84 The Defects of the System of Mandates By HERBERT ADAMS GIBBONS, PH.D. Princeton, N. J.

mandatory scheme was un- and Great Britain as colonies. How HEdoubtedly proposed by Mr. Wil- could Italy argue that her Allies had son with an altruistic end in view. It increased their African possessions? was adopted, however, by the Euro- The former German colonies were pean statesmen as a scheme to disguise simply &dquo;a sacred trust.&dquo; under a cloak of virtuous self-abnega- The French and British Govern- tion the intentions of the conquerors ments have never at any time, either of Germany to divide among them- before or after the signing of the Treaty selves Germany’s overseas possessions. of Versailles, taken the mandate idea In his recent book, Mr. Lansing at- seriously. It is not difficult to prove tempts to explain Mr. Wilson’s infatu- this assertion. It is based upon hard, ation on the mandate question by a cold facts, of which the Wilson Admin- disconcerting analysis of his former istration did not seem to be aware until chief’s mental processes. Mr. Lansing the end of the year 1920. The proph- believes that &dquo;a sufficient and very ecy of Isaiah about &dquo; seeing ye shall see practical reason&dquo; for the willingness of and shall not perceive,&dquo; was certainly Clemenceau and Lloyd George to ac- fulfilled at Paris, not only in regard to quiesce in the mandatory plan was the former German colonies in Africa that in this way &dquo;Germany lost her and the Pacific, but also in regard to territorial assets, which might have the Ottoman races. The mandatory greatly reduced her financial debt to articles of the Covenant were being the Allies, while the latter obtained the violated at the moment of drafting, and German colonial possessions without during the two months before the the loss of any of their claims for in- was signed. Mr. demnity.&dquo; Wilson should have been aware of the An additional and equally compel- intents of his associates. As the man- lipg reason might have been adduced datory question is now becoming an by Mr. Lansing had he been aware of international issue, through the notes the embarrassment and alarm of the of Secretaries Colby and Hughes, it is French and British premiers over important for the American people to Italy’s insistence upon the fulfillment realize that the American Government of a clearly worded article in the secret has no reason to be surprised at the treaty of 1915. One of the promises attitude of the French and British and exacted by Italy as the price of her Japanese Governments. intervention in the war was &dquo; adequate MANDATORY POLICY OF THE ALLIED territorial compensation&dquo; in case the PREMIERS war should bring &dquo; an increase in the colonial possessions of and Concealment of mandatory inten- Great Britain in Africa.&dquo; President tions, and denial of the authority of Wilsonwas the deus ex machina. Togo, the League of Nations have been the Kamerun, German East Africa, Ger- consistent policy of the Allied Premi- man Southwest Africa, belonged to the ers. Since April, 1919, the allotment League of Nations. The Treaty of of the mandates, the drawing of bound- Versailles did not give them to France aries and the rules for governing man-

