Handbook of Ecological Restoration: Restoration in Practice, Volume 2 Edited by Martin R

Cambridge University Press 978-0-521-04775-3 - Handbook of Ecological Restoration: Restoration in Practice, Volume 2 Edited by Martin R. Perrow and Anthony J. Davy Index More information

Index

Page numbers in italics refer to information in a box, figure or table

abalone (Haliotis rufescens)124 and heavy metals 95 Ammophila arenaria 209, 216, 218 Abandoned Mine Land (AML) and landscapes 32--33, 46, 47, 61--65, Amoco Cadiz oil spill 255 programme 18 113, 401, 402--403, 421 Amorpha nana 10 Abramis spp. 298, 299, 300, 314 livestock (see cattle; grazing; ancient woodlands 504, 505, 506, 521 Acacia spp. 71, 488, 489 pastoralism; sheep) see also old growth Acanthaster plancii 173, 176 organic 45, 53 Angola 60 Accipiter gentilis 505 pastoral (see pastoralism) ants 565, 568, 572 Acer spp. 7, 10 on reclaimed land 94, 94--95 Apis mellifera 574 acid rain 36, 341, 342 reclaiming land from 338, 340, Apteryx spp. 100 acidification/acid rain 36, 341, 342, 383, 406--407, 411--412, 541--543 Aqaba, Gulf of 186 406 and reedbeds 41 aquaculture 243 saltmarshes 246, 247, 255 subsidies, EU 46--50 Araucaria heterophylla 100 wetlands, freshwater 341--342, 343 sustainable 47, 477--478 arctic, oil development 6, 356--357, see also soils and tropical forests 540, 559 361--364 Acropora spp. 177, 178, 179, 180, 186 and water 45, 48 arctic ecosystems 355--358 acrotelm 331, 336 see also grazing arctic hare (Lepus arcticus)6 Action Plan for the Human agro-forestry systems 471, 479, 541, Arctic National Wildlife Refuge 6, 357 Environment 101 545 Arctophila fulva 362 active/passive techniques 469, 474, 487, ‘agronomic engineering’ 487 Area de Conservación Guanacaste (ACG) 490, 510, 512 Agropyron cristatum 444, 445, 446, 447, (tropical dry forest restoration) afforestation 92, 94, 103, 114 448, 451, 453, 454, 455 559--580 Africa 57--77 ailanthus (Ailanthus altissima) 7 Argentina 21, 22, 27 constraints on restoration 58--63 Ailuropoda melanoleuca 91 artificial reefs see reefs desertification 62--63 air rooting 548 Arusha National Park 64 drylands 65--69 Alaska 6, 357, 361--364 ash (Fraxinus excelsior) 504 effects of colonialism 58--61 Alberta, Canada 20 green (Fraxinus pennsylranica) 10 floodplains 69--72, 245 Alces alces 6 white (Fraxinus americana) 7 human impacts 58, 61, 62--63, 64, alder, European (Alnus glutinosa) 7 Asia see China; India 69, 72 Algeria 65--66 Asilomar, California 227 livestock farming 61, 65--69 Alnus spp. 7, 277 aspen (Populus)6,7 ‘natural’ landscapes 61--65 Alosa spp. 39 assessment see monitoring pastoral ecosystems 66--69 alpine ecosystems 376--377 Atlantic heathlands see heathlands scientific knowledge of 58--60, 72 see also high-elevation ecosystems atolls 171 ‘wilderness’ 58, 61, 63--65 aluminium 89, 90, 407 Atta sexdens 545, 547 Agenda 21 102, 104 Amazon Basin 539 aurochs 33 agriculture 16, 32--33, 46--50, 61, 65--69, Amelanchier alnifolia 10 autumn olive (Elaeagnus angustifolia) 7, 90--91 Americas 3--31, 5 65 on calcareous grasslands 420, 421 ecological disturbance in 12--16 Australia 100, 104, 108--112, 113, 114 croplands 5, 7--8, 10, 71 environmental laws and policies 11, wetlands 243, 245, 247, 248--249, floodplain 71 16--27 249 and heathlands 401, 402--403, see also Latin America; Mexico; South see also Oceania; semi-arid lands 406--407, 411--412 America; United States Austria 49

585

© Cambridge University Press www.cambridge.org Cambridge University Press 978-0-521-04775-3 - Handbook of Ecological Restoration: Restoration in Practice, Volume 2 Edited by Martin R. Perrow and Anthony J. Davy Index More information

586 Index

Baccharis halimifolia 244 Oceania 99, 100--101, 105, 112--113, 114, bream (Abramis spp.) 298, 299, 300, 314 Baldi River, India 82 116 Briza media 433 Baltic Sea 39, 45--46 policies/agreements on 37, 102, 103, brome grass (Bromus spp.) 433, 447, 448, ‘banded’ vegetation 471 105, 114, 403 449 Barbados Declaration 104 targets 403--404 Bromus spp. 433, 447, 448, 449 barnacles 128, 129 tropical forests 539--541, 546, 577--579 brush-layering 369 barrier reefs 171 tundra 355--357 Bubo virginianus 10 bats 100, 505, 551 wetlands 329--330 buckbrush (Symphoricarpos occidentalis) see also fruit bat biomes 4--12, 32--33, 57 10 bauxite 81, 87 Biosecurity Act 107, 113 buffaloberry (Shepherdia argentea) 10 beaches 197--213 biotopes 289 buffel grass (Cenchrus ciliaris) 491, 492 artificial 202, 203 birch (Betula spp.) 6, 364, 368, 405, 410, buffering 526--527 case studies 200--205 528, 529 bunds 333--334 cleaning 198, 201, 208 birds Bunkerde 348 cobble 207--208 conservation of 105, 106, 329 burning compaction 206, 210 creation of habitat for 41, 201, 411 ‘fire plots’ 563 constraints on restoration 199 game 344, 528 heathlands 413 degradation 198 habitat loss 42, 100--101, 241 and litter 562, 563 monitoring 199 nesting habitats for 242, 255, 257, prairies 449, 456, 457, 458, 459 nourishment 199--207, 201--202, 356, 505 prevention of 552--553, 562--564 223 on beaches 199, 201, 206, 210 semi-arid lands 68, 477--478, 486, 493, organic matter/nutrients 208 roosting/perching 562 particle size 205--206, 208, 210 and seed dispersal 565, 566 stubble 406, 429 profiles 202, 203, 205, 210 structures for 163, 551--552, 553 timing of 478 rationale for restoration 198--199 of saltmarshes 242--243, 245 tropical forests 540, 544, 552--553, salinity/drought 206, 208--209 see also waterfowl 559, 562--564 shingle 197, 201, 202, 204, 207, 208 Birds Directive (EU) 38, 39, 40, 403 wetlands 343--344 species of 197--199, 199 Bison spp. 7, 33 wildfires 477--478, 508, 514, 563 techniques of restoration 199--209 bison woodlands 477--478, 507--508, 514 timing of works 206, 209, 210 American (Bison bison)7 bush crickets 436 tropical 197 European (Bison bonasus)33 butterflies 50, 53, 427, 456 vegetation 197--198, 202, 203, 204--205, bittern (Botaurus stellaris) 39, 41, 329 207--210 black locust (Robinia pseudoacacia) 7 Cache River, USA 11 burial 202--205, 207 black rhinoceros (Diceros bicornis) 65 Cakile constricta 202, 209 propagules, sources of 207 blackthorn (Prunus spinosa)421 calcareous grasslands 419--442 bear, brown (Ursus arctos)33 blue grama (Bouteloua gracilis) 445, 446, on arable lands 426, 427--429, 430, bees 427, 574 447, 450, 451--452, 453, 455, 456 438--439 Belgium 40 bluegrasses (Poa spp.) 10 case studies 424--425, 426, 430, 434--435 Bellaire Corporation 10 bogs 328, 335, 336--337, 344, 348 constraints on restoration 422--427 bellflower, clustered (Campanula see also wetlands grazing, effects of 420, 421, 429--430, glomerata) 433 Bolivia 21, 22--23, 27 430, 436 bentonite 18 Bonn Convention 41, 243, 403 human impacts on 420--421 Berne Convention 39, 403 boobook owl (Ninox novaeseelandiae intensively managed 438 Betula spp. 6, 364, 368, 405, 410, 528, undulata) 101 invertebrates of 426--427, 429, 436 529 boreal forest see taiga losses/degredation 420--422 Bialowieza Forest 34 Botaurus stellaris 39, 41, 329 nurse plants, role of 431, 433, 434 biodiversity 5, 91, 102, 522 bottom--up forcing processes 123, 141 nutrients 420, 421, 422, 434 action plans 40, 199, 527 bottomlands 11--12 propagules, availability of 423--426 coastal ecosystems 199, 228, 231 Bouteloua gracilis 445, 446, 447, 450, re-creation 438--439 and conflicting requirements 427, 451--452, 453, 455, 456 routes to restoration 437--439 439 box elder (Acer negundo) 10 scrub encroachment 421, 423, coral reefs 171--172, 179--180 Brachypodium pinnatum 433--435 437--438 and ecotypes 259--260 bracken (Pteridium aquilinum) 405, 406, seeds 422, 423--426, 430--435, 431--432, grasslands 419, 421, 422 409--410 437, 439 heathlands 403--404 Braer oil spill 128 significance 419--420 high-level ecosystems 394 Brazil 8, 13, 23, 27, 539 soils 419--420, 422--423, 427--429

