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Home , Dutar, Muqam, Tarim basin, Wang Luobin, Xinjiang

political projects of modern times. Uyghur Art Music and the After Russian and Qing expansion divided Central into Ambiguities of Chinese discrete empires in the eighteenth and nineteenth centuries, their * Roadism in twentieth-century successor states hardened the border James A. Millward between Chinese and Soviet Georgetown University, Central and further sub- Washington, D. C. divided the heart of the into peoples and lands organized The Silk Road is at once an The performers themselves, on national lines as “republics” object of scholarly inquiry, a as well as the audiences, learned and “autonomous” administrative romantic notion, and a potent much from the unprecedented units. As Theodore Levin has metaphor. Its metaphorical juxtaposition of related tradi- shown in his Central Asian impact was clear from the 2002 tions; musicians attended each musicological ethnography Ten- Summer Smithsonian Folklife other’s performances, and using thousand Fools of God, Soviet Festival in Washington DC, which whatever common languages nationality projects had a deep was devoted to Silk Road they could (mostly Turkic and and complex impact upon the cultures. The two-week event Russian) they shared songs, musics of the Central Asian was staged in a series of lavishly techniques and fellowship both republics (Levin 1996). Below, I decorated tents and pavilions on during the festival and after- explore a similar process at work the National Mall (the open hours at a local Holiday Inn. And under the PRC in Xinjiang. space between the Smithsonian over it all shone the smile of Yo- Popularity, Utility and Irony of the Museums) while Al Qaeda Yo Ma, whose intellectual and Silk Road Notion in terrorism, the on-going Afghan musical contribution to the war, and the crescendoing festival was great, and whose Though the Silk Road idea has campaign for war against Iraq own Silk Road Ensemble proved popular in many places, were not far from anyone’s mind. produces disks found under perhaps no country has em- “world music” as well as in the braced it as thoroughly as China. Against this implicit back- classical bins (Ma 2002). A Google search on the ground of violent events and characters sichou zhi lu (“silk fearful prospects, the festival and Though the Silk Road remains road”) reveals one dimension of its catalog’s message was a potent symbol of trans- this: the notion is a promotional explicitly pacifistic and nationalism and interconnections bonanza, especially for the transnational, under the formal between societies, the physical industry, which entices title “The Silk Road: Connecting territory through which it passes Chinese as well as foreign Cultures, Creating Trust” has been carved up by some of tourists with the promise of Silk (Smithsonian Institution 2002). the most pointedly divisive Road exotica (Fig. 1) and Look, it said, at all that connects rather than divides human cultures across Eurasia: our textiles, ceramics, stories, dances, foods, musical genres and instruments. Long-necked and vertical fiddles know no national boundaries; all are variations on an ancient design, the stations of their Silk Road journey mapped by materials used in their construction. The curves in their bodies, numbers and tunings of their strings, a fret here or there, the movements of the performer’s hand, the notes in his or her scale all tell a tale of centuries of interplay across the Eurasian continent. Copyright © Daniel C. Waugh 1996 Fig. 1. Silk Road exotica at the Seaman Hotel in .

