The Open Court. A Fortnightly Journal, Devoted to the Work of Establishing Ethics and Religion Upon a Scientific Basis.

Three Dollars per Year. Vol. I. No. 16. CHICAGO, SEPTEMBER 15, 1887. J I Single Copies, 15 cts.

SOME RELATIONS OF SCIENCE TO MORALITY aid of precisely the same intellectual powers and pro- AND PROGRESS. cesses as we do physical and chemical ones, viz., by BV G. GORE, LL.D., F.R.S. means of perception, observation, comparison, and in- Part I. ference, employed upon the whole of the evidence, by In an address delivered in Birmingham at the unveil- observing . facts, comparing them and drawing infer- ing of the statue of Sir Josiah Mason, Sir John Lub- ences, by analyzing,- combining and examining the evi-

bock correctly remarked that it is not "merely in a dence in every possible way, and thus arriving at consis- material this point of view that science would benefit tent conclusions. What is right and good and what is nation. She will raise and strengthen the national as wrong and evil are determined by precisely the same surely as the individual character." In illustration of general mental methods as what is true. this statement I would gladly be permitted to make the But although in investigating moral questions we following remarks, with the object of showing that our must employ the usual intellectual processes we may moral character is being' strengthened by a general arrive at correct conduct in two ways, viz., either blindly recognition of scientific laws as a foundation of the or intelligently; blindly by trusting to our inherited and chief rules of moral conduct. acquired tendencies, and intelligently by the conscious It is commonly believed that moral actions are alto- use of our knowledge and intellectual powers. gether unaffected by scientific conditions; that science Morality is an art, consisting of rules which are to has little or connection it no with morality, that can be followed. At present it is in the empirical or dog- shed no light upon the questions of the freedom of the matic state, and has not arrived at the scientific stage or human will, the origin of sin and evil, etc., and that been hitherto recognized as being based upon funda- moral phenomena cannot be scientifically investigated, mental scientific principles. We obey certain rules be- but must be examined by other methods than those usu- cause they have been found to be good, because we are ally employed by scientific researchers. told to do so, or because it is the custom, and not be- While earnestly wishing not to disturb the cherished cause the rules are enforced by the divine authority of beliefs of other persons, I venture to say that moral immutable laws. phenomena have relations to physical and chemical Aloral phenomena are subject to the law of causation. ones, and are capable of being scientifically investigated, The affairs of this world appear to be governed not and that the chief rules of morality have a scientific by what we consider strict rules of justice, but by foundation. It is well known that the moral faculties necessity, i. e., by the fundamental principle of causation are capable of being strongly affected by a physical and the other great laws of science. According to the shock to the brain, by intoxicating liquors, drugs, etc., scientific view of universal causation, the present state and that by placing temptations before persons experi- of the universe is a consequence of all its past condi- ments may be made on their morality. That the physi- tions, and its future is all implicitly contained in the cal state of poverty is a source of crime, and that of present, and will be evolved out of it in accordance with wealth conduces to licentiousness, are also commonly the laws of indestructibility of matter and energy, and the known facts. equivalency of forces. Out of nothing, nothing alone The method of scientific research is alike in all sub- can come. We can not create anything, not even an idea. jects. All things are evolved. It has taken ages to evolve our The essential nature of truth, viz., universal consist- present state of knowledge. We are wonderfully con- ency, or agreement with all known truths, is the same stituted ; while each man is all important to himself, in all subjects, the chief mental powers employed in dis- and often acts as if he was the center of all things, he covering truth are also the same in all inquiries, in is but as an atom upon this great globe, and the earth morals as in physics and chemistry. There is no easy itself is only a minute speck in the universe, one amongst method or special faculty, call it "conscience" or what a hundred millions of worlds. we will, which enables us to infallibly arrive at truth in According to the law of causation, whatever is, moral questions; we investigate such problems by the under the given conditions, must be. Starvation forces 422 THE OPKN COURT. a man to steal, and our regard for the safety of our intelligence is extremely finite, and therefore whatever property compels us to punish him. Whatever is, also causes pain, unhappiness, or discomfort to sentient crea- must be, whether it agrees with our ideas of justice or tures, especially to ourselves, we, in the narrowness of not; if the number of paupers around us was doubled, our views, call an evil, and he who wilfully does an evil we should have to pay double poor-rate, whether we act is termed a sinner. A volcanic outburst on an helped to produce the increased pauperism or not. Af- uninhabited planet would not be considered an evil, flictions visit the saint as well as the sinner, and we have because it would not affect sentient creatures. We fear no choice but to remain upon this planet and accept pain as if it was always an evil, but it is usually a check this life with all its pains and penalties. to wrong conduct and is often of great good in warning

All animals are as puppets subject to the great physi- us to take care of our life. The endurance of pain often cal powers of the universe. About fifteen hundred secures to us greater subsequent pleasure. Injuries and millions of human beings are carried through space benefits are alike due to natural agencies, and pain and upon the surface of this globe at a rate of about eighty evil are results of the same causes as that which is good thousand miles an hour, whether they are willing or and pleasant; the same cold atmosphere which kills the unwilling; and man is only one out of about three hun- feeble, invigorates the strong, the rain falls where we do dred and twenty thousand different kinds of living crea- not as well as where we do require it, the same wind which tures; he is also only permitted to live a limited number wafts a ship to port detains the outward bound. All of years, and his body is then compelled to return as evil and good is relative, and that which is a curse to one dust to the earth from whence it came. The great man is often a blessing to another; money is a blessing to number and variety of diseases and accidents to which the wise, but often a curse to the foolish. he is subject, show the narrow limits of his power of The Scientific basis of Rules of Morality. resistance to natural influences. No one but a person ignorant of science would deny Less important matters must yield to greater ones. the supremacy of scientific laws over the existence and By the unavoidable laws of nature, less important actions of mankind, or that the principles of science con- objects are obliged to yield to greater, life of all kinds stitute a foundation of rules of human conduct. The is ruthlessly sacrificed when more serious interests are at laws of nature are the commands of God, and are cer- stake. The wholesale destruction of human life and tainly a basis of moral as well as of physical guidance; happiness by earthquakes, famines, volcanoes, storms the first rule of righteousness, " That zee should do unto and floods, takes place utterly regardless of the suffer- another as zee would have him do unto us under like, ings and cries of mankind. The preservation of human circumstances" is manifestly based upon the great law life is of less importance than the proper adjustment of of causation, viz, that " the same cause always produces terrestrial forces and the operation of great natural laws. the same effect under like conditions;" and if this law By a single earthquake in Java about thirty-two thou- was uncertain the rule would be unsafe. Herein lies a sand persons were killed and multitudes injured, rend- fundamental and scientific basis of morality, which every ered homeless and insane; during famines in India, mill- teacher of that subject will probably have to study. ions of human beings have died in an entirely helpless The Scientific basis of Life and Consciousness. state by the fearful process of starvation, and the simple list That our existence depends upon physical and chem- of earthquakes, floods, and famines within historic times ical circumstances, is admitted by all intelligent persons; would fill a volume. "In Japan earthquakes occur at the no one will deny that air and warmth are necessary to rate of two a day." (Nat //re, Vol. XX XIV, p. 456.) our existence, or that foods sustain and poisons destroy Various religious beliefs, also, which afforded consolation life. Not only our existence but also our consciousness to millions of believers, are gradually being sacrificed to of existence, depends essentially upon scientific condi- the resistless progress of new knowledge, regardless of tions, the same fundamental circumstance, viz, inequality the mental suffering thus occasioned.* Science, however, of impression which compels a stone to move or a vol- has already by means of telegraphs and steam locomo- taic couple to produce an electric current, excites a man tion, nearly rendered famines impossible, and will prob- to feel and think and this non-uniformity of impression ably in due time, render more uniform and more consist- as the basis of consciousness and thought is known as ent with truth some of our religious beliefs, and thus " the theory of relativity of impression." We cannot harmonize religion itself. even think of an event in time or a point in space, with- The idea of Evil is essentially human. out reference to some other event or point, without a Probably, in the view of an infinite intelligence, difference of impression we can distinguish nothing. whatever is, is right, and all that is, is good, but our Time, space and the rapid motion of the earth in its orbit

•The Par-see priest, who, after having traveled a great distance to worship being perfectly uniform in their influence upon us, are thi sacred tire" at Baku, is shocked to find the object of his devotions sur- not directly peiceptible to our senses; and even the pres- rounded by oily derricks, petroleum reservoirs, oil distilleries, the machinery of

I'im .' dcrn 1 e and busy manufacturing population. sure of the atmosphere while it is uniform is not ;

THE OPEN COURT. 4 2 3 perceived. When we wish to lose consciousness and brain; perfectly moral conduct would probably necessi thought, or fall asleep, we exclude as completely as we tate perfect knowledge, and perfect knowledge would can all changes of impression, of motion, sound, light, probably require an infinitely perceptive and perfect pain and pleasure; unusual and changing impressions brain, but a man's brain can only retain a finite number prevent slumber. of ideas and a very limited amount of knowledge. A Scientific necessity consistent with freedom of Will. perfect man would be a god and have infinite percep- The question of freedom of the will is elucidated by tion and intelligence, but as man does not possess these science. Man is as truly and probably as completely attributes, he has no infallible guide to correct conduct; subject to causation as is a stone or a plant. The human " conscience " does not absolutely tell him, and reason, will is not a causeless phenomenon, it is determined by based upon very limited knowledge, is the final but falli- motives, by influences within and around us, potent ble arbiter in all cases. causes, such as alcohol within, or danger to life from with- New scientific knowledge diminishes evil. out, powerfully affect our volition. If, as is sometimes Knowledge is frequently indispensable to moral con- asserted, volition was a " supernatural power," experi- duct; there are plenty of difficult cases in life in which ments could not be made upon it by means of alcohol, the desire to do right is not sufficient; the commission of drugs, etc. We often cannot detect our own motives, evil is usually a result of ignorance, and if men could in because we cannot think and at the same time com- all cases foresee and completely realize all the conse- pletely survey our act of thought, the two simultaneous quences of their acts, they would rarely commit sin. actions in the same organ being incompatible. The The results of wrong doing are essentially the same, freedom of the will is limited, we are only really free whether it is intentional or accidental. The evil which when we conform to natural laws, and we are usually we are absolutely compelled to do is not necessarily restrained when we attempt to disobey them; the larger immoral. The chief causes of sin and error are the finite our knowledge of natural laws the greater our freedom capacities of our brain, the incompleteness of human of volition. There are bounds of freedom of action knowledge and defective training and education. Man's which we may not exceed, we are more free to obey ignorance is gigantic. " Knowledge is power" and new moral rules than to infringe them, we are much less free truth makes us free. It is increased knowledge which to do evil than to do good, less to cause pain than to makes men more free to act rightly, and it is largely by confer pleasure, but all living creatures are free to inflict the discovery and dissemination of truth that science con- pain upon others in certain cases, especially when it is duces to morality. Truth is divine and the great scien- necessary in order to maintain life, and this is the basis tific laws which govern the universe and mankind are of justification of animal slaughter, of all surgical oper- divine commands, and those who, either through igno- " ations and of so-called vivisection " experiments. rance or intention disobey them, do so at their peril. It These scientific facts agree with and reconcile the seem- is a conspicuous fact that those who profess to study and ingly contradictory doctrines of free will and necessity. inculcate divine commands, largely omit to study and But, notwithstanding that we are usually more con- expound these, there is, however, a sufficient cause for strained to do right than wrong by the influence of this. If those laws were generally known and acknowl- natural laws and circumstances, we still appear to be edged, there would be more unanimity of religious able to control our own actions and do as we like within belief and a less amount of sectarian strife. certain limits. This power of self-regulation, however, so commonly regarded as a proof of conscious free- ARE WE PRODUCTS OF MIND ? dom, is not so, because it is possessed by various inani- BY EDMUND MONTGOMERY, M.D. mate mechanisms, a steam engine for example, which, Part I. by its action upon an intermediate agent, the governor, I. Voluntary movement the key to the problem. regulates its own speed. A solid scientific basis cannot be given to ethics and

Scietitific basis of Sin and Evil. religion before the following question is definitely set-

Scientific knowledge sheds light upon the origin of tled : In what relation does mind or consciousness actually evil, sin and suffering. The very existence of evil is stand to our own body and to physical nature in general ? dependent upon non-uniformity of cerebral impression No scientifically warranted answer has gained cur- if there was no inequality of such impression there would rency thus far. It has not yet become certain whether be no consciousness, and therefore no pain or unhappi- our bodily organization is an outcome of mental effi- ness, sin or evil. Consciousness of pleasure as the result ciency, or whether mind is, on the contrary, an outcome of obedience, and of pain or unhappiness as the effect of of organic activity, or whether mind and the organism error or disobedience, operate as regulators of conduct, are two separate but intercommunicating entities. and largely compel us to act rightly. The existence of It is quite certain, however, that our ethics and evil is also related to the size and condition of the human religion have always taken shape, and will continue to —

4 2 4 THE OPEN COURT.

take shape, in accordance with our faith in one or the can be conscious," it would not be the consciousness ot the itself, 2 other of these modes of connection, believed to subsist energy, but the energy namely, y2 Mv between the two constituents of our seemingly dual which does all the moving. This is incontestably the nature. doctrine taught by our present physical science in accord-

Now, if we desire to build on a firm scientific foun- ance with its a posteriori method, and there is no get- dation, and not go on blindly surmising or eternally ting round it, unless you upset it altogether. see-sawing, we have seriously to grapple with the prob- Besides, " energy " cannot properly be called " a lem, however abstruse and uninviting this task may property of matter." Energy is matter itself in mechan-

appear to many. There is, indeed, much likelihood ical motion, and its effects are always mechanically that, before long, scientific philosophy will succeed in wrought on other matter—never on the matter which is

solving it, for it is a riddle whose parts are all openly its own vehicle. But it is clear that consciousness, in manifest. order to control matter, would have, first of all, to impart a

I have recently drawn the attention of the readers of designed motion to the very matter in which it itself

this journal to a scientifically grounded attempt at solu- resides.

tion of this great problem of mind and organization on Leaving, however, physical science out of sight, is it the part of one of our foremost students of organic evo- not anyway rather strange that the property of a thing

lution; and they have since had the privilege of becom- should be able to control the thing itself, of which it is

ing acquainted with a concise and forcible statement of a mere property ? And stranger still that " the property " it by its own author. of a property should reach all the way back and con- In this his very courteous and highly interesting reply trol the very matrix in which it inheres and on which its

to my criticism, Professor Cope does not feel compelled to very existence is consequently dependent ? budge one inch from his former position. He still main, These few remarks seem to me to contain a sufficient

tains "that mind is a property of matter in energetic disproval of Professor Cope's positions. But the real

action; or, in other words, that mind is the property of question under consideration lies much deeper; and as it is

some kind of energy;" that, if this be admitted, then a most momentous one I will go to the root of it by assert-

