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Article Title: Tom Dennison, The Omaha Bee, and the 1919 Omaha Race Riot

Full Citation: Orville D Menard, “Tom Dennison, The Omaha Bee, and the 1919 Omaha Race Riot,” Nebraska History 68 (1987): 152-165.

URL of article: http://www.nebraskahistory.org/publish/publicat/history/full-text/1987-4-Dennison_Riot.pdf Date: 2/10/2010

Article Summary: In the spring of 1921 Omahans returned James Dahlman to the mayor’s office, replacing Edward P Smith. One particular event convinced Omaha voters that Smith and his divided commissioners must go in order to recapture the stability enjoyed under political boss Tom “the Old Man” Dennison and the Dahlman administration. The role of Dennison and his men in the riot of September 26, 1919, remains equivocal so far as Will Brown’s arrest and murder. However, Dennison and the Bee helped create conditions ripe for the outbreak of racial violence.

Errata (if any)

Cataloging Information:

Names: James Dahlman; Edward P Smith; J Dean Ringer; Will Brown; Louise Rickard; Tom Dennison; Edward Rosewater; Frank E Moore; Frank Shercliffe; Elmer Thomas; W J Connell; Erastus A Benson; Gus Jennings; William J Broatch; Victor Rosewater; “Boob” Milder; Frank Johnson; Agnes Loebeck; Millard Hoffman; Milton Hoffman; William Francis; Michael Clark; Police Chief Eberstein; Louis Young; James Hiykel; Russell Norgaard; Charles Van Buren; A C Andersen; Lloyd Toland; Bennedict “Ben” Danbaum; William “Billy” Maher; Tony Hoffman; John W Towle; Tom Crawford; Vaso L Chucovich; Charles E Cobbey; Titus Lowe; Leonard Wood

Place Names: Douglas County Courthouse; Omaha, Nebraska; “Budweiser” bar; Red Oak, Iowa; Council Bluffs, Iowa; Ellisville, Mississippi; Longview, Texas; Washington, D.C.; Knoxville, Tennessee; Gibson neighborhood; Bancroft School; Harney Street; Ford’s Hospital; First Christian Church

Keywords: “Cowboy Jim” “the Old Man” “Courthouse Riot” “racial tension” “Omaha Bee””World-Herald” “policy shop king” “Daily News” “Fontenelle Club” “liberal element” “American Water Company” “red light government” “home-rule city charter” “Monitor” “Bancroft Gang” “Pulitzer Prize” “Law and the Jungle” “Kansas City Star” “Ministerial Union” “old gang” “Omaha Women’s Club”

Photographs / Images: Rioters on the south side of the Douglas County Courthouse, September 28, 1919; Tom Dennison; Edward Rosewater; James C “Cowboy Jim” Dahlman; political cartoon, Omaha Bee, May 18, 1918; J Dean Ringer; Edward P Smith; Riot damage to the courthouse interior; county clerk’s office inside the courthouse after the riot; burning of Will Brown’s body; Omaha World-Herald headlines, September 29, 1918

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Rioters on the south side of the Douglas County Courthouse, September 28, 1919.

TOM DENNISON, THE OMAHA BEE, AND THE 1919 OMAHA RACE RIOT

By Orville D. Menard

In the spring of 1921 Omahans Internal differences and squabbles was besieged by a rioting mob; its returned James Dahlman to the that had marred the Smith administra­ determined members set the building mayor's office they had denied him tion, plus dissatisfaction with law ablaze and cut to pieces hoses unrolled three years earlier. Dahlman's streak of enforcement under Police Com­ by firemen to fight the flames. four consecutive City Hall victories had missioner J. Dean Ringer, fueled by the Policemen and deputies were verbally been broken in 1918 by the reform tick­ influentialBee newspaper, were signifi­ and physically attacked, the mayor et headed by Edward P. Smith. Now cant factors in the reformers' defeat.l almost killed, and the rioters even­ the colorful "Cowboy Jim" once again But one event in particular convinced tually realized their central purpose - displayed his winning ways as voters Omaha voters that Smith and his the lynching of black Will Brown, registered their disillusionment with divided commissioners must go in accused of raping a white woman. "The Smith and his colleagues. order to recapture the stability enjoyed results of the riot were far-reaching. under political boss Tom "the Old Omaha's reform administration," Man" Dennison and the Dahlman Louise Rickard concluded, "already OruilleD.Menardisaprofessorofpolitical administration. under attack before the disorder, was science at the University of Nebraska at For several hours on September 28, now thoroughly discredited."2 Omaha. 1919, the Douglas County Courthouse Dennison's political machine and the 152 1919 Omaha Riot

Dahlman slate were the beneficiaries of the "Budweiser" bar. His lack of educa­ the Courthouse Riot. However, the riot tion and social standing necessitated a was not merely a spontaneous reaction contact within Omaha's establishment to racial tensions that had been build­ to facilitate the necessary exchange of ing through the summer of 1919 in monies (campaign contributions) and Omaha and other American cities. In instructions between the organization Omaha an orchestration of racism was and its upperworld clientele.4 conducted and a campaign waged to Dennison's conduit to men and exacerbate an already volatile situa­ organizations far removed from the tion, setting the stage for an outburst lower reaches ofthe third ward became demonstrating the incoinpetence of Rosewater, who needed the votes the City Hall's incumbents. The sequence political boss came to have at his com­ of events from Brown's accusation to mand. Edward Rosewater had lived in his death cannot be attributed directly Omaha for aimost three decades by the to Dennison and his machine. time of Dennison's arrival and his Bee However, there is little doubt they newspaper was twenty-one years old. A helped create a climate ripe for mob leading Republican, editor, and a man action, thereby realizing the goal of dis­ of wealth and power, Rosewater crediting Smith and recapturing con­ nevertheless recognized the impor­ trol of city government in the next tance of allying with a man capable of election. producing votes. In the months preceding the riot, Rosewater's opinions, channeled Omahans read in the Bee recurrent through his newspaper, were influen­ attacks on Ringer, and they were tial but insufficient by themselves to informed that because of him, ineffec­ alter or direct city decision making. tiveness and brutality were rampant in The editor's ambitions and considered the police department. During the courses of action needed electoral sup­ summer and fall of 1919 the Bee port to be transformed from Rosewater stressed the baneful consequences of policy to public policy. To that end Smith/Ringer misgovernment and pro­ Rosewater and men like him in other vided sensational and lurid coverage of Ibm Dennison, Omaha political boss. cities sought out a political boss, a man assaults by black men on white women able to deliver an election. Differing in in Omaha and of racial strife elsewhere. class standing and profession, inhabit­ A longstanding alliance. between ing different worlds, business boss and Omaha's political boss and a major reward and punish, and like bosses in political boss united in their common newspaper of the community was once other cities, took advantage of the desire to manipulate political power to again in view. numerous opportunities to be benevo­ their mutual advantage. And the key Tom Dennison was a political boss in lent or cruel as loyal followers or the was America's mass male electorate at the classical mold, a man with little for­ unfaithful deserved. Obedience, the turn of the century, amenable to mal education but one with consider­ however, was dependent upon accom­ benefits such as jobs and welfare, able experience in dealing with people. modations with other powerful figures, which the political machine was A professional gambler whose skills for a.political boss was not an isolated prompt to provide in exchange for a were honed in the gold and silver boom autocrat. Tom Dennison accordingiy vote. towns ofthe West, he came to Omaha in developed a host of allies and alliances, Rosewater was a political fighter, 1892 from Denver. To be a gambler but in his early Omaha years one name once described as "the best practical where the games were illegal required stands out prominently as his partner politician in Nebraska," a man "who political influence, and Dennison in seeking to dominate Omaha's politi­ knew the Omaha battlefield better than turned his formidable abilities to gain­ cal life Edward Rosewater, any living man. He knew its underworld ing access to city decisionmakers. publisher of the Omaha Bee. and its upperworld, its captains, its Within five years his political talents Dennison was a gambler, a man lieutenants, its rank and file."s When were apparent, and his powerful role in whose base of operations was in and how the relationship between Omaha life was well underway.3 downtown's third ward, wmchincluded Rosewater and Dennison was initiated Dennison was keenly aware of the the heart of Omaha' slgambling and pros­ is unknown, but its reality is well essence of power, the capacity to titution. His office was in the rear of established. As early as the 1897 city 153 ------