9 historical flavor. (At least one tour consolidated his control of There is an irony inherent in company even promotes the Kashgar in 87 by getting the local these various Chinese enthu- eastern Chinese cities of ruler and his men drunk and siasms for the Silk Road and as Silk slaughtering them at a banquet. metaphor, however. What stirs Road “stations.”) Clothing Pantuo City, as the park is called, the greatest global interest in the companies, software retailers, has become a new station on the Silk Road is not so much military restaurants and other enter- Silk Road, at least for some exploits or even commerce along prises are also fond of the tourists. its length, but the cultural associations evoked by the term. exchanges and continuities The top panel on the website across vast tracts of inner More creditably, the Silk Road www.silkroad.com.cn is a bulletin Eurasia that it represents. This idea also resonates positively board posting classified ads for is what was celebrated on the with developments in Xinjiang apartment rentals and second- National Mall, and is how world since the beginning of the Deng hand goods. history textbooks in the US treat Xiaoping reforms in the 1980s. the Silk Road (e.g. Bentley and The Silk Road metaphor also Under these reforms, and Ziegler 2003; Bulliet et al. 1997). serves another sort of marketing especially since the collapse of , Nestorian , goal: promoting the ideological the , the Xinjiang Zoroastrianism, , agendas of the Chinese state. region has enjoyed renewed and associated ideas and Popular histories, textbooks, and communications with Central arts all entered China via tourist sites associated with the Asia and increased autonomy Xinjiang, as did Sogdians and Silk Road emphasize the silk from in dealing with other Central Asians. Many trade, Buddhism, and the high foreign tourists, trade partners, “traditional Chinese” musical imperial periods of the Han and investors, governments and instruments are themselves T’ang Dynasties, when Chinese NGOs. The general preface to a originally Central Asian or Indian influence in what is now Xinjiang series of “Silk Road Researches” 1 imports, including the , was at its pre-modern peak). published by Xinjiang People’s possibly the three-string Official China represents “the Silk Press makes the relevant lute, the yangqin hammer Road” as a stage on which China connection: plays the leading historical role. dulcimer, various spike fiddles Just as early Euro-American collectively known as huqin, the scholarship on southwest Asia . . . Some authors [in the dizi transverse , the double- and once focused on traces series] have attempted to reed , and several small of lost classical civilizations and combine their [silk road] percussion instruments (Thra- ignored or denigrated the more studies with the reform and sher 2000: 36-56). recent Islamic past, the open door policy of China in in the Tarim has de-emphasized hope that the past can serve the last, Islamic millennium in the present and show what favor of Buddhist and pre- we can learn from our Buddhist antiquity and Han and ancestors. . . . There is no T’ang-period artifacts. Documen- demand that the views of the taries such as the NHK Silk Road authors should be in series and tourist itineraries conformity with that of the generally follow suit. In editors. Instead, we Xinjiang’s westernmost, and still appreciate the contention of predominantly Uyghur and different schools and ideas in Muslim city of Kashgar where old the studies, for we believe neighborhood that it is the only way to mahallas and bazaars are giving promote the Silk Road way to urban renewal, studies. . . . It is not a developers recently built a faux coincidence that the ancient city-site commemorating [UNESCO-affiliated] Centre for the general Ban Silk Road Studies, Urumchi, Qiao, complete with a mini-Great has been founded in Xinjiang: Wall, “spirit road” flanked with the most important section of life-size figures of soldiers and the Silk Road. All this proves ministers (reminiscent of those at that a new age to rediscover Copyright © Daniel C. Waugh 1995 the Ming and Qing tombs in and revitalize the great Silk Road Fig. 2. Dutars, Kashgar rawaps, and Beijing) and a statue of the has come to us [emphasis other instruments for sale in a stall conquering general himself, who added] (Zhou 1993: 12-14). in Kashgar.