"mind is the property of something which possesses ing that whoever believes that mental power of some

momentum, and is also a property of some kind of kind is moving our body has consistently to adopt all motion," and " as these are the conditions essential to the the tenets of Professor Cope's Theology of'Evolution. If communication of motion to other matter, mind can con- we really move our limbs by dint of the mental power " " trol matter, (a. c. d.) generally called " will —and how many theologians, lie " awaits with interest a disproval of these posi- philosophers and scientist are there who are not com-

tions." mitted to this assumption? —then it can be consistently To this pithy declaration of his leading propositions concluded that our entire body, with all its vital func-

it may at once be objected that the " energy " endowed tions, has been originated by a like mental power, and by Professor Cope with the additional efficiency of con- that such mental power must be inherent in wholly

sciouslv deflecting matter from its mechanical path is a unorganized matter.

power nowise recognized in physical science. It is here All those, then, who believe that it is mental effi-

an entirely novel agency, and it involves as complete a ciency by which we are controlling our body should petitio principil as can well be found, for it assumes, clearly understand that Professor Cope's strange evolu-

unproved, to start with, all that is called in question, tional and theological conclusions are the only scien- namely, that " mind can control matter." From the tifically warranted outcome of this almost universally premise, that "matter in energetic action" "can be con- accepted order of dependence. If the alleged relation

scious," it does by no means legitimately follow that this proves true, then we need seek no further for a well-

accompanying consciousness is able to control the ener- grounded creed; for Professor Cope has, in that case, getic activity of the otherwise purely mechanical motion established the only consistent one, and he has done this of such matter. with a profusion of scientific means unknown to those The only " energy " hitherto recognized by physical who before him have raised theological superstructures science— the very same science of objective observation on th*same foundation.

to which Professor Cope professes faithfully to adhere Hitherto it has been mainly the obvious and wonder-

this " energy " is strictly and solely the power which ful adaptation of living forms to their surroundings and

moving matter possesses of working absolutely precise aims of life, that has afforded a powerful plea for the mechanical effects upon other matter. Therefore, no direct workmanship of a supreme mind. And the amount of consciousness superadded to this power can argument for such a consciously designing interference possibly affect the physical result. Even fully admitting with physical nature on the part of a divine intelligence, Professor Cope's fundamental proposition that " energv was here also experientally supported solely by the THE OPEN COURT. 425 assumed fact, that our own mind originates our volun- Evolution has become the almost universally adopted tary movements, and gives them their purposive direction. creed of our age, and the time has arrived when a

But the phenomena of instinct, in which purposive more searching and exhaustive view of it has to be activities of a marvelous kind are evidently a direct formulated. Is it really only the result of selected for- outcome of consciousless organization, seemed seriously tuitous variations? Or rather the effect of the mixing to invalidate the only plausible premise, from which the of divers reproductive elements? Or perhaps the conse- argument of design derived its convincing power. In quence of adaptive modifications wrought exclusively the latter part of last century, however, the doctrine by the influences of the medium ? Or the outcome of that instincts are the outcome of former conscious expe- fatalistic mechanical combinations in keeping with the rience and activities, which have become bodily organ- principle of the conservation of energy? Or, on the ized in the race, began to be formulated. And the contrary, the constant work of premeditated design on well-known fact that conscious activities tend, even dur- the part of a supreme consciousness? Or, at least, the ing individual life, to become "automatic" gave strong work of mental power emanating from the organic confirmation to this opinion, rendering it, in fact, all but individual? Or is it merely our own imperfect illusory certain. apprehension in time-shattered glimpses of a perfect Now the question here is the same as everywhere in reality, which is eternally and simultaneously abiding this discussion. Are the activities which we experience in universal thought? Or is it, finallv, in all verity, as accompanied bv consciousness really originated and what it experientially appears to be, namely, the grad- directed by it? If so, then Professor Cope is right ual intrinsic elaboration of individuated living substance, from beginning to end. For if consciousness originates by dint of multifold modes of interaction with its specific activities, and if these specific activities, by being medium? frequently originated by consciousness, compel the mate- We are nearly all convinced that evolution takes rial in which they manifest themselves gradually to place. We desire to know more fully how it takes assume that peculiar constitution, which enables it after- place, and what it really signifies. ward to perform these same activities without the help In this search for further and more profound eluci- of consciousness—then it is incontestable that conscious- dation the evolutional views of the neo-Lamarckian ness and nothing else has done the entire work of school, to which Professor Cope, with the help of organization, imparting to it, moreover, specific energies recent biological progress and his own original by which it becDmes capable of performing definite researches, has given consistent expression, must be vital functions. And, as higher vitality and higher deemed highly important. They are radically opposed organization are wrought by successive degress on a to prevailing biological and philosophical- conceptions. basis of lower vitality and lower organization, beginning It is evident that they are in glaring contrast with the with morphologically wholly unorganized material teaching of mechanical biologists, who have long been in which is manifesting only most primitive vital activities, the ascendant in the scientific world, and who are holding it may consistently be concluded that vitality and organ- that in organic nature no other power is operative, than ization are in all their gradations the exclusive product that very same mechanical force or energy, which they of conscionsness. But as such constructive conscious- declare to be the moving efficiency in inorganic nature. ness cannot be deemed competent to create out and out And they are in glaring contrast also with the teaching the very material upon which it is working, it must of idealistic thinkers, who deny altogether the existence necessarily be itself inherent in the least organized kind of anvthing but mind and its various modes. of matter found in existence, and this is as far as we It is significant that—devoting his attention to bio- know, the interstellar ether. Consciousness, in this logical researches of quite another kind than those I light, is imperishable. In organic nature it securely have been pursuing— Professor Cope was led, as well withdraws, step by step, from its organized product, as myself, to adopt anti-mechanical views of evolution. leaving at last its entire manufactured and worn out Indeed, the close and critical study of any kind of shell behind. organic process, renders evident the truth, that here, at

These are the principal tenets of the Theology of all events, the combination of material particles and the Evolution, all founded, not as Professor Cope believes energies displayed by such combinations, are of an on "observed phenomena," according to the a -posteriori altogether hyper-mechanical nature. And this scientific- method, but on the single a priori assumption, that it is ally well-grounded insight seems to me to constitute an our mind which is originating the movement of our essential advance, not only in biology, but also in limbs. This foundation granted—and it is actually physics. granted by all thinkers who believe in the motor power It was direct observation of this anti-mechanical of mental volition—I myself confidently join Professor state of things which first induced me to question the Cope in awaiting " the disproval of these positions." general validity of the principle of the conservation of :

-''' COURT. 1 THE OPEN

energy. For how could this supreme mechanical prin- consist in refraining from doing what the law forbids;

ciple be generally true, when it proved to be incompati- the latter, in doing what the same law enjoins. Now if ble with the facts of organic constitution and evolution? we call the point which separates the line of the omis- If Professor Cope had chanced to come across the sive virtues from that of the commissive virtues zero, all

papers, in which I attack the mechanical view of nature, departures from omissive virtue, that is, all sins of pleading for the existence of specific energies, as natur- omission will be negative, while all positive com- ally belonging to special material combinations, he missive virtues will be positive. If, then, a man should would have understood my scientific position. He do nothing forbidden by the law of God, and at the

would have found that I, in opposition to the mechan- same time should do nothing which it positively

ical physicists have long been holding, that energy or enjoins, he would be at the zero-point of virtue. He could

motion is not an entity separable from the substratum not be called vicious or sinful, nor could he be called

which forms its vehicle, and therefore not transferable virtuous. On the other hand, if a man had failed to from one substance to another, as now universally observe some of the interdicts of the law, and done taught in physical science. And knowing this, he some of the things which it positively enjoined, he would not have accused me of arguing about energy as might, if the latter were more numerous or important,

if it were "a concept distinct from matter." He would have a balance of positive virtue in his favor. In other also have become aware, that I, like himself, am a firm words, a man, though disregarding many of the thou- believer in specific or hyper-mechanical modes of energy. shalt-not's of the law, might, by strenuously carrying My first paper in Mind bore the title, "The Depend- out some of its thou-shalt's, be on the whole a virtuous ence of Quality on Specific Energies?"1 man. This is a view of virtue and vice that is very rarely

THE POSITIVE VIRTUES. taken, and the reason of the fact is not hard to find. It BY PROFESSOR THOMAS DAVIDSON. lies in the conviction entertained by all the nations of

Part I. Christendom that man is a fallen creature— a conviction

In the Shorter Catechism, which every Presby- which has sunk so deep that I once heard it gravely terian is supposed to know by heart, there is a question and solemnl)' asserted from the platform of the non-

What is sin? The answer to it is: Sin is any want of Christian Ethical Society of Chicago. The lecturer, conformity unto or transgression of the law of God. on that occasion, told his assembled congregation that

Here the law of God is recognized as the 'NV.orm of all things in the universe, guided by the unknowable, human action, and two kinds of departure from that were what they were meant and intended to be, the svorm are distinguished — sins of omission and sins of only exception being man. Man alone had fallen

What is the law of God ? It is the ultimate law of tion (supposing him to have been created) he could not

universal being; it is the fundamental law of the uni- have any virtue, since all virtue lies in action exerted verse. No matter how we conceive God, if he is the freely and intelligently; he was at the zero-point of Supreme Being, this must always be true, and this, virtue.

indeed, is all that is necessary for us to know. As a Now it is one of the glories of the doctrine of evolu-

being is, so will he act. There is no possible departure tion, indeed its chief moral glory, that it has overthrown from that law. Even God, therefore, be he what he this doctrine of human depravity — a doctrine following may, must act in accordance with the laws of his being, naturally enough from the notion of creation, as one can and if he be the Supreme Being, he must act in accord- easily see. The doctrine of evolution teaches us that ance with the laws of being itself. The law of God, man, so far from being the only depraved being in the

therefore, is the supreme law of being. And this law universe, is the noblest being in it, so far as we know.

is the worm of the actions of all that is. All laws are It might, indeed, even go much' further and show that

but partial expressions of this law — suited for partial man is the only being known to us who has any virtue, application. The two possible forms of departure from any moral nature, any power of being virtuous or other- this law we call sins of omission and sins of commission. wise. Evolution shows that man, instead of being a

The former are failures to do what the law requires; fallen creature, is continually rising. What has at times

the latter, perpetrators of what the law forbids. Cor- made him look like a fallen creature is the fact that he

responding to these sins or vices are two classes of is a moral being and has an ideal of himself quite differ- virtues, which, for symmetry's sake, we may call virtues ent from and superior to, his reality. A dog can never uf omission and virtues of commission. The former seem fallen to himself, because he has no ideal of himself. a

THE OPEN COURT. 4 2 7

Dante, in the first canto of the Paradiso, while stand- daily bread, he has a right to it against all the world.

ing on the summit of the Mount of Purgatory, and before If a man had any ground for praying at all, he ought beginning his ascent toward heaven, says: "If I, alone to pray not "deliver me from evil," but "encourage by myself, was that which thou didst originally create, me to do good."

O love which governest the heavens, thou knowest, thou The monastic view of life, which is simply the

that with thy light didst lift me up." In other words, Christian view carried to its ultimate consequences, is Dante surmises that, at the end of a course in purgatory, completely selfish —selfishness looking a long way to his original state of man only gets back innocence. ahead, and making an omnipotent power its abettor. A He was created perfect, fell, and at the end of all his Dominican monk once said to me: "We rejoice in moral efforts, gets back just to where he began— the zero being persecuted. Every persecution which we undergo point of virtue. This is the pessimistic and dishearten- is so much merit in God's sight, so much promise of ing view of human life, that has pervaded the Christian future bliss." I replied: "But how about those who Church from the beginning, that pervades it now— persecute you? Are you glad that they, by sinning, in view against which every man who loves his kind and persecuting you, should be laying up for themselves wishes to see it advance in self-respect and spirituality, stores of future misery in order to contribute to your ought to protest with all his might. Man's fall is a bar- bliss?" "We have nothing to do with that," he replied; barous myth, the source of other barbarous myths, such "in the race for eternal life, it is every one's business to as the incarnation and the atonement. Of course, if save his own soul, without any regard to what happens no fall, there was no need or place for atone- to others. All the there was rest we leave to God ; that is His ment. And this is the actual fact. business; our business is to flee from the wrath to But not only has the fable of a fall degraded human come." nature in its own eyes, and thereby enervated it ; it has We have got so far away now-a-days from histor- had a most injurious effect upon the whole theory and ical Christianity that this bold statement of the conse- life. It has the practice of moral made whole aim of quences of that system almost shocks us, and yet it is that life to be a striving to attain the zero-point of virtue, what the large majority even of Protestant Christians a mere freedom from vice; mere blamelessness. When practically believe. I say, therefore, that the Christian its ecclesiastical Christianity in form held sway over the view of life is selfish ; the Christian view of what con- minds of men, its highest ideal was monasticism, whose stitutes morality utterly degrading. Blamelessness, entire aim was blamelessness, moral zero. What were freedom from vice is good, admirable, most desirable; the three vows with which the monk and the nun bound but, even when it is attained, it is but the zero-point chastity themselves. Poverty, and obedience. In other of virtue; there is nothing positive in it. There is no to refrain the use virtue in words, they vowed from of the foods poverty ; on the contrary, there is great virtue of the outer, material world, from the use of their bodies, in honest wealth, properly used. There is no virtue in and from the use of the active powers of the soul. chastity, in the monastic sense. On the contrary, there They made, as they said, a complete sacrifice of them- is great virtue in true wedlock—the complete union of selves; and in this they gloried as their greatest merit. two complementary human beings for the noblest ends. In order to avoid doing evil with their souls, bodies and There is no virtue in obedience, in the sacrifice of free- belongings, they, as far as possible, refrained from using dom; on the contrary, all virtue depends upon the pos- them at all, shrunk from having any responsibility for session and use of freedom. That is the very meaning them. This is the strict meaning of the monastic vow, of virtue. by keeping which men and women expected to attain As I was crossing the Appennines to the south of blamelessness. So they folded their hands and their Perugia, a few years ago, an Italian gentleman, who knees, and instead of toiling manfully for their daily was sitting next to me in the train said, pointing to a bread, and instead of conquering the tendency to evil yellow building high up on the mountain-side: "That by filling their time and minds with strong actions is a most interesting building." "Why?" said I. "It to good, they prayed to a tending power outside of them : was there," he replied, " that a man of genius discovered " Give us this day our daily bread. * * Lead us not the way whereby for ages millions of men have been into temptation, but deliver us from evil." I suppose it able to live without doing any work." "That," said I, will almost be considered blasphemy to speak against "is certainly a most remarkable discovery—when I the Lord's prayer, as the old prayer from the Talmud is come to think of it, the most remarkable ever made. called in Christian societies, nevertheless the two petitions But who was this wonderful economical genius, so which I have cited are unmanly and therefore immoral. much needed in our time?" "Saint Francis of Assise," Man's business is to work for his daily bread, not to beg he said," and that is the house to which he retired after for it, and by doing good work, to leave no room for leaving the world, and before he appeared as the temptation to evil. And when a man does toil for his founder of the order named after him. The Fraciscans L>8 THE OPEN COURT. you know are the begging monks." I did know, and I occurs to them, for instance, that what really establishes knew, too, that when some one begs, some one must the faith of true believers in God is not reason, but holi- give, and give something that has been earned by some ness of heart. They resemble people with no sense of one's toil. I know that to beg, instead of laboring, is to smell who think devotion to perfumes a subject for argu- live upon others' toil. So, after all, I had no very high ment rather than a matter of feeling. respect for the memory of St. Francis, notwithstanding Now the great strength of constitutional bias, or to call his feverish piety rewarded with hallucinations and the it broadly, of instinct, lies in its hereditary nature. When stigmata of the crucifixion. instinct speaks it is with the voice of the long line of

ancestors through which, with accumulating intensity, it

THE MYSTERY OF PAIN IN A NEW LIGHT. has descended to its present inheritor. We love life — it