Nebraska History - Winter 1987

election the World-Herald was scoring "Rosewater" was stricken from the bIers, important sources of campaign the Bee for shielding Dennison, the record. financing. 13 When primary day arrived, "policy shop king," asserting that the In what proved to be Rosewater's Benson won the nomination with gambler was right-hand man to last campaign, he and Dennison dis­ Broatch running third, carrying only Rosewater, furnishing money and serv­ agreed in 1906 over the candidate for two wards, Dennison's third and tenth ing as the editor's chief lieutenant.6 mayor. While the Democrats fairly machine stalwarts.14 That refrain became a common one easily settled on James Dahlman as The split in Republican ranks was in the local elections three years later their champion in his first race for not healed after the primary - in fact it as the Rosewater-Moores-Dennison mayor of Omaha, the Republicans became worse. Certain businessmen Republican combination became the fought an internecine war that divided and the "liberal element" (saloon theme for many an opposition article.7 the party and facilitated Dahlman's keepers and gamblers) saw in Benson a (Frank E. Moores was the mayor from way into City Hall. A three way contest threat to their livelihood, fearing that if 1897 until his death in office in 1906.) developed in the party for the mayoral he became mayor a prohibition cam­ "Tom Dennison," Omahans were paign was in the offing. Therefore, prom­ informed in March 1900, "notorious inent Republican businessmen with and desperate, is the premier of the interests in breweries and third ward kitchen cabinet that is engineering the real estate spread the word that a Dahl­ fortunes of the Rosewater-Moores­ man win was necessary. Likewise, Dennison ticket."8 During that fall's saloon keepers and gamblers who had school board campaign, the Daily News supported Republicans Moores and warned that the Republican ticket had Broatch now turned to Democrat Dahl­ been dictated by the triad in an attempt man in response to Benson's potential to bring even the schools under their for damage. IS machine for personal ends.9 A deputy Edward Rosewater, unable to make county attorney, complaining ofthe dif­ the switch to support a Democrat, ficulty in securing evidence in Omaha gave Benson a lukewarm endorse­ through the police department, ment. 16 Dennison, who also was a referred to the "Dennisonwater" organ Republican, turned political pragma­ of the machine, "formerly known in its tist on behalf of the "sporting district" more lucid moments as the Omaha and threw his weight behind the effort Bee."lo to secure the tolerant Dahlman's elec­ During a 1905 trial in Red Oak, Iowa, tion. On election day the third ward in which Dennison was charged with gave Dahlman his highest ward total (in possession of stolen goods (he was the core second precinct Dahlman had found not guilty), the Dennison­ Edward Rosewater, editor of the 420 votes to Benson's 22), and the Rosewater connection became part of Omaha Bee. highest total voter turnout of any ward the proceedings on two occasions, once in the city. Benson carried half of the directly, once inadvertently. Witness twelve wards, but he was unable to Frank Shercliffe recalled that Elmer nomination, revealing not only party overcome Dahlman's lopsided vic­ Thomas, a determined Dennison oppo­ splits but placing Dennison and tories in the wards delivered by "Old nent instrumental in bringing about the Rosewater behind opposing aspir­ Man" Tom Dennison. 17 trial, had confided to him that by means ants. Henceforth Dennison and Dahlman of the courtroom Thomas wanted to Erastus A. Benson was the early were electoral allies, the pragmatic show what a thief and gambler Den­ choice of the Fontenelle Club, an Republican political boss helping sus­ nison was, and thereby reveal "what organization of elite Republicans tain in office the popular and reliable kind of man the mayor, chief of police, opposed by Rosewater. He decided to Democrat. But Edward Rosewater was and Edward Rosewater were associ­ back Gus Hennings, but an ailing unable to alter his party allegiance, and ated with."ll And when Dennison was Mayor Moores, physically unable to his son Victor followed his father's on the stand, his attorney, W.J. Con­ campaign for a fourth term, refused to example in elections to come, consis­ nell, after reeling off a number of facts, endorse Rosewater's selection, reveal­ tently placing the Bee in opposition to asked his client, in a remarkable slip of ing a rift in the triad's ranks. Moores "Cowboy Jim." However, on several the tongue: "Now isn't that so, Mr. instead came out for William J. Broatch other issues, the Bee/Dennison Rosewater?"12 Dennison denied any and Dennison followed, taking with him relationship remained intact, the son's such alias and the reference to the bulk of saloon keepers and gam- inherited newspaper and the Boss's 154 1919 Omaha Riot

