was The FSCR also had a brief stint with considered a success. In 1933, relief foods non-agricultural commodity relief before its totaled almost 700,000,000 pounds 203 and demise. It obtained cow hides in surplus and reached millions of Americans in all states expected to make shoes out of them for plus the Alaskan Territory. 204 All forms of redistribution as a free relief commodity. public assistance were beneficial to the poor Despite the potential boost to the leather during the great depression, but food relief industry, fierce lobbying and resentment was especially crucial to the many recipients from retailers and marketers who expected who would only rely on the FSRC as their the demand for shoes to plummet prevented only handout from Federal arms. Forty the redistribution of much of this leather. The percent of those receiving public assistance same behavior was exhibited by the mattress solely received surplus food as their single industry when the FSRC acquired cotton and form of relief.205 began fabricating mattresses out of it: the The FSRC was not free from National Association of Bedding criticism. One of the complicated issues Manufacturers criticized the FSRC, claiming behind the morality of food distribution was that its purchase of cotton would destabilize 207 that it utilized the Agricultural Adjustment prices and result in higher costs for Agency’s “economics of scarcity,” or commercial producers. The business class supposed that reducing the amount of product was unanimously opposed to government from an industry would help it sell in greater intervention in the economy on the grounds quantities.206 While some people did approve that its competition with the free market of the FSRC for redistributing withheld food would ultimately destroy it. instead of destroying it, this did not satisfy Consideration of this resistance to the skeptics which suggested that this relief commodity relief brings out one of the more food was replacing the consumer need to buy phenomenal achievements of the FSRC: The the same foods on the retail market. The ability to perpetually donate foods to lower FSRC promised that its food donations would levels of government in co-existence with go “above and beyond” the current traditional channels of food commerce.
202 Ibid. 205 Harvey, Want In the Midst of Plenty, 20. 203 “Relief Totals 692,228,274 Pounds” New York 206 Poppendieck, 127. Times, 1934. 207 Moran, 222. 204 May, 261.
46 47
While retailers and shopkeepers were surpluses as a sale, and simultaneously, could extremely unhappy with the bypassing of also only legally receive surpluses as their outlets when food reached the poor via donations from the Agricultural Adjustment Federal relief efforts, the moral duty of Administration.209 It was soon apparent that feeding the poor often kept criticism from “red tape” was one of the bigger obstacles of reaching a practical level of action against the Federal Relief wing of government, and relief. The FSRC’s food redistribution was the delicacy of the relief system entailed that one of the most successful relief efforts if any one part of this sequence should be facilitated by FERA, and this is likely repealed, abolished, or otherwise cease because the presence of hunger and function or funding, the entire surplus chain starvation was an urgency that politicians became futile. In a nutshell, the FSRC was a were much attuned to relieving. purely a distributing agency: a means by Ideologically, the FSRC seemed which food traveled from one place to unstoppable. However, there was a another. Chaotically, the AAA provided the complicated bureaucracy around the FSRC. food and FERA provided the funding (and in For instance, the FSRC received its food many cases, the directions for FSRC 210 donations from the Agricultural Adjustment operation and behavior). The lack of Administration, and since the corporation centralization also led to what some called a was chartered by Roosevelt and thus received plainly poor quality service. Perishing foods no appropriations from congress, its primary and late deliveries were non-existent in a few funding was derived from transfers from the places, they were sometimes characteristic in 211 Federal Emergency Relieve Administration other areas. Though these discretions (FERA). 208 The FSRC in fact acted as a originated at the local levels, it was often not subsidiary of Federal Emergency Relief perceived as such, and the lack of supervision Administration, with food distribution being and confrontation to these problems by the one of the many tasks that the Emergency Federal banner led to a brief lack of Relief branch of government was responsible confidence in the FSRC’s abilities. for. FERA was established to contain all of The FSRC was also under threat the programs that would provide wage relief, because its main source of funding, the work relief, food relief, or commodity relief FERA, was being liquidized in 1935. In a to those in poverty. As a technical detail grand attempt by lawmakers at the time to however, FERA was only financially make government more orderly and less supporting the actions taken by the FSRC. In dependent on Roosevelt’s executive orders order for the FSRC to give food to the (formal or otherwise), FERA was dissolved municipalities that required food relief, those and replaced with an agency named the governments had to first buy it. But the Works Progress Administration (WPA). 212 funding for these purchases was still federal, As the name suggests, the WPA was not so because FERA made monetary credits to much involved with commodities as it was state governments which were then used by with job relief, and was not designed to be the states to purchase the allowed surpluses compatible with the functions of the FSRC. from the FSRC. They could only legally give
208 May, 65. 211 Gertrude Springer, “The Federal Bread Line,” 209 USDA, 1. Survey Midmonthly vol. 75 (1939), 69. 212 210 Harvey, 6. Poppendieck, 208.