BY XENOS CLARK. is not we but the entire ancestral line that loves; the set-

I wish to point out the important consequences of a ting sun entrances our vision —but we look with the eyes novel fact which has been suggested to me by Mr. of innumerable forefathers. The notable fact about all John Burroughs' essay in No. 5 of The Open Court. these instincts built up by heredity is that they are life Mr. Burroughs' theme is " Reason and Predisposi- conserving, they cling blindly and passionately to life. tion," and he goes so keenly and instantly to the root of This trait, so serviceable in practical matters, proves an things that one cannot help wishing he may often give impediment when we come to the great open question his thoughts to the public of this journal. Impassioned of the nature and value of life itself; for here instinct and firmly convinced thinkers will most need and will with its blind love of life, manifested in a thousand deli- least appropriate the lesson of Mr. Burroughs' essay, cate and unsuspected ways, obviously tends to bend the but no one can claim exemption from the subtle error philosopher's conclusions all in one way. which he exposes—an error which we are fonder of at- But may it not after all be safer to trust instinct than tributing to our opponents than to ourselves, but which reason, and does not the origin of instinct in the experi- in reality underlies all intellectual life. The error, as he ence of numberless ancestors give it sanction to speak says, is this, that most men in the formation of their with authority on the problems of human destiny? opinions are governed more by predisposition, or un- My special purpose is to answer this question, and conscious bent and tendency, than by reason; and that to show that there is one life problem at least on which reason is merely the faculty by which we seek to justify the voice of instinct must of necessity be false. This is the course of this deeper seated determining force or the problem of human suffering—"the mystery of pain." bent; so that with most men reason is an advocate and It must first be noted that the nature of men's in- not a judge, and does not so much try the case as plead stincts depends on the character and fortune of their an- the case. cestors. The ancestral line is the mould, instinct is the

If it be true that our instincts and predispositions are cast. Now there is one character pertaining to all ances- clients in whose behalf reason not so much tries as pleads tors whatever, and which must therefore leave its mark cases, then it is well to know the character of these upon all instinct; it is the character of parentage. clients. It may prove on examination that if constitu- Every ancestor shall possess at least that degree of well- tional bias rules reasoning, then so much the better for being which enables a person to marry and rear chil- reason; or it may prove the contrary; but in any case dren. Even more, he shall, if a remote ancestor, possess

nothing can lie worse than an unestimated force in our not only sufficient well-being to rear children, but to mental conclusions. rear children who in their turn can rear children and so

The most obvious instance of constitutional bias is on. The entire ancestral line of every living man is of the common inclination to think a noble and inspiring this character. Every such man comes of a race nurtured

theory true because it is noble and inspiring; and in the in well-being, and his instincts represent only the ex- case of men deeply gifted with feeling anil imagination, perience of such a race. Here we discover a limit to like the poets, this bias becomes so vastly overpowering the validity of our instincts; they are valid only for a as to place a reader who has the gift of intellectual sin- world of well-being, just as a poet's conclusions are true cerity in a painful quandary. For the reader who has only for a world of poets.

the gift of intellectual sincerity, being deeply suscepti- But there is also a world of ill-being, as one need ble to poetic influence, yearns to follow the poets of his not look long to discover. A fraction of every genera- time in their lofty conclusions, and yet he sees clearly tion die childless; they are the utterly crippled, the bed- their constitutional bias; he sees that the poet's conclu- ridden for life, the insane, the victims of crushing acci- sions are true only for a world of .poets. On the other dents, and all upon whom the deeper curse of life falls side there is the bias of the hard-headed thinkers, who, so heavily as to prohibit every thought of marriage.

having not much emotion themselves, do not see the po- And it is evident now that this world of ill-being leaves tent part that emotion plays in the world. It never absolutely no direct impress on the inherited instincts of THK OPKN COURT. 429 the race; for without children there is no heredity, and remains true that the most heavily stricken of past gen- without heredity there is no transmission of instinct. erations have no direct representation in the powerful

Here, then, is the respect in which the voice of in- court of present instinct. stinct is false when it is questioned upon the problem of For the purposes of a somewhat artificial illustration, human suffering. While instinct belongs wholly to the then, we may liken life to a perpetual lottery which has world of well-being, the problem of human suffering a drawing once in every generation. The prize-holders pertains solely to the world of ill-being, and so the two naturally look upon this lottery with favor, and transmit stand entirely apart. this view to their descendants, who pass it on to theirs,

The current explanations of suffering are well until it becomes a class instinct. But the blank-holders, known. The problem of course relates to the darker who hardly can share this opinion, have no vote in the suffering which crushes men's lives instead of elevating continuance of the lottery, since by their crippled posi- them, and it is customary to say of this evil that it is tion in life their voice, if they can uplift it at all, has no the curse which God put upon Adam; or that it is a weight. Nor can the lesson of their hard experience be mysterv which will be explained in another life; or that transmitted as an instinct to descendants, because there it is intended to humble the pride of knowledge; or to usually are no descendants. If this were not so, if the test faith; or that good could not exist without evil; or, hard experience could be transmitted to descendants, finally, that some lives are blighted from birth in order then there would arise an adverse class instinct of the that others may have an opportunitv to pity and help blank-holders to offset the class instinct of the prize- this extremity of distress. holders. But this being impossible, the only class in-

Such explanations are common in the books called stinct in the field is that of the priz;-holders, who have theodicies, in philosophical svstems, anil under one sub- the vote all their own way, and they naturally decide tle form and another, in all the inspired literature of the in favor of the lottery. It is their bread, their happi- time. Not one of them can survive a moment in an in- ness, their inspiration, as it was their fathers'. They tellect which insists on sincerity and clearness at any look with pity on the blank-holders; they will even share cost. Such explanations are too obviously an instance bread with them ; but the lottery cannot be invalidated where reason does not so ?mtch try the case as plead the on their account; it is too exciting, too inspiring— it is case. We cannot go happily about our lives, nor can art, science, religion, the whole domain of man's won- we retain our inspiring views of human destiny while derful life, or, let us be careful to say, of the prize-hold- this night-mare of cruel suffering in part of the race er's wonderful life. Still, the fate of the blank-holder

hangs over us; and so we must devise an anodyne in the is a gnat in the prize-holder's eye, and he has spent

shape of an "explanation." The instinctive love of much time trying to explain it away in books on the

life furnishes the motive, and reason simply fulfills what " mystery of pain," the "problem of evil," and the like.

is required of it by instinct. The attempt is considered laudable, especially among

For men pursuing ordinary avocations, it is well to philosophers; but if one of the blank-holders, himself a

remain blind to the darker side of life, as they could not philosopher perchance, attempts to raise his voice against

live and work otherwise; but in the intellectual life, the the injustice of the lottery, and to protest against having

very highest purpose is clearness of vision. And it is a his hard fate explained away factitiously, that is consid-

painful and admonishing thought, when in the intellec- ered very reprehensible, and he is very likely to be tual life we strive to estimate fairly the lot of the suffer- called hard names. ers of each generation who pass away and leave no MONISTIC MENTAL SCIENCE. sign, that our strongest instincts are warring against a BY S. V. CLEVENGER, M. D. just conclusion, and, do what we will, must impercepti- THE CHEMISTRr OF PRIMITIVE LIFE AND .VI.VD.

bly bias us. When the dogmatism of the legendary cosmogenies

It may be said in comment on the above reflections, is so evident, fault should not be found with a sketch of

that one can easily find people who suffer ill and yet the earth's history as revealed by the theory of evolu-

who seem to rear children, even in excess. This is true; tion, because it contains much that cannot be demon-

but, as a rule, ill in the lives of such people does not strated, and conjecture (based upon reasoning) fills in

exist as an overpowering trait, but comes in that mixt- the gaps. Then let Lockyer's primordial gas, which

ure with happiness which makes life at least tolerable. originated we don't know how, have given rise to the

When ill becomes a sole trait of life, then parentage heavier hydrogen, and different degrees of compression vanishes. It may be said also that sympathy and pity of hydrogen constitute the other elements. Laplace's

are instincts which look kindly on suffering. It is in- nebular hypothesis follows and show how the earth

deed so, but only in a subordinate degree ; sympathy solidified its crust, after having existed eons as a gaseous and pity are derived not from suffering in our ancestors, cloud.

but from their sight of suffering in others. It still Next in order the theory of spontaneous generation 43° THE OPEN COURT.

(a mere guess, but one that is defensible) accounts for picked up an X and no time was lost before ABX the protista (the plant-animal forms), and the monera, became a new molecular candidate for the envy, syco- that preceded them. By easy grades we ascend from phancy and wiles of others. This X was often a metallic lower to higher plants, from protophytes through sea atom. weeds, mosses, ferns, to flowering plants; and from lower Restoring our man to his less than six feet of height, animals, the protozoa, through worms, star fishes, shell his molecular make up disappeared and we find that fish, to vertebrates and man. accidents of atomic grouping make this particular per- If we could get out of ourselves and regard every- son present an ugly appearance. His comrades with thing objectively, unbiased by our feelings and the famil- more pleasing visages are not attracted to him ; women iarity that blinds and deludes, we would be able to deride and repel him. Chance fills his pockets with the conceive this planet reduced to the size of a hickory nut, element auritm, and a change occurs comparable to the upon whose surface a magnifying apparatus would one noted before. His acquisition enables him to select reveal lesser specs changing places, forms and colors. whom he pleases as associates. One known as Fool Further magnification would show us man looking like and another called Knave became gilded and secured a period, growing to the stature of an exclamation point the sisters Cupidity, who, though detesting their mates (probably a theist), or an interrogation point (probably helped them to multiply their kind. These comparisons a scientist). From these spring other dots, and the larger are not strained. There is more than simile or metaphor ones dissolve. All move about, some collide, others in them. If a house be built of bricks does not the pile cling together, still others avoid one another. These of bricks preserve the individual brick nature? Because simple movements, further inspection tells us, are caused it is a house it is none the less a brick pile, with all the by position changes effected by the more minute particles properties, such as hardness, porosity, uninflamability, that compose these small objects. contained in each separate brick. Grouping of atoms Allowing the world with its flora and fauna to into molecules and these into compound molecules do regain its natural size and placing a man under our pow- not make such combinations any the less chemical, even erful microscope until he appears to be as large as the though man is the thing built from the molecules. earth, we learn that all the grosser movements he has made We may start with the simple one-celled animal were occasioned by the collision, clinging together, move- called the amoeba. It is a representative of the modi- ments of avoidance and other place changes on the part fied cell that is found to produce, by multiplication of of little spheres like bird shot and cricket balls, known itself, all animal tissues. The muscles, membranes, as atoms and molecules. A very close and constant skin, etc., of man are made up of cell upon cell of proto- arrangement of these elementary balls constitute his plasmic origin, closely allied to this unicellular organism, bones, which are pulled to and fro by the sidewise and and the white blood corpuscles are called amoeboid be- lengthwise rush of similar balls not so compactly cause they resemble the amceba: surprisingly in all arranged, which form the muscles. Great nerve cables things. of millet-seed like grains, here and there rapidly crowd This amceba may be found, under the microscope, in one another, in turn producing commotion among the stagnant water, damp earth, or in animal matter, creep-

muscle components. But it is difficult to discern which ing about with activity, but no constancy of direction.

is cause or effect in all this swirl. The big balls strike It seems to be a living spec of white of egg;, the mi-

the little ones and start them agog, the little ones retaliate, nute granules in it flowing first to one part, then another; to be in turn hit at by the larger. In fact cause and pushing out " false feet " into which the entire mass effect exchange places, and everything this bag of millet- flows, and so moves about. When it encounters food, seed, bird shot and cricket balls does depends upon the usually minute vegetable particles, the substance passes preponderence of one kind of molecules over the others, into the animal composition, and what cannot be assimi- and an endless series of accidents. lated is merely moved away from— excreted. Here, for example, was an oxygen atom jerking Insignificant as these amcebic motions appear, they away from less congenial company to seize upon two are weighted with the most important problems life can hydrogen atoms, the three balls then becoming known present, for the quarrel is over what causes the amoeba as a molecule of water, countless groups of which could to move at all. Cope and others assign it consciousness, will power. Very well; but such assumption has be seen everywhere in our giant. Many of these H 2 or groups were very exclusively associating only with their been an effectual bar to rational inquiry into mental own kind and repelling the advances of other molecules science. Without positively denying that this animal, ones, be conscious we which sought their company ; but here and there one of as well as lower and higher may the objectionable molecules happened to meet with some can ignore that consideration altogether, or claim that

atoms it wanted and could capture and, presto, meta- consciousness and will are merely effects of the chemi- morphosis. The formerly repulsive A, which B avoided, cal and physical forces at work in and upon the animal. —

THE OPEN COURT. 43 T

Low forms of life, like this, may be kept dried and ap- is but a process of assimilation, hence breathing is eating

parently dead, indefinitely, but moisture restores activity. and proposition 1 includes it. The rejected, exhaled

Of itself this fact shows the purely mechanical nature carbonic acid is excreted; so proposition 3 includes of life. that matter.