Index 587

succession in 420, 437, 438--439 Clear Creek, USA 276, 277--279, 280 Convention on Wetlands (1971) See techniques of restoration 427--437 climate change 50--51, 103, 198, Ramsar Convention weeds/dominant grasses 433--435 216--217, 241, 357, 511, 540 coot (Fulica atra) 302, 303 Caledonian Pinewoods Inventory 529 effects on plant populations 216--217, copper 20, 21, 26, 87, 90, 95 Calluna vulgaris see heather 245--246, 511 coppices 470, 504, 505, 509--510 Camargue 35 see also carbon; sea level coral reefs 101, 123, 140, 171--196 camels 67 clonal growth 223--224, 229, 379 algae of 171 Cameroon 69, 71 cloud forests 576--578 artificial reef structures (ARS) Campanula spp. 433 coal-mining 180--187, 191 CAMPFIRE 60 in Americas 17--19, 20--21 biodiversity of 171--172, 179--180 camping sites 384--386 in China 89, 90 case studies 178, 179, 181--183, 186, 188 Canada 6, 11, 19--21, 27, 337, 364, 515--519 in India 78, 80, 81, 82, 87 constraints on restoration 188--191 Canadian Environmental Protection Act see also mining costs of restoration 189--191 (CEPA) 20 coastal defences 51, 198, 199, 201--202, fisheries on 130, 172, 179 Canis latrans 10, 574, 576 219, 230 mariculture 187--188, 188, 189, 191 Canis lupus 33, 505, 530 managed retreat 52, 251, 256 monitoring/evaluation 175--176, 182, Cano Island Biological Reserve 178 coastal ecosystems 52, 121--142, 197--199 192 canopies, tree 133, 469, 474, 503--504 case studies 127--129, 136--138 planning restoration 174--176, capercaillie (Tetrao urogallus) 529, 530 and sea level rise 198, 216--217 191--192 captive breeding 65 see also beaches; docks; dunes; rationale for restoration 173--174 carbon dioxide 216--217, 326, 338, 540 mangroves; saltmarshes; sediment removal 186--187 carbon sequestration 7, 114, 326, 367, seagrasses techniques of restoration 176--188 540 coastlines 52, 122, 136, 139, 198--199 threats to 173 Carex spp. 10, 366 see also beaches; coastal ecosystems transplantation 140, 176--180, 186, 188, caribou (Rangifer tarandus) 6, 357, 359, Cobar Common, Australia 487, 488--491 191 360, 505 Colobus badius rufomitratus 71 uses of 172, 172 Caring for the Earth 102 colobus, red (Colobus badius rufomitratus) core areas 39--41 Carpobrotus spp. 209 71 Coregonus artedi 316 carr 328 Colombia 24, 27 CORINE system 37 carrying capacity 59, 65, 67--69 Colorado Fourteeners 389--391 corridors and stepping-stones 39--41, 43, Casearia corymbosa 568 commensalism 381 45, 262, 526, 531, 533, 550 Categorical Exclusion 17 see also nurse species Costa Rica 27, 178 cattle 61, 65, 488, 492, 493, 562--564, Committee on Sustainable Development tropical forest 540, 545, 546, 553, 565 (CSD) 102 559--583 Cenchrus ciliaris 491, 492 Common Agricultural Policy (CAP) cottonwood, eastern (Populus deltoides) 7 Cercopithecus galeritus 71 46--47 coyote (Canis latrans) 10, 574, 576 Cervus elaphus canadensis 505 ‘common good’ 250 Cozumel Island, Mexico 180 Chamaecyparis obtusa 522--525 companion species 409, 415 crabs 133--134 chaparral 9 see also nurse species Crataegus spp. 10, 421 Charadrius spp. 199, 201 compensatory restoration 152--155 Crescentia alata Fig. 24.4 (colour plate) Chesapeake Bay, USA 139, 162 competition 382, 450, 543--544 crested eagle (Morphnus guianensis) 577 Chile 21, 23, 27, 479, 480 ‘compressed succession’ strategy 153, critical population density 59 China 163 critical thresholds 498--499 land-use 89--92, 91--92 conceptual models 467--469 crocodiles 106 mining land reclamation 91--96 Concholepas spp. 140 croplands 5, 7--8, 10, 71 china clay wastes 415 concrete, reefs 180, 181--183, 184 Crotalus durissus 577 chlorophyll 299, 305, 306, 307, 308--309, Congo 60 crown-of-thorns starfish (Acanthaster 311 conifer plantations 410, 411 plancii) 173, 176 chokecherry (Prunus virginiana) 10 conservation areas see nature/game Cryptomeria japonica 522--525 Christina, Lake, Minnesota 304, 315 reserves Ctenopharyngon idella 308 Circus aeruginosus 41 ‘conservation banking’ 133 Ctenosaurus similis 573, 576 Cirsium spp. 50, 433 Convention concerning the Protection cutting/mowing cisco (Coregonus artedi) 316 of the World Cultural and grass/heathlands 412, 428, 430, 448, clams 206 Natural Heritage (WHC) 103--104 449 Clean Air Act 16 Convention on Biological Diversity wetlands 343, 344, 346 Clean Water Act 16, 238, 249, 250 (1992) 37, 41, 103 Cygnus olor 302, 303

588 Index

Cynomys spp. 7 dredging 206, 207, 246, 272 succession 219--220, 225, 226, 230 Cypress Creek National Wildlife Refuge, spoils 238, 244, 246, 247, 252, 254, vigour, loss of 218 USA 11 261 see also beaches Dreissena polymorpha 308 dust storms 488--491 Daimiel wetlands, Spain 48 droughts 57--58, 63, 69, 472 dykes 243, 246, 248, 250, 328, 338--339 dams 69--72, 273, 276, 289 dry seasons 472 case studies 277--279, 491--495 drylands 65--69, 466--485 Eagle Cap Wilderness, USA 384--386 and fisheries 69--70, 245 canopies, tree 469, 474 Earth Summit (Rio) (1992) 37, 274 and floods/floodplains 69--72, 70, 245 case studies 475, 479 ecological community 102 and marshlands 245, 255, 333--335 combined approach to (CM&R) ecological networks 39--41, 43, 269 tailings 95 479--481 ecological reserves see nature/game Danube, River, 34, 44, 45, 50, 50, 281--282 conceptual models 467--469 reserves Daphnia spp. 300, 304, 310, 316, 317 constraints on restoration 472--473 ecological restoration 61, 62, 93, 402 decision analysis 279 degradation phases 470--472 ecology, forensic 109--110 decision pathways 512 grazing 474, 475, 477--478 Ecology Law (Mexico) 21--22 deer 10, 517, 519, 520, 528, 530, 568, 572, human impacts on 470, 473 ‘ecosystem engineers’ 123, 140 576 monitoring/evaluation 474 ecosystems 102 see also reindeer principles of restoration 473--479 biotic indicators for 476 deforestation 8, 100--101, 466, 539, 540 references, establishing 473--474, 475 conceptual models of 467--469 tropical forests 8, 23, 539--541, 542 seed banks 473 disturbance 12--16 degradation phases 470--472 soils 474--476, 476, 480, 492 ‘naturalness’ of 61--62 degraded land 79, 87, 89--98 trees, role of 481 planning-and-decision process 15, 512 dehesas 471, 479 water/nutrients availability in protection 108--112 demographic pressure 4, 466, 473, 477, 472--473 ecotones 267 481, 545 see also Australia; desertification; edaphic stress 14 Dendroica petechia 10 deserts; savanna; semi-arid lands EECONET see European Ecological Dendronephthya hemprichi 177 Ducks Unlimited 11, 16 Network denitrification 325, 341 dunes 214--237 eelgrass (Zostera marina)159 Denmark 34, 40, 44, 228 case studies 225--226, 227, 228 El Niño 124, 173, 178 lakes 300, 301, 302, 303 and climate change 216--217 Elaeagnus angustifolia 7, 65 water management 44, 46, 288 degradation 216--219 elder (Sambucus nigra)421 derelict land 90, 94, 95--96, 342--343 ecosystems 214, 215, 215--216, 224 elk (Cervus elaphus canadensis) 505 see also mining formation 203, 214--215 elm, American (Ulmus americana) 7, 10 desertification 62--63, 65--66, 67, 90, 92, grazing 217--218 Elodea spp. 304, 308, 318 466--467, 470 monitoring 217, 222, 224--225 Elymus arenarius 364 international agreements on 27, 101, nutrients 221, 224, 230 see also Leymus arenarius 103 pioneer 203, 209 embankments 243, 245, 246, 251 see also deserts; drylands; semi-arid planning/management 217, 221--225 see also dykes lands rationale for restoration 219 Empidonax minimus 10 deserts 5, 9--12, 466--485 salinity 216 endangered/rare species 16, 65, 100--101, fringes 471--472, 475--476, 479 sand accretion 207--208, 214, 215 115, 249 see also drylands; semi-arid lands site preparation 223, 226--228 beaches 199, 200 Diceros bicornis 65 stabilisation 66, 209, 214, 223, grasslands 419 Dicrostonyx spp. 6, 359 226--231, 230, 367 heathlands 403--404 DISCover 5 techniques of restoration 226--231 invertebrates 427 dispersal see seeds vegetation 203, 207, 209 saltmarshes 243, 249, 257, 259, 262 ditches 333 alien species 218--219, 226, 230 tropical forests 577--578 docks, disused 134--139 burial 207, 215, 229 woodlands 505, 515, 529 dog-whelk (Nucella lapillus) 122, 129--130 clonal offsets 223--224, 229 endemic species 100, 553 dolphin, bottlenose (Tursiops truncatus) environmental constraints 215--216 energy resources 473 42 establishing 222, 223, 225, 226, 227, Energy Resources Conservation Board Doñana, Spain 43 228, 228--230 20 donkeys 492, 493 and mycorrhizal fungi 220, 221, English Nature 40, 51, 52 donor sites 159, 177, 180 224, 229--230 Enhydra lutris 121, 124, 140 Douglas fir (Pseudotsuga menziesii) 504 propagule collection 222, 223--224, Enterolobium cyclocarpum 566, 568, 577 drains 328, 333 225 ‘envelope’ planting 526--527

