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Publisher's Cataloging-In-Publication Data (Prepared by The Donohue Group, Inc.)

American presidents.—Fourth edition / editor, Robert P. Watson, Lynn University.

2 volumes : illustrations, maps ; cm

“Editor, First Edition, Frank N. Magill ; editors, Third Edition, Robert P. Watson, Florida Atlantic University [and] Richard Yon, University of Florida.” Includes bibliographical references and index. Contents: Volume 1. The American Presidency, –Woodrow Wilson —volume 2. Warren G. Harding–Barack Obama, Index. ISBN: 978-1-61925-940-9 (set) ISBN: 978-1-68217-081-6 (v.1) ISBN: 978-1-68217-082-3 (v.2)

1. Presidents——Biography. 2. Presidents—United States—History. 3. United States—Politics and government. I. Watson, Robert P., 1962-

E176.1 .A6563 2015 973.09/9 B

First Printing Printed in the United States of America Introduction

The Pageantry of the Presidency forty-third man to hold the office, but he was To many people, the presidency is the most vis- the forty-fourth president because Grover ible part of the U.S. government, especially in- Cleveland served two nonconsecutive terms as ternationally, where the president is both the the twenty-second and twenty-fourth presi- public face of the United States and the coun- dent.) Among the few who have occupied the try’s official representative abroad. While this office, there has been much variation in their has, to a degree, always been the case—George approach to the presidency as well as in their Washington was, after all, known as “the Fa- experiences in office and the skill with which ther of His Country”—the intensive coverage they discharged their duties. This fact makes it by the media in recent years has only further in- difficult to draw conclusions about the nature creased theoffice’svisibilityandimportance. of the institution based on so few examples. Stories about the president are found on the At the same time, however, the office has front page of the nation’s newspapers and lead seen little diversity and variation in the types of the evening news broadcast. The White House individuals elected. For instance, as of this press corps treats the public to the most mun- writing all the presidents have been male. The dane and private details about the First Family: United States has yet to elect a female presi- Ronald Reagan liked jelly beans; George and dent, even though a few dozen nations around Barbara Bush’s dog was named Millie; Bill the world have been led by women in the mod- Clinton’s daughter, Chelsea, graduated from ern era. This list includes some of the United Stanford; and Gerald Ford apparently had a States’closestallies, such asCanada, Great Brit- tendency to tripor fall at the mostpublic and in- ain, and Israel. Women have pursued the opportune times. In short, the centrality of the American presidency beginning with Victoria presidency in the American political system is Woodhull in 1872, but none has come close to beyond question. winning. When Geraldine Ferraro was selected To scholars and students alike, the presi- by Walter Mondale to join the Democratic dency is also an important academic field of ticket in 1984, she became the first female vice study in both political science and U.S. history. presidential nominee of a major political party Yet, ironically, it is one of the least understood in history. and least studied components of American Likewise, all the presidents have been white government. Although scores of good biogra- except Barack Obama. Only a handful of other phies exist on presidents throughout history, African-Americans have even campaigned for the formal study of the institution is a relatively the office—Jesse Jackson, Alan Keyes, Al recent scholarly endeavor. Sharpton—and until the 2016 presidential One of the challenges in studying the presi- campaign, no major campaign had been dency is that, as of 2015, only forty-three men launched by an Hispanic, Asian, or other ethnic had held the office. (Barack Obama was the candidate. The 2016 campaign, however, saw