10 Yet despite the silk road categories were in some cases authorities. Nevertheless, since boosterism, Chinese authorities more theoretical than real on the 1949 the national PRC and today are not terribly interested ground, cultural projects followed regional Xinjiang governments in cultural exchanges or non- to collect, isolate, edit, canonize have made collection, codification commercial linkages over the and promote the supposedly and republication of both classical revitalized Silk Road. In fact, one discrete language, dance, music and folk forms of Uyghur music a of the top priorities of Xinjiang’s and literature of each nationality priority. The explicit rationale security apparatus today lies (Roy 2000). ’s government behind this project has been to precisely in preventing religious in Xinjiang followed the same preserve, order, develop, and and political influences, people, policies, also using political modernize the Uyghur musical news, and certain trade items appointments and education to tradition. In practice this has (drugs and arms, understandably give political meaning to the involved several steps: col- enough, but also video tapes fourteen nationalities into which lection, including recording, by and cassettes) from crossing its it taxonomized Xinjiang peoples. local teams; selection of the western borders. Far from The Eastern Republic, “best” songs or, in the case of the rejoicing in transnational Silk which controlled northern , ordering of the Road connections, the PRC Xinjiang from 1944-1949, did “authentic” tradition; transcrip- national project with regard to likewise, and the PRC in turn tion into western musical score Xinjiang and its non-Han peoples adopted the same categorization or the Chinese numerical music has aimed to clearly demarcate scheme, with only minor notation; rearranging to geographic and ethnic borders, modifications. After the Chinese “rationalize” rhythms, to include even attempting to erase or Communist Party consolidated its harmony or to set the music for mute historical and cultural control over Xinjiang, PRC the large ensembles (including linkages that challenge the PRC “cultural workers” from party and western instruments) and dance claim to historical priority in the government agencies at local, troupes employed in stage Xinjiang region and blur the regional and national levels concerts and song and dance discrete ethno-national cate- devoted themselves to codifying shows; promulgation of the gories that have formed the the cultural attributes and resulting product through building blocks for the bur- achievements of each minzu, or publication of songbooks and eaucratic management of non- “nationality.”2 scores and through radio, peoples in Xinjiang. television and concert per- Uyghur Music—the Twelve Muqam formances; and education in the By these building blocks I state music and arts schools. refer to the state identification of The official approach to Uyghur the Uyghur, Kazak, Kirghiz, music (and to that of PRC minzu The French ethnomusicologist Uzbek, Tatar, Tajik and other in general) had several purposes. Sabine Trebinjac has shown that nationalities and instillation of One goal, especially in Maoist this process of “rewriting” these categories with political years, was make it “national in Uyghur music brings it from and cultural content, a process form, socialist in content.” With Xinjiang localities through Beijing known to scholars of Soviet regard to Uyghur classical music, and back out to the localities Central Asia as korenizatsiia the muqam (defined below), this again where the music is taught (“root-ization” or “indigeniza- involved modifying lyrics to to the next generation of tion”). The korenizatsiia of remove religious content or professional musicians in its and other Xinjiang replace difficult Chaghatay revised, “modernized” and state- peoples actually began before ghazals by ‘Ali-Shir Nava’i and sanctioned form. While both the the PRC came to power. In the other poets with modern Uyghur process and results of this 1930s, warlord poetry (Light 1998: 57). Chinese project resemble those in the accepted Soviet military and choreographers produced Soviet Union and there are clear economic assistance to quell dances on such subjects as “the borrowings from Soviet rebellions and consolidate his Child Care Worker” in place of korenizatsiia practices, Trebinjac hold on power, and in return fell older dances that had been also argues that deep Chinese into lockstep with many Stalinist performed to the accompaniment roots underlie the PRC efforts to policies. Stalin’s overriding of muqam (Mackerras 1985: 65). put a state imprimatur on music concern in Central Asia was to of the minority nationalities. undermine “Turk” and “Islamic” Music in itself, being more Chinese compilers of folk songs as general identities by abstract than lyrics or dance, today point to the Chinese classic subdividing them into smaller, does not directly convey verbal the Book of Odes (Shijing) as mutually exclusive and com- content or story-lines and thus precedent for their own petitive niches. Because the might seem of less immediate compilation efforts. Moreover, in boundaries between these concern to government and party the Han Dynasty (206 BCE – 220