Index 589

environment, defined 102 European Centre for River Restoration in rivers 35, 39, 268, 269--270 Environment Protection and 44 of saltmarshes 42, 242, 243, 246, 249, Biodiversity Conservation Act European Ecological Network 261 105 (EECONET) 39--40 fjords 141 Environmental Impact Analysis (EIA) 51 European Environment Agency (EEA) 37 flagship species 180 environmental impacts European Union (EU), expansion of 53 see also keystone species assessment 17, 21, 22, 23, 24, 113, 115 eutrophication 35--36, 45--46, 135--139, ‘flood pulse concept’ 268, 270, 275, 290 mitigation of 51, 151, 238, 248, 249, 139 floods/floodplains 35, 44, 247--248, 260, 274 lakes 297--298, 308, 309--311, 313--314 268--271 environmental laws/policies evaluation see monitoring Africa 69--72, 245 Europe 37--53, 402--403 Everglades, USA 12 and climate change 50--51 international 27, 99--104 evergreen forests 5, 569--571 and croplands 71 Latin America 11, 21--27, 27 extinctions 100, 540 dams, effects of 70, 245 North America 16--21, 25--26, 27 Exxon Valdez oil spill 128 defence schemes 274 Oceania 105, 106--116 flushing flows 289, 290 environmental planning 113, 115 Falco peregrinus 101 and rivers 267, 268--271, 271, 274, Environmental Planning and farming see agriculture 281--285 Assessment Act 113 Felis concolor 505, 571, 572 in Zambezi Delta 247--248 Environmental Quality Incentives 12 fen orchid (Liparis loeselii) 344 see also dams; floods; rivers; wetlands Equisetum 308 fences, dune-building 223, 226--228 Florida 12, 200, 206, 249 equivalence 19, 131, 256--257, 261 fens 328, 329, 330, 332, 335--337, 338 flushing flows 289, 290 Eremophia sturtii 489 burning 343--344 fluvial hydrosystem concept 267, 271, Erica spp. 412 nutrient reduction in 340--341 271, 275 erosion 90, 92, 365, 367, 486, 491--492 see also wetlands fly ash 81, 85 beaches 198, 202, 205 fertilisation 254, 365, 366, 367, 368, 388 flycatcher, least (Empidonax minimus) 10 gullies 495 beaches 208, 221, 224, 230 forensic ecology 109--110 saltmarshes 52, 252--254 chalk grasslands 421, 422, 434 Forest Principles 102, 103 see also sand; slopes and grazing 359, 363 Forestry Commission 529, 531 erosion mats 392 heathlands 406, 409 forests 5, 6, 47--49, 49, 103, 527 Esox lucius 299, 300, 303, 308, 309, 310, and legumes 363, 365 birch 368 315, 316 and nutrient reduction 406 floodplain 71 espinales 471, 479 of transplants 163, 255, 384--386 longleaf pine 8 Essex, UK 52 see also nitrogen; soils management 47--49, 112, 114 Estonia 49 fertility, soils, reducing 340--341, 406, monoculture plantations 47, 81, 83, estuaries 134, 141, 243, 244, 248--249 411--412, 427--429, 450--451 410, 504, 505, 521, 522 see also coastal ecosystems; rivers; Fiji 101, 106 ‘natural’ 503--509, 510, 513--514 saltmarshes filter feeders and water quality policies/agreements on 49, 103 Ethiopia 59 135--139, 141 and reclaimed land 94, 410--412 EU LIFE-Nature funding 39, 40 see also mussels riparian 290 Eucalyptus spp. 49, 64, 66, 488, 491, 546, Finding of No Significant Impacts tropical dry (see tropical dry forests) 547 (FONSI) 17 tropical moist (see tropical moist Eurasian milfoil (Myriophyllum spicatum) Finjasjön, Lake, Sweden 305, 318 forests) 308 Finland 308--309 see also afforestation; deforestation; Europe 32--56 fire see burning rainforests; woodlands agriculture in 32--33, 46--50, 47 fish/fisheries fragmentation 177, 421, 426 and climate change 50--51 biomass 299, 310--311 forests, tropical dry 565, 571, constraints on restoration 34--36 of coral reefs 130, 172, 179, 182 578--579 ecosystems, human impacts on and dam construction 69--70, 245, woodlands 504--505, 508--509, 511 32--33, 62--63 277--279 Framework Convention on Climate environmental laws and policies in lakes Change (FCCC) 103 37--53, 402--403 manipulation of 304--307, 309--315 France 35, 49, 284--285 nature conservation 37--43, 47, 62 populations 298, 299, 300, 315--317 frangipani (Plumeria rubra) 101 peatlands 336--337 removal 306, 307, 311, 312--313, 317, Fraxinus spp. 7, 10, 504 regional differences in 32--34 318 fringing reefs 171 role of EU 37, 47, 53 stocking densities 307, 310, 315 fruit bat (Pteropus tonganus) 101 water quality 43--46 population enhancement 316 Fulica atra 302, 303