The main composition of the protoplasm of the Prehension, or taking hold of its food is another

amceba, is carbon, hydrogen, oxygen and nitrogen, rep- it is 1 function, but only an effect of ; attraction of mole- resented by the symbols C, H, O, N. It feeds upon cules. The ama'ba moves about, but the same molecu-

plants which contain similar elements. In fact it eats lar attractions account for such movements partly; light

that to which it is chemically attracted. Its hunger, sets up a series of attractive motions in it; heat increases then, is chemical affinity. Assimilation, eating, is a within certain limits its activity; eddies move it, and the process of molecular exchange, chemical saturation. simplest explanation of light and heat attraction would Hydrogen hungers for oxygen. The amoebic proto- be through their expanding the nearest portion acted plasm molecules CHON hunger for CHON.* upon, setting up a flow of granules into that part, re- We have gained our first step in mental science. A sulting in a forward movement toward the light. The feeling, a desire, is reduced to a chemical explanation. composition of forces would account even for its occa-

Remember it, for upon it every subsequent step depends: sionally moving away from its food, thus:

/. Hunger is chemical affinity', the desire inherent in atoms for one another. Hunger is the first, the primi- tive desire, so acknowledged by thinkers from other poin's of view, but they did not see what we now claim to be its origin. Growth of the mass must follow as the molecules add to their number, size and weight, by chemical combinations; by eating. This is evident and

Fig. 1. axiomatic, but simple as it appears, like a geometrical axiom it is liable to be obscured or lost sight of as we Let A represent the position of the amceba at one advance. instant; the line A C the direction, and force, 10, of at- Growth, thus, is our second step gained: traction of a ray of heat and light. The line A B, with

2. Grozcfh arises from chemical saturation, from the attraction =5 of a diatom, or some other molecular

hunger satisfaction, from eating. This is more evident combination which is food and has attractive affinity for

than i, in all animal life. the amceba. The parallelogram of forces will decide D Next the amceba reproduces itself by the simplest to be the direction in which A will move; apparently

possible means, it divides as a consequence of over- away from its food. growth, and we then have two amoebae; the new addi- These motions can be made more complex by the

tional form is excreted off from the old one, and observ- inconstancy of the environment, heat, light, electricity,

ing that such particles as silica or lime carbonate, which sound, chemism, eddies, all exerting their influences and

it cannot take up are repelled, rejected, excreted, we confusing the directness of motion.

find as a consequence that excretion depends upon, or is: Lastly

a, chemical indifference or repulsion, 5. Locomotion is due to hunger [chemical affinity)

l>, a consequence of assimilation, and to other physicalforces. We thus have all the life

c, an overgrowth consequence, in reproduction. activities of this low animal explained as the result of

J. Excretion is a consequence of hzinger satis- force and matter. Objectively regarded we have satis- faction. fied the conditions, but fault may be found with having 4. Reproduction is a consequence of growth, and brought in the subjective term hunger. This can be a process of excretion. disposed of by admitting that we can only judge of The amceba absorbs oxygen and exhales carbonic hunger objectively in others, whether man, dog, or

acid; it breathes. But oxygen is a food, and inhalation amceba, by what it causes them to do, and comparing

* So much depends and could be said upon this inference, it can be but cur- such actions with our own under like circumstances, sorily dealt with here. The objection to affinity likeness the atomic of hunger which subjectively we realize to be due to hunger. being in that protoplasm converts dead into living molecules, may be met by Hoppe-Seyler's claim (Chemical- Physiology Institute Inaugural Address) that Perhaps a feeble consciousness is a prod2ict of these living protoplasm consisted of anhydrous oxy-hvdro-carbon molecules capable molecular and mass motions—who can say? We have ot motion in a hydrated medium. When such molecules combined with the water in which they moved, then the protoplasm was dead. Living protoplasm much of the aboriginal disposition to concede will is like quantities of CHON moving in water: H»0; now if CHON, in power or sensibility to any complex mechanical motions. certain quantities, becomes CHONH.O (while the symbolism is far from being exact), an idea of what occurs when protoplasm dies (the machine stoppage) The Zuni Indians worshiped the great Corliss engine may be gained. The next step toward dissolution being the breakin? up of the at the Chicago water-works, and wanted to cast them- compound altogether; the dismantling of the machine. But it is impossible to go deeply into such matters in popular essays. selves into its wheels as into the arms of a good spirit; : :

432 THE OPEN COURT. similarly the remark is often made by the intelligent and motions have regard to satisfying hunger, and its mushy educated: "That locomotive acts as though it lived," or body is constructed to take hold of things. Prehension "That machine almost talks." If we knew the amoeba or taking hold of things is an ability merely developed, to be composed of crystalline matter we would merely but not changed in the higher animal life, for arms, wonder at its mechanical motions; because it is flesh- hands and jaws are for food prehension; the legs and like we assign it life, though we know that flesh and feet take hold of the ground in the food search; ribs as- crystals are but chemical elements differently combined. sist other organs in oxygen (food) prehension. The President Sorbv, of the Royal Microscopical So- fundamental life processes having merely more elaborate ciety, estimates that in one one-thousandth of an inch organs in the higher than in the lower forms, to con- sphere of albumen (protoplasm), there are 530,000,- serve the same necessary ends. While in this protozoon 000,000 molecules. With protozoa one-tenth, or one the only sensation it has refers to eating, all other sensa- one-hundredth of an inch in size, there would be pro- tions are differentiated from it, and if you reflect a little, portionately more. It becomes possible to conceive how you will know that all thought is ultimately traceable organisms even a hundred-thousandth of an inch can to that homely act. Stop eating for a while and be con- molecularly exist. So the difference between the flea vinced. and the elephant, mentally as well as physically, need You get from this your first philosophical conception not be other than a merely quantitative one, for qualita- of pain and pleasure. An unsatisfied tension of the tive development may go on with the lesser number of amoebic molecules in the one and the act of gratification molecules. Thus we surmount the idea that mere size in the other. Indifference comes with plethora, which of brain or body has anything to do with relative intel- causes quiesence or cessation of maximum motion—an lectuality considered as a molecular property. important fact, for satiety is akin to death. The filled

Diagrams sometimes more forcibly illustrate what is up amoeba does not move. Activity increases in all ani- meant: mal life, within certain limits, with hunger or other de- The albuminoid, protoplasmic, one-celled animal, the sire. Satisfaction palls, cloys, amoeba (Fig. 2) may be roughly represented as a pile of Volumes could be written to justify these views, but chemical atoms, each dot representing a molecule of we are only glancing at matters. such atoms Fancy the molecules that compose protoplasm to be grouped in little piles like Fig. 6, and when attracted to

Fig. j. Fig. 3.

a which Attracted toward piece of alga (Fig. 3), Fig. 6. Fig. 7. passes into the amoeba and causes it to grow (Fig 4). It other similar molecules their commotion would appear rejects the uneatable part and becoming too large, splits something like Fig. 7. If this motion invariably took reproduces (Fig. — 5). place under similar influences, then the more these influ- ences occurred the better adjustment would there be to a repetition of them —adaptation, and the motion-sensa- tion would become instinctive, automatically induced.

Now if food attraction caused this motion once, it is ap-

parent that it can do so again. The repetition of this

Fig- 4- Fig. 5. motion would lie one phase of memory. If this molec- Under the designation chemism we have disposed of ular disturbance were induced by some other cause than moving, breathing, eating; from which as a conse- chemical attraction, such as a chance movement of the quence proceeded reproduction excretion. growth, and particles in the amoeba, then we have- other phases of called We the chemical attraction involved in eating, memory, anticipation, recollection and feelings, such as hunger, a desire, a feeling, a sensation. not let us Do dreams are made of, imperfect, mixed. The Chladni get confused at this or any other stage, by mixing up figures may be cited terms, or making distinctions where none exist; desires

and feelings are sensations from first to last, and we

shall so see them to be. Then sensation is nothing but

molecular motion. When the little molecules are mov- ing about, from whatever cause, sensation is evoked. m It is not sensation that moves them, but the movements feisr 'A •• s produce the sensation; which is a mere incident of the

motion as friction heat is to machinery motion. All its Fig. 8. THE OPEN COURT. 433

Such and many other forms appear when a glass With all its hierarchic polemics the Old Testament

plate upon which sand is strewn is thrown into vibra- holds to the terra tirma of secularism and optimism and tions by musical notes. Each figure is definite for its has helped to counteract the anti-physical dogmas of its producing note and will be reproduced by that note. appendix. Hence the Hebraic tendencies of the manlier Sensation may be likened to the vibration of a piano nations of Christendom. The North British Puritans string produced in its usual wav through the kev and were Hebrews of the Maccabee type, Jews in kilts and

hammer stroke. Memory is the reproduction of the cuirass, flaunting the banner of the cross but preferring same vibrations, whether induced in the usual or some to ignore the duty of passive submission to tyranny. other way. Their very cant, their watchword and nomenclature Summing up what we have deduced from the pro- were borrowed fiom the camp of Gideon, rather than toplasmic motions, we have, life processes, such as eat- from Golgatha. South of the Alps, on the other hand, ing, growth, excretion, reproduction and general loco- the gnostic-anti-natural element preponderates. Saint- motory movements accounted for as interacting physical worship, emasculated ethics, Buddhist monachism and force and matter, with incident and consequent produc- Buddhist indolence. Xorth and South America pre- tion of pain and pleasure, sensation and memory. sent a similar contrast. Our very Sunday-schools Minds unused to evolutionary conceptions will ask prefer Old Testamentarian "lessons of the day." what all this has to do with man and his mentality. The tendencies of city -life, in some of its phases, Refer to modern text books on physiology, embryology may, however, rival the influence of an enervating and histology (microscopic anatomy), botanical and climate, and in the crowded vice-centers of the colder zoological works, and you will discover statements latitudes there is no lack of Protestant Jesuits, anti-nat- clearly made or implied throughout, to the effect that uralists of that specially repulsive type combining a man is but a colony of amreba-like cells, grouped and joy-hating intolerance with pedantry and cold-blooded differentiated to effect better the same functions inherent selfishness. Their hatred of optimism feels its impotence in the original amoeba cell. While all the processes are in the swift currents of modern civilization and avenges carried on by one dot of protoplasm in the case of the one- itself by slander and occasional Jew-baits. celled animal, the many-celled animal, such as man, has Modern ocean steamers are built on the "safety- certain groups of cells highly developed in one direc- cabin," or water-tight compartment plan. A storm- wave tion, others in another; with the necessarv diminution may crush the fore-castle and the buoyancy of the of other abilities in the specially developed instances, remaining sections will still float the ship. Modern just as the good blacksmith may not be a good clerk, clergymen, it seems, are trying to construct a sea-worthy but specialism has developed both as advantageous to creed on a similar plan. Their patent gospel-ships society. The clerk and blacksmith are not the less men comprise two or three wholly distinct safety-cabins; a because specialized, the brain and muscle cells are none temperance compartment, an anti- Mormon compart- the less cells. The association of these functions with ment, an entertaining literature and picnic section. If their sensations, through an internuncial nervous system the storm-waves of public opinion should smash the fore- may be likened to the metropolitan and continental link- castle with its haloed figure-head, they hope to float by ing of interests by telegraphs. In effect this will appear virtue of an intact stern-hold, stuffed with light litera- as we proceed, to be more than analogy; it is homology ture and emptied beer barrels. or identity. The church of Rome disdains such precautions. The The monistic philosophy shows that society acts as loss of her untenable provinces has proved a good the man acts, and his nature is that of his cells; these in riddance and simplified the administration of her crown turn are governed by molecular attributes, but that man lands. Her borders are swarming with smugglers, can react upon his composition and give direction to his peddling no end of drugs and patent nostrums, but the acts bj' conforming better to nature's laws, through frontier-guards can afford to connive. They know that knowing those laws; and achieve thereby the maximum Buddhism is an incurable disease. allotment of happiness for himself and others. This metamorphic century of ours resembles the era of Juvenal in too many respects to mistake the sig- FREE THOUGHTS. nificance of the analogy. The temples of the prevail- BY FELIX L. OSWALD, M. D. ing creed still multiply, but their masonry lacks the Public calamities are generally followed by revivals cement of faith; their walls tower, but the omens of of hyperphysical religion. But does that prove the impending collapse appear in ever-widening splits and merit of other- worldliness? Hard times are equally gaps. Moralists seek a new basis of ethics; philoso- apt to revive the alcohol-vice. In default of better phy goes hand in hand with skepticism; faith raves at consolations the children of sorrow are prone to have the glimpses of sunlight, peering through the withered recourse to spiritual and spirituous narcotics. tree-tops of the sacred grove, and calls upon the doubted 434 THE OPEN COURT.

deities to testify in their own behalf. But the Gods are upon the descendants of Cromwell's Ironsides, and its silent. Is their glory fading- in the glare of a brighter continued influence may yet strangely displace the bal- light, or are they yielding their throne to a new ance of power in northern Europe. In the days of

dynasty ? No philosopher of the Caesarean era sus- Robin Hood a British yeoman was probably a match pected the significance of the portents that ushered in for a dozen mujiks ; but for the last eighty years the the eve of a dismal night, and who shall read the signs children of that yeoman have been stunted in slums and of our own times? The fitful signs of a coming change spinning mills, while the sons of the Russian boor have that may bring a new sunrise, or a fading of the stars in steeled their sinews in the uplands of the Caucasus and

a spreading night-mist? Where is our guarantee the steppes of Iran and Turkestan, and Despotism, against a relapse of obscurantism? Religious freedom? to be sure, handicaps the prowess of its defenders, but Rome had plenty of that freedom, and the gates that there is also a Nemesis of wealth, and history has repeat- admitted Grecian philosophers admitted also Buddhist edly proved that the civilization of valient barbarians is

fanatics and Syrian monks. And the trouble is that the child's play compared with the regeneration of wornout

energy of such fanatics is very apt to prevail against epicureans. Within a century after the battle of Xeres

all other energies whatever. Science? The Protestant dela Frontera the Moorish swashbuckler had classic

revolt has favored her revival; but science is a tool that highschools, while a millennium of appeals to honor

lends itself to all purposes. The science that rears the and patriotism has failed to revive the heroic age of dome of an observatory also reared the dome of St. Rome. Peter and the stronghold of the inquisition, and will Is the marasmus of wornout nations a wholly incur-

flash its electric lights in the council-house of the prop- able disease? Incurable in some of its phases, says Ex- aganda as brightly as in a lecture hall. perience, — at least by all remedies thus far discovered.

But, for better or worse, a change is near at hand. Nations may recover from the incubus of the most crush- The doom of the old creed will only be hastened by the ing oppression; witness Hungaria, Israel and the Prot- tactics of its modern defenders. The mystagogues of the estant Netherlands, just as Time will repair the ravages Eleusinian festivals lost their last chance of prestige when of a forest-fire or a tree-breaking tornado; the roots of they attempted to recruit the host of their votaries by the blighted woodlands retain their vitality and respond an alliance with buffoons and mountebanks, and our to the stimulus of the first reviving shower. But spring revival- mongers, too, may find that the costs of their and summer return in vain if the soil itself has lost its popularity wdl prove a ruinous investment. The forlorn reproductive power, and Time has no cure for the spell hope of the latter-day crusades will not survive the fate of Shiva, the god of the listless desert. of their allies; the church that resisted the hosts of Islam The star of empire, after keeping its westward will succumb to the aid of the Salvation Army. Wit- course for a century or two, has sometimes reappeared ness the following circular recently issued by an " adju- in the East, as in 622, when the crescent rose to eclipse tant" of that army in the State of Kansas: "Smiling the light of Mars, or in 1S70, when the comet of the Belle, from Wichita, the girl who jumped out of a two- second empire was wrecked against the solid orbs of a

story window to get salvation, will be at 's Rink, northeastern constellation. Greece, Rome, Araby, to-night, at S P. M. Cyclones of salvation! Tornadoes Spain, England, France, Prussia—the eagles and the of power! Gales of grace! Celestial hurricanes! Col- lions have had their day; will it be the bear's turn next?

lection at the door to defray expenses." Oh, yes. The Or the Danubian wolf's? Magyar enterprise is making moral expenses, however, might exceed the estimate. itself felt in literature and art as well as in politics, and

The Moslem fanatics recovered their reason in t..e there is a tradition that the Castle of Buda will yet be- cooler latitudes of Europe, and the Spanish Caliphate come the capitol of a great empire. Within our States—

became a nursery of industry and science. Is it not pos- united or disunited, the star of supremacy will pursue a sible that the temperate zones of our own continent will similar zigzag course, though with the same westward

do as much for their Spanish conquerors? Chili is gain- trend which seems to presage a long pause on the shores ing prestige on the vantage-ground of political inde- of the Pacific. pendence and may at any time raise the standard of Mr. Edwin D. Mead will lecture as usual durirgthe religious emancipation. Buenos Ay res, too, is fast coming season, giving courses or single lectures, chiefly becoming untenable for the ultramontanes. Pessimism upon literary and historical subjects—"Puritanism;" will not flourish in a healthy soil. The priest-ridden " The Pilgrim Fathers;" " The American Poets;" " The burghers of old Spain would, indeed, hardly recognize British Parliament;" "Gladstone;" "Samuel Adams;" their relatives in the broad-shouldered rancheros of the "Carlyle and Emerson;" " Dante;" " Immanuel Kant;" pampas, who have faced tornadoes and rampant steers "Lessing's 'Nathan the Wise,' or the Gospel of Tolera-

and decline to quail before a Papal bull. tion," etc. Mr. Mead's address is 73 Pinckney street, Indoor life, on the other hand, will not fail to tell Boston. !