11 CE), the Ministry of Music lute, with a doubled melody Xinjiang, while other variant employed functionaries to gather string) (see Wan 1986). In this traditions from cities songs from around the empire, way, the pupil could internalize are dismissively treated as “local” and then orchestrated them for the complex rhythms, poetic or “individual.” There remains performance on Chinese lyrics, melodies, and rules of little if any room for improvisation instruments with new court- ornamentation before performing in muqam performance, as many approved texts. Trebinjac’s point muqam on a melodic instrument of the movements are now is that Chinese governments themselves. For the most part, played by orchestras rather than have long invested music with it appears, Uyghur musicians small groups of a singer and one political and ritual importance, traditionally did not perform to four instrumentalists. Thus and for this reason have whole cycles, but rather isolated preserved, systematized and endeavored to exert central pieces or sections of muqam. frozen, the Uyghur are control over diverse musical now lauded as a “treasure trove,” traditions and convert local and Both Ahmetjan Qasimi (leader “encyclopedia,” and “perfected” ethnic music into components of of the Eastern Turkestan Republic tradition raised from a “germ” a unified Chinese national music. in northern Xinjiang in the 1940s) over “two thousand years” by the The modern expression of this and Seypidin Eziz (Saifuding; Uyghurs as an “expression of urge, of course, is linked to the former member of the ETR their social and productive modernist idea that without the government who served later struggles” (Sai-fu-ding 1994: 45- intervention of musicologists and under the PRC both as regional 46, 49, 51). The corpus of “folk arrangers trained in western vice chairman and chairman of classical” music (khelq klassik music theory, Uyghur music would the Xinjiang Nationalities musikisi) has thus been remain “primitive,” and unable to Committee) sought to promote apotheosized as the the unique, develop (Trabinjac 1990: 227- the muqam, and particularly the ancient and autochthonous 238; Trabinjac 2000). (This last twelve muqams (on ikki muqam) tradition of Uyghur music now notion was once shared by tradition of Kashgar, as the reconstructed nearly in its European imperialists with prestige music of the Uyghur entirely and enshrined as one of respect to the native music of people (Light 1998: 55). In the the national musical forms of new their colonial subjects: some 1950s an orchestra director from China. British colonial officials in India , together with scholars devoted themselves to collecting in the Muqam Research Group, Despite the success of this songs and transcribing them in were charged with collecting and program of ethnic cultural western staff notation in order to organizing the suites, which in codification and representation, rescue the tradition from fact were extant as an the Uyghur muqam still presents degeneracy and restore its purity unsystematic living tradition with certain problems for PRC [Farrell 1997: chapter 2].) more than twelve suite names overall, and with no one nationalist ideology, problems The state music project performer’s or regional tradition’s that arise from its Silk Road emerges clearly in the recent repertoire including exactly history. Muqam (variously history of the Uyghur muqam, a twelve complete suites. The spelled maqâm, , and so series of suites or song cycles collection and editing project forth) as both suite form and that are considered by many thus focused on “reconstructing” music theory belongs to a Arabo- Uyghurs to be the acme of an imagined former system of Irano-Turkic tradition that spans Uyghur cultural achievement. In twelve and only twelve complete Central Asia, the Caucasus, the mid-twentieth century, the muqam suites, each consisting of , , and the Arab muqam in Xinjiang consisted of a about thirty songs and countries (Chabrier 1960). Of the flexible tradition with many instrumentals. In the event, it twelve names applied to the individual and regional styles was the muqam tradition as twelve standardized suites in (such as those of Kashgar, , known and performed by one Xinjiang today (Rak, Chebbiyat, Dolan, and Qumul), passed on master, Turdi Akhun, that became Mushavrek, Chargah, Penjigah, aurally from masters to disciples. the basis of the canon of the Özhal, Ejem, Ushshaq, Bayat, During their apprenticeship, twelve muqams that was Nava, Sigah, and Iraq), all but disciples would play percussion recorded, reordered, transcribed two are used elsewhere, and on the dap frame-drum while the and published in 1960 (Wan derive from Arabic and Persian, master sang and played the 1959). This and subsequent not Turkic language roots. Of the (a two-string long-necked editions (also based solely on the two used uniquely in Uyghur lute), rewab (a mandolin-like lute repertoire of Turdi Akhun) have muqam, “Rak” may in fact be a with doubled strings and a become the foundation of most derivation of an Arabic word, or round, skin-covered body) or pedagogy and professional even of the Indic , and tambur (another long-necked performance of the muqams in Chebbiyat is a Turkicized