xi American Presidents two prominent Latinos—Marco Rubio and Ted nominations such as Episcopalian or Presbyte- Cruz, both Cuban-American—in the race. Ev- rian. All but one president was married, the ery president has come from northern Euro- exception being lifelong bachelor James Bu- pean ancestry, and the United States has yet to chanan, although Grover Cleveland married elect a president from southern or eastern Eu- when he was already president. The only di- ropean lineage. The only exception is Barack vorced president was Ronald Reagan, who had Obama, whose father was from Africa. All but been married to actress Jane Wyman before his five of the presidents have been of British de- wedding to Nancy Davis, who would serve as scent (English, Irish, Welsh, Scottish): Both First Lady. Roosevelts and were Dutch, Few presidents came from west of the Mis- Herbert Hoover was Swiss, and Dwight Eisen- sissippi River, and many states have yet to pro- hower was German. Nonetheless, it must be duce a president. The earliest presidents hailed said that in an increasingly pluralistic society, it from and , and Ohio is not a matter of if, but rather when, the country and have also produced several elects its first female president. presidents. Physically, many of the presidents Many presidents also shared a common oc- have been taller than average in height, and cupation and educational experience. The field most have had blue or gray eyes. of law is the most represented occupation of So what does all this mean? The presidents presidents before their political careers, with are, in many ways, from a rather narrow cross only a few exceptions. Several presidents had section of American society, and this fact sug- military experience, and a few—George Wash- gests something about the prevailing political ington, Andrew Jackson, William Henry Harri- preferences of the American public. Also, the son, Zachary Taylor, Ulysses Grant, Dwight Ei- United States has been served by some great senhower—were generals or career officers. presidents, men of distinction who left deep Washington, , and others footprints on the office and nation. Among such as Jimmy Carter earned their living by them are such presidents as Abraham Lincoln, farming, while Woodrow Wilson was a profes- Franklin Roosevelt, George Washington, sor and university president and Ronald Rea- Thomas Jefferson, Harry Truman, Teddy Roo- gan was an actor. Most presidents were well sevelt, and Andrew Jackson, all leaders rated educated, graduating from prestigious private by scholars as among the best to serve. So too colleges. Both George H. W. and George W. have there been presidents who struggled with Bush as well as gradu- the challenges of the office. The experiences of ated from Yale, while both Franklin and Teddy Warren Harding, , Franklin Roosevelt as well as John F. Kennedy and Pierce, and Andrew Johnson were such that the Barack Obama were Harvard graduates. But office and the nation were fundamentally there are a few exceptions. The last president to weaker after their presidencies than when they not have a college degree was Harry Truman, were inaugurated. and both George Washington and Abraham Lincoln received very little in the way of a for- Founding mal education. Another challenge that presidents have faced is There are other similarities among the pres- crafting their approach to the office. Article II of idents worth noting. All but one of the com- the Constitution, which discusses the chief ex- manders in chief were Protestant Christians ecutive, is among the shortest, most vague (John F. Kennedy was Roman Catholic), and components of the founding document. From the lion’s share of them were “mainline” de- its inception, the presidency was configured as

xii Introduction a weak office with few formal powers. And this ernments. The questions surrounding the exec- was not by accident but by design. utive included whether it should be assumed The political arrangement that governed by one person or a council, whether it would be the newly declared states during the revolu- selected by the legislature or by some other tionary struggle did not take long to prove inef- means, what the length of the executive’s term fectual. The was often should be as well as whether to limit the num- unable to provide the political or financial sup- ber of terms that any person could serve, and port that General George Washington needed how much power to grant to the executive. to wage war. Under the Articles of Confedera- Hamilton and his Federalist supporters fa- tion after independence, the lack of an execu- vored a stronger executive, citing the obvious tive branch, coupled with weak governorships, problems created by the ineffectual Articles of precluded the new nation from adequately ad- Confederation. Yet, the antifederalists re- dressing such pressing problems as the war, mained firmin their concern over a strongexec- debt, trade, squabbles among states and be- utive and preference for a weaker office. In the tween the central government and the state “Great Compromise” between the large and governments, the need for a uniform currency, small states and among the Framers, the Feder- and continued threats from abroad. Indeed, by alists ultimately succeeded in designing an of- 1786 it had become clear to many of the leaders fice to be held by one person who would serve of the new nation that change was necessary in for four years and without term limits. How- order for the grand experiment in popular de- ever, it was a constitutionally weak office by mocracy to work. As such, on September 11, design. 1786, delegates from the states met in Annapo- The views of the Framers regarding the is- lis, , to discuss various problems fac- sues of an executive and the amount of power ing the government, most notably commerce to grant him were to a large measure the result and trade. of two factors—the experience of the colonies Many in attendance—most prominently as British subjects and the writings of European and — political philosophers. Regarding the former, maintained that the problems facing the young Britain’s King George III and most of the ap- government were such that a convention to re- pointed governors had abused their powers visit the design of the Articles was necessary. and showed little concern for the general wel- The convention in question (the Constitutional fare of the colonials. As the first calls for an ex- Convention) commenced in May of 1787 in panded role in governing were heard from the , and the task of revising the Arti- colonists, Britain unwisely responded by levy- cles quickly gave way to the more ambitious ing new taxes on popular goods and expanding project of drafting an entirely new system of the presence of soldiers in the colonies. This ac- government. tion led to the so-called Tea Party and One of the issues generating the most de- only further inflamed the fledgling movement bate among the Framers of the Constitution for political rights and self-determination. was the nature of the executive office. During The Framers had justifiable concerns about the long summer of debate at Philadelphia’s tyranny by an executive. Accordingly, they de- Constitution Hall, momentum gradually gath- voted considerable attention to making sure ered for establishing an executive, increasing that the executive’s powers were neither exces- national powers, and creating a blended (fed- sive nor unchecked. The result was the creation eral) system whereby the task of governing of a weak executive in the formal sense, one would be shared by the federal and state gov- whose powers were balanced with those of