THE OPEN COURT. 435

as readily as what is in a safe by feeling its door knob." The Open Court. Most of the phrenological deductions are illogical and many are controverted by facts. For instance " vita-

A. Fortnightly Journal. tiveness," or the desire to live, is located by phrenology over the mastoid process, behind the ear; a huge bump Published every other Thursday at 169 to 175 La Salle Street iNixor Building), corner Monroe Street, by of bone into which a lancet is often deeply thrust by THE OPEN COURT PUBLISHING COMPANY surgeons without fear of touching the brain. The " per- ceptives"— form, si/e, color, weight appreciation, are B. F. UNDERWOOD, SARA A. UNDERWOOD, Editor and Manager. Associate Editor. placed along the eyebrow ridge, though the brain is very remote from that part, and primitive races or even The leading object of The Open Court is to continue apes have the largest development of that arch. the work of The Index, that is, to establish religion on the basis of Science and in connection therewith it will present the Gall observed that the best scholars had protuberant Monistic philosophy. The founder of this journal believes this eyes, so he located " language " behind the optic, an will furnish to others what it has to him, a religion which embraces all that is true and good in the religion that was taught absurd proceeding, for the widely opened eye is an in childhood to them and him. Editorially, Monism and Agnosticism, so variously denned, expression of wonder, the exercise of which faculty has will be treated not as antagonistic systems, but as positive and led to erudition in general. In Gall's time linguistics negative aspects of the one and only rational scientific philosophy, his conclusions. which, the editors hold, includes elements of truth common to were the height of knowledge, hence all religions, without implying either the validity of theological Constructiveness and combativeness belong to a high assumption, or any limitations of possible knowledge, except such as the conditions of human thought impose. grade of intellect, and while we can deny that they have The Open Court, while advocating morals and rational the exact locations assigned by phrenologists it is not religious thought on the firm basis of Science, will aim to substi- tute for unquestioning credulity intelligent inquiry, for blind faith remarkable that the increased brain size that accompa- rational religious views, for unreasoning bigotry a liberal spirit, nies brain exercise should widen the head in the region tor sectarianism a broad and generous humanitarianism. With and perti- this end in view, this journal will submit all opinion to the crucial assigned to these bumps. Reasoning power test of reason, encouraging the independent discussion by able nacity could more properly be thus placed, but as the thinkers of the great moral, religious, social and philosophical problems which are engaging the attention of thoughtful minds frontal brain develops and broadens the forehead the and upon the solution of which depend largely the highest inter- skull does not always keep pace with this growth, so ests of mankind While Contributors are expected to express freely their own that one with a narrow or even low forehead may have views, the Editors are responsible only for editorial matter. a large brain compressed into narrower compass. Per Terms of subscription three dollars per year in advance, postpaid to any part of the United States, and three dollars and contra, the disease called hydrocephalus may give the fifty cents to foreign countries comprised in the postal union. idiot the " front of Jove." There is a tendency of the All communications intended for and all business letters relating to The Open Court should be addressed to B. E. cranium to adapt itself to brain growth, but the rigid Underwood, Treasurer, P. O. Drawer F, Chicago, 111., to whom bones require centuries to establish radical changes; the should be made payable checks, postal orders and express orders. softer tissues beneath folding up in lines of least resist-

ance. It be readily seen from this how head shape THURSDAY, SEPTEMBER 15, 1SS7. can could be a race characteristic, but give no clue to indi- THE OLD AND NEW PHRENOLOGY. vidual traits, save in the crudest ways. A friend takes exception to our " low estimate of Says Prof. Gunning (in Life History of our Planet, phrenology," as indicated by a paragraph printed in the p. 289): " In the Museum of the Smithsonian Institu-

last number of this journal. He thinks that it is entitled tion may be seen a cranium of enormous size and to be regarded as a "true and useful science," although most perfect symmetry. Such a noble forehead! and

he makes no attempt to prove his position. Our remark balanced against this such a perfect backhead ! All the referred of course, to the old phrenology, or bumpology, lines and curves so strong, so graceful late as taught in the lectures and writings of the Prof. ' A combination and a form indeed, O. S. Fowler and others of his class who profess to Where every god did set his seal describe character—each particular intellectual and moral To give the world assurance of a man.' quality —by the elevations and depressions of the skull. "The owner of the head was a miserable Indian We are not aware that there is to-day any man of who never got from it so much as a beaver trap!" science who holds to this absurd theory. The new phrenology is deduced from the study of As the pseudo-sciences alchemy and astrology gave the brain itself and brings into that study mathematics, rise to chemistry and astronomy so phrenology has been physics, chemistry and other sciences where the old succeeded by craniology and cerebrology. Races are phrenology was isolated in this respect, often defiant of now known to have hend shapes peculiar to themselves; exact knowledge. O. S. Fowler used to say to his audi-

but only in a general way does the skull conformation ences " Newton's Principia is all bosh. It is not gravi- indicate mentality. Oliver Wendell Holmes says: tation that holds the planets in space, / have discovered

"You can tell by bumps what is in a man's head that it is electricity." The new phrenology is cultivated 4.V- THE OPEN COURT.

as a branch of anthropology by learned, modest men who This, to our mind, indicates with exactness the weak-

never give " character charts." ness of most sermon-writing. The usu.d sermon is merely a "maxim of a general nature" long drawn out, Professor O. F. Lumry, formerly of Wheaton Col- ami it treats virtue and vice and all the problems of lege, has withdrawn from the Congregationalists, and in conduct as if there never could be any difficulty in mak- an elaborate paper, which abounds with Scriptural quo- ing " the application to individual cases." But this is tations and expressions of Christian piety and zeal, just where the difficulty does lie, often. A minister " argues that all churches as now organized are parts of urges a parent to observe J>is duties to his child, and this the great apostasy, and constitute together mystic Babv- is very well; but what troubles the parent is not so much lon." Such words as " Many pastors have destroyed the question of duty in general, as the question how to

My vineyard ; they have made My pleasant portion a reconcile the duty of kindness with the duty of severity, desolate wilderness," and " Woe be unto the pastors that or possibly, a man is foolishlv incompetent with chil- destroy and scatter the sheep of My pasture;" " Behold, dren, and the wife's whole life becomes a painful strug- I am against the shepherds, and I will require My flock gle to prevent his ruining them, without alienating his at their hands and cause them to cease feeding the flock; affection by her interference. It is at best a compromise, neither shall the shepherds feed themselves any more, and only years of experience teach the best course; but for I will deliver My flock from their mouth that they what special light will he get from any sermon? may not be meat for them."—such words of reproof Church morality knows nothing of compromises; the and condemnation Professor Lumry thinks applicable complexities that make most the real difficulties of life

to the Christian clergy of to-day. We have space for for ordinary, honest people it never recognizes. If a but a few passages from his extraordinary document : devoted wife stands between two sins, the sin of conceal- With wiser provision for its own integrity and permanence ing, in fact, lying about—her husband's guilt and the Catholicism educate* its brightest, most promising male children sin of blighting his chance of a better life by exposure, for priests, and secures their loyalty to itself bv providing for she will hardly find her difficultv solved in her Sunday their support without common labor, whether for the time she pew. The sort of wisdom common in sermons may has church work for them to do or not. To do this she. under the plea of greater sanctity, denies them marriage and the burden of thus be said, with no unfairness, to resemble rather a families, and hence the need of large salaries. Protestantism general praise of medicine than an offering of specific trains the minds and develops expensive tastes in her upper remedies. Of course the latter task is much more diffi- orders, and then turns them out to prey upon the churches. As cult than the former. an inevitable result hers is the very genius of division and 7T * # sectism. * * * On the principle that where rogues fall out

honest men get their dues, Protestantism is more favorable to the In Herbert Spencer's Retrospect and Prospect are rights of the citizen, yet she has the distinguishing mark of the indices of better times ahead when the evolved social great apostasy an order or orders above the equal brotherhood. — organism and its individual components will have loftier If reforms of abuses are attempted, the chief positions in the move- aims, ideas and methods. Take the important matter of ment designed to further become the perquisites, usually, of min- marriage incentive. Primitively the woman was a chat- isters who have fallen out of rank among the active men of their order, but who exhibit wonderful zeal in their unclerical calling, tel to be stolen or bought; nowadays there is a feeling at least while it affords them a fat living. * * * To constitute of reprobation of wife purchase or husband purchase, a sacred order above the equal brotherhood it is only necessary and marriage without respect or affection on both sides that there be one or more things that must be done which only is degradation indeed. In this day it is simply returning such order can do, as administering the rights of baptism and the to savagery voluntarily with all the lowering of the communion, or performing the marriage ceremony. Protestant- ism, then, not only has its hierarchy, but that sacred body, while moral tone that implies. Novelists often make use of not bound by secret oaths, after the manner of some communions, the greed that sometimes— not always—attends senility, is yet, to some extent, a secret society or order. As we have seen and picture the magpie parent gloating over the daugh- from Paul's language, it was secret in its working, and it is ter's "sparkling diamond ring" that is part of the sacri- to-day measurably secret in its working, since, while its acts vitally ficial junk. Romantically enough would read a story aftect the inferior order, its motives are never, perhaps, fully explained to such order. of an accomplished young lady mating with a man she * * » detests, whose only attractive possession is alleged cash,

One of the few writers able to treat "lofty" themes all fur the sake of a parent to whom she is de-

with sense and penetration is Philip Gilbert Hamerton. voted; but such things do occur, and until a little reflec-

There is an interesting passage in which he says: " Hu- tion is accorded the act, its immorality is less apparent. man life is so extremely various and complicated, while The blind worship of wealth makes fools of the it tends every day to still greater variety and complica- envious. Spencer looks for the world to make a distinc- tion, that all maxims of a general nature require a far tion in favor of the man who has made his fortune by higher degree of intelligence in their application to indi- brain work, as in manufactures and other useful indus-

vidual cases than it ever cost originally to invent them." tries. The servility of the masses to wealth disgusts those — — — — ; ——

THE OPEN COURT. 437

who possess it, and much of the cynicism and heartless- reflection, "I don't think I want to go to either of those places

when I die, mamma. 1 think I'd rather be a corpse." This sim- ness often found connected with it is due to their com- ple child's philosophy calls to ray mind a certain deep and beauti- mon experience that the respect monev compels is un- ful legend of the Middle Ages: "St. Louis, the king, having sent stable, that the love it buys is spurious. Iv.o, Bishop of Chartres, on an embassy, the bishop met a woman

* * * on the way, grave, sad, fantastic and melancholic, with fire in one A Sabbath-school superintendent writing from Lex- hand and water in the other. He asked what those symbols meant. She answered 'My purpose is with fire to burn paradise, ington, Va., to a religious paper, in regard to the relig- and with water to quench the flames of hell, that men may serve ious condition of colored men, considers " the appear- God without the incentives of hope and fear, and purely for the indication ance of skepticism among them an of quick- love of God.'" This is suggested to mv mind by your clipping

ened mental movement, although certainly in the wrong from the Boston Transcript, and I take the liberty of sending it vou. direction." Among the instances lie gives is the fol- to * * * lowing:

But now came a question unexpected as difficult: " Were the Not only the individual experience slowly acquired, days mentioned in Genesis like our day, twenty-four hours long, but the accumulated experience of the race, organized in or were they long periods of time?" language, condensed in instruments and axioms, and in " Ah," said I to the questioner, " we have gotten into deep what may be called the inherited intuitions— these form water where neither I nor you can readily touch bottom. All I the multiple unity which is expressed in the abstract have time here to say is, that many learned and good men, as well as some others not so good, believe that the days of Moses term " experience." G. II. Lewes. are to be taken for long, very long periods, and many as learned * * # and good insist that they are meant to be taken' just as the words Anthropomorphism will never be obliterated from stand— for days of twenty-four hours in length." I was not sorry when the striking of the clock just here indicated the hour the ideas of the unintellectual. Their God, at the best, for closing the class, and so ended the discussion. * * * It is will never be more than the gigantic shadow of a man plain to seen that same profound have taxed be the questions that a vast phantom of humanity, like one of those Alpine the powers of philosophers, scholars and divines, and which are spectres seen in the midst of the clouds by him who to-day still vexing the world, are presenting themselves to the turns his back to the sun. Draper. mind of the colored Bible-class. * * * The colored people — J. W. are using in a very indiscriminate way their newly acquired % % % ability to read. I feel sure that the young men to whom I have It is a curious fact that, wherever he goes, a Unitarian minis- referred, had gotten a glimpse of the crude skepticism indicated ter will commonly receive the most kindly treatment from Catho- by their questions from the newspapers, and other current writ- lics. Perhaps, because we are so far apart, they never feel any ing of the day. * * * danger of being classified with Unitarians. Christian Register.

The contest between the liberal and clerical parties You cannot convert the world to liberalism by spread-eagle in Mexico increases in intensity. The Monitor Repub- oratory and a brass band. You have got to show by its fruits lican charges the clergy with plots against republican that it is good and then good people will gradually gravitate institutions and with having a well formed plan to de- toward it. Monroe s Iron-Clad Age. stroy religious liberty. An anti-clerical league has been formed in the City of Mexico, and auxiliary leagues are UNREVEALED.

to be organized throughout the Republic. Recently in BY HELEN T. CLARK.

Pueblo the bishop warned the people not to have even Life's good gifts come, the slightest social or business intercourse with Protest- And, lo! unheeded under foot we tread ants, and much feeling has been excited by this among The bloom that for us sweetness might have shed the liberals who are of Catholic faith. The religious Before whose blessing we are blind and dumb! controversy is likely to enter into the next presidential Broad highways lead election. The clericals seem bound to oppose the devel- Up from _ the fens of darkness and despair; opment of intercourse with the United States, as favored Yet our poor faltering feet must stumble there, by the Diaz administration, and the clerical organs all And groping 'mid the thorns our brows must bleed. over the country show marked hostility to the United States and American institutions. Our true friends reach * * * Strong hands to help us o'er the heights of pain Yet to our alien ears their cries are vain Dr. P. I. Carpenter writes: We own them not— glance, or touch, or speech. The deep philosophy of childhood! "Mamma," said Lilian, by " aged seven, the other day, " what sort of a place is heaven ? So Ah, me! when from our eyes mamma explained to her the orthodox picture of heaven. "And Some swift day rends the veil, yet all too late, now, mamma, what sort of a place is hell?" And mamma shall stand and mourn without the gate, explained, as delicately as she could, the foul and sinful nightmare How we called by the orthodox, hell. " Well," said Lilian, after a moment's Wringing frail hands in impotent surprise! — ——— —— — —— —

43 8 THE OPEN COURT.