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Food distribution would have to be funded, Congress.217 The FSCC was now an entity directed, and controlled by a new institution. very much in charge of its own autonomy. By 1935, it was apparent that if food While the transfer of the FSRC relief were to continue, it required operations to the FSCC helped to ameliorate centralization and a unified headquarters. In efficiency issues and remained the core an effort to become more autonomous and enabler for food relief efforts, it did not more closely intertwined with the needs of shrink its list of accumulating enemies, the agricultural industry, the FSRC was especially retailers. The business sector still ended and replaced with the Federal Surplus wanted commodity redistribution efforts to Commodities Corporation, an organization halt or be greatly diminished. The popularity then monitored by the USDA and secretary and practicality of food relief was too great to of agriculture Henry A. Wallace. 213 The dismiss it altogether, but it was apparent that FSCC was a more centralized version of the the economy would not pick itself back up if FSRC. It no longer relied on donations from the infrastructure designed to buy and sell the AAA or FERA. The FSCC began writing food conventionally was not as locomotive as its own reports, making its own the agencies propped up by the government investigations, and relying on its own data. to feed the hungry. The method of direct The FSCC could now estimate how much of distribution of surplus foods to the needy the market it was purchasing, for instance, faced opposition from groups like the and it aimed to buy anywhere from 1-5% of National-American Wholesale Merchants the market of a given food (although the Association, the National Retail merchants FSCC purchased up to 10% of available stock Association, and some local Chambers of in some commodities).214 It also addressed Commerce. 218 Throughout the 1930’s, the quality issues hampering the FSRC’s arguments on the behalf of the business reputation earlier. Among the reforms during sector would become familiar. Retailers, and the transition from the FSRC to the FSCC soon officials would demand that a new was a top down approach designed to method of food relief had to be drafted which encourage better shipping practices, on-time would include in the system: grocery stores, deliveries, and improved packing methods to farmer’s markets, and conventional food reduce spoil in perishable items.215 The issue purchasing centers. This was imperative in of funding was still muddy in its initial phase, order to avoid a necessary piece of the but this was soon addressed once internal economy from going out of business and resistance to some of the FSCC’s operations further separating agricultural product from on a financial basis arose. Occasionally the money needed to buy it. official comptrollers could find no reason to In 1937, Congress once more had the allocate millions of dollars within FERA occasion to review the activities of surplus funds or Public Work Agency funds to the distribution under the FSCC. Politicians 216 seemingly unrelated FSCC. It was in 1936 privy to these business complaints were the objection by the comptroller was so tempted to terminate the program, but again strong that the FSCC sought and received the moral determination to feed the hungry clarifying statements of its powers from prevailed, and it was voted to be extended for
213 Poppendieck, 213. 216 Harvey, 25. 214 Harvey, 11. 217 Ibid, 26. 215 Springer, 69. 218 Ibid, 24.
48 49 at least another two years. 219 This time the paradox of want amid plenty appeared to around, the conflicts of business and export grow stronger, if at least momentarily. 223 markets were being considered greatly in the 1939 arrived. Its congressional re-formulating of the food relief plan. Among review was soon due. Mounting surpluses other clarifications, congress noted that combined with the new “recession” forced funding and direction of the FSCC was to officials in the USDA to refocus. Wallace come from the US Department of placed Milo Perkins as head of the FSCC, an Agriculture, and was designed to serve their official who had long proposed that the dominant interests. In 1937, Henry Wallace, solution to the FSCC’s malfunction was to head of the USDA, made the goal of the design a plan to encourage more domestic FSCC to focus more on agricultural consumption of wheat, instead of exporting it accommodations rather than to feed the poor, to waring Europe.224 As congress discussed strictly limiting some of the crops and what was to be done with the institution quantities available for surplus donation. which now was unpopular with business, This was done with the hopes that it would underfunded by Roosevelt, and appeared to prevent unwanted competition with be failing, officials were still working on a traditional routs of food purchasing in way to revive its activities in a more America and would restore wholesale and convenient and domestic fashion as to 220 retail purchase. Wallace asked for funds to continue to provide some sort of answer to take surplus wheat and cotton crops and the paradox of hunger in America. export them overseas to waring countries to revive agricultural prices at a lower cost to Together, Secretary of Agriculture the USDA and FSCC, but this also meant that Henry A. Wallace and head of FSCC Milo the FSCC was not as accurately responding Perkins invited and discussed among to the domestic relief crisis as it had once business representatives and key people before. 221 This was timed poorly because among the trade, welfare, and farm industries how to develop a business-like way of simultaneously in 1937, Roosevelt was 225 revisiting the values of budget balancing, and providing food relief. Among the many as a result the budgets of many agencies like plans put forward to congress to alter the food the WPA and FSCC were cut. Millions of surplus program was the composite result of layoffs followed, and by April 1938, an these meetings, often with great credit given estimated 4 million more people lost work.222 to Milo Perkins: The Food Stamp Plan. This Thanks to the pressure from the retail plan was designed to give as many social industry, reduced government spending, and benefits as possible to all parties. In the cities additionally a phenomenally plentiful wheat that chose to accommodate the new rules, the crop in 1938, the FSCC was now executing a expanded program would include working families with low incomes, , not just those policy of surplus procurement for the 226 agricultural sector when again millions of who were unemployed and on relief. More people were in dire need of food. Budget cuts importantly, the Food Stamp Plan was forced welfare offices to shut their doors and engineered around cooperation with retail
219 Ibid, 25. 224 Ibid, 141. 220 Poppendieck, 205. 225 Milo Perkins, Eating the Surplus through the 221 Ibid, 240. Food Stamp Plan (Washington D.C.: U.S. Government Printing Office, 1941): 10. 222 Ibid, 234. 226 Harvey, 20. 223 Poppendieck, 236.
