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Childhood Education Publication details, including instructions for authors and subscription : http://www.tandfonline.com/loi/uced20 Review of Research: -Based Teaching Strategies for Improving Students' Memory, , and Test-Taking Success Judy Willis MD, M.Ed a a Santa Barbara Middle School, Santa Barbara, California, USA

To cite this article: Judy Willis MD, M.Ed (2007) Review of Research: Brain-Based Teaching Strategies for Improving Students' Memory, Learning, and Test-Taking Success, Childhood Education, 83:5, 310-315, DOI: 10.1080/00094056.2007.10522940 To link to this article: http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/00094056.2007.10522940

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Judy Willis, MD, M.Ed

Judy Willis is a neurologist, author, and teacher at Sarrta Barliara Middle School, Sarrta Barbara, Califorrria.

The past two decades have pro- research, because it gives us a way formation (Kang, 1997). Once these vided extraordinary in to see which techniques and strate- dendrites are formed, it is the brain’s our of the nature of gies stimulate, and which impede, plasticity that allows it to reshape learning. Never before have neu- between the parts and reorganize the networks of roscience and classroom instruc- of the brain where information is dendrite- connections in tion been so closely linked. Now, processed and stored. response to increased or decreased educators can find evidence-based use of these pathways (Giedd et al., neuroimaging and brain-mapping Plasticity and Pruning 1999). studies to determine the most ef- It was a long-held misconception Brain plasticity is evident when fective ways to teach, as advances that brain growth stops with birth people repeatedly practice activities in technology enable us to view the and is followed by a lifetime of controlled by parts of their visual, working brain as it learns. brain cell death. Now we know that motor, sensory, or coordination althoughmost of theneurons where systems for specialized learned Watching As Learn information is stored are present activities. Blind people who read Studies of the brain’s electrical at birth, there is lifelong growth Braille, for example, have signifi- activity (EEG or brain waves) and of the supporting and connecting cantly increased the size of their metabolic activity (from specialized cells that enrich the communication somatosensory cortex, as the sense

Downloaded by [John Meyer] at 11:40 22 July 2013 PET brain scans measuring glucose between . These “den- of touch in their right finger is em- or oxygen use and blood flow) show drites” sprout from the neuron’s ployed over and over. Similarly, the pattern of movement as infor- arms () or cell body. violin players who use the fingers mation travels through the brain. Dendrites increase in size and of their left hands to do the compli- Synchronization of brain activity number in response to learned cated movements along the strings occurs as information passes from skills, , and information. show increased somatosensory the data intake areas, through the New dendrites grow as branches regions of the brain’s emotion-regulating limbic system, from frequently activated neu- associated with the fingers of the and into the memory re- rons. This growth is stimulated left hand. gions. For example, bursts of brain by proteins called neurotrophins. A 2004 report in Nature (Dragan- activity from sensory receptors in Nerve growth factor is one of these ski, Gaser, Busch, &Schuierer,2004) the cortex are followed milliseconds neurotrophins. Although the brain found that people who learned how later by bursts of electrical activity measurementsof neurotrophins are to juggle increased the amount of in the limbic system. This is then highest during childhood, when gray matter in their occipital lobes followed by increased electrical the brain’s connecting cells are ( areas). When activity in the execu- undergoing their greatest growth they stopped practicing juggling, tive function zones and subcortical and development, continued learn- the new gray matter vanished. A memory storage regions. This activ- ing elevates neurotrophin activity similar structural change appears to ity constitutes one of the most excit- in the brain region responsible for occur in people who learn, and then ing areas of brain-based memory new learning and new memory don’t practice, a second language.