MAGNANIMITY. Worse, far, than sneer of foe! BY SARA A. UNDERWOOD. Nor be, by jibings undeserved, In dreams came Life to Youth. " Behold!" A moment from thy duty swerved, .She said, " my hand doth gifts enfold Content to Duty know?

From these select thine aim. " Canst stand unmoved by prayer or fear Whate'er the good thou deem'st supreme, When Right demands, thy course severe; That gift is thine; but in Fate's scheme Nor feel one glow of wrath But gift canst thou claim. one When men shall curse thy steadfast course " Bethink thee, then, and wisely choose; And vainly try by bribes or force

No right is mine thee to refuse, To turn thee from thy path ?

However wrong thy choice." " Canst thou thy patience firmly keep, " What are thy gifts?" Youth, wondering, cries, So good be done—though others reap Hope speaking in his earnest eyes The harvest thou hast sown; in his vibrant voice. And If honors which are justly thine " Wealth, Fame, Love, Power, Song, sweet Ease, 'Mid enemies' laurels brightly shine, Pride, Pleasure, Art, Ambition—these While thou standst by unknown? Are but a few of scores " Canst thou, when foes repent, forgive, 'Twould weary me to name. thou Name Nor let upbraiding memories live will thee bliss That which most allow In look, or tone, or word? 'Tis thine from out stores." my The weak uphold who hurled thee down, " Since thou may'st give one gift alone, And Ignorance teach without a frown Grant me," cried Youth in rapturous tone, Or taunt when it has erred ? " That which is held most rare! " Canst undismayed see insolent fraud The gift the gods for heroes save." Thy place obtain, while fools applaud " " Nay," said Life, gently, though thou'rt brave Thy friendships undermined ; To ask that gilt, forbear! Nor stop thy work to vengeance wreak, " Take thou— for I may thus advise But. patient wait (till Time shall speak), Some lesser gift, some lower prize, A verdict true to find ? Which thee more peace shall bring; " Canst thou at length face, dauntless Death ! Since its strange secret sweet delight And if need be with thy last breath Is won through many a bitter fight Inspire more craven souls? Of stern self-conquering." And knowing hatred may assail Fire sudden flashed from Youth's brave eyes, Thy memory, neither blame nor rail Clear rang his voice—" No sacrifice At those whom hate controls?" Is hard to win the Best; " The faith thus kept—the victory gained No lesser gift I take, oh, Life What guerdons won, what joy attained?" Welcome be turmoil, hurts and strife Asked Youth, now faltering, grave. I've courage for the test!" " Ah, then," smiled Life, " thy soul shall glow " Nay, harder test than strife thou'lt meet; With light divine, and thou shalt know

This gift first bitter tastes, then sweet The best that life e'er gave.

Beyond all common ken. " This gift brings others in its wake; Canst thou swear fealty to mankind, The earth shall into music break To thine own needs grow deaf and blind An undertone of song To uplift fallen men? Which shall inspire with its refrain " Canst thou unwavering stand by truth Thy soul to dare and dare again In weal or woe? Ah, even, Youth, In battle 'gainst the wrong." When Love pleads error's cause? " O name this gift of wondrous power!" Canst thou sweet-natured keep when those Urged Youth, " and grant it for my dower Thou'rt sworn to aid turn bitterest foes, O say it may be mine!" And Justice's self withdraws? Into Life's face new beauty broke, " Canst thou with patience dumbly hear With thrilling, reverent voice she spoke The ignorant hmnts of those held dear! " Magnanimity lie thine!" THE OPEN COURT. 439

THROUGH WHAT HISTORICAL CHANNELS DID It was not with closed eyes and ears that Ptolemy and BUDDHISM INFLUENCE EARLY CHRISTIANITY? his savans would pass over all the intermediate States "RIVERS OF LIFE." toward Babylon, Baktria and India, countries where BY GENERAL T- <5. R- FORLOXG, Al'THOR OF Part III.— Concluded. Ezraitic Jews were still compiling their sacred writings, old " Aurea Legenda" states that St. Thomas, The aided by the Babylonian Sanhedrim, the schools of went as a mason to build the palace instructed by God, Berosos, and the Greek centers which sprung up on or Gondoforu?, in Meilau or Black of King Gondophares the scattering abroad of the hosts of Alexander. Mina {Kala-Mina in the language of India) the cradle of Ptolemy Philadelphus died in 247, and was suc- Ikshvakus on the Indus at Patala, the present the Buddist ceeded by Ptolemy Energetes, who was coeval with believed, according to the Tatta. Here St. Thomas was 1 '' Antiochus Theos, "the Antiyako 1'ona Raja men- trustworthy legends, to have been martyred in 60 most tioned by Asoka, and to whom he sent Buddhist A.c, and Professor Beal, in noticing this in General Cun- missionaries. These would of course preach to amazed ningham's Archtrological Survey of India, Vol. II, of Western armies the brotherhood of all men, and the lS62-65,adds 13S): "It is remarkable that about this (p. immorality of war, save that against our own evil incli- time A.c.) Asvaghosha, the famous Buddist mis- (50 nations ("the world and the devil," in later Western sionary, was taken by Chanda or Gandha, apparently an parlance) and the beauty of contentment even in pov- successor of Gondophares, to Northern immediate erty and rags. India as his secretary or personal adviser;" and we They would, like their lord, urge that it was more know that Asvaghosha's teaching and writings were glorious to subdue one's self than to rule multitudes; to thoroughly Buddhistic, and exactly such as the anti- be a saviour of men rather than a conqueror; to strive to kosmic Essenes and their Christian conquerors would assuage the untold miseries of the world, rather than, be likely to adopt, and which in fact they did teach. by indulging vanity and passion, to add to the normal The Professor adds, as showing the wide area early weight of sorrow. From such teaching would naturally traversed by Buddhism, that " the Chinese writer Falin, arise the Therapeuts, Essenes, etc. ; and we know of in his Po-tsi-lun, brings a mass of evidence to show the former in 200 B.C. and the latter about 150 B.C. that Buddhist books were known in China before the Thus we need not wonder at Eusebius and others point- time of the Emperor She-hwang-ti, of 221 B.C." Dur- ing to a kind of " Christianity before Christ," for ing his reign an Indian monk, Lifang, and seventeen Eclectics and such like sects had organized churches, companions introduced Buddhist sacred writings into with deacons, presbyters or similar office-bearers, and China, regarding which Falin and others "give full these "used to meet on the Sabbath evenings for prayer, particular, resting on the best foundations, as to the per- praise and other religious exercises."* secutions and imprisonment" of the sect, and many But to return to Asoka. He had adopted Buddhism supposed miraculous deliverances, none of which could in 274, and became emperor in 263 B.C. when he dis- have been invented, says Professor Beal. It is, as he patched embassies to all the Greek kings of Baktria, adds, "an historical fact" that Buddhism had waxed Persia, and westward, and entered upon a free corres- strong under the Emperor Wu-ti, 140-S6 B.C.; had pondence with many literary foreigners. In 250 we become a State religion of China under Ming-ti, 58— 76 find the plays of Sophokles being read in the camps and a.c, and that Asvaghosha's great poem appeared in courts of Eastern Parthian princes, one of whom trans- China about this time.* lated, as before stated, no less than one hundred and Eusebius and Epiphanius tell us that Demetrius, the seventy-six distinct Buddhist works into Chinese, though librarian of Alexandria, urged his royal master, the Professor Beal thinks this may have taken place about Greeko-Egyptian Ptolemy Philadelphus, "the con- 149 a.c, which seems much too late. Even this date queror of Baktria," to try and secure the sacred writings does not invalidate our arguments and conclusions of India for his great library in Alexandria; and we drawn from many other facts, and much circumstan- may be very sure this literary king did so, and did not tial evidence, viz., that long before our gospels (170 find it a difficult task, for he reigned from 2S3 to 247 a.c) Western Asia was saturated with Buddhism, and B.C.—that is, during almost the whole life of the pros- especially so all the widely extended Parthian empire. elytising Emperor Asoka, then inscribing his Buddhis- It is, as Professor Beal says, " an historical fact," that tic tenets on rocks and pillars throughout Northern Antigonus Gonatas, king of Makedon, is mentioned in India and Afghanistan, and stretching out his hands to three copies of one of the Edicts of Asoka, of say 240 Greeks, Baktrians and Chinese, proving that Buddhism B.C., and Antigonus was the patron if not the disciple of was the first and perhaps the greatest of missionarv "Zenon the Eastern," and invited Zenon to his Court as faiths. a teacher of doctrines very similar to Buddhism. We * Cf. Beal, at etc., and Father Hue's China and Tartary when pp. 53, 90, are told that " he must have known as much of Asoka -quoting the Syrian Chron. and Roman Breviary, he says: ''Thomas fell pierced with arrows at Calamina." * Rev. Dr. Cunningham's Croal Sects, 1SS6. —

44o THE OPEN COURT.

world. Gentiles then as that edict writer did of him, Antigonus," and he Western Jews and were busy would naturally wish for Zenon at his Court, for he taught propagating these, each on their own lines; but the as Asoka taught. light was from the East. Buddhists have no caste like Hindus, to keep them Alexander Polyhistor tells us that in his time apart from foreigners, and Asoka was believed to 100 to 50 b.c — Buddhists in Baktria taught and prac- have Greek blood in his veins, inasmuch as his grand- ticed all manner of Buddhistic continence and asceticism, father, Chandra-Gupta, who is believed to have died 291 and that for a century before his day the city of as a mission- B.C., had married a daughter of Seleukos, which Alassada, on the upper Oxus, was famed accounts for Asoka's evident bent westward. He sent ary center from which Buddists propagated the faith. embassies to five Greek monarchs, which shows "a close It was, in fact, a vast S. P. G. "Society for the propa- connection between India and the Western world."* gation of the gospel in foreign parts," where learned " When Asoka died in 221 B.C., Buddhism was the and trusted fathers of the church" taught young mis- acknowledged leading faith from the farthest western sionaries how to combat " the non-Buddhistic religions limits of Parthia up toward the Hari-rud (" Heri-river" of the world." This is the propaganda which would of Herat) to Baktria and mid-Asia into China. It was naturally start such sects as the Therapeuts of 200 supreme in India to Ceylon, and rapidly becoming so and the Essenes of 150 b.c.,' the Baptizers of the culminating in in Barma, Siam and the Indian Archipelago; and the Euphrates and the Jordan, Johanites and great maritime Sabean races of Arabia had become Manicheans of Ctesiphon. By 59 B.C., Chinese Budd- in familiar with all its customs, rites and symbolisms at hists ruled over all Eastern Turkestan, direct and their every port-of-call in the furthest Eastern seas, so constant intercourse with Parthia, whose rule extended that the highly religious races of Egypt " would hear into Syria; and in 37 a.c Roman armies were travers- all in A.c, when Apollonius all about it bv channels similar to those by which," as ing Mesopotamia, and 40 Darmestettr shows, " the Greek plays reached Baroch of Tyana was returning from India, a great massacre of or Baroda." Jews took place in Babylon, dispersing the race to year 7S a.c was the impe- At this time also— 221 B.C.—we find Chinese armies furthest east and west. The on the lower Oxus, then thronged with Buddhists of rial era of Buddhism, the Saka of all Sakyas. The the old and new schools; and Falin, the Chinese writer^ times were ripe and had been ripening rapidly from 600 was rejoicing that his country had then a large Buddhist B.C., when Persians said their new Zoroastrianism had preached. Greeks and Westerns had literature. Again, is 190 B.C., China was pressing hard already been upon Parthia, and endeavoring to invade India, where listened to every doctrine of Europe and Asia, and vast shrines, like those of Sanchi and Amravati, were Messiah after Messiah had arisen more or less known rule rising everywhere; and no effort was spared by some to all. It wanted but the loosening of Roman and million of zealous monks in propagating their great faith for any new religion to rise and be successful, pro- Tathagata's teachings. In this busy second century vided it was sufficiently mystical and somewhat remote in its history, and combining in its morals, B.C., we also find Buddhistic Sakas, or Sakyas, seizing and Eastern Seistan and Khorasan, and the Chinese emperor, Wu-ti, rites and symbolisms what had become sacred in the sending embassies to Parthian and Indian kings. One eyes of all. dethroned Balk and Samarkand as of Asoka's sons—Jalaka—was king of Kashmir and its Alexandria then a vast center of outlying districts, stretching into Kabul^ and toward "the Meka of the west." It was Baktria; and another son— Kunala—was ruling over religious philosophies, arts and industries, where the given place to a all northwest India, and almost as earnest as his great Egyptian Chrestos "the good" had Solomon," father in propagating his faith. "Divine Logos"—to the Jewish "wisdom of " then to the of When Asoka's dynasty fell, about 150 B.C., the and of Tesus, son of Sirach," and Jesus Baktrian Greeks again pressed across into the heart of Paul. Here the religions of Zoroaster, of Magi, Buddhism, and under Menander, established them- Essenes, Jews, Greeks and Christians were familiar to selves over most of the Panjab, and reigned there from every reader, and freely discussed in numerous literary therefore hesitate not to at least 130 to 50 B.C. "It was with this Menander," and religious societies, and we thinks Professor Beal, "that the so famous discussion affirm that so likewise were known the great philoso- occurred, known in Pali as the Milinda-panho, or dia- phies of Vedantistsand Buddhists, and of all the schools logues between King Milinda and the Buddhist sage preceding and following the reformation of the great Naga-Sena." This traversed all the abstrusest doc- Guru, who had before the end of the second century trines of Buddhism, as well as burning questions of a B.C. converted at least 200 millions of Asiatics, and special creation —the soul, immortality, etc.—then agi- stirred to its base every school of thought in Asia. tating the whole eastern and cultured portions of the Like Christianity, Buddhism has been called a

pessimism, for it too was more especially addressed to * Cf. pp. 133-170 Beat's Buddhism in China and all Cap. IX. :