machine lining up in common cause. third ward's June tactics.24 Rose­ Years after Edward Rosewater's water's turnabout by August was 1906 death brought his relationship apparent in his response to a letter with Tom ·-Dennison to a close,18 a questioning where the editor of the Bee visitor to the "Old Man's" office could now stood on the bond issue. Having still see Rosewater's portrait on the previously said little on the impending wall and be reminded of the alliance balloting, Rosewater responded mildly forged so many years before.19 Victor that the bonds were likely to pass with Rosewater and Dennison continued minimal opposition, suggesting none the compact, although Democrat Dahl­ from him would be forthcoming.25 man remained unacceptable in the Bee Now it was the third ward's turn to pages. Edward Rosewater had been register a low turnout as Dennison's dead for seven years when a private forces obligingly joined. in ally investigator from Kansas City, brought Rosewater's retreat. Whereas in June, into Omaha by the Daily News to probe 747 voters cast a "no" ballot in the third corruption, reported that Victor and ward and only ninety-four said "yes," in his newspaper were "subservient to August just 327 of them bothered to go and part of the [Dennison's] to the polls to cast a majority vote in system. "20 favor of the bonds. The dutiful second Newspaper and machine sometimes precinct,which voted 349 "no" to five divided along party lines over can­ , "yes" in June, reported its forty-five didates for public office. But when sub­ returns ten minutes after balloting stantive issues came along, the ended.26 While the third ward voters relationship revealed itself as voters mostly avoided polling places in the behaved as the Rosewater/Dennison August election, in the rest of the city forces directed. Two water works bond the turnout was twice as great as two votes in 1911, for example, demon­ months before and the bond issue strated the connection as Dennison easily passed. delivered the third ward for Victor Dennison's capacity to swing third Rosewater's negative preference one ward votes "in accordance with month and registered his acquiescence James C. (Cowboy Jim) Dahlman, the Rosewater wish" also was the next. Since the turn of the century whose years in office earned him the demonstrated in the election for mem­ Omaha city officials and the privately nickname "the perpetual mayor of bers of a home-rule city charter com­ Omaha." owned American Water Company had mission in February 1913.27 In Novem­ been battling over a proposed city ber 1912 Nebraska voters had takeover. The Bee counseled com­ approved a constitutional amendment promise, delay until legal appeals ran granting Omahans the right to create their course (over the appraisal process terized by a light vote except in the their own framework of governance, a and the amount of interest due since third ward, which produced more task structural reformer Victor the initial estimate of the value of the voters in one precinct than entire wards Rosewater by background and educa­ water works), and financial prudence. were able to muster elsewhere in the tion was eager to direct.28 Also attrac­ Immediate public ownership was city. The World-Herald attributed the tive to him was the opportunity to have advocated by the World-Herald and the bond defeat to Dennison and Rose­ a major influence in shaping the con­ Daily News. 21 water in a story headlined "Omaha figuration of government in his city.29 An effort to secure a bond issue for Bee's Influence in Red Light District To assure that Rosewater and his city purchase of the water works and to the Main Factor."22 It was "redlight associates dominated commission pro­ meet additional costs of litigation and government," agreed the Daily ceedings, third ward forces under Den­ plant improvements was doomed in News. 23 nison's leadership secured heavy June 1911 by third ward "nos." A two­ Another effort to pass the bonds only majorities for his allies. In both the Feb­ thirds majority was necessary for two months later was successful, regis­ ruary primary and March runoff elec­ approval, and Rosewater's ally, Tom tering Rosewater's acceptance of the tions, the third ward led the city in Dennison, brought in an overwhelming bond issue in the face of general turnout, its voters marking their ballots negative vote in his territory to deny support for it among the business com­ more often for Rosewater than for any­ passage. The election was charac- munity and public reaction against the one else. There were forty-two can- 155 Nebraska History - Winter 1987

didates in the primary and thirty in the runoff with fifteen elected. The Bee's Almost a Clean Sweep! editor became president of the charter commission, secure in the knowledge that every candidate who carried Den­ nison's third ward in the runoff was elected.30 Only in the third ward did any candidate in the runoff election receive over 600 votes and in the third it happened fifteen times - the fifteen men who were elected to the charter commission thanks to their solid sup­ port in Dennison territory. The most votes any other candidates garnered in the third ward was ninety-one.31 Den­ nison had prevailed on behalf of his Rosewater ally, but a year later when the commission's work was presented to the voters for their approval, it went down to an overwhelming defeat. Only in the third ward was the city charter drafted by Rosewater's commission approved and even there in a very light voter turnout.32 Widespread opposition to the char­ ter was nurtured by the World-Herald, which saw threats to honest elections and the influence of corrupt machine politics in Rosewater's product.33 The second water bond election had passed in 1911, thanks hugely to third ward inactivity given the community's obvious consensus for approval by election day. Confronted in 1914 with the certainty of defeat on the charter commission plan, Dennison's third ward again acknowledged its limi­ tations and its obedient voters stayed away from the polls in large numbers. The World-Herald remarked on the third ward's absence of interest: no cars bringing voters to the polls, no ward heelers bringing in the vote. "'We aren't interested,' tersely explained 'Boob' Milder [at that time a Dennison lieutenant]. '1 guess that tells the whole story."'34 .. Dennison, the political pragmatist, well realized that his third Thispolitical cartoon (Omaha Bee,May 18,1918) applauded the outcome ofOmaha's ward, even with help from the tenth, 1918 municipal elections. was unable to prevail against deter­ mined city-wide opposition. Moreover, considering already enacted changes in city governance he had good reason to be confident that his support would 156 1919 Omaha Riot

continue to be crucial whatever struc­ er, but his strong Republicanism ture city fathers might design. His con­ alienated him from Democrat Smith. fidence was well founded for his power He was also unwilling to give strong was equally apparent under the mayor­ support to moral reformers like Ringer council form of his earlier political who saw their task as the regeneration years and the commission plan, which and purification of a sinful city.37 had replaced it in May 1912. Following its defeat in the 1918 elec­ In electoral politics, from 1906 the tion, the Dennison machine took steps Republican Bee and the pragmatic to ensure that the victors would not Dennison took opposite sides on "Cow­ long dwell in City Hall. A part of the boy Jim" and 1918 was no exception. strategy was to stress "Lily White" True to form, the Bee was unable to Ringrr's incapacity to protect the peo­ abide Democrat Dahlman, but its ple of Omaha and the steady break­ endorsement of the reform slate was down of law and order in the city. An lukewarm. It editorially suggested, in a important role in spreading the largely passive electoral atmosphere, message fell upon the press, The task that the "anti's" platform as a whole was made easier by Ringer's zealous deserved "careful attention." Ringer, a attempts to "clean up" Omaha. The Republican, was endorsed by the Bee, Bee's antipathy toward radical reform but not the ticket's leader, Democrat and its effect on illicit activities in the Ed Smith.35 (Omaha's city com­ third ward found strident voice when missioners were officially nonpartisan, the new administration was barely a J. Dean Ringer, Omaha police com­ but political affiliations nonetheless year old. missioner. continued to loom large in cam­ After World War I Omaha (like other paigns.) cities) was experiencing the pangs of Electoral endorsements belied the peacetime readjustment, including the much deeper relationship that existed accommodation oflarge scale immigra­ these and other incidents reflects the on substantive issues between Den­ tion as the black population doubled former's concentration on the racial nison and the newspaper. An indication between 1910 and 1920.38 Returning issue. (Two other Omaha papers, the of its strength was demonstrated to a white veterans discovered that the Daily News and the Monitor, a black young reporter upon his return to stockyards and other industries were community weekly, were similar to the Omaha after the war. Recently hired by hiring the black newcomers, creating a World-Herald in their more subdued the Bee the cub newsman was sum­ source of friction in the labor market coverage.) In early June a Bee story moned by the superior and instructed and adding economic pressures to related the robbing, throttling, and to go to Frank Johnson's office and take existing racial hostilities.39 assault of a young girl by a black male in down whatever was dictated by An already volatile situation was Council Bluffs; the World-Herald Johnson, president of the Omaha exacerbated by the coverage given briefly noted that a Council Bluffs Printing Company and successor to racial incidents in the Bee's pages dur­ woman had escaped an attacking black Edward Rosewater as Omaha's "busi­ ing the summer of 1919 as it published man.41 Several days later the Bee re­ ness boss." The reporter was told not sensational stories of incidents both ported that a woman had been attacked to bother with checking facts or talking local and distant. Although there is no by a black or Mexican who dragged her with anyone else - just write down direct evidence to connect Dennison into some weeds, tore off nearly all her exactly what was said. "Mr. Dennison is with the Bee's concentration upon clothes, then assaulted her. The same interested in this story," he was these issues, his long relationship with assault was mentioned in the World­ informed, "and it is the policy of this the paper suggests his behind-the­ Herald without reference to race.42 paper to print whatever Mr. Dennison scenes influence in furthering the Racial strife in Ellisville, Mis­ and Mr. Johnson want."36 harrassment of the hardpressed reform­ sissippi, was front page news in Omaha, The reform slate's victory did not ers for political advantage. and both newspapers reported the shield a deep rift in its ranks. One From early June to late September lynching and burning of a black man group, represented by new Mayor twenty-one women reported assaults. there. The Bee's coverage was similar Smith, supported structural change to All the victims but one were white and to that of its competitor, but the Bee produce efficient, businesslike sixteen of the assailants were identified added the comment that authorities in methods in government. Rosewater was as black.40 Comparison of stories from Ellisville had characterized the lynch­ also a moderate "structural" reform- the Bee and the World-Herald about ing as having been carried out in a 157 Nebraska History - Winter 1987