310 + CHILDHOODEDUCATION This process is called pruning, the The More Ways Multiple Stimulations term for the decrease in connecting Something Is Learned, the To Build Memory dendrites and other connecting More Memory Pathways The more regions of the brain that cells that are not used. The loss of Are Built store data about a subject, the more native language ability, juggling When children are between ages interconnection there is. This re- skills, or learned academic material six and 12, their neurons grow dundancy means studentswill have that is not practiced is the flip side more and more , or more opportunities to pull up all of of the brain’s growth response to connections between each other those related bits of data from their learning. It is the use-it-or-lose-it that are new pathways for nerve multiple storage areas in response phenomenon. Pruning occurswhen signals. This thickening of gray to a single cue. This cross-referent- some brain pathways and connec- matter (the branching dendrites ing of data means we have learned, tions are selectively maintained of the neurons and the synaptic rather than just memorized. and ”hard-wired,” while others are connections they form) is accom- For example, when we learn about selectivelyeliminated, or “pruned.” panied by thickening in the brain’s cars, we store the information in Since active cells require blood to white matter (fatty sheaths brain areas under mul- bring nourishment and clear away that insulate the axons carrying tiple categories that relate to the waste, cells that are inactive don’t information away from the neu- context with which new informa- send messages to the circulatory ron and making the nerve-signal tion about cars is learned. When system to send blood. Eventually, transmissions faster and more ef- we see a car, it goes into the visual these cells self-destruct. ficient). As the brain becomes more image cortex. When weseethe word To think about pruning in terms efficient, the less-used circuits are C-A-R spelled out, that information of brain cell growth, first consider pruned away, but the most fre- goes into a language-association the astonishing development of the quently used connections become region. After learning about the embryonic brain-by week four, it thicker with more myelin coating, internal combustion engine, cars is producing half a million neurons making them more efficient (Giedd are associated in our brain with every minute. During the next sev- et al., 2004). other engines powered by inter- eral weeks, these cells travel to what nal combustion. Later, we build will become the brain. It is there that Helping Students associational memories about cars they begin to form branching axons Grow More Brain we‘ve experienced as a passenger and dendrites, connecting them to Connections or driver. each other. The synaptic junctions The more ways that the material Because the information about that are present at each connection to be learned in the classroom is cars is stored in multiple brain between neuron, dendrite, or introduced and reviewed, the more areas and cross-referencing occurs reach a maximum development dendritic pathways of access will be among these areas when we think rate of 2 million per second. This created in the brain. More synaptic about cars, connecting networks of

Downloaded by [John Meyer] at 11:40 22 July 2013 plethora of neurons and neuronal cell-to-cell bridges will emerge, dendrites sprout among these brain connections is pruned down in the and these pathways will be used memory storage areas. This circuit- last few weeks before birth. The more often, become stronger, and ry permits multiple cues or stimuli orphaned neurons that did not remain safe from pruning. For to call forth all our car form connections with neighboring example, offering the information instantaneously. Just seeing the cells die off; only the neurons that visually will up a connection word ”car” will put our sys- are in networks remain, becoming with the occipital lobes, the poste- tems on notice to provide all the differentiated into circuits with rior that process stored data we have pertaining to specificfunctions (Sowell, Peterson, optical input. If students can sub- cars. While we may not need all & Thompson, 2003). sequently or simultaneously hear that information, the associations After birth, the brain’s gray the information, it will hook up a will activate these circuits and any matter has another growth spurt, dendritic circuit with the temporal of the storedinformationthat we do with increased gray matter and lobes, the lbbes on the sides of the need can be rapidly and efficiently connections reaching a maximum brain that process auditory input, accessed. Therefore, it is optimal to density at about age 11. This stage and also play an important role in teach important material through is followed by another pruning regulating multiple learning pathways, such phase (Seeman, 1999). Without processing. This duplication results as through several senses (hearing, this pruning, too many crowded in greater opportunity for future seeing, touching) as well as through circuits would prevent the brain cues to prompt the brain to access several subjects (cross-curricular from operating efficiently. this stored information. topics).