590 Index

Fucus 128, 129 on dunes 217--218 heathlands, Atlantic 401--418 functional equivalence 131, 256--257, and fire management 477--478 and agriculture 401, 402--403, 261 heathlands 412, 415, 416 406--407, 411--412 functional sets 268, 271 high-elevation ecosystems 382 biodiversity targets 403--404 funding 36, 37, 40, 46--47, 109 in kelp forests 123--127 and bracken 405, 406, 409--410 lakes, effects on 300, 301, 302, 303, case studies 40, 411 game reserves see nature/game reserves 311--312 damage to 402--403, 413--415 genetic diversity 473, 577--579 maintenance by 35, 38, 64, 343, 412, human impacts on 401--402, 413--415 see also biodiversity 563--564 management 401--402, 405, 410 genetic integrity 259--260, 431, 453, 529, plant adaptations to 420, 436 monitoring/evaluation 404 530, 577--578 on polar tundra 357, 358--359, 363, pipelines across 414 genetic resources 103 367 planning for restoration 402--405 geographical information systems (GIS) prairie grasslands 449--450, 455, plants/fauna 403--404, 415 225 456--457 policies/legislation on 43, 402--403 Geomys bursarius 7, 444, 449 on seagrass 158 range of 402 Germany 45, 338, 348 semi-arid/drylands 474, 475, 477--478, soils 401, 405, 405--407, 411--412 giant anteater (Myrmecophaga tridactyla) 488--496 techniques of restoration 405--415 577 by sheep 420, 421, 429, 430, 436, 528, vegetation giant panda (Ailuropoda melanoleuca)91 530 propagules, sources of 407--409 Global Environmental Facility (GEF) 34, in tropical forests 563--564 succession in 401--402, 405, 410 50 wetlands 238, 244--245, 343, 367 types 409--412 gmelina (Gmelina arborea) 577 see also herbivory wet 414, 415 goats 488, 528 great crested newt (Triturus cristatus)51 and woodlands/scrub 410--411 gold 26, 277 Great Lakes 20 heavy metals 95, 244 gopher (Geomys bursarius) 7, 444, 449 great horned owl (Bubo virginianus) 10 Helsinki Convention (HELCOM) 45--46 gopher tortoise (Gopherus polyphemus) 8 Great Leap Forward 89, 95 herbicides 409--410, 412, 446, 448--449 Gopherus polyphemus 8 greenhouse gases see climate change herbivory/predation, of seeds 248, 357, gorse (Ulex spp.) groundsel (Baccharis halimifolia) 244 358--359, 449, 455 on calcareous grasslands 421, 428, grouse, sharp-tailed (Pedioecetes in tropical forests 545, 547, 568, 437 phasianellus) 10 572--573 on heathlands 401, 405, 409, 410, 415 Guadiamar River, Spain 43 see also grazing goshawk (Accipter gentilis) 505 guanacaste (Enterolobium cyclocarpum) Heritage Lottery Fund 40 grass carp (Ctenopharyngon idella) 308 566, 568, 577 hibiscus (Hibiscus spp.) 101 grasshoppers 436 Gulo gulo 33 high-elevation ecosystems 376--400 grasslands 5, 6--8, 8, 92 assessment 387, 389, 392 agriculture on 420, 421 habitat equivalency analysis (HEA) case studies 384--386, 389--394 biodiversity 419, 421, 422 153--154, 155, 174 disturbance 378, 383--387, 388 burning 449, 456, 562 habitat preference curves 288 ecology of 377--382 case studies 10, 38, 53 habitats 102, 289, 326 human impacts on 382--387 cutting/mowing 428, 430, 448, 449 creation/translocation 51, 181, 250, interactions of 381--382 fertilisation 421, 422, 434 258, 326 monitoring/evaluation 390--391, 393, fragmentation 421, 426 keystone species of 39, 123, 134, 140, 395--396, 396 and grazing 420, 421, 429--430, 430, 504--505, 527 plant adaptations 376--377 436, 449--450, 456--457 ‘naturalness’ of 61--62, 288--289, 329, plant material 391--395 ploughing 421, 448 510 populations/community processes see also calcareous grasslands; prairies replacement 181, 250 378--381 gravel 277--279, 361--362, 363 Habitats Directive (EU) 38, 39, 51, 199, problems 395 grazing 403, 419, 531 self-recovery 387 calcareous grasslands 420, 421, Haliotis rufesceus 124 site manipulations 387--391 429--430, 430, 436 halophytes 35, 239, 245, 254, 257, 261 soils 377--378 by cattle 488, 492, 493, 563--564 harebell (Campanula rotundifolia) 433 succession in 382 control of 65--69, 111, 114, 475, 488--496, hawthorn (Crataegus monogyna) 10, 421 techniques of restoration 387--395 492 hazardous wastes 81 vegetation dynamics 382 by deer 517, 519, 520 heather (Calluna vulgaris) 401, 402, 406, hiking trails 389--391 and desertification 62--63, 65--66, 67 410, 411, 413, 415, 529 Himalayas 81 dispersal by 436, 456 seeds 407--409, 410, 411 hinoki (Chamaecyparis obtusa) 522--525

Index 591

Hippocrepis comosa 433 dispersal of 426--427, 436 nutrient loading 35--36, 298, 300--302, holly, Hawaiian (Ilex anomala) 100 and evergreen trees 571 309 Homborga, Lake, Sweden 38 heathlands 404 plankton 298--301, 304 honeybee, African (Apis mellifera)574 temperate woodlands 505, 529 rationale for restoration 297--302 Hong Kong 91, 92, 180 irrigation 48, 227, 491--495 sediment dredging 305 horses 568, 572, 577 Isle of Man, UK 131 techniques of restoration 302--318 horseshoe vetch (Hippocrepis comosa) 433 tropical 318 human impacts jaguar (Panthera onca) 8, 572 water level 302--304 Africa 58, 61, 62--63, 64, 69, 72 Jamaica 173, 184 land cover, Americas 5 beaches 198--199 Japan 522--525 Land Reclamation, Regulations on 92 calcareous grasslands 420--422 jaragua (Hyparrhenia rufa) 563, 569, Land Surface Conservation and coral reefs 173 573--574 Reclamation Act 20 drylands 470, 472, 473 Juncus spp. 244, 255, 415 landfill sites 247 on dunes 216--218 june berry (Amelanchier alnifolia) 10 landowners Europe, ecosystems of 32--33, 62--63 juniper ( Juniperus osteosperma)511 stakeholder conservation 519--520 grasslands, calcareous 420--421 voluntary agreements 109, 115, heathlands, Atlantic 401--402, Kafue Basin 71 248--249, 479 413--415 Kainji Dam 69 landscape processes 493, 495--496, 497, high-elevation ecosystems 382--387 Kariba Dam 70, 245, 248 498, 498--499 lakes 297 kelp forests 123--127 landscapes rivers and streams 271--272, 273--274, Kenya 67, 71 and agriculture 32--33, 46, 47, 61--65, 282 key consumers 126--127 113, 401, 402--403, 421 tropical forests 539--540, 561 keystone species 39, 123, 134, 140, Mediterranean 34, 470 tundra, polar 355--357, 367 504--505, 527 ‘natural’ 61--65 wetlands 41, 48, 245--247, 326, 329 Kissimmee River, USA 283--284 and wetlands 330 hydromulching 227 kiwi (Apteryx spp.) 100 lantana (Lantana spp.) 100 Hyparrhenia rufa 563, 569, 573--574 Kooragang Island, Australia 133 larch (Larix)6 Kyoto Protocol 27, 50, 103 largemouth bass (Micropterus salmoides) ibis, bald (Geronticus eremita) 65 Kyushu, Japan 522--525 304, 315, 316 Iceland 225, 364, 366, 367, 368 Larix 6 Idle, River, UK 286--287 laboratory culture 162, 177, 189 Latin America iguana lagoons 134, 138, 141, 334--339 environmental legislation 21, 26--27 crested (Brachylophus vitiensis) 101 see also coastal ecosystems see also Mexico; South America spiny-tailed (Ctenosaurus similis) 573, lakes 297--324 lead mining 26, 89, 90, 95 576 biomanipulation of 36, 44, 309, leaf-cutter ants (Atta sexdens) 545, 547 Ilex anomala 100 311--315 legumes 381, 431, 478, 479, 480 illegal clearing 109--111 costs 317, 318 and mining wastes 83, 363, 365 India 78--88 case studies 38, 44, 305, 306, 314, 316 lemmings (Lemmus spp., Dicrostonyx spp., institutions 81--82 depth, effects of 297 Synaptomys spp.) 6, 359 legislative framework 79--81 eutrophication in 135, 297--298, 306, Lemmus spp. 6, 359 mining activities in 80, 87 308 Lepus arcticus 6 reclamation procedure 84--86 fish levees 243, 249, 250 wastelands, extent of 79, 87 manipulation of 304--307, 309--315 Leymus arenarius 225--226 Indian Head Mine 10 populations 298, 299, 300, 315--317 see also Elymus arenarius Indian River Lagoon, USA 150 stocking densities 307, 310, 315 licensing systems 109 indicator species see keystone species grazing, effects of 300, 301, 302, 303, lignite 78, 80, 87 indigo, dwarf wild (Amorpha nana) 10 311--312 lime (Tilia cordata) 504 Institute of Terrestrial Ecology 53 human impacts on 297 limestone 82, 87, 419 Intergovernmental Panel on Climate liming 36 liming 36, 407 Change 198 macrophytes limpets, effect on algae 123, 127--128 international agreements 27, 50, 99--104, protection/control 307--308 linking woodlands 526--527 403 role of 298--301 Liparis loeselii 344 Intertropical Convergence Zone 8 transplantation 307--308 Liriodendron tulipifera 7 invertebrates and waterfowl 301, 303, 307--308 Lithuania 50 calcareous grasslands 426--427, 429, methods of restoration 302--317 litter 562, 563, 571 436 and mussels 300, 308--309 Liverpool Docks, UK 134--139, 141