Downloaded from ann.sagepub.com at WESTERN OREGON UNIVERSITY on June 4, 2015 85 dated territories have been matters of The Anglo-Belgium agreement trans- direct negotiation between the powers ferred an inland portion of German in actual possession of German and East Africa to Belgium, thus proving Ottoman territories at the time of the that the British and Belgian Govern- Armistice. These powers did not wait ments did not believe either that the until the Council of the League was title of the conquered territory was formed. The residuary trustee idea is vested in the League of Nations or in a farce, since the Entente Powers are the five principal Allied or associated interested in the League of Nations powers, or that a former German colo- only as a convenient instrument to use ny as a mandated territory should be in furthering their own foreign policies. preserved in its territorial integrity. This is natural. Who can deny that The world, and this includes the United the authority and activities of the States Government, has never been League in all matters that count are told of the terms on which Great Brit- under the direct control of the Allied ain agreed to divide the former German Premiers, who think of the League colonies in the Pacific with Japan and simply as a Doctor Jekyl-a false front what other terms were reached concern- to shield their Mr. Hyde doings? ing the German islands south of the The mandates for the former Ger- equator and German Southwest Africa. man colonies and The Ottoman Empire had been sim- were decided upon before the Cove- ilarly taken care of by secret under- nant of the League of Nations was standing, concluded in 1915 and re- adopted. The ownership of these ter- vised at the instance of Russia in 1916. ritories had been a matter of secret The facts concerning the Sykes-Picot negotiations among the Entente Pow- agreement of 1916 between Great Brit- ers during the war. Mr. Wilson’s ain and France, and concerning the intervention at Paris changed nothing. British pledges to Zionists and Arabs, Mr. Wilson was humored to the extent must have filtered through the press to of being allowed to invent a new name. the White House long before Mr. Wil- That was all. &dquo;What’s in a name?&dquo; son sailed for Paris. These agreements The mandates for the former German should have demonstrated to the Amer- colonies were allotted to those who held ican negotiator-I use the singular- them by those who were holding them. the absurdity of Article XX of the On the day that the Treaty was handed Covenant, but if Mr. Wilson needed to the German delegates Mr. Wilson another warning of the intention of his agreed to recognize that a de facto sys- colleagues to give him the shadow while tem already existed. He seems to have they kept the substance, he had it in remonstrated only on the question of their failure to comply with the &dquo;wish- Yap, and that reservation was not es of the inhabitants &dquo;-I am quoting written into the minutes. France and from the text of the Treaty of Versailles. Great Britain had already made an THE OTTOMAN MANDATE agreement to swap lands, when Bel- gium kicked about being frozen out. It has been frequently asserted by Her statesmen appealed to Great Brit- apologists for the League and Mr. ain as the owner of German East Africa Wilson that the United States was and not through the League of Nations. excluded in a share in the Ottoman King Albert flew to Paris and an agree- mandates of our own volition. This ment was reached without thought or is not true. France and Great Britain reference to this residuary trustee. never suggested, even indirectly, that

Downloaded from ann.sagepub.com at WESTERN OREGON UNIVERSITY on June 4, 2015 86 we participate in the inheritance of the unprovided for contingency has arisen Ottoman Empire in any other way at the present time. The fault does than in relieving them of the burden not lie at the door of the Allied Pre- of the barren and mountainous portion miers. The League of Nations was of , cut off from the sea and presumably an American conception, from the regions of Armenia that were and the mandate scheme was a con- rich in cotton, copper and oil; and in cession to the American President. regard to this thing may I say The sponsor of the mandate idea did that I myself have seen with my own not know how to be its defender. eyes the report on this question of The Colby notes of November 20, General Franchet d’Esperey to the 19~0, to Great Britain onMesopotamia, French Foreign Office. and of February ~l,19~1, to the League Article XX provides that &dquo;members Council on the former German colonies of the League severally agree that this are admirable documents, and present, Covenant is accepted as abrogating all with fidelity, the American point of obligations or understandings inter se view. This is proved by the fact that which are inconsistent with the terms the Harding Administration has con- thereof, and solemnly undertake that tinued the same policy, and Secretary they will not hereafter enter any en- Hughes follows the same line of argu- gagements inconsistent with the terms ment. But are we not crying over thereof.&dquo; spilled milk? It is the statesmen’s In justification of Mr. Wilson one duty to care for the interests of his might advance the argument that he country at the moment the danger relied on this stipulation, to prevent arises, or, better still, to foresee and secret understandings, from nullifying provide against all possible attempts of the stipulations of Article XX. We others to take advantage of his country. must give Mr. Wilson justice in this The &dquo;equal concern and inseparable matter, and we can believe that he interest with other principal powers in provided for it, but international diplo- the overseas possessions of Germany, matic language must be specific. &dquo; In- and concededly, an equal voice to the consistent with the terms thereof&dquo; disposition,&dquo; ought to have been means nothing, unless &dquo;the terms claimed by the Unitetl States before thereof&dquo; are explicit and comprehen- hostilities ended, or, at the very latest, sive. While the spirit of Article XX before the Peace Conference opened. is unmistakable, its language is in Good statesmanship would have places vague and childish, undoubtedly prompted a concise setting forth of intentionally so. Although it is de- our equal concern and inseparable clared that &dquo;The well-being and devel- interest in every material advantage to opment of such peoples form a sacred be gained by the Treaty as a prelimi- trust of civilization,&dquo; the open door is nary participation in the negotiation of promised only to members of the the Treaty. There is nothing more League, and yet Article CXIX pro- pathetic than the use of that word vides that, &dquo;Germany renounces in &dquo;concededly&dquo; in a document which favor of the principal Allied and asso- shows that &dquo;concededly&dquo; is not there. ciated powers all her rights and titles AMERICA’S MISTAKE over her overseas possessions.&dquo; Un- less all five powers are members of I know that some generous, high the League, Articles XXII and CXIX minded Americans are bitterly opposed contradict each other. Exactly this to what I have said. They say that it