ANNUALTHEME 2007 + 31 1 From Enriched Cages long-term memory storage. that is not completely true. New to Enriched Classrooms Rote Memory tasks are, unfortu- connecting cells, called dendrites, and Curriculum nately, the most commonly required can be formed throughout life. It is Neuroimaging laboratory research ones for students. Students ”memo- true that the neurons where memory long ago demonstrated how grow- rize,’’ and soon forget, facts that storage takes place are not replen- ing brains are physically shaped are often of little primary interest ished. However, their extensions, by experience. The brain sizes and or emotional value, such as a list these dendrites, continue to sprout weights of rats reared in standard of vocabulary words. Often, these and connect and form new circuits cages were compared with those facts don‘t have obviousor engaging with other dendrites throughout a of rats that lived in enriched cages patterns or connections that give person’s life. These neural networks, (i.e., there were more objects in their them context or relationship to each similar to electric circuitry, are the cages that they could manipulate). other or to the students’ lives. By un- roadways that connect various parts The rats reared in the enriched derstanding brain-based strategies, of the brain. Just as with traffic flow environments had brains that were teachers can use the least amount of in a busy city, the more alternate larger and heavier. Their dendrites, rote necessary. The pathways available to connect with neural pathways, and connections goal of brain-based education is to a memory, the more efficiently the were much longer, more complex, create and offer lessons that rely traffic will flow and the more rap- and branched out to more areas of less on inefficient and tedious rote idly and easily that memory will be their brains. memory. Helping students access retrieved when needed. Chimps living in enriched envi- and utilize more effective types of After repeated practice, working ronments with stable social com- memory storage and retrieval will memories are set down as perma- munities showed an increase in literally change their brains. nent neuronal circuits of axons and dendrite sprouting and synaptic , or short-term dendrites, ready to be activated connections in proportion to their memory, holds data for about 20 when the information is needed. increased ability to perform complex minutes. The challenge students When a memory has been recalled memory tasks, such as learning their face is to move information from often enough, its neuronal circuits way around a new maze. They also their working memories into their become highly developed because appeared to interact more positively long-term memories. If they don’t of their repeated activation. When with members of their group and to do this in about 20 minutes, that neurons fire in sync with one an- work more tenaciously on tasks and information can be lost. (Think other, they are more likely to form problems. about the last someone gave new connections. As the connec- If a few pieces of metal in a rat you driving directions-they tions grow stronger, by repeated cage and a stable community of seemed so clear when you first stimulation, a given neuronbecomes chimps can do all that, think what heard them, but were lost to you more likely to trigger another con- educators can do in classrooms and once you made the second right nected neuron (Chugani, 1998).

Downloaded by [John Meyer] at 11:40 22 July 2013 curriculum. Building a supportive turn.) If this newly learned material Practice results in repeated stimu- social classroom community, with is to be retained, it needs to enter lation of the memory circuit. These enriched input from the environ- the network of the brain’s wiring. circuits become more efficient and ment, will result in students’ brains Teachers help students do this by easier to access and activate. Like building more pathways and their activating their previously learned hikers eventually carving out a brain signals achieving greater knowledge that relates to the new depression along a trail, repeated speed and efficiency. material. This prior knowledge practice stimulates cells in the exists in stored loops of brain cell memory circuit such that the circuit Educators As Memory connections (circuitsof neurons that is reinforced and becomes stronger. Enhancers-Not Just are connected by branching axons This means it can be quickly turned Information Dispensers and dendrites that carry the infor- on, and switched on through a va- Many classifications of the types of mation as electrochemical signals). riety of sensory cues. memory exist, and the one presented Effective teaching uses strategies to here is a conglomerate of several help students recognize patterns Learning Promotes existing ones. From the most basic and then make the required connec- More Learning of our environment, our tions to process the new working Engaging in the process of learning memory skills progress from rote memories so they can travel into the actually increases one’s capacity memory, working (short-term)mem- brain’s long-term storage areas. to learn. Each time a student par- ory, patterning and connections to Whileit is commonly believed that ticipates in any endeavor, a certain relational memory, and, ultimately, brain cell growth stops after age 20, number of neurons are activated.