THE OPEN COURT. 44 l

I maintain that such instances exist, first the weary and heavy laden; telling them to he content and the that I shall mention, and which I will describe, al length, is my own. Let with their lot, and consider the lilies how they grow, to me say that I am accustomed to introspection, and have practised beg from door to door, and seek comfort by the silenc- it seriously, and that what I state now is not random talk but the passions; and it met with a success unknown ing of the result of frequent observation. It happens that I take pleasure to any other faith. It passed through the usual fiery in mechanical contrivances; the simpler of these are thought out ordeals of faith, and was long scouted at by Jew and by me absolutely without the use of any mental words. Suppose something does not fit; I examine it, go to my tools, pick out Gentile, Christian and Pagan, but especially by kings the right ones, and set to work and repair the defect, of: en without a and nobles and captains of armies, like those of Alex- single word crossing my mind. I can easily go through such a b.c. as before ander in 330-325 This was, however, process in imagination, and inhibit any mental word from present- stated, some 500 years before our Canonical Gospels ing itself. It is well known at billiards that some persons play were written, or rather known to be written, according much more "with their heads" than others. I am but an indifferent player; still, when I do play, I think out the best to history and the great historical inquiry of the author stroke as well as I can, but not in words. I hold the cue with of Supernatural Religion. nascent and anticipatory gesture, and follow the probable course savans of Alexander found Buddhism strongly The of the ball from cushion to cushion with my eye before I make in the ascendant from India to the Oxus and the Kas- the stroke, but I say nothing whatever to myself. At chess, which pian, and with a powerful proselytising agency then ad- I also play indifferently, I usually calculate my moves, but not more than one two stages ahead, alone. vancing westward. Restless Sramans, monks, priests and or by eye Formerly, I practised fencing, in which, as in billiards, the peripatetic mendicants, had never ceased to wander over " head " counts for much. Though I do not fence now, I can half of Asia to proclaim their great master's message mentally place myself in a fencing position, and then I am intent from the time of his Nirvana, about 500 B.C., and the and mentallv mute. I do not see how I eould have used mental caves and cells of the Bamiau Pass, and those on the words, because they take me as long to form as it does to speak or to hear them, and much longer than it takes to read them b}' Cophes, Oxus and Hori Rud had re-echoed to their eye (which I never do in imagination). There is no time in chants and teaching long before Greeks entered Ariana. fencing for such a process. Again, I have many recollections Grecian invasion would greatly facilitate the pro- The of scrambles in wild places, one of which is still vivid, of gress of the Buddhist missionaries, and they had ample crossing a broad torrent from stone to stone, over some of which time between, say 300 B.C. and 150 A.C., to fulfill their the angry-looking water was washing. I was intellectually wearied when I got to the other side, from the constant care gospel mandate, that "all must preach what the master and intentness with which it had been necessary to exercise the taught—that who so hides his faith shall be struck with judgment. During the crossing, I am sure, for similar reasons blindness." Thus diligent Sramans had long sought to those already given, that I was mentally mute. It may be every lone pass in wild mountains or river gorges, objected that no true thought is exercised in the act of picking where they knew armies or travelers must pass and rest, one's way, as a goat could do that, and much better than a man. I grant this as regards the goat, but deny the inference, because in order "to compass their pioselytes," and the wider to picking the way under difficult conditions does, I am convinced, disseminate their faith in all lands. They urged on greatly strain the attention and judgment. In simple algebra, king and peasant, the robber and murderer, that the I never used mental words. Latterly, for example, I had some world was but a passing show in which they should try common arithmetic series to sum, and worked them out not by to assuage the miseries of their fellows; that they the use of the formula, but by the process through which the is calculated, and that without the necessity of any should ponder less upon their gods and more on a gos- formula mental word. Let us suppose the question -was, how many pel of duty; and though this h d little immediate effect, strokes were struck by a clock in twelve hours (not counting the and on some never had any, yet it commended itself to half-hours), -then I should have written 1, 2 . . .; and below it, lightened the burdens of the weary. good men, and 12, 11, . . .; then 2 .... 13 X 12, then 13 X 6 — 78. Addi- tion, as De Morgan somewhere insisted, is far more swiftly done THOUGHT WITHOUT WORDS. by the eye alone; the tendency to use mental words should be F. Gal- The following correspondence between Mr. withstood. In simple geometry I always work with actual or

ton, Mr. George Romanes, the Duke of Argyll, etc., and mental lines; in fact, I fail to arrive at the full conviction that a Professor Max Midler on "Thought Without Words," problem is fairly taken in by me, unless I have contrived some- how to disembarrass it of words. is reprinted from Mature after careful revision Prof. Max Muller says that no one can think of a dog without I. LETTER FROM MR. F. GALTON, F.R.S. mentally using the word dog, or its equivalent in some other May 12, 1SS7. this as crucial test of the truth of his The recent work of Prof. Max Muller contains theories en language, and he offers a It utterly fails with me. thinking of a dog, the the descent of man which are entirely based on the assertion that theory. On disappears, I find myself mentally in that same not even the most rudimentary processes of true thought can be name at once and attitude in which I should be if I were told that a dog carried on without words. From this he argues that as man is expectant in an obscure part of the room or just coming round the the only truly speaking animal the constitution of his mind is was I clear visual image of a dog, but the sense separated from that of brutes by a wide gulf, which no process of corner. have no that itself into specified evolution that advanced by small steps could possibly stride over. of an ill-defined spot might shape any form of dog, and that might jump, fawn, snarl, bark, or do Now, if a single instance can be substantiated of a man thinking without words, all this anthropological theory, which includes anything else that a dog might do, but nothing else. I address the more ambitious part of his work, will necessarily collapse. myself in preparation for any act of the sort, just as when 442 THE OPEN COURT. standing before an antagonist in fencing I am ready to meet at least, that in a relatively small number of persons true thought anv thrust or feint, but exclude from my anticipation every is habitually carried on without the use of mental or spoken movement that falls without the province of fair fencing. words. Francis Galton. He gives another test of a more advanced mental process, II. LETTER FROM THE DUKE OF ARGYLL. namelv, that of thinking of the phrase "cogito, ergo sum" with- Argyll Lodge, Kensington, May 12, 1S87. out words. I addressed myself to the task at a time when I was I do not see that Prof. Max Miiller's theory of the insepara- not in a mood for introspection, and was bungling over it when bility of thought from language, whether true or erroneous, has I insensibly lapsed into thinking, not for the first time, whether any important bearing on the origin of man, whether by evolution the statement was true. After a little, I surprised myself hard or otherwise. It is a question at all events to be studied by itself, at thought in my usual way—that is, without a word passing and to be tested by such experiments as we can make by intro- through mv mind. I was alternately placing myself mentally spection, or by such facts as can be ascertained by outward ob- in the attitude of thinking, and then in that of being, and of servation. watching how much was common to the two processes. My own opinion is strongly in favor of the conclusion urged It is a serious drawback to me in writing, and still more in by Mr. F. Galton. It seems to me quite certain that we can and explaining myself, that I do not so easily think in words as do constantly think of things without thinking of any sound, or otherwise. It often happens that after being hard at work, and word, as designating them. Language seems to me to be neces- having arrived at results that are perfectly clear and satisfactory sary to the progress of thought, but not at all necessary to the to myself, when I try to express them in language I feel that I mere act of thinking. " It is a product of thought; an expression must begin by putting myself upon quite another intellectual of it;" a vehicle for the communication of it; a channel for the plane. I have to translate my thoughts into a language that conveyance of it; and an embodiment which is essential to its does not run very evenly with them. I therefore waste a vast growth and continuity. But it seems to me to be altogether erro- deal of time in seeking for appropriate words and phrases, and neous to represent it as any inseparable part of cogitation. Mon- am conscious, when required to speak on a sudden, of being keys and dogs are without true thought not because they are often verv obscure through mere verbal maladroitness, and not speechless; but they are speechless because they have no abstract through want of clearness of perception. This is one of the ideas, and no true reasoning powers. In parrots the power small annoyances of my life. I may add that often while of mere articulation exists sometimes in wr onderful perfection. engaged in thinking out something I catch an accompaniment But parrots are no cleverer than many other birds which have no of nonsense words, just as the notes of a song might accompany such power. thought. Also, that after I have made a mental step, the Man's vocal organs are correlated with his brain. Both are appropriate word frequently follows as an echo; as a rule, it equally mysterious because they are co-operative, and yet separ- does not accompany it. able, parts of one "plan." Argyll. Lastlv, I frequently employ nonsense words as temporary symbols, as the logical x and y of ordinary thought, which is a III. LETTER FROM MR. HYDE CLARKE. well be conceived, does not conduce to practice that, as may 32 St. George's Square, S. W., May 12, 28S7. for own experiences, clearness of exposition. So much my Having much of the same experience as Mr. Galton, I never- fatal to claim an invariable dependence which I hold to be that of theless prefer dealing with a larger group of facts. I have often Miiller between thoughts and words which Prof. Max postulates referred to the mutes of the seraglio at Constantinople, who can- as the ground of his anthopological theories. not be charged with thinking in words. They have their own As regards the habits of others, at the time when I was sign conversation among themselves, and which has no necessary inquiring into the statistics of mental imagery, I obtained some reference to words. Even the names of individuals are suppressed effect: " answers to the following I depend so much upon mental among themselves, though they sometimes use lip reading to an pictures that I think if I were to lose the power of seeing them outsider to make him understand a name. Any one having a I not able to think at all." There is an admirable should be knowledge of sign language is aware that it is independent of the before Binet, le little book published last year or year by Sur words. The tenses of verbs, etc., are supplied by gestures. Raisonnement, which is clear and solid, and deserves careful The mutes are not deficient in intelligence. They take a great three over. It contains pathological cases in reading two or times interest in politics, and have the earliest news. It is true this is which the very contingency of losing the power of seeing mental obtained by hearing, though they are supposed to be deaf-mutes, alluded to place. the pictures just has taken The book shows but among themselves everything is transmitted by signs. important part played by visual and motile as well as audile, Hyde Clarke. imaginations in the act of reasoning. This and much recent literature on the subject seems wholly unknown by Prof. Max IV. LETTER FROM MR. mellard reade.

Miiller, who has fallen into the common error of writers not long I think that all who are engaged in mechanical work and since, but which I hoped had now become obsolete, of believing planning will fully indorse what Mr. Francis Galton says as to that the minds of everyone else are like one's own. His apti- thought being unaccompanied by words in the mental processes tudes and linguistic pursuits are likely to render him peculiarly gone through. Having been all my life since school-days en- dependent on words, and the other literary philosophers whom gaged in the practice of architecture and civil engineering, I can he quotes in partial confirmation of his extreme views are likely assure Prof. Max Miiller that designing and invention are done

for the same cause, but in a less degree, to have been similarly entirely by mental pictures. It is, I find, the same with original dependent. Before a just knowledge can be attained concerning geological thought—words are only an incumbrance. For the

any faculty of the human race we must inquire into its distri- conveyance and accummulation of knowledge some sort of sym-

bution among all sorts and conditions of men, and on a large bols are required, but it appears to me that spoken language or scale, and not among those persons alone who belong to a highly written words are not absolutely necessary, as other means of specialized literary class. representing ideas could be contrived. In fact, words are in I have inquired myself so far as opportunities admitted, and many cases so cumbersome that other methods have been devised arrived at a result that contradicts the fundamental proposition for imparting knowledge. In mechanics the graphic method, for in the book before us, having ascertained, to my own satisfaction instance. T. Mellard Reade. —

THR O P R N CO IT RT. ii.;

V. LETTER FROM S. F. M. '). left, being told by our sergeant, "Them gentlemen as thinks will On reading Mr. Galton's letter, I cannot help asking how never do any good." I am not sure that what we call genius mav Prof. Max Miiller would account for early processes of thought not often be a manifestation of our purely animal nature —a sud- in a deaf-mute: does he deny them? S. F. M. Q. den tiger's spring rather than une longtte falience. VI. LETTER FROM PROF. MAX MULLER. It is different, however, with chess. A chess-player mav be All Souls' College, Oxford, May 15, 1887. very silent, but he deals all the time with thought-words or word- Dear Mr. Galton— I have to thank you for sending me the thoughts. How could it be otherwise? What would be the use letter which you published in Nature, and in which you discuss of all his foresight, of all his intuitive combination, if he did not the fundamental principle of my recent book on the Science of manipulate with king, queen, knights and castles? and what are Thought, the identity of language and reason. Yours is the kind all these but names, most artificial names, too, real agglomerates of criticism I like —honest, straightforward, to the point. I shall of ever so many carefully embedded facts or observations? try to answer your criticism in the same spirit. An animal may build like the beaver, shoot like the serpent, You say, and you say rightly, that if a single instance could fence like the cat, climb like the goat: but no animal can play be produced of a man reasoning without words, my whole system chess, and why? Because it has no words, and therefore no of philosophy would collapse ; and you go on to say that you your- thoughts for what we call king, queen and knights, names and self are such an instance—that you can reason without words. concepts which we combine and separate according to their con- So can I, and I have said so in several passages of mv book. tents—that is, according to what we ourselves or our ancestors

But what I call reasoning without words is no more than reason- have put into them. ing without pronouncing words. With you it seems to mean rea- You say, again, that in algebra, the most complicated phase soning without possessing words. What I call, with Leibniz, of thought, we do not use words. Nay, you go on to say that in symbolic, abbreviated, or hushed language, what savages call algebra " the tendency to use mental words should he withstood." No "speaking in the stomach," presupposes the former existence of doubt it should. The player on the pianoforte should likewise words. What you call thinking without words seems to be withstand the tendency of saying, now comes C, now comes D, intended for the thinking of beings, whether men or animals, that now comes E, before touching the keys. But how could there be possess as yet no words for what they are thinking. a tendency to use words, or, as you say in another place, "to dis- Now let us try to understand one another—that is to say, let embarrass ourselves of •words" if the words were not there? In us define the words we are using. We both use thinking in the algebra we are dealing not only with words but with words of sense of reasoning. But thinking has been used by Descartes words, and it is the highest excellence of language if it can thus and other philosophers in a much wider sense also, so as to include abbreviate itself more and more. If we had to pronounce every sensation, passions and intuitive judgments, which clearly require word we are thinking our progress would be extremely slow. As no words for their realization. It is necessary, therefore, to define it is, we can go through a whole train of thought without uttering what we mean by thinking before we trv to find out whether we a single word, because we have signs not only for single thoughts can think without words. In my book on the Science of Thought but for whole chains of thoughts. And yet, if we watch ourselves, I define thinking as addition and subtraction. That definition it is very curious that we can often feel the vocal chords and the may be right or wrong, but every writer has the right -nay, the muscles of the mouth moving as if we were speakinc; nay, we duty, I should say—to explain in what sense he intends to use know that during efforts of intense thought a word will some- certain technical terms. Though nowadays this is considered times break out against our will; it may be, as you say, a nonsense rather pedantic, I performed that duty on the very first page of word, yet a word which for some reason or other could not be my book, and it seems somewhat strange that a reviewer in the inhibited from presenting itself.