12 variation on another common Seypidin argued that muqam is Baghdad from the mid-eighth Arab maqâm suite name, Bayat. originally a Uyghur word, century. He points to five-string Even the notion of specifically corrupted by Persian and Arabic lutes in frescos at Kizil (near twelve muqam (the number influences; he urged the in Xinjiang) as evidence twelve having zodiacal signifi- cultivation of a “Uighur Mukam- that the , the central cance) appears earliest in the ology” that Uyghurizes relevant instrument in Arab maqâm, was thirteenth century Arabic writings vocabulary. a Kuchean export.3 Moreover, he of Safi al-Din (Light 1998: 30-31). argues that al-Farabi (870-950), In Arab and Persian envi- This Chahetai language an author of musical treatises ronments, maqâm refers to the [Chaghatay is a literary and, among other things, a musical modes of each suite, in written Turkic, with many famous commentary on Aristotle, which the pieces of a given suite Persian loan-words, that was a Turk; likewise, Zhou are composed. Arab maqâm flourished from the fifteenth suggests, Ibn Sina (Avicenna 980- maintain the modes consistently; through nineteenth century in 1037),4 should be seen as in Central Asia and Xinjiang in Central Asia] found its way “eastern” in his thinking and as particular, the modes of pieces into the terminology and a beneficiary of Turkic and within the suites vary: they may poetry of the mukam, by way Chinese influence in his musical begin and end in a particular of the verses of the Maola theory because he was educated mode, but middle pieces adhere [mullahs] [and] poets, during in Bukhara. Zhou’s logic is worth only inconsistently (Light 1998: the Middle Ages. The result quoting: 28, 28 n. 19). (A mode is a was that the Uighurs, creators particular order in which notes of of the mukam, could hardly In conclusion, the foundation a scale may be played. The understand the lyrics of Ibn Sina’s thinking derives muqams also use a wider variety themselves. It is time that this from al-Farabi, and Farabi was of scales than the major, minor mixed language of the mukam a Turk. Thus, there is no doubt and harmonic minor scales most be cleansed of its impurities that Ibn Sina’s theory enjoys familiar in Western art music.) (Sai-fu-ding 1991: 72). Turkic influence. . . . Bukhara [where Ibn Sina lived as a Muqam, then, would thus Chinese musicologists have youth] fell under the control seem to be the quintessential joined the effort to de-emphasize of the Anxi Commandery Silk Road musical form: variations the obvious transnational nature (duhufu) and historical records on a theme stretching from the of muqam and its association with illuminate the influence of Tarim Basin to the Black Sea. The Islam, while playing up evidence on Bukhara. muqam scales, modes, rhythms, of local origin and development, Because before he was 18 lyrics, instruments and termin- as well as links to and mutual years old Ibn Sina lived in the ology tie the Uyghurs to a system influences with Chinese music. Bukhara area, he unavoidably shared across the Islamic One approach has been to argue received the influence of heartlands of Eurasia — but do that the muqam began with the Chinese civilization (Zhou not point to any obvious pre-Islamic Uyghurs. In his 1987: 227). connections with Chinese musical historical study of the on ikki tradition. Moreover, the fact that muqam (1981), Abdushukur In fact, the primary vehicle of the the Arab versions maintain Muhemmet Imin suggests that T’ang dynasty’s influence in consistent modality, while the the word “muqam” itself is Bukhara was its largely Turkic Uyghur and other Central Asian originally Turkic and dates from army. T’ang presence in Trans- ones do so only partially or the fourth century, well before it oxiana was shortlived, and nominally, would seem to indicate is attested in Arabic and before ended 230 years before Ibn an Arab center for the tradition. the Islamicization of Central Asia. Sina’s birth. Ibn Sina’s auto- (Maqâm literally means “place or It was during the Karakhanid biography gives no suggestion of rank” in Arabic, and is one of the period in the eleventh century, Chinese influence (Gohlman standard terms used for mode in Imin argues, that the muqam 1974). Arabo-Iranian music theory.) spread westward (Imin 1981; Trebinjac 2000: 228; Light 1998: Other arguments by PRC Both Uyghur and Han politi- 58-59). Zhou Jingbao sounds authors have likewise high- cians in China have worked to both Turkic and Chinese lighted local roots and Chinese obviate these inconvenient nationalistic notes, making a case connections of the Uyghur implications. For example, in for the influence of “Chinese” muqam. Some scholars have prefaces and keynote speeches instruments and music — i.e. noted structural and rhythmical delivered over decades on the those of the Turks and of Qiuci similarities of the T’ang period subject of Uyghur muqam, (Kucha) — on Abbasid period suites known as daqu with

