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Hydrogen Fuel Cell Road Vehicles and Their Infrastructure: an Option Towards an Environmentally Friendly Energy Transition

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Hydrogen Fuel Cell Road Vehicles and Their Infrastructure: an Option Towards an Environmentally Friendly Energy Transition energies Article Hydrogen Fuel Cell Road Vehicles and Their Infrastructure: An Option towards an Environmentally Friendly Energy Transition Olivier Bethoux 1,2 1 Laboratoire de Génie Electrique et Electronique de Paris, CNRS, Group Sorbonne Université, 75252 Paris, France; [email protected]; Tel.: +331-69-85-16-56 2 Laboratoire de Génie Electrique et Electronique de Paris, CNRS, CentraleSupélec, Université Paris-Saclay, 91192 Gif-sur-Yvette, France Received: 22 September 2020; Accepted: 17 November 2020; Published: 23 November 2020 Abstract: The latest pre-production vehicles on the market show that the major technical challenges posed by integrating a fuel cell system (FCS) within a vehicle—compactness, safety, autonomy, reliability, cold starting—have been met. Regarding the ongoing maturity of fuel cell systems dedicated to road transport, the present article examines the advances still needed to move from a functional but niche product to a mainstream consumer product. It seeks to address difficulties not covered by more traditional innovation approaches. At least in long-distance heavy-duty vehicles, fuel cell vehicles (FCVs) are going to play a key role in the path to zero-emissions in one or two decades. Hence the present study also addresses the structuring elements of the complete chain: the latter includes the production, storage and distribution of hydrogen. Green hydrogen appears to be one of the potential uses of renewable energies. The greener the electricity is, the greater the advantage for hydrogen since it permits to economically store large energy quantities on seasonal rhythms. Moreover, natural hydrogen might also become an economic reality pushing the fuel cell vehicle to be a competitive and environmentally friendly alternative to the battery electric vehicle. Based on its own functional benefits for on board systems, hydrogen in combination with the fuel cell will achieve a large-scale use of hydrogen in road transport, as soon as renewable energies become more widespread. Its market will expand from large driving range and heavy load vehicles. Keywords: hydrogen production; hydrogen storage; hydrogen transportation; hydrogen refuelling station; fuel cell system; fuel cell vehicle; energy transition; future prospects 1. Introduction Fuel cell (FC) applied research in recent decades and fuel cell system (FCS) deployments in niche markets have significantly advanced proton exchange membrane fuel cell (PEMFC) technology. Examples include space flight auxiliary power units (APUs), silent electric generators, hydrogen-powered domestic boiler for heat and electric micro cogeneration, forklifts. Progress is now sufficient to integrate FCS to provide traction power in road vehicles. Several demonstrators have been tested and several manufacturers are proposing successful integration in pre-production FC Vehicle (FCV). Over the last years, the automotive FCS estimated cost at high production volume has decreased dramatically. Considering 500,000 systems⁄yr, FCS cost was assessed at $124/kWelec in 2006 while in 2017 this value was reduced to $45/kWelec. It is quite close from the cost target enabling FCVs to compete with internal combustion engine (ICE) vehicles (i.e., $30⁄kWelec)[1]. Many commercially available direct hydrogen FC electric vehicles are light vehicles. Single on-board FCS power reaches up to 100 kW [2]. Since the FCV market is also focused on Energies 2020, 13, 6132; doi:10.3390/en13226132 www.mdpi.com/journal/energies Energies 2020, 13, 6132 2 of 27 high load capacities, the same manufacturers are looking to extend the developed products to heavy industrial vehicles such as trucks and buses (Figure1). In this context, the most expensive part (the FC and to a lesser extent the tank) can easily be achieved by combinations of proven elementary building blocks. This approach is achieved with a total decoupling of the energy and power aspects. To reach the specified driving range, the FCV has to embed the adequate number of dihydrogen tanks. To achieve the rated traction power, the option is to electrically connect the appropriate number of FCSs. In this way, FCS developments are easily paid off and FCS production costs reduced. Moreover, combining several FCSs gives new degrees of freedom in their management since the overall power comes from several partial powers. This architecture makes it possible to power splitting strategies in order to increase the overall efficiency over the cycle [3] and/or the lifetime [4], but also to ensure the continuity of service by operating in degraded mode [5,6]. Therefore, the designer has a powerful tool to push the limits of use and reach the most demanding requirements of the automotive application. Among the many examples of heavy-duty vehicles currently being deployed