49 50 channels. To avoid cooperation with private (an entity which would still remain under milk distributors for instance, relief clients Perkins’ plan.) The farmers would of course were required to declare how much milk they still be able to receive money from their had been purchasing before application to the respective wholesale or grocer partners in program.227 The Federal corporation would business. also collaborate with the Bureau of Home The popularity of the prospective Economics in order to better prescribe food stamp plan also brought to light some 228 surplus goods to needy families. Boxes of other issues with the FSCC’s original surplus would even be marked, “Relief: Not methods of mass food redistribution. First to be sold” in order to assure that stamps was pricing: If the FSCC made an improper marked “surplus purchasing” would only calculation for the bulk purchase of a 229 purchase surplus foods. Many new commodity, it would have dramatic measures were taken to assure that surplus consequences for the deflation of the price in foods were to be supplemental to the diets of that market. During the processing time, the the needy and merely additional to the foods foods are still being withheld from the market that they were already purchasing. and for all intents and are purposes “frozen.” The most fundamental changes made The use of the FSCC’s delivery and by Perkins’ food stamp plan were based on transportation methodology also entails that the sequence of payments which would foods will wait longer before reaching their ultimately reach the farmer. First, yet another final destinations. Foods must be bought, new agency would be chartered, aptly titled sold, assigned destinations, transported, and the Surplus Marketing Agency (SMA). The given out all before they perish, or else the SMA “would not go into the market to corporation has made a squandered purchase. purchase commodities” Perkins explained.230 Because the FSCC itself did not own any The SMA would instead distribute stamps warehouses, the expediency of this tender for the purchase solely of surplus food processing was of the utmost importance.231 stuffs. This meant that the Federal The demand for a food stamp plan was being Government would not be giving any money called for on the basis of efficiency and not to any farmers, nor would it be giving any just fairness. The FSCC’s inefficiencies food to any states or relief organizations. The received newspaper coverage. 232 The radical Food Stamp Plan would instead give alternative Food Stamp Plan was considered buying power to clients. Instead of the an “enormous improvement over any method government buying commodities and giving of food distribution yet developed.”233 to the poor (in essence facilitating a The stamp plan was agreed upon by transaction with farmers and leaving Congress in 1939. As the Food Stamp name wholesalers and retailers out of the picture), suggests, the program relied not on home clients would make grocery orders or deliveries but on stamps given to those on wholesale orders, giving their stamps to these relief for the purchase of food. It was middlemen who could then bank them or expected that the use of these stamps would redeem them for cash directly from the FSCC increase the buying volume of surplus foods
227 Ibid, 14. 231 Harvey, 10. 228 Ibid. 232 Springer, 67-69. 229 Springer, 66. 233 Joanna C. Colcord “Stamps to Move the Surplus”, 230 Harvey, 15. Survey Midmonthly vol. 75 (1939): 3.
50 51 buy the poor234, and would also facilitate the surplus pork lard could be measured for the use of grocery stores and wholesalers once first time.239 The quality and scope of foods again. The issue of private competition with being made available for relief significantly the government, as well as the issue of improved. All in all, social workers and surplus procurement being prioritized for clients alike agreed that they were receiving export over domestic consumption was “more and better” food stuffs under the food addressed with this new system of food relief. stamp plan than with prior direct distribution The plan revealed an added benefit of relief methods. 240 Other tasks used with the clients being able to choose which surplus funding after the establishment of the SMA goods to purchase.235 include the use of surpluses to aid Continuing Perkins’ story of success, development in new industrial uses from the first months of the SMA’s Food Stamp farm products, and the purchase of foods via system proved to accomplish exactly what it public schools in the very first (and very brief had set out to do. The first instance of the and limited in scope) pilot public school 241 program being used was in Rochester, NY in lunch experiments. May 1939. By August, Rochester grocers The Stamp Plan was surely the most reported a 5-7% increase in business widely accepted and least contested form of excluding stamp transactions. 236 Another food relief developed in the 1930s. While report claimed a substantial increase in sales undoubtedly the idea of food relief in general “above the volume of blue stamps was noted had become more popular by 1940 among for peaches, cabbage, peas, onions, tomatoes consumers and legislators alike, food relief and pears” and estimated that more than a programs still had major drawbacks that were dollar’ worth of food was sold for every not by any clear evidence in threat of being dollar spent on redeeming blue surplus addressed soon. One of the lasting criticisms stamps. 237 Public and state acclaim of the of early food relief was that the project was positive. In order to apply for the Government’s purchasing of foods –even new experimental Stamp Plan program, cities when redistributed- did in fact raise their had to halt purchasing FSCC services for prices. Even the Stamp Plan arguably surplus distribution under their current changed the price of commodities when methods (whether it be through commissary payed for with cash. The market became or delivery) and agree to solely enact the new much more favorable for the farmer, but also SMA Stamp rules, yet by 1940, nearly 700 became less favorable for the buyer. In cities had applied to do so. 238 The SMA theory, the poor were lifted from this burden continued the trend of quality control as well, by means of public assistance, but not and reported that it could better identify everyone who was poor received public which surplus commodities were in demand assistance. Many Americans “were hanging and which were more likely to be consumed on to [economic] independence by the skin of and in which areas. Interactions of the their teeth”242 during the Great Depression, demand for surplus butter in the presence of and were not pleased when they watched
234 “Food Stamps, April 1,” Business Week, 1939. 238 Perkins, 11. 235 “Food Stamp Plan Makes Hit,” Business Week, 239 Ibid, 13. 1939. 240 Colcord, 2. 236 Colcord, 2. 241 Perkins, 17. 237 Perkins, 16. 242 Springer, 70.