xiii American Presidents other branches of government. As such, the A Growing, Dynamic Office president had “limited powers,” “divided The presidency is a dynamic institution. Al- powers,” and “checked powers.” For instance, though the presidency is rooted in the Consti- the president is able to veto legislation, but the tution and many of the traditions and customs veto can be overridden by a two-thirds major- of the institution are carried over from presi- ity of both houses of Congress. The president dent to president, it is at the same time certainly has the power to appoint federal officers, but not the office today that was occupied by judicial, ambassadorial, and senior administra- George Washington. Washington oversaw five tive appointees must be confirmed by the Sen- federal agencies: the departments of war, state, ate. And, the president can make treaties, but and treasury (which was conceived as a con- they too are subject to Senate approval by a gressional department); the attorney general; two-thirds concurrence. Although the lan- and the post office. He also managed a small guage in Article II is often ambiguous, the staff and few federal employees, and he admin- phrase “The executive Power shall be vested in istered a budget of roughly $250,000. Today, aPresidentoftheUnitedStatesofAmerica”has the president’s staff numbers in the thousands, been used to establish many of the powers and the federal government’s budget has long sur- general authority that thepresidentnow enjoys passed the trillion-dollar mark, the federal workforce numbers in the millions, and fifteen and needs in order to manage the executive federal cabinet departmentsand scores of other branch of the national government. agencies report to the chief executive. Article II of the Constitution is purposely In the words of the late presidential scholar vague and brief, raising more questions than it Edward S. Corwin, the Constitution produces provides answers. Debate over the nature and an “invitation to struggle.” Thebalance of pow- extent of the presidential powers listed in Arti- ers among the three branches creates an envi- cle II depend on one’s view of the Constitution. ronment where conflict and compromise are Indeed, for well over two hundred years presi- inevitable results of the task of governing. The dents, members of Congress, the courts, and fact that the president must share power with the public have wrestled with the matter of Congress has meant that presidents have relied what the president can and cannot do. It is in- on their personalities to enhance their other- teresting to note that many of the situations de- wise limited powers or to respond to crises of fining the office historically are not based in thedayinawaythatexpandstheirpowers. constitutional decrees but rather were the re- A good example was Franklin D. Roosevelt, sult of precedents set by George Washington. whose charisma and the momentous events of So imposing was the first president’s standing the Great Depression and World War II created that his legacy continues to define the office an opportunity for him to win four presidential that he helped forge with every action and inac- elections and fundamentally change the nature tion. of the office. More recently, George W. Bush Thelanguage intheConstitution discussing sought to expand presidential war powers the requirements for the office provides one of through the use of military tribunals, the Pa- the few specific details about the presidency. triot Act (which, among other things, ex- Presidents must be thirty-five years of age, panded government’s surveillance and arrest native-born citizens of the United States, and powers), and the detention of “enemy combat- residents of the country for a period of fourteen ants” in order to fight the war on terrorism and consecutive years prior to taking the oath of didsowithinthebackdrop ofnational security. office. The personality of individual presidents