is the Businova bus developed by the French manufacturer Safra in association with Symbio and Michelin groups (Figure1a). This bus has a capacity of around 100 seats and is powered by a range extender architecture [2]. The 250 kW drive train is powered both by a 132 kWh lithium-ion battery and a 30 kW FCS drawing its hydrogen from four tanks carrying up to 30 kg of gaseous H2 at 350 bar. In this implementation the volume constraint was avoided by placing the tanks on the roof of the bus. On the other hand, Hyundai chose a mid-power architecture for its 33-tonne Xcient FC heavy goods vehicle (HGV) [2,7]. Hyundai connects two 95 kW FCSs in parallel and carries seven 700 kg tanks capable of storing 35 kg of H2. As shown in Figure1b, these tanks are located at the rear of the truck’s cab, in the space left free between the tractor and the trailer. Note that the entire hydrogen storage system (including the tanks) will be produced from 2021 onwards by the French equipment manufacturer Faurecia. From the point of view of use, the on-board energy allows the vehicle to travel 400 km since the average consumption of this type of vehicle is considered to be between 1 1 1,200 Wh.km− and 1400 Wh.km− . Note that although the FCS generates the main energy, the auxiliary battery remains mandatory to maintain a high cruising speed when driving uphill. Indeed, at a 1 cruising speed of 80 km.h− , each additional % of the grade implies a 100 kW increase in wheel power. The Xcient combination of FCS, H2 tank and battery is 1 tonne, whereas for the same use 3 tons of lithium-ion battery would have been embedded. In addition to a lower ownership cost, this means that the load capacity is increased by 2 tons compared to the same pure battery truck. As the load capacity of such truck is around 60% of its total mass, this represents a 10% gain in payload, not to mention the other aspects: the high capital expenditure (CAPEX) of a battery electric vehicle (BEV) equipped with a 3-ton Lithium-ion battery, its use limited by long recharging times (non-productive downtime) and the heavy demand on the electrical network to draw very high power locally and punctually from the electricity grid. Based on the aforementioned Businova bus, the 30 kg on-board hydrogen enables a driving range higher than 300 km. The hydrogen refuelling time is lower than 15 min. Both characteristics are in line with the bus functionality. Alternatively, a similar BEV would need at least a battery pack with 850 kWh charging capacity. Even taking out the common constraints linked to battery thermal management, the possible rated current at the grid feed point and global grid stability, fully recharging the battery would require a rated power higher than 3.4 MW. This explains, amongst other things, why electricity companies are developing new distribution business models which determines kWh cost on the basis of peak usage (assessed on a few minutes range) making network punctual charging extremely expensive. In that respect, heavy road transportation and cars with intensive-use (e.g., taxis and delivery vans) are identified as the FCV key sectors in the future zero emission vehicles market [2]. Beyond these important points related to the functionality and social acceptability of the product constituted by the single vehicle, it is important to consider the complete system from the point of view of its life cycle. Such life cycle assessment (LCA) should include the energy use, the greenhouse Energies 2020, 13, 6132 3 of 27 gas (GHG) emissions, the water use and any pollutant flows required to manufacture, use and dispose Energies 2020, 13, x FOR PEER REVIEW 3 of 27 both the vehicle and its energy infrastructure. (a) (b) Figure 1. Development of heavy FCV. (a) Hydrogen bus from Safra (Businova) (b) Truck 33T from Figure 1. Development of heavy FCV. (a) Hydrogen bus from Safra (Businova) (b) Truck 33T from Hyundai (Xcient-FC). Hyundai (Xcient-FC). LCA methodology relies on a comprehensive footprint analysis of each involved process. To derive LCA methodology relies on a comprehensive footprint analysis of each involved process. To fully relevant conclusions, LCA inputs are well-documented data sets which may be difficult to find derive fully relevant conclusions, LCA inputs are well-documented data sets which may be difficult in the case of new processes that are still poorly established. It could lead to inconsistent outcomes to find in the case of new processes that are still poorly established. It could lead to inconsistent difficult to interpret [8–10]. Basically, all the studies agree that the manufacture and disposal stages outcomes difficult to interpret [8–10]. Basically, all the studies agree that the manufacture and of both BEV and FCV have substantially higher footprints than those of conventional gasoline (G) disposal stages of both BEV and FCV have substantially higher footprints than those of conventional or Diesel (D) internal combustion engine vehicles (ICEVs). The benefit of using an electric vehicle gasoline (G) or Diesel (D) internal combustion engine vehicles (ICEVs).
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