51 52 their paychecks go to foods that they paid only form of commodity redistribution that more for, undoubtedly as a result of Federal producers and marketers could stand to procurement, while those on relief received tolerate. Yet in retrospect, the first food relief not only free foods but also other relief programs were not really designed to test the commodities reduced in price such as suits, limits of government. They also were not coats, and cots. What became of the millions designed to permanently support the poor. who earned a low wage and did not receive They were most definitely not designed to food relief is not well documented, but it can replace the conventional economics of a be said that the purchasing of commodities by capitalist America indefinitely to aid farmers the Federal Government resulted in many and consumers. The first food assistance poor working Americans facing higher programs were born during the consequential prices. 243 Finally, despite the changing paradox of co-existing hunger and attitudes about the duty to relieve poverty, agricultural surplus. The FSCC’s direct accusations of thriftless and immoral distribution and Food Stamp Plans provided behavior on the behalf of the poor persisted and answer to this conundrum during The throughout all of the depression. Great Depression, but after this period of Conservative attitudes about personal economic turmoil had ended, neither the responsibility were ingrained into the hunger nor the surplus persisted. The Federal American psyche and would not be easily Government’s successful food stamp eroded. Even FDR, sounding much like his program was abandoned because wartime predecessor Hoover, admitted that his consumption, overseas exportation of food, hometown was shirking its community and rapid employment of Americans for the responsibility and neglected to help its war effort sealed both ends of a paradox neighbors the way it had done years which seemed to cause one another.246 Could before.244 a successful food stamp program have been The end of America’s first reestablished immediately after the war? experimentation with food assistance are at Perhaps. But it would take a political will to first curious. Criticism of its actions were help the poor (regardless of surplus persistent but mainly ideological. It cannot be measures) to do that, one which simply did said that public welfare was not needed or not exist in 1945. The revival of food relief abandoned in total, since the return of state would be briefly discussed in every Congress assistance would be seen again in the 1960’s, after its demise, but the urban voting public’s and that would include a brand new Food disinterest with agricultural policy in the Stamp Plan. However, like many of the postwar world -which it found complex and economic woes of the 1930s and early 1940s, arcane- led to a lack of action until concern government assistance and pervasiveness in over America’s poor reached the spotlight the economy disappeared in the aftermath of once again with the election of John World War Two. Why should such a Kennedy. successful corporation -- frequently praised The food relief plans of The Great for being marginally unlike other Federal Depression illustrate how America’s institutions -- be abandoned? 245 After all, democracy functions as a reactionary food relief was the only widespread Federal government, and its continued history relief measure approved by Hoover, and the beyond the 1930s shows that food assistance
243 Harvey, 33. 245 Harvey, Want In the Midst of Plenty, 26. 244 Poppendieck, 210. 246 Poppendieck, 241.
52 53 policy has relied on the state of the poor indefinitely, yet it is interesting how the interests of farmers, retailers, businessmen, and common citizens all managed to make impactful impressions on the radical legislation. The use of surplus goods to help feed those in America’s most pressing time of unexplainable crisis also shows the ingenuity and openness of some of America’s lawmakers. The United States may never see a more progressive time in its legislative history, but its examples may be used as outlines for public policy for generations to come.