312 + CHILDHOODEDUCATION When the action is repeated, such Brain-mapping Techniques gies encourage students to connect as in a follow-up science lab ex- Scientistscan now more easily track with the information through as periment, rehearsing a song, or what parts of the brain are active many senses as possible. They when the information is repeated when a person is processing infor- can visualize an electron orbiting in subsequent curriculum, these mation. The levels of activation in the nucleus of an atom, mimic the same neurons respond again. The particular brain regions determine buzz of electricity as it whizzes by, more one repeats an action which facts and events will be re- or feel the tingling associated with (e.g., practice) or recalls the infor- membered. Functional magnetic the electron’s negative charge by mation, the more dendrites sprout resonance imaging (fMRI) allows rubbing a balloon against their arm to connect new memories to old, scientists a view of brain activity and feelingtheir hair stand onend. If and the more efficient the brain over time. In one study, Gabriel students thendraw asketchof these becomes in its ability to retrieve (2001) and others at StanfordUniver- actions and verbally communicate that memory or repeat that action. sity focused their efforts on visual it to a partner, or write about it in Eventually, just triggeringthebegin- memories. Subjects placed under their own words, their long-term ning of the sequence results in the fMRI viewed and then reviewed a memory will forge multiple brain remaining pieces falling into place. series of pictures. The researchers pathways, because they will have This repetition-based sequencing found that activity levels in the right personalized and interacted with allows you to do many daily activi- and a specific area the information. ties almost without having to think of the correlated with Stimulate Their Senses-Light about them, such as touch-typing or how well a particular visual experi- Up Their Synapses. The brain may driving a car. ence was encoded and how well it appear to be a tangled bundle of Very few educators resort to was remembered. nerve cell connections, but they are having students learn only by rote In another study (Wagner et al., far from random. memorization or limit instruction 1998)) which focused on verbal demonstrates that specificcognitive to only ”drill and kill” worksheets, memory, subjects were asked to activities take place in predictable, day after day, in the hopes of remember words, either by their tiny regions of the brain. Similarly, imprinting material in students’ meaning or by their appearance (up- imaging has shown us that each brains. Teachers know from their per- or lowercase spelling). Again, of these locations is fed data from teaching experience how briefly activity levels in the prefrontal cor- brain centers that collect informa- that material remains accessible to tex (but this time on the left, where tion from the senses and emotions. students. Many teachers can recall the Broca’s language center resides When teachers help students build occasions when they accidentally in over 90 percent of all people) and their working memories through a gave students a spelling list or math the same parahippocampalareapre- variety of activities, they are help- worksheet they had already com- dicted which words were remem- ing them stimulate multiple sen- pleted, and yet a relatively large bered or forgotten in subsequent sory intake centers in their brains.

Downloaded by [John Meyer] at 11:40 22 July 2013 number of students didn’t instantly tests. Furthermore, the researchers When this happens, they build recognize that it was the identical discovered that words were much multiple pathways leading to the work they did a few weeks, or even more likely to be remembered when same memory storage destination. days, before. subjects concentrated on semantics By stimulating several senses with Strategies abound that keep (meaning), rather than on their ap- the information,more brain connec- students interested in what they pearance. tions are available when students are learning, thus helping to move This is an example of how neuro- need to recall that memory later on. information from temporary work- imaging can suggestdirect evidence This means that the memory can be ing memory into memory storage. of the type of memory strategy that retrieved by more than one type of These lessons activate multiple works best for the information to be cue. If the learned information was senses and connect new information memorized. It also addsevidence to taught with visual and auditory to multiple brain pathways into the biological theory that more complex associations, students can recall memory storage areas. Successful (student-active learning) it by using either sound or visual brain-based teaching builds more increases memory retention. memory. connections and stronger circuits. Some of the strategies suggested Surprise! Consider the technique Students will have more roadways by neuroimaging findings are ones of surprise to light up students’ to carry new information into their that have students personalizeinfor- brains and illuminate the pathways memory storageregion and to carry mation tobelearned, thereby further to memory storage. Start a lesson out the stored knowledge when it is activating the areas of the brain that with an unanticipated demonstra- needed. help form memories. Other strate- tion, or have something new/un-

