C H R O N O S T H E S Y R A C U S E U N I V E R S I T Y U N D E R G R A D U A T E H I S T O R Y J O U R N A L 2 TABLE OF CONTENTS 4… Girl Power: Feminism and Class Stratification in the British Eugenics Movement by Luke Foley 16… The Wind Rises: A Swirling Controversy by Sean Mowry 26… Deng and Carter: The Normalization of Sino-American Relations by Yan Zhang 39… The Origin and Lifespan of Food Assistance Programs during the Great Depression by Vincent Gottfried Wisehoon 54… Meeting or Beating Gendered Expectations During the Holocaust by Katarina Andersen 3 Letter From the Editors This edition of Chronos was brought together by a team of dedicated members with a new and exciting vision for the magazine. Through digitizing this edition, as well as creating a website, we hoped to make the journal more accessible. Staying true to years past, the articles selected are a reflection of the undergraduate history department at Syracuse University. The articles in this year’s Chronos include topics ranging from feminism in Nazi Germany, to international relations between the United States and China during the Carter administration. We would like to thank Chronos Advisor, Professor Osamah Khalil, for his patience and emotional support throughout this process. We would also like to thank Brooke Winckelmann, for guiding us through the website making process, as well as Mary Collier for her continuous assistance. This edition would not have been possible without their motivation, support, and pizza. Thank you, We hope you enjoy, The Executive Board 4 Girl Power: Feminism and Class Stratification in the British Eugenics Movement Luke Foley ‘16 HST 401: Eugenics Professor Laurie Marhoefer The term Eugenics, from the Greek in the latter part of the 1800s. A wide range eu (good) and genos (genes/stock), was first of human characteristics, both physical and coined by its patriarch, Francis Galton, in behavioral, were perceived to be his 1883 publication “Inquiries Into Human predictably inheritable. With this Faculty and Its Development.” 1 As its knowledge, it was thought, mankind could Greek derivations would suggest, eugenics take charge of its destiny, “What Nature is the science of better breeding, the does blindly, slowly, and ruthlessly, man embodiment of the notion that the human may do providently, quickly, and kindly.”2 species can be hereditarily engineered so as Had Galton lived to witness more of the to elevate its overall physical and twentieth century, he may have chosen to intellectual capacities. This assumption, alter his adverbial choices in that sentence, when processed in conjunction with other but the overarching sentiment would hold popular 19th century beliefs such as social true; man would indeed attempt to take the Darwinism and racial hierarchy, became biological reins in the hopes of eliminating immensely popular within parts of the the defects nature had permitted. scientific community and intellectual elite 1 Robert Bernasconi and Tommy L. Lott, The Idea 2 Francis Galton, “Eugenics, Its Definition, Scope of Race, (Indianapolis: Hackett, 2000), 79. and Aims” (presented at a meeting of The Sociological Society, London, May 16th, 1904). 5 Though most of the scientific seem vulnerable to the rhetoric of assertions behind its original conception population control, were occurring in the were long ago debunked, eugenic thinking birthplace of eugenic thought. Why then, has permeated human history for over a did eugenics not realize political success in century, preying on the insecurities, Britain? “The Role of Feminism and Class prejudices, and societal pressures of Stratification in the British Eugenics mankind while simultaneously Movement” will seek to identify the reason marginalizing and endangering those for this failure, while also examining the deemed genetically undesirable. The role of socio-economic stratification and numerous manifestations of eugenics have feminism in the hopes of diagnosing the proven its interpretation and subsequent causal and finalizing agents at work. application to be highly subjective, Positing that the confluence of the urban rendering the respective repercussions population crises and the rise of the New equally diverse. Some, such as the fatality- Woman ideal created an avenue of heavy Nazi iteration, have proven grossly influence for upper class British feminists, inhumane, whereas others, for example the this paper will then discuss the constructive contraceptive efforts of Margaret Sanger, and detrimental ramifications of this have toed the line between eugenic and influence. 