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Meeting or Beating Gendered Expectations during the Holocaust
Katarina Andersen HST 362: Nazi Germany and the Holocaust Professor Laurie Marhoefer
During the Nazi Regime, Nazi to find. Men and women were humiliated officials looked for more efficient ways in different ways based on their gender to ‘solve the Jewish problem’ with the identity, and perpetrators, victims, and Nazi idealization of the master race and bystanders faced different challenges Lebensraum. Imprisonment, exploitation, based off of their gender as the years and death of Nazi outsiders began as early progressed. The role of perpetrators, as 1933 with the opening in Dachau. In victims, and bystanders during the the early years, men were more likely to Holocaust was specified and shaped by be selected for the eventual death in labor gendered expectations of the Third Reich, camps, but as the years progressed, the which determined how the atrocities expansion of the camp systems took committed affected them throughout the place, ghettos became overcrowded, the regime. war with the Allies became more brutal, At the early stages of the Final and mass murder of Nazi outsiders Solution, there was confusion and became the easy solution for Nazi hesitation among the perpetrators of the officials. As the mass killings began, mass murder on how to conduct many officers hesitated at the command themselves when following out orders to to slaughter women and children, but kill. The hesitation among the killers was ruthless volunteer killers were never hard greatly based on gender roles. Lieutenant
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Heinz Buchmann of Reserve Police the girls received “training in health, Battalion 101, learned about an up child care, domestic skills, and self- incoming order to massacre the village of improvement in preparation for Josefow where all women, children, and motherhood, domesticity, and elderly were to be shot on the spot. comradeship in marriage”. 248 The Buchmann explained to Lieutenant division in the Hitler Youth based on Hagen that ‘“as a Hamburg business man gender roles reflects the division in and reserve lieutenant, he would in no German and Nazi employment. Men case participate in such an action, in received more military positions and which defenseless women and children more often acted directly in the mass are shot”’. 247 In Buchmann’s case, he murder of Nazi outsiders while women showed some signs that his beliefs were were expected to play more domestic not wholly enveloped by Nazi roles. perversions of manhood as being violent. However, despite gendered In Buchmann’s case, he saw himself as an teachings, many women sought to play an honorable German that could not justify active role in Nazi agendas. There were killing women and children, at the least, even both female and male SS guards and their Jewishness was irrelevant. who brutalized prisoners of the Gender also affected perpetrators concentration camps and death camps.249 of the mass killing during the Third Reich Many women tried to encourage Nazi greatly because of how ideas about ideology by becoming teachers through ‘proper’ behavior of men and women the Hitler youth. For example, Melita influenced the occupations available to Maschmann of the League of German men and women. The specific gender Girls, was eager to be a part of German expectations in Nazi Germany affected colonization of Poland, and to ‘improve’ the career path of men and women early the Polish land where she thought “the in their development with education noble, refined and intellectual qualities through the Hitler Youth. Hitler Youth were everywhere in danger of being membership was required for all “Aryan” suppressed by the brutality of the German Youth from ages 10 to 18. Hitler primitive”, referring to the Polish. 250 youth- both boys and girls- “were to be Melita was supportive of the Nazi ideals guided and strengthened by physical of race and space, and tried to do her part activity, education, and sports”, gaining to assist in the colonization of Poland, but confidence, self-esteem, and political was limited as a perpetrator based on enthusiasm. Yet at the age of fourteen, the gender expectations that kept her from programs shifted so that the boys having a more direct impact as a received training preparing them for perpetrator. However, in some cases, a military action, political involvement, yet person’s occupation made them a
247 Christopher R. Browning, Ordinary Men: 249 Doris L. Bergen, War and Genocide: A Reserve Police Battalion 101 and the Final Concise History of the Holocaust (Lanham, Solution in Poland (New York: Harper Rowman and Littlefield Publishers, 2009), 227. Perennial, 1992, 1998), 56. 250 Melita Maschmann, “A German Colonizer of 248 Ursula Mahlendorf, The Shame of Survival: Poland in 1939 or 1940”, from Account Working Through a Nazi Childhood (University Rendered: A dossier on My Former Self, 1963, Park: Pennsylvania State University Press, 2009) 114-115. 94-95.
55 56 perpetrator without them even realizing. protect Germany in the effort towards In the Siauliai ghetto, where Jews were race and space. 253 . Fear of sexual forbidden to have children, women were intimidation influenced some women to forced to have abortions. A woman in her encourage destruction of ‘enemies’ who eighth month of pregnancy was forced to they thought were rapists. Ursula have a premature birth at the hands of the Mahlendorf almost became a direct doctor, while the nurse was to kill the perpetrator herself when she was a nurse child “in such a way that she would not in a hospital where two orderlies were know the nature of the act”. 251 If the prepping a Russian POW for surgery, and statement held true, this women was a told her “that the Russians are rapists” direct perpetrator, but was made unaware and that they would kill “the dog” if she of the fact due to her gender and wanted. Had she not been interrupted by employment position, thereby blurring another doctor, Paul, she reports that she the lines between bystander and would have told them to kill the Russian perpetrator. soldier.254 The scenario with Ursula and Gender affected the perpetrators the two soldiers reflects a common of the mass killing in Nazi Germany in occurrence in Nazi Germany where male varying ways based on the idea that Nazi perpetrators would try to appeal to or Germany was so entrenched in violence, impress the woman in their life with that violence became a significant factor evidence of their violence towards for sexuality. Ursula Mahlendorf outsiders by sending home pictures of remembers the only sexual education she themselves next to piles of dead Nazi 255 received in the League of German Girls outsiders or letters from the Eastern was from her instructor who said, “When front describing their ‘masculine’ your future husband makes you a mother, “achievements…in the battle against he will put his member into you like a these subhumans [population of the 256 sword thrusts itself into its sheath, and his Soviet Union]”. seed will impregnate the ovum in your Male victims of the Nazi belly”. 252 This violent rhetoric made persecution who were trying to hide from Ursula more afraid and confused about Nazi perpetrators or pass as ‘Aryan’ sex in general, and even more terrified struggled in different ways than female when Nazi propagators used rape or victims. Circumcision of Jewish men left sexual intimidation as a political them at risk for discovery since most non- statement. The map that Melita Jewish men of Eastern Europe at this time Maschmann’s father had of Europe very rarely were circumcised, and with illustrates propagation of foreign sexual physical examination, Jewish men were aggressors, by showing a crying baby easily discovered. This was a fear Jewish girl, Germany, about the be overrun by a men had that Jewish women did not. In strong baby boy, Poland, to represent the Warsaw, about two-thirds of Jews hiding need for Germany to raise the birth rate to
251 Raul Hilberg,”Two Thousand Years of Jewish 254 Mahlendorf, 210. Appeasement” From The Holocaust, ed. Donald 255 Bergen, War and Genocide: A Concise Niewyk (Boston: Wadsworth, 2011), 146. History of the Holocaust, 148. 252 Mahlendorf, 123. 256 Karl Fuchs, “A German Soldier’s Letters 253 Maschmann, “A German Colonizer of Poland from the Eastern Front”, Letter, 1941, 119-124. in 1939 or 1940”, 114.