ANNUALTHEME 2007 + 31 3 usual in the classroom to spark ing anything. This demonstration, long-term memories. Because each student and . however, literally led me by the nose of the senses has a separate stor- It can be anything, from playing to follow my teacher’s description of age area in the brain, multisensory a song as they enter to greeting the diffusionof gases throughother input results in duplicated storage them in a hat, cape, or costume. If gases. It is likely that during that and can be retrieved by a variety of students sense novel , class I created two or three pathways stimuli. With strategies that engage from demonstrations, descriptions, to the information about gas diffu- the senses, students ”become” the anecdotes, or even the enthusiasm sion that I processed through my knowledge by interactingwith it. As in their teacher’s voice, they will senses and ultimately stored in my a result, a new memory that might be more likely to connect with the long-term memory. Since then, that otherwise be forgotten is linked to a information that follows. To take knowledge has been available for sensation,movement (cognitive-mo- advantage of their engaged state of me to retrieve by thinking of an egg tor link), or an emotion, and it travels , give students opportunities or by remembering the emotional into the memory storage along more to interact with the information responses as the class reacted to the than one pathway. This redundancy they need to learn. The goal is for odor permeating the room. Once I of pathways means greater memory them to actively discover, interpret, make the connection, I am able to retention and recall. analyze, process, practice, and/or recall the scientific facts linked to It is not, nor should it be, a teacher‘s discuss the information so that it his demonstration. role to turn a classroom into a video will be processed in the frontal Event memories, such as the one arcade. We don‘t want students to lobe regions devoted to executive that was stored that day inchemistry be primarily motivated by external function. class, are tied to specific emotion- rewards. An ideal event memory This doesn’t mean that teachers ally or physically charged events lesson would be one that stimulated must have a dialogue with indi- (strong sensory input) and by the students’ brains by having them vidual students to prompt their emotional intensity of the events participate in a challenging and being ”in the moment” with the to which they are linked. Because engaging student-centered activity information. Strategies that can the dramatic event powers its way that simultaneously activates mul- achieve these goals include partner through the neural pathways of the tiple sensory systems and executive discussions and Think-Pair-Share. emotionally preactivated limbic sys- functionsas students strive to make Students can write dend-rites (a tem into memory storage, associated sense of experience. The goal is to more enticing name for class notes scholastic information gets pulled provide experiences that enable that gives their note-taking more along with it. Recollection of the students to interact with knowledge status). They might add a sketch academic material occurs when the in ways that arouse their physical in their notebooks alongside their emotionally significant event comes senses and positive emotions, or to comments about the surprise, the to mind, unconsciously or con- connect the new information with new information they learned, and sciously. To remember the lesson, their past experiencesand interests.

Downloaded by [John Meyer] at 11:40 22 July 2013 their response to it (What did I see/ students can cue up the dramatic Teachers can supercharge mate- headsmell? What did I learn? What event to which it is linked. rial to be learned by relating it to surprised me? What do I want to Can you recall a time when you students‘ senses and experiences, know more about? What did this smelled the perfume a friend or and this intensifies their memory remind me of?). loved one wore, and you remem- building. This process of connecting and Experien- bered other details about that per- new information to related experi- tial Learning. Decadesago,my high son? Perhaps upon hearing an old ences or memories is aptly named school chemistry teacher slowly song, you‘ve recalled dancing to relational memory. released hydrogen sulfide (which it years before? You can probably Relational Memory-Lighting produces a smell like rotten eggs) visualize where you were when you the Pathways. Learning consists of from a hidden container he opened heard the World Trade Center had reinforcingthe connectionsbetween just before we entered his classroom, been attacked. When you think of neurons. Relational memory occurs A few minutes after we took our that event, it is likely you remember when students learn something that seats and he began his lecture, a other details of your environment adds to what they already have foul odor permeated classroom. We at that moment. Similarly, experi- mastered; they engage or expand on groaned, laughed, looked around for ential learning, such as hands-on/ ”maps” already present in the brain. the offendingsource. To an outside -on discovery science, which This process engages more executive observer entering our class at that stimulatesstudents’ multiple senses, functions as students‘ brains scan time, we would have appeared is not only the most engaging, but their stored memory banks, seeking unfocused and definitely not learn- also the most likely to be stored as relationships that help them put new