xiv Introduction and factors such as national security and crises mission, the organization of federal agencies have contributed to the evolving role and was revamped. Through his record four terms power of the office. Recent presidents have rec- in office, Roosevelt managed the economy, cre- ognized that real power in the office is neither ated Social Security and other social supports formal nor constitutional in origin. Executive for citizens falling through the cracks of soci- powers are too limited, divided, and checked ety, provided electricity to rural areas, and put by constitutional design. Rather, their power the jobless to work on large public infrastruc- and ability to govern stem from influence, ture projects. By the time of his death in 1945, which is the by-product of their character, po- the presidency’s power had been greatly in- litical skills, and ability to lead through their creased and its centrality in American life was bully pulpit. In the words of the noted presi- established. dential scholar Richard Neustadt, the presi- As the times have changed, so has the presi- dentmustusethe“power topersuade” inorder dency. Factors such as the central role that the to govern. United States has played in international af- Many have even commented that charisma fairs since World War II and the growing tech- is a necessary ingredient for success in the nological and economic complexity of the White House, and polling has suggested that country have contributed to the evolving na- presidential character plays a role in the minds ture of the office. One such development was of voters. Clearly, much of the success enjoyed the advent of the mass media, which began by Washington, Lincoln, and both Roosevelts, someyearsearlier attheturnofthecentury. for example, can be attributed to the strength of The presence of mass circulation newspa- character and attractiveness of their personali- pers, radio, television, and more recently satel- ties. By the same measure, other presidents— lite technology, cable television, the Internet, most notably Richard Nixon—were plagued and twenty-four-hour news coverage have by shortcomings in their character. revolutionized the presidency. The effective The size, roles, and scope of the federal gov- use of the radio by FDR, for instance, allowed ernment have ballooned since 1789, when him to speak to the nation and, in so doing, by- Washington was inaugurated. They have pass the usual legislative process and White grown dramatically since 1933, when Franklin House press corps. By taking his message di- D. Roosevelt expanded in a man- rectly to the people, FDR established an inti- ner the function of government in order to ad- mate rapport between the president and the dress the Great Depression. Arguably, the first public, one that would further strengthen the fundamental shift in and growth of the role and presidency and last to the present time. Presi- scope of the presidency occurred under FDR dents are now able to make direct appeals to the and is frequently referred to as the starting public, using the media to build support for point for the “modern presidency,” with the themselves and their policy agenda. Coined by period from Washington leading up to the in- presidency scholar Samuel Kernell, this strat- auguration of the thirty-second president in egy of “going public” enables presidents to by- 1933 known as the “traditional presidency.” pass Congress to a degree and move their pro- Roosevelt entered the office with the gov- posals forward. Television would further add ernment unable to respond to the high unem- to the intimacy and connectedness of president ployment rate, widespread failure of busi- and voters. nesses, and collapse of the banking and By the 1960’s and 1970’s, presidential power financial systems that had paralyzed the na- was seen as excessive and problematic. In the tion. With assistance from the Brownlow Com- words of historian Arthur Schlesinger, Jr., an

xv American Presidents overextended, so-called imperial presidency connect with the public and articulate a vision emerged. Commentators have suggested that for the country, Bill Clinton’s lack of personal this phenomenon contributed to the Vietnam integrity, and George W. Bush’s suspect intel- War, theWatergate scandal, and other negative lectual abilities and arrogance to the point that actions by presidents. Gerald Ford and Jimmy these issues became defining traits of their Carter entered the presidency in the mid- and presidencies and further eroded public confi- late 1970’s attempting to heal the nation, return dence in the office. the office to a sense of normalcy, and renew re- Accordingly, the United States finds itself spect for the institution. today in a position whereby some scholars and But their efforts were apparently not commentators note the near ungovernability of enough. Starting in the 1960’s, public frustra- the office. Yet, it must be said that such prob- tion with, and even hostility toward, the office lems are not new, and similar criticisms were grew. The growing cynicism of the public coin- directed at many of the presidents serving in cided with increasing animosity between Con- the mid- and late nineteenth century. Others gress and the president, antagonistic relations have noted some fundamental limitations in- between the White House and the press corps, herent in the political system facing presidents. and divided government—whereby the presi- For instance, presidential scholar Michael dency was in the hands of one party and Con- Genovese has identified a “variety of built-in gresswas controlled by the other party—which roadblocks” which make it difficult for presi- seemed to become the norm and resulted in dents to lead, including a cynical public, the policy gridlock. Not only were individual pres- difficulty of making good on campaign prom- idents challenged by these conditions, but pub- ises, conflicting expectations of presidents, a lic opinion pollsrevealed that public faith inthe hostile media, and the inherent constitutional institution itself was eroding as well. weakness of the office. In the past few decades, the presidency has suffered from major foreign policy crises seem- Roles and Duties ingly beyond the control of the sitting president, The Constitution loosely discusses the funda- a series of foreign policy and political missteps, mental duties of a president. Five basic roles can and scandals that were magnified by an ad- be traced to and are derived from the Constitu- versarial press and an already weakened office: tion. The first is “chief of state.” The United Watergate in the 1970’s, Iran-Contra in the States (unlike Great Britain, for instance) does 1980’s, the Monica Lewinsky scandal in the not have a monarch or separate head of state. As 1990’s, the war in Iraq and the poor federal re- such, both executive and ceremonial roles are sponse to Hurricane Katrina’sdevastation in the merged into one office, whereby the president first decade of the new century. Barack Obama functions as the symbolic head of state, visiting faced an extraordinary array of international other nations, receiving dignitaries, and presid- challenges including upheaval in Egypt, Libya, ing over ceremonies and national events. Syria, and Yemen, threats from China, Russia, The Constitution is clear about the presi- and North Korea, and massive refugee move- dent’s role as “Commander in Chief of the ments from Central America and in the Middle Army and Navy of the United States, and of the East, and the effects of the crippling economic Militia of the several states, when called into downturn just prior to his presidency. the actual Service of the United States,” al- Media commentators were quick to focus though considerable debate remains over the on Ronald Reagan’s disconnected (even ab- role of the president and Congress in declaring sent) style, George H. W. Bush’s inability to a war and the extent of war powers.