592 Index

lizards 415 India 78--88 and dunes 220, 221, 224, 229--230 logging 6, 13, 545, 549 see also bauxite; coal; copper; gravel; in high-elevation ecosystems 381, Lolium spp. 422 lead; lignite; limestone; mining; 383, 395 longleaf pine ecosystem 8 nickel; oil; zinc of prairies 452--453 Lord Howe Island 100, 104, 105 Mines and Minerals Act 80 in tropical forests 545, 577 Lutra lutra 39, 121, 124, 267 minimum dynamic area (MDA) 508 Myriophyllum spp. 304, 306, 316 Lynx (Lynx lynx)33 minimum intervention strategies Myrmecophaga tridactyla 577 514 macaw (Ara spp.) 578 Mining Law (1872) 26 Nairobi Declaration 101 Maldives 178--179, 181, 184 Mining Leasing Act (1920) 26 Namibia 60 ‘Man in the Biosphere’ (MAB-UNESCO) mining sites 9, 10, 14--16, 94--95, 409, National Environmental Policy Act 466 413--415 (NEPA) 16--17, 238 Manantali Dam 71 in Asia 78--88, 80, 89--98 National Oceanic and Atmosphere mangabey (Cercocebus galeritus galeritus) case studies 7, 9, 81, 82, 83, 84--86 Administration (NOAA) 151, 71 demonstration/testing sites 93, 95 152--153, 157, 256 mangrove ecosystems gravel 277--279, 361 national parks 63--64, 106, 507, 508 case studies 133 legislation on 17--27, 92 National Petroleum Reserve, USA creation 255 plants, suitability of 83 (NPR-A) 361, 363, 364 loss 245 pollution from 25, 43, 45, 82 National Science Foundation 262 propagules 131, 133 revegetation 78--79, 81, 83--86 Native Vegetation Conservation Act rehabilitation 130--134 rock 18, 26, 87 108--112, 114, 116 and saltmarshes 239, 242, 246 subsidence 93 Natura 2000 38--39, 40 self-repair of 70, 133--134, 245 tree planting on 81, 83, 85 ‘natural’ maple, red (Acer rubrum) 7 wastes from 81, 83, 85, 415 ecosystems 61--62 marine ecosystems 121--142 see also coal; minerals forests 503--509, 510, 513--514 case studies 124--126, 131--132 mires 328, 331, 335, 415 landscapes 61--65 enclosed and semi-enclosed 134--139 see also wetlands wetlands 257, 326, 329, 329 impacts on 121--122 mitigation of impacts 51, 151, 274 Natural Resources Conservation Service open 123--134, 139--140 saltmarshes 238, 248, 249, 260 (NRCS) 16 see also beaches; coastal ecosystems; Miyazaki University Forest, Japan Nature Conservancy 11, 16, 519--520 coral; docks; dunes; kelp; 522--525 nature conservation 37--43, 47, 61--65, mangroves; saltmarshes; montado forests 49, 471 62, 91 seagrasses montane 57, 539 Nature Development Plan 41 marmot, steppe (Marmota bobac)33 moorland 344 nature/game reserves 63--64, 65, 91, 106, Marmota bobac 33 moose (Alces alces)6 115--116 marram grass (Ammophila arenaria) 209, Morphnus guianensis 577 neighbour control 446 216 mosquitoes 133, 134, 248 Nemunas Delta 50 marsh harrier (Circus aeruginosus) 41 moths 573, 576 Neotoma spp. 511 marshes 35, 51, 239, 328, 574 mountain lion (Felis concolor) 505, 571, Netherlands The 40, 49, 51, 243, 342, see also mangroves; saltmarshes; 572 343 wetlands mountains see high-elevation New South Wales, Australia 108--112 Mendota, Lake, Wisconsin 310, 315, 316 ecosystems New Zealand 100, 104, 107, 113 Mersey Docks, UK 134--139, 141 mourning dove (Zenaida macroura) 10 NGOs (non-governmental organisations) mesquite (Prosopis juliflora)66 mowing see cutting 38, 43, 45, 50, 65 Mexico 21--22, 180, 198, 216--217, 471 mudflats 42, 130, 241, 242, 244, 367 nickel 20, 89 environmental laws/policies 11, 21--22, see also saltmarshes; wetlands Ninox novaeseelandiae undulata 101 27 mulching 227, 228, 348, 384, 385, 569 nitrogen mice 565, 572 in grasslands 446, 450, 451 in alpine soils 378, 388--391 microcatchments 476, 477 mulga (Acacia aneura) 488, 489 atmospheric deposition 221, 422, microclimates 544, 562 Murray River, Australia 248--249 433 Micropterus salmoides 304, 315, 316 musk ox (Ovibos moschatus)6 in chalk grasslands 434 migration 105, 248, 574--575 mussels 128, 136--138, 140, 300, 308--309 in drinking waters 45 mineral accretion technology (MAT) mute swan (Cygnus olor) 302, 303 in heathland soils 405--406 184--187, 191 mutualism 381 in lakes 36, 298, 302, 311, 313--314 minerals development 20, 89--90 mycorrhizal fungi and nurse crops 434 China 89--98 in drylands 477, 478 in prairie grasslands 447--448, 451

Index 593

in salt marshes 254, 261 oil development, arctic 6, 356--357, Peru 21, 24, 27 in sand dunes 221, 230 361--364 pesticides 45 in wetlands 46, 340, 341 case studies 363 pests management 107 see also fertilisation; legumes oil spills 127--130, 244, 255 pH 341--342, 383, 406--407 ‘no net loss’ policy 131, 151, 248 old growth see also acidification ‘no-take zones’ 140 temperate woodlands 503--504, 521 Phasianus colchicus 10 Norfolk and Suffolk Broads, UK 44--45 tropical forest 559--561, 567, 568, pheasant, ring-necked (Phasianus Norfolk Island 100, 104, 106 569--570, 578--579 colchicus) 10 Norfolk Island pine (Araucaria see also ancient woodlands Philippines 181 heterophylla) 100 Olea europaea 100 Phongolo floodplain 72 North American Coal Corporation 10 olive, African (Olea europaea ssp. phosphorus North American Free Trade Agreement cuspidata) 100 in alpine soils 378 (NAFTA) 22, 26 Oncorhynchus spp. 267, 277--279 in grasslands 428--429 North Sea 50, 52 orange peels, and soil restoration 569 in heathland soils 405, 406 northern spotted owl (Strix occidentalis Ord River Regeneration Area, Australia and lakes 36, 298, 299, 301, 311, caurina) 505 487, 491--495 313--314 Notice of Intent (NOI) 17 Osmerus eperlanus 306 case studies 308, 310 Nucella lapillus 122, 129--30 otter (Lutra lutra) 39, 121, 124, 267 in sand dunes 221, 230 nucleation 551 overgrazing see grazing Phragmites spp. 38, 41, 244, 308, 332, 347 nurse species 365, 409 Ovibos moschatus 6 phytoplankton 298, 299, 300, 306 on chalk grasslands 431, 433, 434 owls 101, 505--506, 574 Picea spp. 6 of high-elevation systems 380, 381, oysters 139, 140, 244 Picoides borealis 8 393, 394 pike on slopes 413 packrat (Neotoma spp.) 511 northern (Esox lucius) 299, 300, 303, in tropical forests 548--550 pampas see grasslands 315, 316 of wetlands 348 Panthera onca 8, 571 walleye (Stizostedion vitreum) 304, 307, nutrients ‘Parks for Life’ 41 315, 316, 317 beaches 208 passive/active techniques 469, 474, 487, pine (Pinus spp.) 6, 8, 49, 405, 410, 438, calcareous grasslands 420, 421, 422, 490, 512 509, 546, 547 434 pastoralism woodlands 528--532 drylands 472--473 in Africa 66--69 pipelines 413, 414 dunes 221, 224, 230 agro-silvo-pastoral systems 471, 479 ‘plaggen’ system 429 reclamation of 85 and erosion 90, 486--487, 488--489, 491 planning-and-decision process 15, 512 reduction of in Oceania 109, 114, 486--487, 488--489, plant ‘plugs’ 159, 433 in soils 340--341, 406, 411--412, 491--495 plants, container-grown 205, 208, 209, 427--429, 450--451 policies on 65--69, 109, 114 230, 393, 431--432, 453, 477 in surface waters 36, 44, 46 pasture 542, 560, 563--564, 565, 568, see also propagules; seeds; tropical forests 544--545 573--574 transplantation uptake by wetlands 46, 340 carrying capacity 65 Platanus spp. 7 edge habitat 574 ploughing 410, 411, 412, 421, 448, 490, oak (Quercus spp.) 7, 49, 471, 504, rainforest 575--577 492 Fig. 29.3 (colour plate), 566 patch dynamics 358 plover (Charadrius spp.) 199, 201 Oceania patch reefs 171 plover, golden (Pluvialis apricaria) 40 biodiversity 99, 100--101, 105, 112--113, peat/peatlands 326--328, 330, 338, 415 Plumeria rubra 101 114, 116 bunding 333--335 Pluvialis apricaria 40 land degradation in 103 nutrient uptake 340 Poa spp. 10 policies and legislation 99--118 recolonisation 346, 348, 366 Pocillopora 177, 178, 186, 188 for ecological restoration 106--116 rewetting 331, 332, 333 podsols 405 enforcement 109--112 ‘shoeing’ 348 Pohnpei, Pacific Ocean 179 see also Australia; Fiji; New Zealand; turfing out 344 Point Pelée National Park, Canada Norfolk Island; Solomon Islands; peccaries (Tayassu spp.) 565, 572, 575, 515--520 Tonga 577 poison ivy (Toxicodendron radicans) 10 Oenothera humifusa 202 Pedioecetes phasianellus 10 Poland 41, 309, 504 Office of Surface Mining Reclamation perch (Perca fluviatilis) 299, 300, 318 ‘polar oases’ 355 and Enforcement (OSM) 17, 19 peregrine falcon (Falco peregrinus) 101 polar tundra see tundra, polar Ohio, mine lands in 7 permafrost 5--6, 357 polders 48, 50