314 + CHILDHOODEDUCATION connections in context. into chunks. Just as phone numbers References How does relational memory ap- and social security numbers are Bliss, T. V. P., &Collinridge,G. L. (1993). A synaptic model of memory: Long ply to teaching? Patterning is the divided into chunks of three or four term potentiation in the hippocam- process whereby the brain perceives digits at a time, teachers can chunk pus. Nature, 361, 31-39. and generates patterns by relat- things, from biologic genus-species Chugani, H. (1998). Biological basis ing new with previously learned names to states and capitals, into of emotions: Brain systems and material or material into groupings of three or four, ideally brain development. Pediatrics, 102, pattern systems it has used before. with some commonality. 1225-1229. Draganski, B., Gaser, C., Busch, V., & Education is about increasing the When graphic organizers help Schuierer,G. (2004). : patternsstudentscanuse, recognize, students cluster information, the Changes in grey matter induced by and communicate. As the ability to process enhances the brain’s natural training. Nature, 427(22), 311-312. seeand workwithpatternsexpands, tendency to construct meaning by Gabriel, J. (2001). New terrain: Map- are enhanced. forming patterns. The best graphic ping the . Today, August 1. Whenever new material is presented organizers engage the students’ Giedd, J. N., Gogtay, N., Lusk, L., Hayas- in such a way that students see re- and positive emotions hi, K. M., Greenstein, D., Vaituzis, lationships, they generate greater in a creative process whereby they A. C., Herman D. H., Nugent, T. F., brain cell activity (formationof new recognize, sort, and discover pat- Clasen, L., Toga, A. W., Rapoport, neural connections) and achieve terns for themselves. In addition, J. L., & Thompson, P. M. (2004). more successfullong-term memory the use of graphic organizers to Dynamic mapping of human corti- cal development during childhood storage and retrieval. connect information in meaningful through early adulthood.Proceedings Graphic Organizers. Graphic relationships allows students time of the National Academy of Sciences, organizers help students see rela- for reflecting about the informa- 202(21), 8174-8179. tionships and pattern new informa- tion. The result is that they can Giedd, J., Blumenthal, J., Jeffries, N., tion for memory storage. I consider ultimately go beyond regurgitating Castllanos, F., Liu, H., Zijdenbos, A., Paus, T., Evans, A., & Rapoport, them one of the most nourishing rote memorization and reach the J. (1999). Brain development dur- of all dendrite sprout “foods” we higher cognitive process of using ing childhood and adolescence: A can offer to nurture our students’ the information in significantways. longitudinal MRI study. Nature brain growth. Graphic organizers The relational memories they store , 2, 861-863. are a creative alternative to rote will be availablefor critical thinking Kang, S. (1997). The effects of using memorization, because they enable and other executive functions touse an advance organizer on students’ learning in a computer simulation students to make connections, see for meaningful . environment. Journal of Educational patterns, access previously stored Technology Systems, 25(1), 57-65. related memories, and expand upon Conclusion Seeman, P. (1999). Images in neurosci- existing memory circuitry. When memory and retention ence. Brain development, X: Prun- Graphic organizers coincide with brain research are applied to the ing during development. American Journal of Psychiatry, 256, 168. Downloaded by [John Meyer] at 11:40 22 July 2013 the brain’s style of patterning. When classroom, they not only drive the Sowell, E. R., Peterson, B. S., & Thomp- teachers organize and present mate- learning process, but also allow edu- son, P. M. (2003). Mapping cortical rial in ways that stimulate students’ cators to energize and enliven the change across the human life span. brains to create meaningful and minds of students. As the research Nature Neuroscience, 6,309-315. relevant connections to previously continues to build, it will be up to Wagner, A., Schacter, D., Rotte, M.., stored memories, they can make these professionals to develop and Koutstaal, W., Maril, A., Dale, A. M., Rosen, B., & Buckner, R. (1998). associations, discover patterns, and use new strategies that bring the Building memories: Remembering sort and store the new data as rela- brain-based research to students. and of verbal experiences tional memory and then long-term That will be a fascinating and excit- as predicted by brain activity. Sci- memory. ing challenge to meet. ence, 282,1185-11190. Teaching information in patterns can be as simple as presenting material in chunked After graduating Phi Beta Kappa from Williams College, Judy Willis at- format. Because the working tended UCLA School of Medicine. She practiced neurology for 15 years memory has a capacity for before receiving her Master’s of Education from the University of California, immediate recall (with a range Santa Barbara. She currently teaches at Santa Barbara Middle School. She has from five to nine pieces of published Research-Based Strategies To lgiiite Student Lenrnifzg: lnsiglils From unrelated items), students can a NL.urologist/Classroom Teacher and Brain-Friendly Strategies for the liiclusion remember more successfully Clnssroom, both with ASCD Press. when information is separated

ANNUALTHEME 2007 + 31 5