"manner that was orderly."43 A few nine to fourteen, had tried to assault a most daring attack on a white woman days later Omaha had what the Bee white woman. The incident was re­ ever perpetrated in Omaha occurred called a near riot at a ball park when a ported in the World-Herald without any one block south of Bancroft street near black player (on an all black team) hit a mention of race.48 Five days later Bee Scenic avenue in Gibson last night."53 white player (on an all white team), and readers learned that a one-armed black Phrasing by the World-Herald was less spectators of both races surged onto man had criminally assaulted a twelve­ inflammatory: "Pretty little Agnes the field. Off-duty policemen present year-old girl, first strapping his victim Loebeck ... was assaulted ... by an as fans were able to prevent the spread to her bed. A more restrained World­ unidentified negro at twelve o'clock of violence. While the Bee carried the Herald carried a brief item about an last night, while she was returning to story on page one, the World-Herald assault by a one-armed man, identified her home in company with Millard [sic] placed it in the sports section on page as black, but with no reference to the Hoffman, a cripple."54 six, captioned as "Free-for-All-Riot" victim's age or other circumstanc~s.49 The evening following the reported and not until the eighth of its nine During the summer, Bee editorials, attack the police took a suspect to the paragraph coverage was race sometimes carried on the first page, Loebeck home, where Milton and mentioned.44 assailed Police Commissioner Ringer, Agnes (they later married) identified Less than two weeks later the Bee called for his removal, and blasted the black Will Brown as their assailant. A reported that five blacks were lynched police department for tyranny and mob of 250 people gathered outside the and burned in Long View, Texas, while abuse. In late August, for example, the house, cornering Brown and three the World-Herald confined its elf to not­ Bee scored Omaha law enforcement, police officers. After an hour's confron­ ing a clash there which resulted in four complaining that "a carnival of crime" tation, police reinforcements arrived whites being wounded with no mention was being visited upon the city, with and Brown, who at one point had a oflynching or burning.45 Race rioting in assaults, robbery, and violence the con­ noose around his neck, was spirited Washington, D.C. in July provided a sequences of incompetent police un­ away by the officers, his clothes torn, banner headline for the Bee, followed able to safeguard citizens.5o head and hands bleeding. He was first by stories of whites retaliating for Just a day after these scorching taken to the police station but was soon recent attacks on white women by words race rioting broke out in Knox­ moved to the jail in the fortress-like black men. Mobs of whites were killing ville,Tennessee, and once more the Bee Douglas County Courthouse for better blacks according to the World-Herald '8 provided provocative coverage of security. A contingent of officers was more restrained assessment. A Bee violence and another banner headline. ordered to report at once to police editorial a few days afterward labeled Whites had broken into nearby stores headquarters in case of further trouble, the riots a national disgrace - for arms and ammunition while and forty-six policemen and a detective understandable in light of the crimes attempting to take custody of a black were kept on duty well into the that had been committed - but anger man accused of murdering a white night.55 and race prejudice were not proper re­ woman, the paper informed its On Sunday morning, September 28, sponses. Authorities in Washington audience. Subscribers to the World­ word passed in the Gibson neighbor­ were accused by the Bee of being lax Herald were told in a short story hood to gather at Bancroft School early and unable to handle a situation they without headlines about a Tennessee that afternoon for a march on the should have seen coming, a message no mob gone wild.51 courthouse. About 300 people showed doubt intended for Omaha's City In early September the Bee resumed up, mostly young men and a few young Hall.46 Race rioting followed in Chicago its attack on the city administration women. Telephone calls from the within a week, and the Bee headlined following the shooting of a young black vicinity soon began coming to police the fact that seven were killed and the bellboy during a police hotel raid. The headquarters reporting that a mob was black belt left in a shambles; the youth's death was cast by the forming at the school "with the inten­ Chicago mayor's request for troops to newspaper as the "crowning achieve­ tion of hanging Will Brown."56 Milton help restore order was emphasized by , ment" of the police department, Hoffman was there to take command. the World-Herald. 47 reflecting its "disgraceful and incom­ He led the youthful crowd downtown, Quickly the two papers returned to petent management."52 The oppor­ picking up an additional 600 followers local news but differed in the way they tunity to strike hard on the point was along the way, to be met by two dozen reported the story of a black man res­ provided by a reported robbery and police officers at the courthouseY cued from a mob. According to the Bee, assault that came later in the month. Within two hours the mob had grown to the crowd was infuriated and impelled On Friday morning, September 26, about 4,000 confronting 100 policemen to action by the accusation that the Bee readers were shocked by the encircling the building. black; who allegedly was guilty of four headline "Black Beast First Sticks-up The officers talked with members of pre~ous attacks on girls aged from Couple." Then they were told, "The the throng, who seemed in a mood 158 1919 Omaha Riot