594 Index

pollination 427 Prunus spp. 10, 421 resource management 107, 279 pollution 36, 113, 511 Pseudotsuga menziesii 504 resprouting 548, 566 from mining 25, 43, 45, 82 Pteridium aquilinum 405, 406, 409--410 restoration, ecological saltmarshes 244, 255 Pteropus tonganus 101 active/passive 469, 474, 487, 490, 512 water 36, 43--46, 122, 244 public participation 43, 109, 115, 475, approaches to 39--41 see also eutrophication 479, 519--520 compromises on 95--96 poplar (Populus spp.) 71 Puerto Rico 179, 542 conceptual models 467--469 poplar, yellow (Liriodendron tulipifera) 7 definitions 61, 62, 93, 99, 466--467 populations, human 4 quaking grass (Briza media) 433 planning-and-decision process 15 Populus spp. 6, 7, 71 quarries 369--370 Rhine, River, W. Europe 39, 44, 51 Porites spp. 177, 178, 180 Quercus spp. 7, 49, 471, 504, Fig. 24.3 rhizobial inoculation 477, 478 Porton Ranges, UK 420 (colour plate), 566 Rhododendron 405, 410 Portugal 49, 471 Rhone,ˆ River, France 35, 284--285 Potamogeton spp. 303, 304, 340 rabbits 248, 421, 486, 545 rias 141 potassium 331, 429 ragwort (Senecio jacobaea) 433 rice fields 35 praivie dog (Cynomys spp.) 7 railway verges 369--370 rice rat (Sigmodon hispidus) 573--574, 576 Prairie Pothole region, USA 345 rainfall 58 Rio Declaration on Environment and prairies, North American 6--8, 345, Africa 57, 65, 68, 69 Development 102 443--465, 445, 458 and carrying capacity 65 ‘river continuum concept’ (RCC) 268, burning 449, 456, 457, 458, 459 and drylands 472, 489 269, 275 case studies 446, 450 fluctuations, effects of 217, 489 rivers and streams 267--296 constraints on restoration 443--447 and grasslands 451--452 benign neglect of 280 grazing 449--450, 456--457 harvesting 477 case studies 11--12, 35, 43, 45, 50, 82, introduced species 447, 448--450, pollutants in 36 277--279, 281--287, 491--495 457--458 and tropical forests 540, 561--562 catchments 280 management 456--457 rainforests 6, 8, 13, 101, 539, 575--577 constraints on restoration 287--290 native vegetation, establishing see also tropical moist forests dams, effects on 69--72, 273, 276, 447--456 Ramsar Convention 37, 50, 105, 243, 403 277--279 principles of restoration 457--459 rangelands, management 65--69 disturbance 267, 271--272, 273--274 propagules 443--445, 453--456 Rangifer tarandus 6, 357, 359, 360, 505 ecological value, maximising 290--291 rationale for restoration 443 raptors 255, 577 ecosystems 35, 267--271, 269, 270 seed banks 444--446, 457, 458--459 rare species see endangered/rare species ‘flood pulse concept’ 268, 270, 275 seeds 443--445, 451--452, 453--455 rattlesnake (Crotalus durissus)576 fluvial hydrosystem concept 267, 271, succession in 447, 457 Red Data Book 403--404, 419, 505 271, 275 techniques of restoration 446, Red Sea 186 and forest restoration 572 447--456 ‘red tides’ 139, 173 functional sets 268, 271 see also grasslands Redgrave and Lopham Fens, UK 340 human impacts on 271--272, 273--274, ‘precautionary principle’ 105 reedbeds 41, 50, 335, 343 282 precipitation see rainfall ‘reef balls’ 183, 184 management plans 44, 51 press-mud 85 reefs monitoring/evaluation 279, 281, primary surfaces, colonisation of artificial 124, 180--187, 191 283--284, 286, 289--290, 291 369--370 fishing on 130, 172, 179 objectives of restoration 272--275, 276 primates 71, 578 see also coral reefs rationale for restoration 271--272 Principle for Restoration 39 references, establishing 473--474 river--floodplain interactions 268, propagules regeneration zones 530 274, 281--285 beach plants 207 regional plans 115 sustainability of 276 calcareous grasslands 423--426 rehabilitation 93, 174 techniques of restoration 275--287 heathlands, Atlantic 407--409 planning-and-decision process 15, 512 vegetation 270 mangrove ecosystems 131, 133 Rehdera trinervis Fig 24.4 (colur plate) weed cutting 273 prairies 443--445, 453--456 reindeer see caribou roach (Rutilus rutilus) 298, 299, 300, 306, see also plants; seeds; transplantation rejuvenation 457 314 Prosopis juliflora 66 remedial measures 109--112 roads 369--370, 413 provenance 259, 431, 453, 529, 533 remote sensing 63, 110, 224--225 Robinia pseudoacacia 7 see also genetic integrity rendzina 420 rock, mining 18, 26, 87 Prudhoe Bay Oil Field, USA 356, 361, ‘replacement ratio’ 151 rocky coasts 123--130 362, 364 reservoirs 69 Romania 45

Index 595

Royal Society for the Protection of Birds productivity 242, 256--257 ‘compressed succession’ strategy 153, (RSPB) 38, 40, 411, 531 rationale for restoration 242--246 163 rudd (Scardinius erythrophthalmus) salinity/salt 243, 244, 245, 255, 257, costs of restoration 167, 167 299--300 262 growth forms 158 rural development 47, 50, 53, 58, 59 sediment legislation on 151, 154 Rural Development Regulation 1257 47 deposition 241, 243, 245--246, 249, loss of, defining 152--153, 165--166 Russia 360, 364--366 256 monitoring/evaluation 162--164 Rutilus rutilus 298, 299, 300, 306, 314 removing 247, 252, 253--254 planting methods 140, 160--162, 163, ryegrass (Lolium spp.) 422 succession 257 165 tidal flows in 239, 241, 243, 246--247, principles of restoration 151 Sahara Desert 57, 62--63, 65, 475 250--252, 252, 261 rationale for restoration 149--151 Sahel 57, 62--63, 65--66, 67, 466 vegetation 239--242, 253, 254, 258, site selection 155--160 saiga (Saiga tartarica)33 261--262 slow-growing species 163 salinity planting 258--260 succession in 149 beaches 206, 208--209, 216 Sambucus nigra 421 techniques of restoration 151--166 dilution 244, 245 San Diego River, USA 255 threats to 150 soil 35, 79, 243 sand, stabilisation of 66, 209, 214, transplanting 140, 155--162, 163 see also saltmarshes 223, 226--231, 230, 364, 367, tropical 149, 150 Salix spp. 38, 365, 369, 410 368--369 seals 42, 199 Salmo spp. 39, 138, 267 sand dunes see dunes seaside primrose (Oenothera humifusa) salmon (Oncorhynchus spp., Salmo spp.) Santa Rosa, Costa Rica 559, 560 202 39, 267, 277--279 saproxylic species 505--506 sedges (Carex spp.) 10, 366 salt production 243 Sargassum spp. 122 sediment communities 130, 131--132 saltmarshes 5, 12, 238--266 Saskatchewan, Canada 20--21, 446, 447, seed banks biogeochemistry 246 449 calcareous grasslands 423, 424--425, case studies 42--43, 52, 133, 251, 252--254, satellite imagery see remote sensing 437, 439 367 savanna 8, 58, 486--502, 491--495 drylands 473 as coastal defences 51, 52 ecosystems 68 forests, tropical dry 564--565 and coastal development 238, 243, land cover 5, 539 high-elevation ecosystems 379--380 245, 246, 261 woodland vegetation of 70 prairies 444--446, 457, 458--459 constraints on restoration 246--248 see also drylands; semi-arid lands tropical forest 541 creation 241--242, 254, 259 scallop dredging 130, 131--132 wetlands 344--346 creeks 247, 248, 252, 253--254, Scardinius erythrophthalmus 299--300 seed rain 257--258, 260, 261 scarification 384--386 calcareous grasslands 423--426, 426 restoration of 252, 253--254, Scirpus 308 high-elevation grasslands 379 257--258 Scotland, pinewoods of 528--532 tropical forests 542--543, 551, 564, damage/losses 243--246 scrub 410, 413, 421, 437--438, 470 565--566 dams, effects of 245, 255 sea defences see coastal defences seeds ecology 239--242, 248, 257--258 Sea Empress oil spill 128 calcareous grasslands species 422, erosion 52, 252--254 sea fig (Carpobrotus spp.) 209 423--426, 430--435 fauna 248, 254, 258, 260, 261 sea level rise 50--51 coastal species 204, 207, 208, 223--224 fragmentation 245 and coastal ecosystems 198, 210, dispersal of genetic integrity 259--260 216--217 grasslands 423, 436, 446--447 grazing 238, 244--245, 248 managed retreat 52, 251, 256 high-elevation plants 379 impetus for restoration 248--249 and saltmarshes 241, 245--246, 256 tropical forests 542--543, 551, importance of 242--243, 249 see also climate change 565--568, 570 invasive species 244, 248, 255, 257, sea oat (Uniola paniculata) 202, 216 by vertebrates 436, 456, 565, 258 sea otter (Enhydra lutris) 121, 124, 566--567, 570, 576 management 256--261 140 wetlands 346 and mangrove ecosystems 239, 242, sea rocket (Cakile constricta) 202, 209 by wind 566, 567, 576 246 sea trout (Salmo trutta trutta) 138 dormancy 204, 229, 565 mitigation of impacts 238, 248, 249, sea turtles 199, 200, 206, 210 in beach species 207 250 sea urchins 124, 158 mountain plants 380 monitoring 260--261 seagrasses dune grasses 223--224, 228--229 objectives 249--256 case studies 153, 157 genetic integrity of 431, 453, 529, 530, pollution of 244, 255 compensatory restoration 152--155 577--578