13 certain sub-sections of the communication among closely References muqam, and posited a common cognate languages and related origin in the music of Kucha. Yin peoples. Bentley and Ziegler 2003 Falu goes further still, claiming It is worth noting, however, Jerry H. Bentley and Herbert R. that the suite form itself was that the PRC project to define, Ziegler. Traditions and Encoun- originally introduced into the codify and develop the Uyghur ters: A Global Perspective on the Tarim Basin by Chinese during Twelve Muqams is largely Past. New York: McGraw Hill, the Han dynasty, to be supported by Uyghurs, who 2003. thenceforth adopted by the appreciate the prestige it has people of Kucha, Kashgar, Turfan afforded their national music. Bovingdon 2004 and so on as the basis of their While some Uyghurs have Gardner Bovingdon, with 5 own popular music. resented Han musicians’ contributions by Nabijan Tursun. borrowing and rewriting of “Contested Histories.” In S. * * * Uyghur folk songs (Harris 2001), Frederick Starr, ed. Xinjiang: Mukamology (to use Seypidin’s the muqam in its new redaction China’s Muslim Borderland. word) in China, then, has serves Uyghurs both within and London, Eng. and Armonk, N.Y.: celebrated the Uyghur muqam as outside of China as a proud M. E. Sharpe, 2004, pp. 353-374. a unique cultural achievement of symbol of Uyghur identity. And Bulliet et al. 1997 the Uyghur people, realized this of course has been the through a process of mutual common result of korenizatsiia Richard W. Bulliet et al., eds. The interchange with the fraternal across Central Asia: the cultural Earth and its Peoples: A Global Han people. Links to the musical productions of Chinese and History. Boston and New York: traditions of Central Asia, Iran Soviet state cultural apparati, Houghton Mifflin Company, 1997. and Arab lands which share the however ersatz they may appear name muqam were by this to western observers, have Chabrier 1960 argument merely one-way; they staying power as points of honor J.-Cl. Ch. Chabrier. “Makâm.” In arose from the westward spread among the peoples whose H. R. Gibb, ed. Encyclopaedia of of Turkic and Uyghur musical identities they helped crystallize. Islam, second edition. Leiden: culture and contributed sig- Nationalist pride, as much as Brill, 1960. nificantly to the development of trans-national interchange, is Arab music, providing, besides part of the modern reality of the Farrell 1997 the muqam, certain scales and Silk Road. Gerry Farrell. Indian Music and the even the five-string lute or oud. West. Oxford: Oxford University On the other hand, according to About the Author Press, 1997. this view the Arab and Persian James A. Millward is Associate literary and terminological Professor of History and a Gohlman 1974 influences that flowed back east member of the Edmund A. Walsh with Islam represent an School of Foreign Service at W. E. Gohlman, ed., trans. The unfortunate corruption of the Georgetown University. A Life of Ibn Sina. Albany: State original purity of the Uyghur specialist on Qing China and Inner University of New York Press, muqam. Asia, he also teaches courses on 1974. This version of muqam history “Steppe Empires and Silk Roads,” Harris 2001 thus attempts to isolate the “folk and on “The Mongol World.” His classical” musical tradition of the publications include Beyond the Rachel Harris. “ Luobin: Uyghurs from Central Asia and Pass: Economy, Ethnicity and ‘Folksong King of the Northwest’ Islam, even while glorifying it. Empire in Qing Xinjiang, 1759- or Song Thief? Copyright, Repre- Where the links across the 1864 (Stanford, 1998), the sentation and Chinese Folk- Pamirs are too obvious to ignore, forthcoming Chinese Turkestan: a songs.” In: Consuming China: they are dealt with by assigning History of the Xinjiang Region Approaches to Cultural Change in creative priority to the Uyghurs. (Hurst), contributions to the Contemporary China. Kevin Of course, one can easily find recent volume edited by S. Latham & Stuart Thompson, eds. examples of similar ideological Frederick Starr, Xinjiang: China’s London: Curzon, forthcoming approaches throughout official Muslim Borderland (Sharpe, 2005 (originally to appear 2001). Uyghur historiography from the 2004), and, for those who visit PRC, and the history of linguistic Kashgar, a fascinating article, “A Imin 1981 and script reforms of Xinjiang’s Uyghur Muslim in Qianlong’s Abdushukur Muhemmet Imin. is likewise one Court: The Meanings of the Uyghur khelq kilassik muzikisi “On of consistent erection of Fragrant Concubine.” Journal of ikki muqam” heqqide. Beijing, orthographic barriers to Asian Studies 53:2 (1994). 1981.