xvi Introduction

A third role is that of “chief executive.” The boosting and promoting the United States at presidentistheheadoftheexecutivebranchand home and abroad. The president is expected to oversees the numerous departments, agencies, invigorate the national spirit in times of crisis and bureaus that compose the federal govern- and to champion all things American in the ca- ment. In this capacity, the president can appoint pacity of what can be described as a “cheer- and remove federal administrative officers and leader in chief.” Certainly FDR’s famous “fire- can grant pardons and reprieves (a postpone- side chats”—his radio addresses to a nation ment of the execution of a court sentence). struggling through the Great Depression— Thepresidentalso has thepower to veto leg- soothed anxieties, calmed fears, and lifted islation, making him the “chief legislator.” As hopes, as did George W. Bush’s words— such, the president fulfills an important com- bullhorn in hand—from atop the rubble of the ponent in the legislative process. While Con- World Trade Center in New York City a few gress is the legislative branch, the president of- days after the tragic terrorist attacks on Sep- ten influences the legislative agenda through tember 11, 2001. the State of the Union address and the develop- ment of the federal budget. Washington’s Legacy Finally, the president functions as “chief George Washington served as the country’s diplomat,” making treaties, appointing the first president from private mansions in New country’s ambassadors, and recognizing na- York City and later Philadelphia while the new tions. In this capacity, the president has come to nation’s capital buildings and executive man- dominate U.S. foreign policy. sion were being constructed. Paralleling the in- As the nation and office have changed, so stitution that ithouses, the White House has en- too have some of the basic roles and duties of dured times of tragedy (it was burned by the the president. The president now functions as British in 1814 during the ), has ex- “party chief.” Even though the United States is perienced great growth (it was enlarged under said to have a weak party system—or perhaps Theodore Roosevelt and other presidents), and because of it—presidents are looked to by their has changed in response to the times (it was political parties for leadership. The president gutted and rebuilt under Harry Truman). often selects the national party chair, recruits Washington, who played a prominent role candidates for office, and establishes the in the building’s planning and construction, party’s policy platform. did not live to see it completed, dying in De- Inthe words ofFranklin Roosevelt, the pres- cember of 1799 almost one year before the man- idency is “preeminently a place for moral lead- sion opened its doors to President . ership.” Acting as something of a “preacher in Washington and Adams would scarcely recog- chief,” the president appeals to what Abraham nize the building—or the office—today. Lincoln called “the better angels of our nature” At the dawn of the twenty-first century, few and is expected to set a moral example for the would doubt the centrality of the presidency in nation. Lincoln led by moral courage, and his the American political system or world affairs. shadow continues toloomlargeovertheoffice. Although the presidency would be unrecog- Lastly, through the power of their personal- nizable to Washington, his fingerprints remain ity and use of the media, presidents have a on the office. The American president has bully pulpit from which to speak to the coun- emerged as a symbol of the nation internation- try. In so doing, many presidents have served ally, the focal point of media coverage, and the both symbolically and practically as advocates mostinfluential actor intheAmericandrama. for U.S. products, culture, and achievements, Robert P. Watson, Consulting Editor

xvii Dwight D. Eisenhower 34th President, 1953-1961

Born: October 14, 1890 Political Party: Republican Denison, Texas Vice President: Richard M. Nixon Died: March 28, 1969 Washington, D.C.