56 57 on the Aryan side were women,257 which isolation, fear, and victimization more reflects the difficulty men had trying to commonly familiar and understood by pass, especially by 1943 when most female victims in hiding during the German ‘Aryan’ men within the age Holocaust. Pauline, like many other range for the military were drafted. women, was unable to seek help and Therefore, Jewish men were more likely escape her abusers because that would to be stopped out of suspicion and, endanger the lives of her family, but lived without false identification, less likely to in torment which she suffered with more pass for ‘Aryan’.258 than Nazi perpetrators. Female victims of Nazi Women’s and men’s experiences persecution struggled and lived with fear as victims of the Holocaust differed in in different ways than male victims when terms of deportation and the camp going into hiding. Female outsiders in selection process, as is described by hiding were vulnerable to sexual assault Myrna Goldenberg’s statement that men and persecution, which would go and women shared “different horrors, unpunished. Fanya Gottesfeld Heller same hell”. From 1939 to 1940, men described how her aunt was raped in front were more likely to be taken from the of her uncle when the gestapo couldn’t Ghettos to the labor camps, and therefore find Heller, and how the few members of more likely to killed by Nazi persecutors. her family she told didn’t believe her.259 However, from 1941 until the end of the Heller’s story represents the risk of war, women were more likely to be sexual assault at the hands of Nazi selected for death in the expanding perpetrators, but women in hiding were system of death camps, especially if these also at great risk to be sexually exploited women were pregnant or clinging to by people who understood their small children, 261 who went directly to vulnerability and took advantage of their death according to survivor, Ruth Kluger, opportunity for unpunished sexual assault who claimed that “to get out of the camp and coercion. Joan Ringelheim wrote of a [Auschwitz], you really had to be alive Jewish survivor “Pauline” who was more than twelve years”. 262 Female molested by male family members of the victims of the Holocaust suffered in people who hid her, and she was kept different ways from men based on the silent by threat of denouncement. Pauline gendered expectation and common told Ringelheim “I can feel the reality that women were to be more fear…Sometimes I think it was equally devoted care takers of their children frightening as the Germans. It became compared to men. According to survivor within me a tremendous…I didn’t know Lawrence Langer, most mothers who how…what to do. I had nobody to talk refused to be separated from their about it”. 260 Pauline’s experience children at Auschwitz-Birkenau and were represents a unique circumstance of sent to the gas chambers, sometimes
257 Zoe Vania Waxman, “Women and the 260 Waxman, The Holocaust, 131-132. Holocaust” From The Holocaust ed. Donald 261 Bergen, War and Genocide: A concise Niewyk (Boston: Wadsworth, 2011), 130-131. History of the Holocaust, 191. 258 Marion A. Kaplan, Between Dignity and 262 Ruth Kluger, Still Alive: A Holocaust Despair (New York: Oxford University Press, Girlhood Remembered (New York: Feminist 1998), 203. Press, 2001), 149. 259 Waxman, The Holocaust, 131.
