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Computer History a Look Back Contents Computer History A look back Contents 1 Computer 1 1.1 Etymology ................................................. 1 1.2 History ................................................... 1 1.2.1 Pre-twentieth century ....................................... 1 1.2.2 First general-purpose computing device ............................. 3 1.2.3 Later analog computers ...................................... 3 1.2.4 Digital computer development .................................. 4 1.2.5 Mobile computers become dominant ............................... 7 1.3 Programs ................................................. 7 1.3.1 Stored program architecture ................................... 8 1.3.2 Machine code ........................................... 8 1.3.3 Programming language ...................................... 9 1.3.4 Fourth Generation Languages ................................... 9 1.3.5 Program design .......................................... 9 1.3.6 Bugs ................................................ 9 1.4 Components ................................................ 10 1.4.1 Control unit ............................................ 10 1.4.2 Central processing unit (CPU) .................................. 11 1.4.3 Arithmetic logic unit (ALU) ................................... 11 1.4.4 Memory .............................................. 11 1.4.5 Input/output (I/O) ......................................... 12 1.4.6 Multitasking ............................................ 12 1.4.7 Multiprocessing .......................................... 13 1.5 Networking and the Internet ........................................ 13 1.5.1 Computer architecture paradigms ................................. 14 1.6 Misconceptions .............................................. 14 1.6.1 Unconventional computing .................................... 14 1.7 Future ................................................... 14 1.8 Further topics ............................................... 15 i ii CONTENTS 1.8.1 Artificial intelligence ....................................... 15 1.9 Hardware ................................................. 15 1.9.1 History of computing hardware .................................. 15 1.9.2 Other hardware topics ....................................... 15 1.10 Software .................................................. 15 1.11 Languages ................................................. 15 1.11.1 Firmware ............................................. 15 1.12 Types of computers ............................................ 15 1.12.1 Based on uses ........................................... 15 1.12.2 Based on sizes ........................................... 15 1.13 Input Devices ............................................... 15 1.14 Output Devices .............................................. 16 1.15 Professions and organizations ....................................... 16 1.16 See also .................................................. 16 1.17 Notes ................................................... 16 1.18 References ................................................. 19 1.19 External links ............................................... 20 2 Analog computer 21 2.1 Setup ................................................... 21 2.2 Timeline of analog computers ....................................... 22 2.2.1 Precursors ............................................. 22 2.2.2 Modern era ............................................ 23 2.3 Electronic analog computers ........................................ 24 2.4 Analog–digital hybrids .......................................... 25 2.5 Implementations ............................................. 25 2.5.1 Mechanical analog computers .................................. 25 2.5.2 Electronic analog computers ................................... 27 2.6 Components ............................................... 27 2.7 Limitations ................................................ 28 2.8 Decline .................................................. 28 2.9 Resurgence in VLSI technology ..................................... 28 2.10 Practical examples ............................................. 29 2.11 Real computers .............................................. 29 2.12 See also .................................................. 29 2.13 Notes ................................................... 29 2.14 References ................................................. 30 2.15 External links ............................................... 30 CONTENTS iii 3 Personal computer 31 3.1 History .................................................. 31 3.1.1 Market and sales ......................................... 33 3.1.2 Average selling price ....................................... 35 3.2 Terminology ............................................... 35 3.3 Types ................................................... 35 3.3.1 Stationary ............................................. 35 3.3.2 Portable ............................................. 37 3.4 Hardware ................................................. 39 3.4.1 Computer case .......................................... 40 3.4.2 Power supply unit ......................................... 41 3.4.3 Processor ............................................. 41 3.4.4 Motherboard ........................................... 41 3.4.5 Main memory .......................................... 42 3.4.6 Hard disk ............................................. 42 3.4.7 Visual display unit ........................................ 42 3.4.8 Video card ............................................ 43 3.4.9 Keyboard ............................................. 43 3.4.10 Mouse .............................................. 43 3.4.11 Other components ........................................ 44 3.5 Software ................................................. 45 3.5.1 Operating system ......................................... 45 3.5.2 Applications ........................................... 46 3.5.3 Gaming .............................................. 47 3.6 Toxicity .................................................. 47 3.6.1 Electronic waste regulation .................................... 47 3.7 See also .................................................. 47 3.8 Notes ................................................... 47 3.9 References ................................................ 48 3.10 Further reading .............................................. 50 3.11 External links ............................................... 50 3.12 Text and image sources, contributors, and licenses ............................ 51 3.12.1 Text ................................................ 51 3.12.2 Images .............................................. 55 3.12.3 Content license .......................................... 58 Chapter 1 Computer “Computer technology” and “Computer system” redirect 1.1 Etymology here. For the company, see Computer Technology Lim- ited. For other uses, see Computer (disambiguation) and The first known use of the word “computer” was in 1613 in Computer system (disambiguation). a book called The Yong Mans Gleanings by English writer Richard Braithwait: “I haue read the truest computer of A computer is a general purpose device that can be Times, and the best Arithmetician that euer breathed, and programmed to carry out a set of arithmetic or logical op- he reduceth thy dayes into a short number.” It referred to a erations automatically. Since a sequence of operations can person who carried out calculations, or computations. The be readily changed, the computer can solve more than one word continued with the same meaning until the middle of kind of problem. the 20th century. From the end of the 19th century the word began to take on its more familiar meaning, a machine that Conventionally, a computer consists of at least one process- carries out computations.[3] ing element, typically a central processing unit (CPU), and some form of memory. The processing element carries out arithmetic and logic operations, and a sequencing and con- trol unit can change the order of operations in response to 1.2 History stored information. Peripheral devices allow information to be retrieved from an external source, and the result of Main article: History of computing hardware operations saved and retrieved. Mechanical analog computers started appearing in the first century and were later used in the medieval era for astro- nomical calculations. In World War II, mechanical analog 1.2.1 Pre-twentieth century computers were used for specialized military applications such as calculating torpedo aiming. During this time the Devices have been used to aid computation for thousands of first electronic digital computers were developed. Orig- years, mostly using one-to-one correspondence with fingers. inally they were the size of a large room, consuming as The earliest counting device was probably a form of tally much power as several hundred modern personal comput- stick. Later record keeping aids throughout the Fertile ers (PCs).[1] Crescent included calculi (clay spheres, cones, etc.) which represented counts of items, probably livestock or grains, Modern computers based on integrated circuits are millions [4][5] to billions of times more capable than the early machines, sealed in hollow unbaked clay containers. The use of and occupy a fraction of the space.[2] Computers are small counting rods is one example. enough to fit into mobile devices, and mobile computers can The abacus was initially used for arithmetic
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