Downloaded from ann.sagepub.com at WESTERN OREGON UNIVERSITY on June 4, 2015 87 would have been beneath our dignity for granted that the United States between our comrades in arms and our- would ratify blindly whatever Treaties selves had any such course been fol- that were put over? It would have lowed. The idea is beautiful but im- been fair to our associates, as well as practical. Just how impractical it is ourselves, had we told the European we know, for the simple reason that it statesmen that American ratification has been tried. Americans, with their of the Treaties was contingent upon heads in the clouds and thinking of what the Treaties contained. the war as holy and of our associates We are told that the League of Na- as angels, forget that Great Britain, tions is our work, but that we have not France, Russia and Japan did not feel entered it; that the mandate scheme is it improper to enter an understanding our plan, but that we want no mandate with one another as to what should be ourselves. The American President the share of each in case of victory. was not only father of the League but Italy held up her Allies twice for an he was responsible for the adoption of increased share in Russia during critical the Smuts suggestions that the League periods of the war. Japan wrung from of Nations be the trustee for the former others the promise of Shantung when German colonies and the liberated por- she saw that the United States was going tions of the Ottoman Empire. to come in. Roumania and bar- The new administration has a pitiful gained with the Allies-they began to legacy of error and inconsistency to inquire about the future of Africa as handicap it in upholding a constructive early as 1916. While the Battle of the policy on the mandate question. But Somme was on, Great Britain and Mr. Wilson is not alone to blame for France were dangerously near friction the failure of the United States to pro- in a discussion about their respective tect at Paris American interests in the shares of the Ottoman Empire. After former German colonies and the Otto- the Armistice the storm broke. man Empire. American public opin- Frank statements of public opinion in ion has always been hostile to the their respective countries on a variety policy of economic imperialism, be- of questions were put through the cause such a policy would entail send- Paris clearing house by the representa- ing armies overseas. Was not the tives of the victorious nations. Why mandate idea a possible means of con- was it not made clear to our associates serving America’s interests in the con- that American disinterestedness was quests without offering to assume obli- contingent upon their disinterested- gations of a character that Mr. Wilson ness and that equality of opportunity knew the American people would repu- and treatment for American commerce diate ? It is easy to make one man our with the commerce of every other na- scapegoat, and it is as dangerous as it tion in all territories that changed is easy. hands as a result of the war we helped to win, would be insisted upon? Fre- TWO YEARS OF MANDATORY CONTROL quently Messrs. Lloyd George, Clem- BY ENTENTE POWERS enceau, and Mr. Wilson also, stated There is much to wax indignant that British, Italian or French public about and to denounce in the way of opinion would not stand this or that self-appointed mandatory powers al- solution of the problem. Why was lotting to themselves the mandates, American public opinion not taken and in the way they have exercised into consideration? Why was it taken them during the first two years of the