57 58 against the advice of experienced vulnerability to molestation, which could prisoners to give the children to the reflect that men were less aware of their elderly who were to be killed along with own vulnerability due to the fact that the children. 263 However, women women were more often raised to be suffered based on the gendered aware of their sexual vulnerability more expectation that women are the primary so than men, or could reflect lack of care-giver for children within their testimony. However, men were also families weather they reflected this vulnerable to sexual assault in in the expectation in their actions or not. In This camps. Roman Frister was raped by Way to the Gas, Ladies and Gentlemen, another prisoner in Auschwitz at age 15, Tadeusz Borowski described how a as he described in his book, The Cap or woman he saw tried to claim a crying the Price of a Life. The title of this book child wasn’t hers to escape death. A sailor refers to the cap which his molester stole named Andrei, knocked her down, picked from him, which Frister replaced by her up by her hair, then threw her in the stealing another cap, which may have truck that was taking Jews away after resulted in the death of another prisoner, saying, “Ah, you bloody Jewess! So for prisoners without caps were shot.266 you’re running from your own child I’ll Frister was vulnerable to rape and theft show you, you whore!”264 This woman which almost led to his death, and did had already faced tormenting lead to the death of another. Frister dehumanization at the hands of the Nazis, suffered from the psychological and and saw that she was bound for death if physical abuse of rape, which he was she reminded with her son. Yet, she was vulnerable to inside the camp, where shamed for not holding true to the every Nazi outsider was little more than gendered expectations of a moral mother an animal to the Nazi persecutors, by a ruthless figure who was assisting especially as the war and violence mass murder, and despite the fact that she progressed over time. The only qualifier was facing a completely immoral and is that more women have reported sexual senseless environment. assault in the camps, yet there are Concentration and death camp millions of untold stories and experiences prisoners, male and female, were that will forever go unreported. vulnerable to sexual assault and Methods of humiliation, exploitation, despite the fact that demoralization, and dehumanization published testimonies of sexual assault of often differed during the Holocaust in a male victims in the camps are less gendered form. Photos of Battalion 101 common. Many women, such as Judith officers smiling next to Jewish elders on Magyar Isaacson, were terrified of the kneeling on the ground testify to the joy vulnerability to rape inside the camps, Nazi persecutors found in humiliating 267 which Isaacson described in her book their victims. Older Jewish men were Seed of Sarah. 265 There are published targeted by the Police Battalion 309 testimonies of the fear woman had of soldiers for humiliation due to the elders’
263 Waxman, “Women and the Holocaust”, 135. 267 Christopher R. Browning, Ordinary Men: 264 Ibid. Reserve Police Battalion 101 and the Final 265 Bergen, War and Genocide: A Concise Solution in Poland (New York: Harper History of the Holocaust, 226. Perennial, 1992, 1998), 40-41. 266 Waxman, “Women and the Holocaust”, 133.
58 59 position of respect. Elderly Jewish men testimonies of male and female victims were threatened to dance before the shows that more women describe “the officers, and if the men did not dance as agony of having to stand naked in front of the officers wished, the Jewish men men, of being searched for hidden would have their beards set on fire. 268 valuables, of being subjected to obscene The elderly men were targeted because of remarks, of being shorn of all their hair, the position of masculine power in their and being tattooed”. 271 Female victims Jewish culture, and by forcing the Jewish were traumatized and humiliated by strip men to dance and lighting their beards on searches because of their socially fire, the Nazis tormented the elderly men constructed ideals of their own identity, in ways that specially related to their humanity, and womanhood grounded in sense of morality as men. religion and modesty. Rena Korneich Female victims suffered Gelissen described her tearful devastation humiliation in different ways than male from the strip searching and tattooing victims at the hands of the Nazis. Photos with the understanding that “Our of smiling reserve police of Battalion 101 traditions, our beliefs, are scorned and at the around women at the “undressing ridiculed by the acts they commit”. 272 barracks” testify the gendered Even though the victims were forced into humiliation of victims. The “undressing the strip searches, they felt ashamed, and barracks” were a humiliating part of the the humiliating exposure they faced is deportation process which was reported to have had a more apparent implemented by Lt. Gnade in Fall of 1942 influence of humiliation for the female when the Miedzyrzec ghetto was victims of the Holocaust. subjected to brutal “clearing operations” In the cases where victims were which meant that the Order Police strip homosexual or in a ‘privileged marriage’, searched the Jews for valuables.269 When women were persecuted less aggressively this part of the deportation process was than men. Nazis persecuted homosexuals introduced in 1942, men would be because Nazis saw that homosexuality completely naked while women would could lead to the “end of the Germanic sometimes be allowed to keep so world” 273 . However, lesbians were not underclothes on, 270 but eventually with seen as a threat to the birthrate due to the the escalation of the war, gender had less argument that lesbians would not of an influence on how the victims were “lastingly withdraw from normal sexual treated and everyone would be relations” 274 , or women could just be completely naked in the process of forced to have children, which the Nazis entering the camps. Zoe Vania Waxmen showed with their implementation of the states that a comparative study of the Lebensborn program. 275 Jews in mixed
268 Daniel Jonah Goldhagen, “Hitler’s Willing 272 Ibid. Executioners” From The Holocaust: Problems 273 Heinrich Himmler, “On the Question of and Perspectives of Interpretation (3rd Ed.) ed. Homosexuality”, speech to the SS- Donald L. Niewyk (Boston: Houghton Mifflin Gruppenfuhrer, February 18, 1937, 94. Company, 2003), 93. 274 Robert G Moeller, The Nazi State and 269 Christopher R. Browning, Ordinary Men: German Society: A Brief History with Reserve Police Battalion 101 and the Final Documents (Boston: Bedford/St. Martin’s, Solution in Poland, 40-41. 2010), 93. 270 Ibid, 82. 275 Mahlendorf, The Shame of Survival: Working 271 Waxman, “Women and the Holocaust”, 138. Through a Nazi Childhood, 198.