596 Index

seeds (cont.) slopes 81, 84, 85, 365, 387, 409, 413, 420 South America 3--31 heathland species 407--409, 410, 412 and ‘banded’ vegetation 471 biomes 4--12 of high-elevation ecosystems 379--381, slot seeding 431--433 ecosystem disturbance in 12--16 384--386, 389--390, 395 smelt (Osmerus eperlanus) 306 environmental laws and policies and migration 207 snow/ice 5, 377, 378 21--25, 26, 27 polar tundra species 361, 363, 365, soils see also Argentina; Bolivia; Brazil; 365, 366, 367 acidification 36, 246, 247, 255, Chile; Colombia; Peru; Uruguay; prairie species 443--445, 451--452, 341--342, 406 Venezuela 453--455 drying induced 341--342 South Pacific Regional Environment predation/herbivory of 248, 357, alpine 377--378, 378, 383, 384--386 Program (SPREP) 104 358--359, 449, 455 arctic tundra 360 Spain 43, 48, 471 in tropical forests 545, 546, 547, assessment 387 Spartina spp. 238, 239, 242, 243, 244, 567, 571--572 calcareous grasslands 419--420, 252--254, 254, 255, 256, 257, 258, saltmarsh species 258--259 422--423, 427--429 259, 260 seagrasses 162 chemical stabilisers 230, 409 speciation 578--579 seasonal effects on 454--455 conservation laws 16, 107--108 species storage 204, 444, 546 degradation, Americas 13--14 diversity (see biodiversity) tropical forest species 541, 543--545, drylands 474--476, 476, 480, 492 endangered/rare (see endangered 546--551, 576 fertility, reducing 340--341, 406, species) wetlands, freshwater 340, 344--347 411--412, 427--429, 450--451 extinction of 100, 540 see also plants; transplantation forests 506, 539, 544--545, 568--569 keystone 39, 123, 134, 140, 504--505, self-regulation/voluntary agreements grasslands 419--420, 422--423, 527 109, 112, 115 427--429, 447--448 migratory 105 semi-arid lands/savannas, Australia heathlands 401, 405, 405--407, 411--412 saproxylic 505--506 486--502 high-elevation ecosystems 377--378, species-centred restoration 65 case studies 488--496 387--391 Sphagnum 331, 335--336, 341, 342, monitoring/evaluation 489--491, liming 407 344--346, 415 493--495 in mangrove forests 133 and nurse species 348 principles of restoration 487, 497--498 micro-organisms of 226, 231, 544--545 regeneration 345, 346, 347 problems of 486--487, 488 mining sites 83--86, 94--95 spruce (Picea)6 see also drylands; savannas podsols 405 stabilisation semi-arid woodlands 466--485, 488--491, ponding 490 of dunes 66, 209, 214, 223, 226--231, 497 prairies 447--448 364, 367 Senecio jacobaea 433 ‘red earths’ 488 of heathlands 409, 415 Senegal, River, Africa 71 rendzina 420 stakeholder conservation 519--520 Sesbania emerus 565 rewetting/drying 330--339, 341--342 ‘State of the environment’ reports 37 ‘set-aside’ lands 110, 111, 288 rugosity of 475, 476 steppes 475, 476 sewage 297, 307, 308, 310, 313 salinity 35, 79, 243 Stigsholm, Lake, Denmark 301, 302, 303 sludge 384, 447 saltmarshes 242, 246, 247, 254, 255, Stizostedion spp. 304, 306, 307, 315, 316, Seychelles 184 261 317 shad (Alosa spp.) 39 sandy 226, 231, 364, 364--366, 367, 368, Stockholm Declaration on the Human sheep 420, 421, 429, 430, 436, 528, 369 Environment 101 530 scarification of 384--386, 392 storm damage 157, 173, 180 shellfish 136--137, 243 semi-arid lands 488, 490, 493, 496 stress factors 14, 498--499 shelter-belts 65, 66, 92 ski runs 392 Strix occidentalis caurina 505 shingle beaches 197 topsoils 387--388, 396, 408, 413 Stylophora 177, 178, 186 ships/boats 157, 186, 187 stripping 340, 406, 407, 412, 429 subsidence 25, 93 shrublands 5 tropical forest 539, 544--545, 568--569 subsidies, EU 46--48 shrubs 551 wetlands succession Sigmodon hispidus 573--574, 576 drying/rewetting 330--332, 341--342 calcareous grasslands 420, 437, silver 26 wetlands, freshwater 325, 340--342, 438--439 Singapore 180 343 ‘compressed succession’ strategy 153, Sites of Special Scientific Interest 531 see also fertilisation; legumes; 163 Sizewell, UK 204, 208, 209 mycorrhizal fungi; salinity dunes 219--220, 225, 226, 230 ski runs 392, 392--394 Solomon Islands 101, 104, 106 heathlands 401--402, 405, 410 slash piles 551--552, 553 South Africa 64--65, 68, 69, 71, 72 high-elevation ecosystems 382