14 Levin 1996 Washington DC, June 26-30, July Notes 3-7, 2002. Theodore Levin. The Hundred * I presented an earlier version of Thousand Fools of God: Musical this paper at the Annual Meeting of Travels in Central Asia (and Thrasher 2000 the Association for Asian Studies in Queens, New York). Bloomington: Alan R. Thrasher. Chinese Musical New York City, 29 March 2003. My Indiana University Press, 1996. Instruments. Images of Asia thanks to Rachel Harris for furnishing series. Oxford: Oxford University me with bibliography and letting me Light 1998 Press, 2000. read some of her not yet published work. Nathan Light. “Slippery Paths:

The Performance and Canoni- Trebinjac 1990 1. On the politics of Xinjiang historiography, see Bovingdon 2004. zation of Turkic Literature and Sabine Trebinjac. “Musique Uyghur Muqam Song in Islam and ouigoure de Chine: de l’authen- 2. Recently, official Chinese sources Modernity.” Ph.D. dissertation, ticité à la folklorisation.” In: l’Asie have started translating minzu as Indiana University, 1998. centrale et ses voisins: influences “ethnic group.” réciproques. Paris: Institut 3. Zhou 1987: 217-18, 224-227. A Ma 2002 nationale des langues et five-string lute is depicted in the cave frescos at Kizil (near Kucha) and Yo-Yo Ma and the Silk Road civilisations orientales, 1990, pp. listed in Tang sources as one of the 227-238. Ensemble, Silk Road Journeys: Kuchean (Qiuci) instruments. When Strangers Meet (Sony audio However, such lutes with vaulted CD #89782, April 2002). Trebinjac 2000 backs are common across Eurasia, Sabine Trebinjac. Le pouvoir en and there are similar instruments Mackerras 1985 chantant, Tome I , L’art de depicted in Mediterranean sites dating from the second century BCE. Colin Mackerras. “Uyghur Per- fabriquer une musique chinoise. forming Arts in Contemporary Nanterre: Société d’ethnologie, 4. Avicenna’s Canon became the China.” , 101 2000. foundational work of Renaissance (Mar. 1985): 58-77. medicine in . Wan 1959 5. Yin Falu, “Woguo lishi shang de Roy 2000 Wan Tongshu. On ikki muqam / minzu qianxi yu wudao wenhua shier mukamu. [The Twelve jiaoliu” [Ethnic migrations and Olivier Roy. The New Central Asia: exchange of dance culture in the the Creation of Nations. London: Muqam.] 2 vols. (Beijing: Yinyue history of my country], Wudao I.B. Tauris, 2000. chubanshe and minzu chuban- luncong 3: 48-57, cited in Trebinjac she), 1959. [Bilingual Chinese- 2000: 222-223. Sai-fu-ding 1991 Uyghur edition.] Seypidin Azizi, “On the Uighur Mukam” [a speech delivered at Wan 1986 the Xinjiang Forum on Literature Wan Tongshu. Weiwuerzu yueqi. and Art, 1991]. In Sai-fu-ding, [Uyghur instruments.] Urumchi: Lun Weiwuer mukamu. Beijing: Xinjiang renmin chubanshe, Waiyu jiaoxue yu yanjiu chuban- 1986. she, 1994. Zhou 1987 Sai-fu-ding 1994 Zhou Jingbao. Sichou zhilu de Sai-fu-ding (Seypidin Äzizi). Lun yinyue wenhua. [Musical culture of Weiwuer Mukam. [On the Uighur the Silk Road.] Urumchi: Xinjiang Mukam.] Beijing: Waiyu jiaoxue renmin chubanshe, 1987. Copyright © Daniel C. Waugh 1995 yu yanjiu chubanshe, 1994. [In Chinese and English.] Zhou 1993 Zhou Jingbao. “The General Smithsonian Institution 2002 Preface to the Series of Silk Road The Smithsonian Institution Studies” [in English]. In: Wang Center for Folklife and Cultural Binghua, ed., Sichou zhi lu kaogu Heritage and the Silk Road yanjiu [Archaeological Research Project, Inc. The Silk Road: on the Silk Road], Sichou zhi lu Connecting Cultures, Creating yanjiu congshu series no. 1. Trust. Catalog of the 36th Urumchi: Xinjiang renmin chuban- annual Smithsonian Folklife she, 1993. Festival on the National Mall,

Fig. 3. Playing a spike fiddle in Kashgar.

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