Cabinet Members Secretary of State: , bling leader who preferred a game of golf or a Christian A. Herter bridge foursome to the duties of his office. A se- Secretary of the Treasury: George Humphrey, ries of stories and jokes, at Eisenhower’s ex- Robert B. Anderson pense, circulated even while he was in office. Secretary of Defense: Charles E. Wilson, Neil One story claimed that if Eisenhower died, then H. McElroy, Thomas S. Gates Vice President Richard Nixon would become Attorney General: H. Brownell, Jr., William P. president, but if Sherman Adams (Eisen- Rogers hower’s chief of staff, who supposedly ran the Postmaster General: A. E. Summerfield administration) died, then Eisenhower would Secretary of the Interior: Douglas McKay, Fred become president. Another story described an Seaton Eisenhower doll as one that, when wound, did Secretary of Agriculture: Ezra T. Benton nothing for four years. One of Eisenhower’s Secretary of Commerce: , own speechwriters described the president as a Lewis L. Strauss “walking debate” and an “oaf.” Secretary of Labor: Martin Durkin, James P. Yet to the majority of Americans in the Mitchell Secretary of Health, Education, and Welfare: Oveta Culp Hobby, Marion B. Folsom, Arthur S. Flemming

During his administration, Dwight David Ei- senhower, the thirty-fourth president of the United States, was much criticized by news commentators, political pundits, and students ofthepresidency.Criticsattacked him forhisal- leged blunders, blandness, and laziness in of- fice. A common image of the president depicted him as a mumbling, bumbling, stumbling, fum- Portrait of Dwight D. Eisenhower. (Whitehouse.gov)

602 American Presidents

The First Lady Mamie Eisenhower

Mary “Mamie” Geneva Doud was born on November 14, 1896, in Boone, Iowa. One of four daugh- ters of a wealthy businessman, Mamie grew up in a loving family in comfortable homes with sum- mers in Denver, Colorado, her studies culminated by completing Miss Walcott’s Fashionable School in Denver. She married Dwight D. “Ike” Eisenhower, an Army lieutenant, in 1916 after a brief court- ship. Mamie entered the White House in January, 1953, with a wealth of experience in meeting and en- tertaining prominent and powerful national and international leaders. She had been the hostess of numerous informal and formal gatherings while Eisenhower was president of Columbia University and aNorthAtlantic Treaty Organization(NATO) commander.She quicklyestablished areputation for running the White House in a firm, efficient, and yet benevolent manner. Herview of being First Lady clearly was to remainlargely in the backgroundand provideher hus- band with personal, but not policy, support. Mamiewas unquestionablysuccessful at this, maintain- ing high public opinion levels throughout Eisenhower’s eight years in office. She became famous for her “Mamie bangs” hairstyle and for favoring pink clothing. However, Mamie fought to overcome personal health problems. Particularly troublesome were a weak heart and an inner-ear malady which made her light-headed and caused her to stagger while walking. This symptom led to gossip that she had a drinking problem. Mamie fought this rumor by declining to drink alcohol in public and withdrawing to her bedroom during bouts of dizziness. The strength of Mamie’s support for her husband was evident during the several medical crises that hesuffered duringhispresidency. Aides noted that sheremainedat hisside and played akey yet private role in ensuring that his recovery progressed according to the physicians’ plan. Mamie left the White House with Eisenhower in 1960 for their retirement home in a farmhouse near Gettysburg, . She and Ike enjoyed a quiet life there entertaining family and friends until his death on March 28, 1969. Mamie maintained as many family traditions as her health permit- ted until her death on November 1, 1979. Robert Dewhirst

norities, and the most destitute were largely ig- ening massive retaliation in case of communist nored—African Americans until the end of the aggression, but who nevertheless followed pol- 1950’s, and the others until the 1960’s.) Advo- icies in many ways more restrained than those cating moderate policies and an economy of of subsequent administrations. In short, Eisen- abundance, Eisenhower rejected both orthodox hower reflected perfectly the temper of the Republicanism and New Deal statism. Instead, times even as he led the country with good he sought an authentic American center, which sense and much prudence. would assure freedom and security by accept- ing the basic economic and social tenets of the A Midwestern Boyhood New Deal, even as he remained a fiscal conser- The future president was born in Denison, vative in most matters. At the same time, Eisen- Texas, on October 14, 1890, the third son of Da- hower was a strident anticommunist who con- vid and Ida Eisenhower. Both his parents were tinued the nation’s basic foreign policy of members of the River Brethren Protestant sect, containment, with the added flourish of threat- descendants of German-born farmers who had