more bantering than dangerous, and After being knocked unconscious word was sent to police l;eadquarters Mayor Smith was dragged down Har­ that the situation did not appear ney toward Sixteenth Street, and three threatenin-g. Following receipt of the times, said witnesses, a young man message, fifty officers held in reserve at named Russell Norgaard took the the police station were sent home.58 noose from around Smith's neck as the But the action proved to be a serious mob surged down the street. Each time error in judgment. A close friend of rioters put the rope back around the Agnes Loebeck, William Francis, mayor's throat, but Norgaard kept hold began riding around the courthouse of the noose and prevented it from lawn on a white horse, a rope over the being drawn tight. But when Smith was saddle horn, exhorting the mob to do its delivered to Sixteenth and Harney, the duty. rope was thrown over the arm of a traf­ As adults joined the melee, the fic signal tower, drawn tight, and the crowd continued to grow, and urged on "Mayor swung clear of the ground."63 by Francis and others, its mood What happened next is unclear became ugly. Banter changed to verbal because of varying accounts of the hostility, and about 5:00 p.m. a now mayor's rescue. One version reported aroused mob began physically attack­ by the World-Herald credited the ing the police and storming the heroism of Detectives Charles Van courthouse. An hour later Police Chief Buren, A.C. Andersen, Lloyd Toland, Eberstein arrived and tried to reason Edward P. Smith, mayor of Omaha and State Agent Bennedict "Ben" with the rioters, but he was shouted during the 1919 riot. Danbaum with saving Smith's life. The down. Thousands of people now sur­ four officers were praised for having rounded the building as its windows unpopular policemen were attacked driven through the mob to the mayor, were shattered and doors broken open. and their badges and revolvers taken. Danbaum at the wheeL "I drove the car Retreating within the structure and At 10:30 p.m. Mayor Smith, who had right at the tower," Danbaum later joining County Sheriff Michael Clark been on the scene for several hours, explained, "Andersen stood up and cut and his deputies, the police hoped to came out of the courthouse around the rope and pulled the mayor into the save Brown by taking their stand on the which now swirled several thousand car. I gave her the gas and we drove out, fourth floor, while Clark and his other rioters and spectators. There are con­ knocking several men down."64 prisoners remained in the jail on the flicting reports as to whether Smith Another story is that instead of fifth.59 walked out, gun in hand, or whether he Andersen cutting the rope, Norgaard The law officers underestimated the was dragged out.61 Flames and untied the noose and led the semicon­ potential lynchers' fervor, and within gunshots had combined to drive the scious Smith to Danbaum's automo­ an hour the courthouse was set on fire. authorities back, replaced by rioters bile. Norgaard's memory was of Smith Gunfire added to the din as pawnshops demanding that Brown be turned over having been dragged down Harney to and hardware stores were looted and to them. Mayor Smith attempted to Sixteenth, where the rope was thrown arms and ammunition taken for use at reason with the now unreasonable over the traffic tower and placed the battle site. Quickly the firearms throng, entreating them to forget about around his neck. His tormentors began took their toll as sixteen-year-old Louis the prisoner and allow the firemen to pulling the mayor up and then letting Young, one of the mob's youthful put out the flames. him down; during one of these cycles leaders, was shot and killed while mak­ At that point, recalled the mayor, he Norgaard and another fellow managed ing a try for the elevator leading to the was seized, thrown down, and dragged to get their hands between the noose fifth floor. A block away from the pan­ out the east doors by his heels. He and the victim's neck. Smith collapsed demonium, thirty-four-year-old busi­ managed to get to his feet and began and was unable to rise; the two young nessman James Hiykel fell fatally struggling, then was knocked uncon­ men helped him to his feet and walked wounded, two bullets in his body.60 scious by a terrific blow to his head. him to the car Danbaum had driven to Firemen rushed to the burning build­ The next thing he knew he was on Har­ the scene.65 Old-time machine ing, but the mob chopped their trailing ney Street and one end of a rope was worker William "Billy" Maher cor­ hoses to pieces. Anyone attempting to being flung over a lamp post, the other roborated Norga1:!I"d's version with his I help the authorities was chased down tightened around his neck. That was recollection that it was,not the police streets and alleys and beaten if caught. the last Smith remembered until he who cut Mayor Smith down, but Old grudges were settled as several woke up in a hospitaL62 Maher's friend Norgaard who freed 159 Nebraska History - Winter 1987

him. One of the original members of the tined for a similar fate. Sheriff Clark led roared, and a rope was placed around Bancroft Gang, a neighborhood group, his men and prisoners to the roof, and his neck. Hoisted in the air, Brown's Norgaard knew the young men who soon gunshots from higher neighboring spinning body was riddled with bullets. were holding the rope and lifting and buildings were added to the threats When brought down, his shattered dropping Smith. "Give him to us and from below. corpse was tied behind a car and towed we'll take him down and throw him in Finally the female prisoners were to the intersection of Seventeenth and the river," Norgaard is recalled to have permitted to descend, and after allow­ Dodge, four blocks away. There the said. They let him take the mayor, ing them to leave, rioters poured more body was cremated with fuel taken declared Maher, and Smith was then gasoline on the flaming building. Under from nearby red danger lamps and fire turned over to the police who were what circumstances Brown ended up in truck lanterns, while bits of the lynch nearby.66 Two months after the riot the hands of his enemies is rope were sold for ten cents each. Later Norgaard was appointed to the police unknown. Sheriff Clark reported that it Brown's charred remains trailed department as a chauffeur in recogni­ was other prisoners who seized Brown behind an automobile driven through tion of his services in helping to save and in the smoke and confusion of the city's downtown streets. Shortly the mayor.67 crowded stairways turned him over, before he ended up in the hands of the Interest in Smith waned as events up passing him over their heads to the mob Brown had moaned to Sheriff the street at the courthouse neared mob's eager hands. Once taken, Brown Clark, "I am innocent, I never did it, my their climax, and his assailants were was beaten into unconsciousness and God, I am innocent."69 anxious to return to their original pur­ his clothes were torn off by the time he By 3:00 a.m. army troops were pa­ pose. Smith was rushed to Ford's Hos­ reached the building's doors. Then he trolling the streets and uniformed men pital where he remained in serious con­ was dragged to a lamp pole on the south behind machine guns greeted dition for several days with severe head side of the courthouse at Eighteenth Omahans the next morning. The riot injuries. At the courthouse the flames and Harney, shortly before 11:00 had cost the lives of Brown and two were spreading and police officers, p.m.68 others; thirty-one individuals were deputies, and prisoners all seemed des- "Here he is, here he is," the mob injured as of 2:00 a.m.; thousands of dollars in damages blemished a build­ ing that had been the pride of the city; and irreplaceable records were de­ stroyed. Pondering the riot's effects, the Riot damage to the courthouse interior was extensive. World-Herald ear:ned a Pulitzer Prize with its "Law and the Jungle" editorial, drawing attention to the city's disgrace, humiliation, and the consequences of inefficient government. Reliance on the authorities to maintain order had been misplaced, said the editorial, and Omahans would henceforth seek a stronger police force and more compe­ tent leadership.70 The Bee's editorial page returned to the attack on police inefficiency and resulting lawlessness, observing that "ample warning was given of the approaching storm."71 Damage to the courthouse and the loss of records were deplored, but there was no mention of Will BroWn - only a reference to "lives lost. "72 In response to a question from a New York newspaper, Victor Rose­ water returned to familiar themes to explain the riot's causes. Among them, said Rosewater, were resentment at the failure of authorities to punish blacks who had assaulted women, the 160 The county clerk's office inside the courthouse after the riot. Windows were shattered, doors broken open, and furni­ ture destroyed. Irreplaceable records were damaged or destroyed by fire and smoke.