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League of Nations experiment. We was made that the Entente powers can find a true bill against the Entente were obligated to stand by their prom- Powers on the following counts: (1) ise to one another, which antedated the conspiring with each other to thwart covenant. Not only this, but addi- the spirit of the mandate plan by vio- tional secret agreements were entered lating the agreement and solemn under- into. Witness the treaty of August, taking of the first paragraph of Article 1920, between Great Britain, France, XX of the Covenant; (2) ignoring the and Italy, dividing the liberated Otto- Covenant stipulations concerning Class man territories into exclusive spheres &dquo;A&dquo; mandates; (3) refusing to recog- of influence. Witness the answer of nize the distinction they themselves the Entente powers to the United made in Article XXII between Class States in answer to our protest con- &dquo;B&dquo; and Class &dquo; C &dquo; mandates; (4) cerning the island of Yap. anticipating by secret agreement the (2) Violation of Covenant stipula- provision of Article XXII that the tions concerning Class A mandates. &dquo; degree of authority, control or admin- Article XXII declares: istration to be exercised the man- by Certain communities datory shall be explicitly defined in formerly belonging to the Turkish Empire have reached a stage each case by the Council.&dquo; of development where their existence as On the first three counts the facts to independent nations can be provisionally substantiate them are so well known recognized subject to the rendering of ad- and so thoroughly established that ministrative advice and assistance by a none can deny them. On the fourth Mandatory until such time as they are count the evidence is as yet circum- able to stand alone. The wishes of these stantial. The council is completely communities must be a principal considera- under the control of the premiers of tion in the selection of the Mandatory. Great Britain and France. Because Great Britain and France have been of the of favors, members of the hope for two in in council have not engaged years campaigns yet protested against and with being confronted with f aits accomplis Mesopotamia, Cilicia, Syria, disastrous results to as by the British and French premiers. themselves well as to the inhabitants of these countries. As it is profitless to enter into specu- lations, I shall deal only with the first No attempt whatever has been made three counts. to consult the inhabitants as to the (1) Conspiracy to thwart the spirit of choice of the mandatory placed over tlze man.date plan by violation of Article them, nor has there been any &dquo;render- of XX. Mandates were to be, in the ing administrative advice and assist- language of the covenant, &dquo;a sacred ance.&dquo; The British and French Gov- trust of civilization.&dquo; Secret treaties ernments have negotiated between and understandings were to be abro- themselves boundaries of the territo- ries gated. But the Entente powers dis- they coveted and intended to hold tributed all the mandates in conformity and exploit, with no consideration for with bargains made during the war. ethnographic frontiers. The existence When protests were made by the peo- of former Ottoman communities &dquo;as ples who were thus disposed of without independent nations&dquo; has not been their knowledge or consent, and the &dquo;provisionally recognized.&dquo; Syria has text of Article XXII was cited by races been artificially divided between France who found that they had simply gone and Great Britain, and the Palestin- from Scylla to Charybdis, the answer ians have seen an alien regime, which

Downloaded from ann.sagepub.com at WESTERN OREGON UNIVERSITY on June 4, 2015 89 threatens their existence, foisted upon League, and the &dquo;open door&dquo; is prom- them by force. ised only to members of the League. The story of the betrayal of the But if we do wax indignant, if we in Cilicia by the French, do remind the Entente powers that of the repudiation of the pledges of we have a 20 per cent interest in General Maude in Mesopotamia by these mandated territories, if we do the British, and of the intimidation of call the mandatories back to the orig- the Syrians by the French is a heart- inal conception of the mandates as rending one, the antithesis of what the &dquo; a sacred trust of civilization,&dquo; we are world fondly hoped would happen after going to find our recriminations and a war fought in defense of small nations our claims a boomerang. We shall and to make the world safe for democ- come down to earth with a thud. The racy. One can not believe that Brit- Entente Powers have as good a case ish and French public opinion is ac- against us as we have against them. quainted with the sad exploits of their soldiers in the Near East-exploits WILL AMERICA T AKE THE RESPONSI- BILITY OF A MANDATE which have tarnished the four years of glorious fighting in a righteous cause. If we are indignant over the way Few Armenians are left to tell the tale. they are handling the mandates, are Arabs and Hedjazians curse the day we ready to step into Syria or Mesopo- they lent aid to the Entente. Syrians, tamia or any part of Africa and try ourr Christians, and Moslems alike long for hand? Mr. Balfour said at the first the days of Turkish rule. League assembly that it was incon- (3) Class B mandates are considered ceivable to expect Great Britain to by the mandatories as integral parts of take a mandate without the hope of their territories. I have already spoken gettmg something tangible and exclu- of the rectification of frontiers in West sive out of it. Unless we are willing Africa reciprocally by British and to go with an altruistic end in view into French, and of Lord Milner’s deal the mandate business, have we any with Belgium in giving away a portion tenable grounds for objecting to Mr. of German East Africa. American Balfour’s point of view? If we say missionaries report that there is no that we have a 20 per cent interest &dquo;freedom of conscience and religion,&dquo; in the mandates and that we expect as Article XXII stipulates, and I have to be consulted about everything that definite knowledge both of &dquo;the estab- concerns them, the Entente powers lishment of fortifications &dquo; and of &dquo;mili- can also answer that we have also a tary training of the natives for other 20 per cent interest in the responsi- than police purposes and the defense bilities. In the beginning they hoped of territories,&dquo; both of which are for- that we would accept responsibilities bidden by Article XXII. To all in- without privileges, but now that they tents and purposes the Class B man- find that we want privileges without dates are annexations. Great Britain responsibilities, they may be ready to and France have added to their colo- give us our 80 per cent of the responsi- nial empires. Germany, whom French bilities and privileges together. If I influence will keep out of the League, were a British statesman I would offer. is by non-membership in the League the American Government the admin- deprived of resuming business with istration of the Mesopotamian man- her former colonies. The United date, in accordance with Mr. Colby’s States is also not a member of the note of November 20th. Are we pre-