3 health conscious. Some eugenic initiatives Leading British feminists of the have targeted specific ethnic groups, some early twentieth century frequently relied on have focused on mental functioning and popular political and scientific journals to behavioral deviance, while others have disseminate their opinions. A number of taken aim at a particular socio-economic these journals, as well as conference class. Some have resulted in sterilizations, memorandums and book reviews, will some in abortions, and some in death. Many therefore be drawn upon to answer the have been justified on the grounds of questions and support the claims of this population control and social cost. paper. In addition, several academic articles Nevertheless, all have attempted to impede and books will be referenced to provide the procreation of the undesirable. background information. While eugenic policies attained Existing Literature significant political influence in a number of countries, most prominently the United The existing historical literature States and Germany, the British eugenics surrounding the British eugenics movement movement failed to gain the same degree of is vast and comprehensive, touching on formal traction. A number of the leading aspects such as class conflict, feminist eugenic advocates, Galton included, were involvement, political and scientific British, and The Eugenics Society, a opposition, and the varying schools of London-based lobby group of world eugenic thought of the period from 1870- renown, was founded and chaired by Brits. 1940. A number of analytical journal Furthermore, there was a dire need for an articles have been written about the very improvement to the urban infrastructure in aspects of the movement examined in this post-industrial Britain; urban landscapes paper, such as feminism, classism, and the were swelling beyond sustainable levels eventual decline of the Eugenics Society. and crime, disease, and poverty ran Because of this, much of the knowledge rampant. These conditions, which would that informs this piece has been garnered directly from these articles. However, no 3 Henry Friedlander, The Origins of Nazi (Chapel Hill: The University of North Carolina Genocide: From Euthanasia to The Final Solution Press, 2005). (Chapel Hill: The University of North Carolina Press, 1995); Joanna Schoen, Choice and Coercion 6 publication has, to date, been encountered decline of the movement in Britain. that addresses the relationship between “Eugenic Love,” a book by Angelique class and gender and its role in the Richardson, provided an essential movement’s popularization and decline. understanding of the motivations of the This paper will therefore explore an New Woman awakening and introduced analytical vacuum, drawing upon primary key actors, authors of both fiction and sources to provide evidence of the prose, who strongly advocated for eugenic sentiments held by politicians and activists. legislation.7 The most prominent, informed, and Richard Soloway’s “Demography insightful pieces that could be found on the and Degeneration,” as well as Matthew topic are as follows. “Eugenics in Britain” Thomson’s “The Problem of Mental is an article by Donald Mackenzie that was Deficiency” will also be relied upon to extremely helpful in understanding the provide insight into the political historical background behind the infiltrations, or lack thereof, made by the movement and also brought into movement in Britain.8 consideration other historical events, such British Eugenics: An Issue of Class as the Boer War, that would have otherwise gone unconsidered. 4 The article, while The British eugenic movement, as lacking some specifics, provides a solid and mentioned earlier, was born out of a socio- cohesive account of the eugenic movement economic shift in the second half of the from 1900 to 1914. “Feminism and nineteenth century. As late-industrial urban Eugenics in Germany and Britain, 1900- migration increased, Britain’s cities, 1940: A Comparative Perspective,” by Ann especially London, began to swell to unruly Taylor Allen illustrates the crucial role of sizes. Poverty and unemployment ran British feminists in the movement, rampant and living conditions bred disease. detailing their achievements and Crime rates spiked, violence intensified, 5 and a large swath of the population was involvement in legislative reform efforts. 9 While she discusses feminism as a causal forced into life on the streets. “Not only agent, Allen does not touch on its role in the does [overcrowding] conduce to the spread movement’s failure. of all ordinary infections,” wrote Dr. Mary Scharlieb in 1917, “but also to the John Macnicol’s “The Voluntary propagation of tuberculosis and venereal Sterilization Campaign in Britain, 1918- diseases. Worse… is the inevitable disaster 39” provides an in depth account of the of the blunting of the moral sense of people, attempt to legalize sterilization, and was the impossibility