atmosphere of lawlessness which had nections with Dennison, was not among no avail; he seemed to have disap­ settled over the city, the lack of them despite his leading the march peared. In the grand jury's letter of leadership in the police department, from Bancroft School. Nor was he transmittal, foreman John W. Towle and lastly, social unrest in the after­ indicted by the grand jury convened on said, "we are at a loss to understand math of the warJ3 October 8 to investigate the riot. why Millard [sic] Hoffman has been Thoroughly discredited by the Hoffman's first job had come through carefully kept from US."77 Hoffman had lynching, the Smith administration was his cousin, Tony Hoffman, a ward in fact left the city, sent to Denver by unable to recover from its effects worker for Dennison. The elder Hoff­ Dennison, according to Tom Crawford although some effort was made to re­ man introduced Milton to the "Old (a police officer who served as Den­ dress the situation. Four days after the Man," who hired him when he learned nison's secretary in the 1920s until they riot the city commission voted to add the youth, a recent business school had a falling out), where Vaso L. 100 additional policemen and also graduate, knew shorthand. Milton Chucovich, gambler, political force, ordered riot guns and machine guns for worked as Dennison's secretary for and longtime friend of Dennison, emergencies.74 Efforts to punish an about a year and prospered. After helped Hoffman find a jobJ8 Seven officer for gross neglect of duty and to traveling for a period of time, Milton years later Hoffman returned to provide for a special investigation of returned to Omaha and helped Den­ Omaha, where he remained the rest of the police department failed to pass nison during political campaigns, his life, never called to account for his the beleaguered council.75 including casting votes before he was role in helping to initiate the riot with A number of people Were arrested twenty-one.76 the gathering at Bancroft School. immediately after the riot, but Milton Efforts to locate Hoffman after the After a six week session the grand Hoffman, a young man with long con- riot, by the police and the sheriff, were to jury issued a report which strength- 161 Will Brown's body was burned during the aftermath of the riot.

ened the image of ineffective white women by blacks and "undue an outbreak of violence. "It is the belief leadership in the city and of police criticism given to courts, police and of many," asserted Cobbey, "that the incompetence during the events of public officials by the press of the entire responsibility for the outrage September 28.79 Absence of the police city."81 can be placed at the feet of a few men chief and the police commissioner at "The press of the city" was widely and one Omaha paper."R3 Another critical moments was deemed unfor­ interpreted to mean the Bee, whose church leader, Reverend Titus Lowe, tunate by the jurors, and according to sensational reporting and attacks on traced the riot to attacks on the city military witnesses, proper leadership the police department had elicited administration and exaggerated re­ on the scene could have dispersed the much comment well before the grand ports of crime "made by a local mob at any time between 3:00 and 6:00 jury's report. A few days after the riot, newspaper. "84 p.m. without firing a shot. Setting the the Kansas City Star pointed out that Police Commissioner Ringer issued stage for the tumult were "unmention­ the Bee had been lambasting the city a statement a week after the lynching in able crimes and assaults upon women administration for six months, despite which he defended the police against and girls," contempt for law and its support for the reformers in 1918.82 the Bee's summer long campaign. "The authority, plus, Omahans were The Pastor of the First Christian crystallization of mob spirit," advised assured, economic problems and social Church, Reverend Charles E. Cobbey, Ringer, "by vicious, unprincipled and unrest.80 The immediate and fun­ said from his pulpit that "the yellow false newspaper criticism of the police damental causes of the riot, the grand journalism of a certain Omaha department" was a direct cause.H) jury concluded, were the raping of newspaper" created the conditions for Omaha's Ministerial Union concurred 162 1919 Omaha Riot

in a resolution adopted in late October, condemning the Bee for printing mis­ • leading ~d vicious statements regard­ ing public officials. In the Ministerial Union's opinion, the riot was in large part "instigated and augmented by FRENZIED THOUSANDS ..JOI~., - ., sensational, misleading and malicious­ , ly false statements published in the Bee."86 Ringer's statement also included his OpInIOn that Omaha's criminal IN.. ORGY OF BLOOD ANB.FIRB'~ ... r • elements (which had vowed, he said, to get Smith and himself) were gratified by the turn of events. He concluded Douglas County Court House Fearfully Dam .. : that "the gang" had demonstrated on aged as Howling Avengers Storm Jail WitlJ September 28 how far it was willing to go to return to powerP A Monitor Bullet and Flame-One Man Killed and editorial a week before Ringer's words Many Injured-Police .Overwhelmed and appeared likewise mentioned political motivations behind the riot, referring Soldiers Summoned. to the "hidden, but not wholly con­ cealed hand, of those who would go to CROWDS SEARCH THROUGH STREETS; any extreme to place themselves in power."88 ATTACKIN~ NEGROES EVERYWHERE Direct responsibility for what followed the attack on Loebeck and Hoffman has often been attributed to Headlines of the Omaha World-Herald, September 29,1919. the Dennison machine. In this view, the riot and lynching were consequences of a well planned "gang" activity, includ­ ing organizing the march on the calculated planning by politicians of on white women had actually been per­ courthouse and providing manpower to the "old gang."91 Those calculations petrated by whites in blackface, he impassion the crowd. Major General were understood to include the Bee's asserted, adding that a special reporter Leonard Wood, who took charge of the campaign of sensationalism and had been imported from Sioux City to troops in Omaha on September 30, attacks on the police department on write inflammatory articles on the announced a few days after his arrival behalf of the "outs," the newspaper's attacks.93 that the attack on the courthouse could political allies.92 Rumors and charges The riot was planned and launched be traced to the "old criminal gang" of the Dennison organization's com­ by "the vice element of the city," that once ruled Omaha, a fine city plicity in and responsibility for Brown's Towle declared, and later he was except for a few men and one fate were unsubstantiated, but they cir­ quoted as saying, "I want to say to you newspaper. The Bee was not named but culated widely and surfaced in the next that the riot ... was not a casual affair; it the general's target was clear. city election. was premeditated and planned by The further his investigation probed, In 1921 the issue of the "gang's" role those secret and invisible forces that added the general, the more he was in the riot became a rallying point for today are fighting you and the men who convinced of an organized effort, with the reform elements attempting to sus­ represent good government."94 He was alcohol distributed freely while "a tain control of City Hall. Large adver­ stating opinions formed during the regular taxi cab service was maintained tisements appeared, casting the investigations, Towle pointed out, no to bring men to the scene of the riot."89 "gang" as a culprit and the foreman of longer bound by secrecy two years after Rumors later circulated about the investigating grand jury spoke out. the event.95 hoodlums having been imported from At a meeting of the Omaha Women's Yet others have different recollec­ Chicago to assist in funneling the mob Club, Towle charged that a "certain tions and interpretations and deny to its proper course.90 Omaha newspaper" had set out to dis­ Dennison and his organization had any­ Reverend Titus Lowe bluntly pro­ credit city government and the police thing to do with the events of Septem­ claim~d the lynching was the result of department. Several reported assaults ber 28, 1919. A inember of the police 163 Nebraska History - Winter 1987