Downloaded from ann.sagepub.com at WESTERN OREGON UNIVERSITY on June 4, 2015 90 pared for this master stroke of British hands, they have done their best to diplomacy? assume this trust of civilization. We If we keep crying out that mandates have never offered to do our part; we are a sacred trust of civilization, the have claimed no share in this sacred Entente premiers may tell us how trust of civilization. grieved and shocked the British, In our thinking on international French, Italians and Japanese are over affairs we Americans are singularly our wholly inexplicable selfishness. simple-minded. Our attitude in the Burdened with debts, exhausted by a mandate question proves it. We must far more formidable military effort share in the responsibilities or waive than we were called upon to make, the privileges. If we keep up our confronted with serious post-bellum present attitude I fear our former problems at home, and still with the comrades in arms have the right to German problem unsolved on their think that we are either knaves or fools.

Mandates: America’s Opportunity By JAMES G. McDONALD Chairman, Executive Committee of the Foreign Policy Association fortunate enough to be at that League supervision over mandates IJL WASGeneva during the first half of the was solely a matter for the Council and meeting of the Assembly, after having not for the Assembly. Whether this spent a couple of months going about was a desire to maintain inviolate the Western Europe. I came to Geneva, prerogatives of the Council, or whether therefore, with an interesting back- it was actuated by another and less ground of opinion from many states credible motive, I do not attempt to and peoples. say, but certainly this policy on the It became evident early in the part of the conservative leaders created Assembly that the question of man- a very bad impression, especially when dates was going to be very important; the Council went so far as to refuse to that it was going to be one of the test allow the members of the Assembly’s subjects before this first world &dquo;parlia- Committee on Mandates to see the text ment.&dquo; The Assembly soon divided, of certain of the mandates unless the as we say in parliamentary language, members of that committee agreed in between the liberals and the conserva- advance not to refer to these texts in tives, and upon no issue did they their published report to the Assembly. divide more than on the sharply ques- THE COMMITTEE’S REPORT tion of mandates. On no other issue were the liberal leaders-men like Lord Despite this opposition, the Assem- Robert Cecil and Dr. Nansen-able to bly’s committee investigated the man- secure anything like the enthusiastic date question in great detail and made support they received in bearding the a report, the chief provisions of which Council in its &dquo;dog in the manger&dquo; are succinctly given in Mr. Myers’11 policy in reference to this problem. article. I need therefore not repeat The conservative leaders, particularly them. The importance of that report Mr. Balfour and 112r. Bourgeois and lies in the courage and frankness with Mr. Viviani, were determined to insist 1 See page 74.

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