Index 597

prairies 447, 457 key species 504--505 mangrove forests 131--132 saltmarshes 257 manipulation 514--525 polar tundra 361, 366, 367 seagrasses 149 minimum dynamic area (MDA) saltmarsh 259 temperate woodlands 504, 506, 525 508--509, 514 seagrass 156--163 tropical dry forests 558, 564, monitoring/evaluation 520 and soil treatments 163, 255, 384--386 567--568, 570, 572 natural processes of 506--508, turf 389--391, 395, 408, 415, 436--437, tropical moist forests (TMF) 541, 546, 509--510, 510, 514, 520, 521 438 553 objectives of restoration 509--511 wetlands, freshwater 347--348 tundra, polar 358, 359--360 old growth 503--504, 504 tree canopies 133, 469, 474, 503--504 wetlands,freshwater 342--344, 344 plantations, non-native 531 trees Sudan 66, 67 and pollution 511 dead 504, 505, 505, 521 Sudbury, Ontario 20 protection 531--532 ‘living dead’ 565, 573 sugar 451 saproxylic species 505--506 Trees for Life 531 sugar maple (Acer saccharum) 7 succession in 504, 506, 525 tributyl tin (TBT) 122, 129 sugi (Cryptomeria japonica) 522--525 techniques of restoration 511--532 trigger--transfer--reserve--pulse 495--496, sulphur 406 traditional management 506, 509--511 497, 497 Surface Mining and Our Environment tench (Tinca tinca) 299--300 Trinity Broads, UK 44--45 17 Tensas River Basin, USA 11--12 tropical beaches 197 Surface Mining Control and terns 100, 199, 201 tropical dry forests 8 Reclamation Act (SMCRA) 10, 15, terracing 81, 84, 89 Area de Conservación Guanacaste 17--19, 25--26 Tetrao urogallus 529, 530 (ACG) 559--583 Sussex, UK 52 Thalassia testudinum 150, 153, 157, 160, evergreen trees of 569--571 sustainability 72, 102, 105 161, 162, 163 fauna 571--575 in Oceania 107, 107, 108, 112--113, 114, thatching industries 41 fires in 559, 562--564 116 thermokarst 357, 358 genomes/evolution of 577, 578--579 of rivers 272, 274 thistle (Cirsium spp.) 50, 433 human impacts on 561 swamps 11, 328, 335, 574 thornscrub 470 insularity of 571 see also wetlands thyme (Thymus spp.) 433 introduced/invasive species Sweden 36, 38, 41, 307--308 tidal wetlands see saltmarshes 572--574 Switzerland 48, 392--394 tiger bush 471 map 560 sycamore (Platanus occidentalis) 7 Tijuana Estuary, USA 253, 257--258, migration, effects on 574--575 symbiotic relationships 171, 395 262 predation/herbivory in 565, 570, Symphoricarpos occidentalis 10 tilapia 573--574 571--572 Synaptomys spp. 6, 359 Tilia cordata 504 and rain/cloud forest 575--577 tilling see ploughing recolonisation of 577--578 taiga/boreal forest 6, 34 Tinca tinca 299--300 saplings, survival of 562, 564, 567 tailings dams 95 toads 415 seasonality in 561--562 Tana River, Kenya 71 Tonga 101, 106 seeds 561, 564--568, 570 Tanzania 64 top--down control 124, 134--139, 141 soils 568--569 tapir (Tapirus spp.) 8, 572 topsoils 387--388, 396, 408, 413 succession in 559, 564, 567--568, Tayassu spp. 565, 572, 575, 577 stripping 340, 406, 407, 412, 429 570, 572 technology transfer 103 tor grass (Brachypodium pinnatum) tropical lakes 318--319 temperate deciduous forest biome, 433--435 tropical moist forests (TMF) 539--558 mining sites in 7 Torrey Canyon oil spill 127--128, 129 biodiversity 539--541, 546 temperate woodlands 6, 503--538, 513 tourism 33, 64, 198--199, 210, 356 case studies 542, 547, 549 case studies 515--520, 522--525, 528--532 Toxicodendron radicans 10 constraints on restoration 541--546 and climate changes 511 Trachypogon plumosus 563, 564, 574 deforestation 539--541, 542 dead wood 504, 505, 505, 521 transition zones 470 distribution 539 disturbance 506--508, 514, 520 transplantation exotic species of 547, 548--550, 549 expansion 525--533 acclimatisation 395 and fires 540, 544 features 503--504 anchoring devices 160, 177 human impacts on 539--540 flora and fauna 504--506, 515, 516, aquatic grasses 362 microclimates 544 522--524, 529, 533 ‘compressed succession’ strategies 163 native species 546--548 fragmentation 504--505, 508--509, 511, coral 140, 176--180, 188, 191 natural recovery 541--545 525--533 heathland species 408 rationale for restoration 539--541 intervention strategies 513, 514 at high elevations 389, 392--394, 395 seedling survival in 543--545, 546--550

598 Index

tropical moist forests (cont.) reedbeds 41 availability, drylands 472--473, 486 seeds 541--543, 553 rivers 286--287 biomanipulation 36, 123 shrubs in 551 saltmarshes 52, 249, 256 drinking 45 site-specificity of 553 sea defences 256 EU legislation on 43--46 social factors in 545--546 water privatisation 44--45 management 44--46 soils 539, 544--545 United Nations 26, 45, 63, 101, 102, 103 pollution 36, 43--46, 244 strategies for recovery 546--553 Charter of, 101 see also eutrophication succession in 541, 546, 553 United States of America 4 privatisation 44--45 trees, isolated/patches 550--551 beaches 201, 206, 209 quality 43--46, 135--139, 141 vegetation, clearing 552 dunes 227 turbidity 206--207 trout ecological restoration in 3--31, see also dams; rivers brown (Salmo trutta)39 151--155, 153, 157 Water Framework Directive (WFD) 44 steelhead (Oncorhynchus mykiss) 277 ecosystem disturbance in 12--16 waterfowl 38, 42, 242--243, 245, 306 tundra, polar 5--6, 34, 355--375 environmental laws and policies grazing by 302, 303, 311--312 case studies 362, 363, 364, 365--370 16--19, 25--26, 27, 151--155, 153, 157 habitat 11, 41, 362 degradation 356--357 peatlands 337 waterholes 573 ecosystems 355--358, 358--360 prairies 443--465 wave energy 197 herbivores, role of 357, 358--359 seagrasses, protection of 151--155, 153, weeds, control of 273, 433, 448, 450 human impacts on 355--357, 367 157 weevils 312, 314 monitoring/evaluation 358, 370 species diversity 5 weirs 280 native/introduced species 363, 365--370, wetlands 238--266, 239--240, 246, 247, Wetland Reserves Programs (WRP) 12 366, 367, 368--369 248, 345 wetlands, freshwater 5, 12, 325--354 principles/constraints of restoration ‘wilderness’ 63, 384--386 acidification 341--342, 343 357--360, 366--367 see also Americas; prairies Africa 69--72 rationale for restoration 356 uranium 18, 26, 87 case studies 11--12, 43, 45, 46, 48, 50, recolonisation 358, 359, 360--361, urban growth 5, 58, 99, 274 332, 336--338, 345, 362, 366 362--370 see also demographic pressure dereliction 342--343 succession in 358, 359--360 Ursus arctos 33 development of 327 techniques of restoration 360--366 Uruguay 24, 27 diversity of 325, 326 Tunisia 475, 480 US Army Corps of Engineers 16, 19, 250 EU guidelines on 37, 44 turpentine (Eremophia sturtii ) 489 US Department of Agriculture (USDA) ‘functions’ of 46, 326--327 Tursiops truncatus 42 16 habitat types 326, 329--330 turtlegrass (Thalassia testudinum) 150, US Department of the Interior 17--18, 19 human impacts on 48, 326, 329 153, 157, 160, 161, 162, 163, 166 US Endangered Species Act (1973) 16, monitoring/evaluation 349 turtles, sea 106, 199, 200, 206, 210 249 as nitrogen sinks 46 turves 344, 412, 414 US Environmental Protection Agency nutrient reduction 339--341 translocation 389--391, 395, 408, 415, 16, 247 objectives of restoration 326--330 436--437, 438 US Fish and Wildlife Service 16, 249 post-mining 19 Twyford Down, UK 53 US National Research Council 61--62 protection 11, 16 Typha spp. 244, 255, 308 rewetting/dryness 330--339, 334, tyres 181 Væng, Lake, Denmark 303, 310 341--342 vegetation, conservation of 108, 108--112, techniques of restoration 330--348 Uganda 64, 549 113 terminology 328 Ukraine 33, 34 velds see grasslands vegetation of Ulex spp. 401, 405, 409, 410, 415, 421, Venezuela 25, 27 management 342--348 428, 437 Vesijärvi, Lake, Finland 306, 310, 314, recolonisation 344--348 Ulmus spp. 7, 10 317, 318 succession 342--344, 344 UN Framework Convention on Climate Vimba vimba 39 transplantation 347--348 Change (UNFCCC) 50 Vistula, River, Poland 35, 39 water supplementation 337--339 UNESCO 11 volcanoes 563, 573 wildlife conservation on 326, Uniola paniculata 202, 216 328--330 United Kingdom Wadden Sea 41, 42--43 see also saltmarshes beaches 201, 204, 206, 214 warbler, yellow (Dendroica petechia) 10 whelk (Concholepas spp.) 140 disused docks 134--139, 141 wastewater treatment 46 Whiskeytown Dam, USA 277--279 forests 49, 528--532 water ‘wilderness’ 58, 61, 63--65, 356--357, heathlands 40, 43 artificial mixing 123, 135--139, 141 384--386

Index 599

wildfires 477--478, 508, 514, 564 canopies 469, 474, 503--504 World Heritage List 103--104, 105, 106, wildlife conservation, wetlands 326, on heathlands 410--411 403 328--330 pine 528--532 World Trade Organisation 47 see also habitats; nature/game reserves post-mining 19 The Wilds, Ohio, USA 7 semi-arid 466--485, 488--491, 497 Yellowstone National Park, USA 507, willow (Salix spp.) 38, 365, 369, 410 temperate (see temperate woodlands) 508, 514 wind, dispersal by 566, 576 transition zones 471--472 windthrow 507, 514, 521 see also forests; rainforests zähtre (Vimba vimba)39 Wirbel, Lake, Poland 314, 315 woodpecker, red-cockaded (Picoides Zambezi Delta 70, 245, 247--248 wolf (Canis lupus) 33, 505, 530 borealis) 8 zander (Stizostedion lucioperca) 306, 315, wolverine (Gulo gulo)33 World Bank 34, 45, 46, 50 317 wood-pastures 509--510 World Charter for Nature 101 zebra mussel (Dreissena polymorpha) 308 woodlands World Commission on Environment Zenaida macroura 10 ancient 504, 505, 506, 521 and Development 102 Zimbabwe 60, 64 birch 368 World Conservation Strategy 101--102 zinc 89, 90, 95 broadleaved 411 World Conservation Union (IUCN) 41 zooplankton 298, 299, 300, 301, 304, 305