force at the time stated with conviction, cocted for political purposes. 7EOW-H, February 20, 21, 23, 26, 1900. 8Ibid., March 1, 1900. "Dennison never had nothing to do Were Dennison and his men behind 90maha Daily News, October 10, 1901 (cited with that riot. Positive of that. Just a the 1919 Courthouse Riot? Hoffman's hereafter as ODN). role and relationship with Dennison are IOEOW-H, July 21,1902. bunch of punks got started down there IIIbid., May 25, 1905. on Sixteenth street and it kept growing intriguing, but the answer remains 12Ibid., June 2, 1905. and growing."96 A nephew of the "Old equivocal so far as Brown's arrest and 130n the rift and Dennison's siding with Moores see EOW-H, January 30, February 17, Man" who served many years with the murder are concerned. There is no firm 1906; and the Bee's account that Dennison fire department maintained that the evidence the Dennison machine spread the story that he decided to back Broatch machine had no role in instigating the actually instigated the particular in response to pleas from the dying Moores. Bee, March 30, 1906. mob; it was kids who really were re­ events of September 26-28,1919. What 14EOW-H, April 7,1906. sponsible for setting the affair in does seem evident, however, is that 150n fears of Benson as a crusader see EOW­ motion. "Maybe there was some help Dennison and the Bee helped create H, April 25, 26, 1906. 16See the endorsing editorial in which Benson from the organization," he suggested, conditions ripe for the outbreak of is noted as being "fairly well informed on city sub· "but Tom didn't know about it."97 racial violence. Will Brown was the vic­ jects." Bee, April 15, 1906. The Bee took little note of Dah!nJan until later in the campaign. See Bee When asked about Dennison's re­ tim of impersonal political machina­ April 24, 25, 27, 29, 1906. sponsibility for the riot, William "Billy" tions. 17CityofOmaha Elections, 1893-1915, Election Maher said with characteristic blunt­ Billy Maher summarized Dennison's Commissioner's Office, State of Nebraska, County of Douglas, May 1, 1906. As one ness, "That's the silliest thing in the reaction to the riot itself. After again Republican explained his Dahlman vote, some· world, for anybody to ever dream that." denying that Dennison had anything to times it is necessary to do evil (vote for a Demo­ Dennison was not behind it, claimed do with the mob's actions, Maher crat) so that in the long term good might prevail. "We can stand the democrats for one term, butwe Maher, because the sheriff was one of added: "I don't say he didn't get a kick can't afford to let this Benson bunch get such a his best friends and he would not have out of it, the way it ruined the adminis­ grip they couldn't be pried loose for a dozen years." EOW-H, April 18, 1906. Dahlman wimt on imperiled his life with the burnings and tration, because naturally they were to be elected eight times. shootings. "Tom Dennison would have against him."lOl In the next election 18Late in the evening of August 31, 1906, no more tolerated any of his outfithav­ "they" were voted out, largely as a Edward Rosewater went to his beloved Bee Building to roam about, as he frequently did. The ing anything to do with hurting Mike result of the Courthouse Riot, and the next morning Judge A.C. Troup opened his Clark than he would of putting a gun to "Old Man" for another decade was a chambers in the building and found Rosewater his own head. There were no Dennison central figure in Omaha political life. lifeless on a bench in the courtroom. During his rounds, the Bee's founder had apparently entered men up there," concluded Maher, the room, closed the door behind him, sat down, "they were not leading anything."98 and there "his heart simply stopped," his Pan­ ama hat "resting lightly on his hand." Rosewater, Yet according to Tom Crawford, NOTES "Biography of Edward Rosewater," 280. Dennison's organization deliberately IOn the reform administration's difficulties 19EOW-H, January 3,1930. poisoned Omaha's atmosphere, care­ see Louise E. Rickard, "The Politics of Reform in 20"Special Report, Kansas City Investigator Omaha," Nebraska History, 53 (Winter, 1972), CFMP, December 20, 1913," Rosewater Collec­ fully setting the stage for an outbreak. 419-45. tion, Reel 3, Box 1927, Omaha Public Library. Crawford recalled the "Old Man" him­ 2Ibid., 438. 210n the Bee and water works struggle see self boasting that most of the reported JOn Tom Dennison see John Kyle Davis, "The William F. Schmidt, "Municipal Reform in Gray Wolf: Tom Dennison of Omaha," Nebraska Omaha from 1906 to 1914 as Seen Through the attacks on women were white Dennison History, 58 (Spring 1977), 25-52; Orville D. Eyes of the Omaha Press" (unpublished Mas­ men in blackface.99 The notion of dis­ Menard, "Tom Dennison, The Rogue Who Ruled ter's Thesis, University of Omaha, Omaha, Ne­ Omaha," Omaha, 3 (March 1978), 13-16; Orville braska, 1963), 6·36. guised whites appeared a month after D. Menard, "The Man Who Ran Omaha," Sun­ 22EOW-H, June 28, 1911. the riot when a committee of black day World-Herald Magazine of the Midlands, 2JODN, June 28, 1911. leaders met with city officials. They November 30,1980,11-13. 24EOW-H, August 3, 1911. "On the "business boss"/"political boss" 25Bee, August 2, 1911. suggested that answers to three ques­ relationship see Lincoln Steffens, The 26EOW-H, August 3,1911, and City of Omaha tions would shed light on the Autobiography of Lincoln Steffens (Harcourt, Elections, 1893-1915, June 27,1911 and August unprecedented outbreak of assaults Brace and Company, Inc., 1931}, 596. 2,191l. 5Addison E. Sheldon, Nebraska: The Land and 27The quotation is from Morning Omaha the previous summer. Were blacks the People, 3 vols. (Chicago: The Lewis Publish­ World-Herald, April 7, 1913 (hereafter cited as actually committing the alleged ing Company, 1931), I, 748. On Edward MOW-H). A bill passed by the Nebraska State attacks? If so, was somebody paying Rosewater see Victor Rosewater, "Biography of Legislature and signedinto law by the governor in Edward Rosewater," typescript, Rosllwater April 1911 authorized a co=ission form of them? Or were these crimes being com­ Collection, Reel 1, Box 1818, Omaha Public Li­ government for Omaha. In a special election the mitted by white men with blackened brary; also Frank Santiago, "Fighting Editor, following September, Omaha voters approved Rosewater," Evening Omaha World-Herald, changing from their mayor-council form and went faces on someone's orders?100 Public August 6, 1975 (cited hereafter as EOW-H). under the co=ission form in May 1912. Also in answers to these crucial questions were 6EOW-H, April 16, 1897. Policy was a lottery 1911 the legislature in March had passed a pro­ not forthcoming, but Crawford's type game, illegal under Nebraska and Omaha posed constitutional amendment providing for laws;.see for example The Revised Ordinances of home rule in Omaha. The amendment passed in recollections assert that at least some the City of Omaha, Nebraska (Omaha: Gibson, November 1912 and the charter co=ission elec­ of the assaults may have been con- Miller & Richardson, 1890),356·57. tions in February and March 1913 resulted. On 164