604 American Presidents hower’s attempts to limit the federal role in the crepancies in awarding the contract became development of electric power involved a pro- public, including a conflict of interest and the posalbyEdgarDixonand EugeneYatestobuild failuretoletoutthecontractforpublicbidding. a privately owned and operated generating The Dixon-Yates issue played a role in the plant to supply the power needs of the city of 1954 elections when the Democrats employed Memphis. This would allow the federally the slogan “Nixon, Dixon and Yates” to embar- operated Tennessee Valley Authority (TVA), rass the administration. They might have em- which provided power to Memphis, to divert barrassed the White House even more had not electricity to a plant of the Atomic Energy Com- Memphis announced that it would build its mission (AEC) in Paducah, Kentucky. Eisen- own power plant. Claiming that he favored this hower preferred this option to the construc- type of municipal initiative in the first place, the tion by the TVA of an additional facility to president ordered the AEC to cancel its contract supply the AEC’s needs. In 1954, Eisenhower with the Dixon-Yates combine. When Dixon- instructed the AEC to negotiate a contract with Yates sued to recoup its losses, the administra- Dixon and Yates. The opposition by public tion was placed in the uncomfortable position power adherents to the contract was immense, of having to state that the contract was invalid however, and became even more so when dis- because of a possible conflict of interest in

Eisenhower reacts to cheers during his inauguration ceremony, while Harry S. Truman stands behind him, on January 20, 1953. (Library of Congress)

612 Dwight D. Eisenhower

Excerpts from Dwight D. Eisenhower’s “Atoms for Peace” address to the United Nations General Assembly, December 8, 1953:

The United States knows that if the fearful trend of atomic military buildup can be reversed, this greatest ofdestructive forcescanbedeveloped intoagreat boon,forthe benefit ofallmankind. The United States knows that peaceful power from atomic energy is no dream of the future. That capability, already proved, is here—now—today. Who can doubt, if the entire body of the world’s scientists and engineers had adequate amounts of fissionable material with which to test and de- velop their ideas, that this capability would rapidly be transformed into universal, efficient, and eco- nomic usage. To hasten the day when fear of the atom will begin to disappear from the minds of people, and the governments of the East and West, there are certain steps that can be taken now. I therefore make the following proposals: The Governments principally involved, to the extent permitted by elementary prudence, to begin now and continue to make joint contributions from their stockpiles of normal uranium and fission- able materials to an International Atomic Energy Agency. We would expect that such an agency would be set up under the aegis of the United Nations. . . . I would be prepared to submit to the Congress of the United States, and with every expectation of approval, any such plan that would: First, encourage worldwide investigation into the most effective peacetime uses of fissionable material, and with the certainty that they had all the material needed for the conduct of all experi- ments that were appropriate; Second, begin to diminish the potential destructive power of the world’s atomic stockpiles; Third, allow all peoples of all nations to see that, in this enlightened age, the great powers of the earth, both of the East and of the West, are interested in human aspirations first, rather than in build- ing up the armaments of war; Fourth, open up a new channel for peaceful discussion, and initiate at least a new approach to the many difficult problems that must be solved in both private and public conversations, if the world is to shake off the inertia imposed by fear, and is to make positive progress toward peace. Against the dark background of the atomic bomb, the United States does not wish merely to pre- sent strength, but also the desire and the hope for peace.

Brown v. Topeka: Beginnings of the Civil the president thought that responsibility for Rights Movement civil rights should be left to the individual On the issue of civil rights, the White House’s states, and in his memoirs he later made clear recordwassubstantiallybetter,butnotallthatit that he had little regard for those who “believed might have been. As a general proposition, Ei- that legislation could institute instant moral- senhower believed that every American citizen ity.” was entitled to vote and to equal protection un- In 1954, the Supreme Court under Earl War- der the law. As a military commander in World ren, whom Eisenhower had appointed as chief War II, he had experimented with integrating justice eight months earlier, concluded unani- several army units toward the end of the war, mously in a landmark case, Brown v. Board of Ed- and one of his first acts as president was to order ucation of Topeka, Kansas, that “in the field of desegregation of facilities in federal offices and public education the doctrine of ‘separate but on military bases. At the same time, however, equal’ had no place. Separate educational facili-