59 60 marriages were more protected than other the knowledge. Ursula Mahlendorf’s Jewish people until the 1944, for the Nazi mother expressed after the war that she officials feared protest from ‘Aryan had been worried about Ursula’s Germans’ who would be offended by the enthusiasm for Hitler, yet, when she persecution of Jewish people they are opposed Ursula’s request that she join the related to. Ursula Buttner argues that Women’s League or become a party Jewish people in mixed marriages were member, all her mother said was “I going to be killed and the end of the war cannot afford the time for anything saved them, which reflects the events of except making a living for us”. 279 increased deportation of Jewish people Ursula’s mother may have opposed the from mixed marriages in 1945.276 Similar regime, but as a single mother, may have to male homosexuals, Jewish men in felt as though she could not risk voices mixed marriages were at greater risk for her opinions to her daughter because of persecution than Jewish women in mixed the enthusiasm Ursula held. However, her marriages because the household was mother may have just not cared enough defined by the male figurehead. 277 about politics when she had a family to However, increased deportation at the raise, which had been sent into poverty start of 1945 shows how persecution of with the death of her husband.280 all outsiders escalated aggressively. Nazi Female bystanders who opposed officials disregarded gender even more, the oppression of outsiders may have felt which Himmler illustrates with his 1943 pressure to stay silent due to the gendered statement that “Whether 10,000 Russian expectation that women remain females fall down from exhaustion while politically conscious, but not voice their digging an anti-tank ditch interests me opinions against the politically dominant only in so far as the anti-tank ditch for ‘Aryan’ male. When Teresa Stangl Germany is finished”. 278 Himmler learned of her husband, Franz Stangl’s statement provides an exemplary involvement of administration in the T-4 representation of the fact that in the later program, she was disturbed by the stages of the Final Solution, gender made knowledge, could not have sex with him, no difference in the agenda of ‘war of and moved away to continue the marriage annihilation’ in the sense that every at a distance. However, she expressed victim was to die, but there was a large inconsistencies in later interviews by differentiation in murder method. saying that her husband would have given Gendered limitations for up his work had she asked, and later employment and the fight for economic saying she could not have stopped him survival in war time influenced how from being involved.281 Teresa’s inability female bystanders knew about Nazi to voice her political and moral opinion to crimes against outsiders in different her husband reflects a troubling gender ways, and how the individuals reacted to dynamic of the Nazi regime. If Teresa
276 Marion A. Kaplan, Between Dignity and 279 Mahlendorf, The Shame of Survival: Working Despair: Jewish Life in Nazi Germany (New through a Nazi Childhood, 115. York: Oxford University Press, 1998), 191-197. 280 Ibid, 58. 277 Kaplan, Between Dignity and Despair: Jewish 281 Bergen, War and Genocide: A Concise Life in Nazi Germany, 149. History of the Holocaust, 193. 278 Bergen, War and Genocide: A Concise History of the Holocaust, 171.
60 61 was sickened by her husband’s affairs as ruthless slaughter of massive populations she claims, she may not have voiced her of men, women, and children. Men may thoughts about his actions because she have been more likely to meet their death felt politically powerless and fearful of in the labor camps, but with the the Nazi political influence. development of the gas chamber Female bystanders of the executions, women were more likely to Holocaust were affected by sexual be killed with their children by gas. exploitation and rape within the chaos of Gender did not influence who died, but war. The obsessive emphasis that the gender influenced how the victims would Nazis put on the issue of ‘race and space’ be humiliated, demoralized, and lead to the development of the murdered. Both men and women acted as Lebensborn program where “women of perpetrators to the mass killing, but supposedly pure Germanic stock gendered expectations meant men had the encouraged to have children with blond dominant role in the atrocities, despite the Aryan SS men”, which they would have attempts of some women to elevate the children in state clinics to give the themselves within the Nazi party. Yet, child to Nazi training institutions when often when female bystanders opposed they reached school age. 282 The Nazi politics, their own understanding of Lebensborn program exemplifies a gendered expectations kept them from gender specific effect of the Holocaust speaking out against the regime, whereas for female bystanders. Female bystanders male bystanders that spoke against the faced sexual exploitation and fear at the violence of the regime would fear hands of the state and invading Allies. appearing like an un-masculine traitor. Ursula Mahlendorf witnessed many Gendered expectations of the Third Reich women being taken by Russian soldiers specified and shaped the role of in the middle of the night to be raped, and perpetrators, victims, and bystanders a reported 7.1 percent of women of during the Holocaust, which determined childbearing age had been examined in how the atrocities committed affected clinics after one or several rapes by them throughout the regime. Russian soldiers following the fall the Third Reich.283 Vulnerability to and fear of sexual exploitation was a concern that affected female bystanders of the Holocaust more so than male bystanders of the Holocaust according to the mathematic figures of Russian liberation and personal testimony. Nazi tactics of outsider persecution evolved with the increased violence through the years of World War II. The original hesitation that some of the perpetrators had when facing the order to kill women and children did not stop the
282 Mahlendorf, The Shame of Survival: Working 283 Ibid, 220. Through a Nazi Childhood, 198.
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