- 1919 Omaha Riot

the change to a co=ission form and the home 46Bee, July 22, 1919; MOW-H, July 22, 1919. ber 11, 1919-December 1,1919, A-115, October2, rule movement see Schmidt, "Municipal Reform 47Bee, July 29, 1919; MOW-H, July 29, 1919. 1919, -#5456. in Omaha," 37-59. 48Bee, August 12, 1919; MOW-H, August 12, 75Ibid., -#5686, -#5900. 28Victor Rpsewater in addition to his schooling 1919. 76Hoffman interview, November 14, 1979. in local politics under his father also had a Ph.D. 49Bee, August 17, 1919; MOW-H, August 17, 770DN, November 20, 1919; see also ODN, in political science from Columbia University. 1919. October 1, 4, 1919, and EOW-H, October 4, 290n businessmen and reform movements see 50Bee, August 19, 19~9. 1919. Samuel P. Hays, "The Politics of Reform in the 5IIbid., August 31, 1919; MOW-H, August 31, 78Letter, Murphy (Crawford's alias) to "Dear Progressive Era," Pacific Northwest Quarterly, 1919. Friend Gene [O'Sullivan]," April 30, 1932, Soren­ (October 1964), 157-69. Reprinted in Alexander 52Bee, September 2, 1919. sen papers. See also letter, Murphy to Roy N. B. Callow, Jr., ed., America 's Urban History (New 53Ibid., September 26, 1919. Towl, April 18, 1932, which mentions the "cripple York: Oxford University Press, 1969),434. 54MOW-H,September 26, 1919. Hoffman's fellow" sent to Denver and Chucovich and con­ 3uEOW-H, March 13, 1913. See also the list of name was Milton not Millard, and he adamantly cludes with "WILL THIS SHOW THE DEN­ preferred candidates, headed by Victor maintained throughout his life that he was not a NISON HAND IN THE COURTHOUSE Rosewater, in the Bee, March 11, 1913. cripple but instead suffered from a physical infir­ RIOT" (caps in the original), Ibid. Also let­ 31City of Omaha Elections, 1893-1915, March mity. When about three years old he broke his leg ter,Towl to Murphy, August 12, 1932, Nebraska 11, 1913 and February 11, 1913 for election in a fall and was left with one limb shorter than the State Historical Society, Roy Towl papers, MS returns. other, requiring him to wear a built-up shoe and 3354, box 1, folder 1932, June-July, City Hall. 32Ibid., March 10, 1914. The proposed charter heavy brace, causing a severe limp. Interview 79Bee, November 20, 1919. See Grand Jury carried in the third ward by 142 to 136, EOW -H, with Milton Hoffman by Orville D. Menard, Final Report, 179-292. March 11, 1914. November 14, 1979, Omaha, Nebraska. 8°Bee, April 23, 1919; Grand Jury Final 33S ee EOW-H, March 9, 1914. 55MOW-H, September 27, 30, 1919; Bee, Sep­ Report, 287. 34Ibid., March 10, 1914 (source of the quote), tember 27, 1919. 81Grand Jury Final Report, 285. and March 11, 1914. 56Grand Jury Final Report, District Court 82Reprinted in the Bee, October 2, 1919. J5Bee, April 22, 30, 1918. Journal,No.176,DouglasCounty,Nebraska,287. 83Monitor, October 9, 1919. J"Dick Irving, "Reliable Source," Omaha, 3 See also Bee, September 29, 1919. 84Ibid. (April, 1978), 14. Irving's "reliable source" was 57MOW-H, September 29, 1919; Bee, Septem­ 85MOW-H, October 8, 1919. NedE. Wiliiams.lnterviewwithNedE. Williams, ber 29, 1919. 86Bee, October 21, 1919. by Orville D. Menard, October 1, 1979, Council 58"Omaha's Riot in Story and Pictures," 87MOW-H, October 8, 1919. Bluffs, Iowa, during which Williams confirmed Omaha: Omaha Educational Publishing Com­ 88Monitor, October 2, 1919. the story. Dennison also had reporters who were pany, 1919, unpaged. See also Grand Jury Final 890DN, October 5, 1919. See also Grand Jury friends of his working on the Bee. See letter, Tom Report, 287. Final Report and its co=ent it was unable to Crawford to Roy N. Towl, May 18, 1932, Nebraska 59"Omaha's Riot in Story and Pictures." uncover any evidence of the source of the liquor, State Historical Society, Christian A. Sorensen 6"Ibid.; Bee, October 1, 1919. 280-81. papers, MS 2951, box 35, file 65, and letter, Tom 61According to Smith's own testimony, he had 9°Interviewwith JackD. Ringwalt by Orville D. Crawford to Irvin Stalmaster, September 13, borrowed a revolver from a policeman after the Menard, August 7, 1979, Omaha, Nebraska. 1932, Ibid. crowd broke down the east side doors. Bee, Ringwalt recalled his father talking about men .I7S ee Rickard, "The Politics of Reform in December 16, 1919. brought in from Chicago to foment a riot in order Omaha," 420-436: 62IOid. to discredit· the reform administration. Also J"Lawrence H. Larsen and Barbara J. Cottrell, 6JMOW-H, September 30, 1919. interview with Frank Frost by Orville D. Menard, The Gate City: A History of Omaha (Boulder: 64Ibid., September 29, 1919. October 30, 1979, Omaha, Nebraska; and San­ Pruett Publishing Company, 1982), 168. See also 65Ibid., December 17, 1919. tiago, "Fighting Editor, Rosewater," EOW-H, Arthur Age, "The Omaha Riot of 1919" 66Interview with William Maher by Orville D. August 6, 1975. (unpublished Master's Thesis, Creighton Menard, October 30, 1979, Omaha, Nebraska. 9lMonitor, October 10, 1919. University, Omaha, Nebraska, 1964), 6-7. 67Bee, November 23, 1919. 92S ee Age, "The Omaha Riot of 1919," 119- '''Age, "The Omaha Riot of 1919," 18; see also 68MOW-H, September 29, 30, 1919; see also 20. Dorothy Devereux Dustin, Omaha and Douglas "Omaha's Riot in Story and Pictures;" ODN, 93EOW-H, April 19, 1921. County: A Panoramic History (Woodland Hills, September 28, 1919; Bee, September 29, 1919; 94Ibid., April 23, 1921. CA: Windsor Publications, 1980), 99; Michael L. Monitor, October 2, 1919. 95Ibid., April 22, 1921. Lawson, "Omaha, A City in Ferment: Summer of 69Bee, September 29, 1919; MOW-H, Septem­ 96Interview with Herman J. Creal by Orville D. 1919," Nebraska History, 58 (Fall, 1977), 395- ber 29, 1919. See also Criminal Appearance Dock­ Menard, August 9, 1979, Omaha, Nebraska. 418. et No. 21, Douglas County, Nebraska, 64-65. 97Interview with Henry J. Walsh by Orville D. '4"ODN, September 27, 1919; MOW-H, Sep- 7°MOW-H, September 30, 1919, "Law and Menard, October 3, 1979, Omaha, Nebraska. tember 27, 1919. the Jungle." 98Maher interview, October 30, 1979. 4lBee, June 4,1919; MOW-H, June 4,1919. 7lBee, September 30, 1919. 99Murphy to Roy Towl, August 16, 1932, Towl 42Bee, June 20,1919; MOW-H, June 20,1919. 72Ibid., and see Age, "The Omaha Riot of Papers, folder 1932, June-July, City Hall. 4JBee, June 27, 1919; MOW-H, June 27, 1919. 1919," 68-70. looODN, October 31, 1919. 44Bee, June 30,1919; MOW-H, June 30,1919. 73Bee, October 1, 1919. 'OIMaher interview, October 30, 1979. 4sBee, July 12, 1919; MOW-H, July 12, 1919. 74City of Omaha, Council Chamber, Septem-

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