615 Time Line Washington 1732, February 11: George Washington is born in Westmoreland County, Virginia. 1755, July 9: After General Edward Braddock’s defeat near Fort Duquesne, Pennsyl- vania, Washington withdraws his defeated army. 1759, January 6: Washington marries Martha Dandridge Custis, the widow of Daniel Parke Custis, in New Kent County, Virginia. 1775, June 15: Congress names Washington as general and commander in chief of the Army of the United Colonies. 1776, March 17: Washington forces the British to evacuate Boston. 1776, August 27: Washington is defeated at the Battle of Long Island. 1776, December 26: Washington defeats the Hessians at the Battle of Trenton. 1777, December 19: The goes into winter quarters at Valley Forge. 1781, October 19: Lord Cornwallis surrenders to Washington at Yorktown. 1783, September 3: A peace treaty ends the Revolutionary War. 1783, December 23: Washington resigns his commission and returns to private life. 1787, May 25: Washington is unanimously elected president of the Constitutional Convention. 1789, February 4: Washington is unanimously elected the first president of the United States. 1789, April 30: Washington is inaugurated at Federal Hall in New York City. 1789, July 4: The first tariff act places duties on imports. 1789, August 4: The first federal bond is issued to fund domestic and state debt. 1790, March 1: The first U.S. census is authorized. 1790, July 16: Congress locates the national capital in the District of Columbia. 1791, March 4: Vermont is admitted as the fourteenth state. 1791, December 15: The first ten amendments to the Constitution (the Bill of Rights) are rati- fied. 1792, June 1: Kentucky is admitted as the fifteenth state. 1792, December 5: Washington is unanimously reelected president. 1793, March 4: Washington is inaugurated in Philadelphia for a second term. 1794, July-November: The Whiskey Rebellion occurs in western Pennsylvania. 1796, June 1: Tennessee is admitted as the sixteenth state. 1796, September 17: Washington issues his farewell address. 1799, December 14: George Washington dies at Mount Vernon, Virginia.

J. Adams 1735, October 30: John Adams is born in Braintree, Massachusetts. 1764, October 25: Adams marries Abigail Smith in Weymouth, Massachusetts.

850 Cabinet Members by Administration

Washington

Secretary of State Secretary of War Thomas Jefferson (1789-1794) (1789-1795) (1794-1795) (1795) Timothy Pickering (1795-1797) James McHenry (1796-1797) Secretary of the Treasury Attorney General Alexander Hamilton (1789-1795) Edmund Randolph (1789-1794) Oliver Wolcott, Jr. (1795-1797) William Bradford (1794-1795) Charles Lee (1795-1797)

J. Adams

Secretary of State Secretary of War Timothy Pickering (1797-1800) James McHenry (1797-1800) (1800-1801) (1800-1801) Secretary of the Treasury Secretary of the Navy Oliver Wolcott, Jr. (1797-1801) (1798-1801) Samuel Dexter (1801) Attorney General Charles Lee (1797-1801)

Jefferson

Secretary of State Secretary of the Navy James Madison (1801-1809) Benjamin Stoddert (1801) Secretary of the Treasury Robert Smith (1801-1809) Samuel Dexter (1801) Attorney General (1801-1809) Levi Lincoln (1801-1805) Secretary of War John Breckinridge (1805-1807) (1801-1809) Caesar Rodney (1807-1809)

894 Museums, Historic Sites, and Websites

Editor’s Note: Among the following are homes of presidents or presidential couples, before or after their years in office. Many of these places are mentioned in the text of The American Presidents, and all are open to the public. The first four listings contain information on all or most of the presidents or First Ladies; the sites listed thereafter are president-specific and appear in alphabetical order by president’s name. All websites were visited by editors of Salem Press in October 2015.

General Resources on Presidents and First Ladies

American President Website: National Archives and Records www.americanpresident.org Administration Presidential Libraries Website: www.archives.gov/presidential- The American Presidents Website: libraries www.americanpresidents.org/places (Includes links to presidential places for National First Ladies’ Library each president) 331 South Market Avenue Canton, OH 44702 Ph.: (330) 452-0876 Website: www.firstladies.org

Presidential Museums, Historic Sites, and Websites

JOHN ADAMS AND Massachusetts Historical Society 1154 Boylston Street Adams National Historical Park Boston, MA 02215 135 Adams Street Ph.: (617) 536-1608 Quincy, MA 02169 Website: www.masshist.org Ph.: (617) 770-1175 (visitor information) (Contains the Adams Papers Collection) Website: www.nps.gov/adam (Includes home of John and Abigail Adams)

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