Academy should accuse me of not having defined what I mean by You say you have sometimes great difficulty in finding appro- thinking, for most reviewers look at least at the first page of a priate words for your thoughts. Who has not? But does that work which is given them to review. prove that thoughts can exist without words? Quite the contrary. Now, the cases which you mention of wordless thought are Thoughts for which we cannot find appropriate words are thoughts not thought at all in my sense of the word. I grant that animals expressed as yet by inappropriate, very often by very general, do a great deal of work by intuition, and that we do the same words. You see a thing and you do not know what it is, and nay, that we often do that kind of work far more quickly and far therefore are at a loss how to call it. There are people who call more perfectly than by reasoning. You say, for instance, that vou everything "that thing"—in French "chose"—because thev are take pleasure in mechanical contrivances, and if something does lazy thinkers and, therefore, clumsy speakers. But even "thing" not fit vou examine it, go to your tools, pick out the right one, set and "chose" are names. The more we distinguish, the better we to work and repair the defect often without a single word crossing can name. A good speaker and thinker will not say "that thing," your mind. No doubt you can do that. So can the beaver and " that person," "that man," "that soldier," "that officer," but he the bee. But neither the beaver nor the bee would say what will say at once "that lieutenant-general of fusiliers." He can you say, namely, that in doing this "you inhibit any mental word name appropriately because he knows correctly, but he knows from presenting itself." What does that mean if not that the nothing correctly or vaguely except in a string of names from mental words are there, the most complicated thought- words, such officer down to thing. Embryonic thought which never comes as tool, defect, fit, are there? only you do not pronounce them, as to the birth is not thought at all, but only the material out of little as you pronounce " two shillings and sixpence" when you which thought may spring. Nor can infant thought, which can- pay a cabman half-a-crown. not speak as yet, be called living thought, though the promise of

The same applies to what you say about billiards and fencing. thought is in it. The true life of thought begins when it is Neither cannoning nor fencing is thinking. The serpent coiling named, and has been received by baptism into the congregation itself and springing forward and shooting out its fangs does neither of living words. think nor speak. It sees, it feels, it acts; and, as I stated on p. 8 You say that "after you have made a mental step the appro- of my book, that kind of instantaneous and thoughtless action is propriate . word frequently follows as an echo; as a rule, it does not often far more successful than the slow results of reasoning. Well accompany it." I know very well what you mean. But only ask do I remember when I was passing through my drill as a volun- yourself what mental step you have made and you will see you teer, and sometimes had to think what was right and what was stand on words; more or less perfect and appropriate, true; but :

444 THE OPEN COURT. nevertheless, always words. You blame me for having ignored I think the first impetus to the ethical movement here was your labors, which were intended to show that the minds of every given by my friend Mr. J. Graham Brooks, of Brockton, Mass., one are not like one's own. You know that I took a great deal of when he was in England upwards of two years ago. Mr. Brooks interest in your researches. They represented to me what I made the name and writings of Mr. Salter, of Chicago, well known in a small circle in I also did should venture to call the dialectology of thought. But dialects London ; and my best to circulate the of thought do not affect the fundamental principles of thinking; lectures, copies of which Mr. Salter was good enough to send me and the identity of language and reason can hardly be treated as from time to time, and which contained, in my judgment, the kind a matter of idiosyncrasy. of teaching best adapted to the sociely of our own time. You also blame me for not having read a recent book by The little Ethical Society which has been established in Lon- Monsieur Binet. Dear Mr. Galton, as I grow older I find it the don is a small affair with modest pretensions. It has about thirty most difficult problem in the world what new books we may safely members, a very small income, and no local habitation. Its leave unread. Think of the number of old books which it is not most active members are young men who have accepted in its safe to leave unread; and yet, when I tell my friends that in order main principles the philosophy of the late Thomas H. Green, of to speak the lingua franca of philosophy they ought, at least, to Oxford, and some of whom were actually his pupils. This phi- read Kant, they shrug their shoulders and say they have no time, losophy, setting before each one of us the development of a good will as the to at, that this or, korribile dictu, that Kant is obsolete. I have, however, ordered thing be aimed declares good will can Binet, and shall hereafter quote him as an authority. But who is only be realized in a social life of self-conscious persons. Man's life, of nature, is an authority in these days of anarchy ? I quoted the two greatest though a part not merely natural; and hence authorities in Germany and England in support of my statement Darwinism, or any other merely naturalistic scheme of thought that the genealogical descent of man from any other known ani- can furnish no ethical basis for human action. For \ye act in the light ideal; our action is ethical or mal was as yet unproven, and I am told by my reviewer in the of an and non-ethical accord- Academy that such statements "deserve to be passed over in ing as it helps or hinders the realizing of that ideal. And that

respectful silence." If such descent were proved it would make ideal itself is an ideal for all ; cooperation among men is, there- no difference whatever to the science of thought. Man would fore, needful for its attainment. These, as I understand, are remain to me what he always has been, the perfect animal; the Green's main ethical principles; and though the Ethical Society animal would remain the stunted man. But why waste our acknowledges as such no special master, yet, as a matter of fact, thoughts on things that may be or may not be? One fact remains most of its members accept this philosophy which, as being anti- individualistic, is in accord with the social animals have no language. If, then, man cannot think—or, better, eminently tendencies of our time. cannot reason — without language, I think we are right in contend- ing that animals do not reason as man reasons, though for all we The Ethical Society thus states its principles: "The members of this society agree in believing that the moral and religious life know they may be all the better for it. Yours very truly, of man is capable of a rational justification and explanation. believe that there is at present great need (a) for the Francis Gallon, Esc/., F.Tc.S. F. Max Muller. They exposi- (THIS CORRESPONDENCE TO HE CONCLUDED IN NEXT ISSUE.) tion of the actual principles of social morality, generally acknowl- edged though imperfectly analyzed in current language, (i) for CORRESPONDENCE. presentation of the ideal of human progress, and (c) for the teach- ing of a reasoned out doctrine on the whole subject." The pros-

pectus further states that it will be "the duty of the society to use IN ENGLAND. THE ETHICAL MOVEMENT every endeavor to arouse the community at large to the import-

To I lie Editors : ance of testing every social, political and educational question, by In these days an increasing number of people in England feel moral and religious principles." The members also propose to ready to say with Emerson's devout friend, " On Sundays, it "organize systematic ethical instruction" by lectures at working- seems wicked to go to church." For if they go to church their men's clubs, cooperative societies, and in connection with the moral nature is shocked by the wholly conventional morality movement for the extension of university teaching. which is preached there. Respectability rather than goodness During the past winter a series of lectures under the auspices seems to be valued there. There is an absence of reality and of the society was given at Toynbee Hall, the University settle- enthusiasm in the affair; dull mediocrity in the pulpit addressing ment in the east of London. These lectures were given by differ- itself to genteel decorum in the pew. Ruskin once said that he had ent persons, but there was a general unity in the teaching pre- heard about two thousand sermons, and never in one of them a sented. Among the subjects were "Society as Organic," "Con- hint as to the conflict between God and mammon. How could science," " The Kingdom of Heaven upon Earth." These

there be? The preacher is, nine times out of ten, the paid servant lectures were attended by audiences varying from forty or fifty to of mammon who would be likely to dismiss him speedily if he one hundred persons, a portion of whom were workingmen. At

preached unpleasant truths. Now, the old theological heaven the close of the lecture any person is permitted to put a question

having lost its attractions and the old theological hell its terrors, on the subject under consideration, and a short discussion is and both having become as unreal to all intelligent people as Tar- invited. By this means difficult points are cleared up and vital tarus or the Elysian Fields; it follows necessarily that for any true questions more thoroughly pressed home. It is expected and teacher of men nothing is left but the dealing with the evils of hoped that next winter a lecture may be given every Sunday and actual life, the preaching of a higher social ideal, and the impe- that the work of the infant society may be somewhat extended.

rious command to men to leave all and follow that ideal. For By this opportunity thus afforded for moral culture, it is hoped reasons which I gave in a previous paper I am convinced that, in that those who feel the wickedness of going to church and who most cases, a Protestant preacher cannot, ipso facto, satisfy these have consequently nothing to do on Sundays, may have somp ethical demands of our time. And as there are others who hold kind of spiritual nutriment offered in place of orthodoxy's barren

the same view, it has come to pass that the ethical movement in husks. America has attracted some attention in this country; with the While thus stating briefly the avowed aims of the Ethical

result that last year an Ethical Society was founded in London, Society and the ideas under which it has been constituted, I must

which ha^ just issued its first report. add that I doubt whether, on its present lines, it will fill anything :

THE OPEN COURT. 445

at all like the positions which the various American societies skill or care. I fully agree with both your correspondents in occupy. The society is, in a word, too academic; at least that is the opinion that the proper object of human endeavor is the alle- my humble judgment. What is specially needed is a society viation of the common lot. All things and all men are import- which should unite cultured people with workingmen. Theoreti- ant or unimportant, estimable or the contrary, only as they pro- is in cally there nothing the constitution of the Ethical Society mote or hinder this supreme interest. I heartily congratulate in London, which forbids it accomplishing this practically it does Mr. Bate that ; we are now, at this late day, after ages of misdi- not do so. Our workingmen really need some strong ethical rected effort, face to face with the true and final problem—a more movement, for they have nothing at present but their trade unions just and scientific distribution of the results of human labor and their politics. (I speak of course of the better and more intel- —a better, safer and more interesting existence for the average ligent portion; with the residuum nothing at present can be done, man. Immense progress has been made in this direction during or indeed ever can be done until there is a revolution in their the last two centuries, and that progress is due to men who have physical surroundings). Secularism, which at its best is rather a wrought in a friendly spirit —men who have patiently discovered poor business, is somewhat played out. Socialism which has truth or skillfully applied old truth to new uses. The men of stepped into its place in and in parts of the of wrath London north Eng- and hate have not helped at all, and never will. It is the land, is not, as generally preached at the street corners, of a dis- good and compassionate persons who aid in this superlative and tinctly ethical stamp. And as on every side of them the workers never-ending task of making all men sharers in the best that see greed and self-interest the dominating forces, it is a wonder man possesses. to me that they are as upright as they are. From the churches As to cranks, they are of two kinds- -those made morbid bv they are almost entirely divorced, except in the case of Irish compassion for others, and those made morbid by an excessive for Catholics. Those institutions are their masters and their well- regard for themselves. A gigantic ego is the usual impelling dressed families, not for the working classes. There is, therefore! motive of the cranks that hate, denounce and destroy. These are a gap which an ethical society might usefully fill. But if such a the cranks to be feared and opposed. Not the other kind, the society is to do anything for the sad and weary toilers of modern noble crank, whose very errors often contain more wisdom than society, it must state and clearly the necessary implications of its be- the correct opinions of many whom they disturb and alarm. The lief. That is, it must put an end forever to the fatal divorce between Duke of Argyll may be a sounder political economist than Henry thought and action which is the great cause of our weakness. George, but the atom of regenerating truth in George will never The kind of truths, e. g., embodied in Mr. Salter's lecture on "The cease to operate until no duke, nor any other man, will own Social Ideal," mean, if carried into action, nothing less than a 20,000 acres of the common estate, and the duke's successor will complete sweeping revolution in our whole actual life, social, himself laugh at the preposterousness of such a distribution. industrial, political. These ideas are either meant to be carried James Parton. out, or they are merely so much empty verbiage. That is what GOETHE AND SCHILLER'S workmen whose minds are constantly in touch with realities XENIONS. the feel; and they are right in so feeling. A society, therefore, must To Editors

to-day act as well as speak. It must not only teach men to think In The Open Court of July :i there appeared an article rightly, but also to act courageously. The Church stands helpless entitled "Goethe and Schiller's Xenions." The author, Dr. Paul before the public criminal, before the grasping capitalist, the Carus, while making the article proper consist in translations of fraudulent speculator, the dishonest legislator. She cannot, dare and comments upon some of the distichs, begins by explaining not, denounce these men or the society which produces them, for the construction of the Latin distich upon which model many of of that society she is part and parcel. But an ethical society which them were written. In doing this he lays himself open to. the is based not on miraculous legends but on moral truth; which charge of incompetency. Passing such grammatical errors as the looks to the healing of the wounds of human life here and now substitution of the words meter and meters for foot and feet, we " and has no concern with golden streets and palm branches in come to the announcement that the hexameter is known to cloud-cuckoo land—such a society must do what the Church Americans from Longfellow's Evangeline" and that " the pen- refuses if it is effect. to do, to produce any adequate The more tameter consists of twice two and a half, i. e., five dactylic meters, its members chance to dislike the violent, anarchical agitation of which are separated by an incision. Instead of two short sylla- the modern revolutionist, the more strenuously should they strive bles there may always be one long syllable, with the exception of to head a moral, peaceful revolution. For it is nothing less than the fifth meter of the hexameter and the latter half of the pen- revolution in some shape which is at hand. The social, economic tameter."

and political forces, are all making in that direction ; and those To those who are equal to the task of understanding this may- men will render the greatest service to mankind who can mould it be submitted; to the student it is simple nonsense.

these forces in accordance with the loftiest ethical ideal. But it What does Dr. Carus mean by a pentameter being " sepa- that is to be done, speculation and action must go hand in hand; rated by an incision ? " and why has he not used the proper word nor must the college-bred man shrink in timid hesitation from the "caesura," which means "division," and not "incision," in speak- world of strife where the masses of the people are half uncon- ing of that separation? And why has he, as a crowning error, sciously trying to work out in their necessarily rude methods the omitted to speak of the caesura, which divides the hexameter? greatest social transformation the world has ever known. I am This glaring mistake would be enough in itself to prove his lack induced to offer this criticism because I do not think the excellent of knowledge upon the subject which he essays to treat; and an leaders of the London Ethical Society at present fully realize the examination of his "schedule " of the distich reveals no ca?sura implications of their own doctrines. William Clarke. in the hexameter. Explanations of verse construction are not difficult, but to one who, like Dr. Carus, has not thoroughly qual- JAMES PARTON ON LABOR CRANKS AGAIN. ified himself great difficulties are presented. He is like one who To Hie Editors: Newburyport, Mass., Sept. 9, 18S7. tries to explain the laws which govern mathematics without that I regret to see by the communications of Mr. A. Bate and knowledge of terms which is necessary in order to make himself Mr. J. B. Barnhill that I did not succeed in conveying my mean- understood. ing and intent in an article published in The Open Court upon Of his translations it may be said that they reveal a disposi- "Labor Cranks." I must attribute this wholly to my want of tion to make hexameters whether the original lines are hexametric : ::

II" THR OPEN COURT. or not, and of course faithfulness to the text must be to some ^Sly translation is (the accentuation is intentionally wrong in degree sacrificed as a result. Comparison of the originals of the both versions) first and thirteenth of the distichs, as well as the one addressed to In Weimar and' in Je' na they make' Hexame' ters like this' one. the Muse, with their translations, will show clearly that great But' the Pen' tameters' Are' even queer'er than this'. liberty has been taken with them. And lastly it may be said The original of the thirteenth distich is: that a thorough knowledge of two languages is a qualification Jeder, nimmst du ihn einzeln, ist leidlich klug und verstiindig, necessary to insure correct and worthy translation of literature, Aber in corpore gleich Wird euch ein Dummkopf daraus. whether in the form of yerse or prose. That the former is the more I translate difficult goes without saying, and Dr. Cams in attempting this Every one of them, singly considered, is sensible, doubtless. has shown most clearly y lack of that qualification. But in a body the whole Number of them is an ass. W. F. Barnard. Here I confess guilty having translated Dummkopf with ass. Not every ass is necessarily a Dummkopf.

The distich addressed to the Muse is in German : DR. CARUS' REPLY. Was ich ohne Dich ware, ich weiss es nicht! Aber ich schaudre Mr. Barnard speaks of my "explaining the Latin distich." Seh' ich was ohne Dich Hundert und Tausende sind.

I said "the Xenions are imitations of a Roman poet's verses," I translate from which statement Mr. Barnard apparently draws his wrong How I could live without thee, I know not. But horror o'er- conclusion. The distich is as little Latin as it is German or En- takes me glish, it is Greek. Seeing these thousands and more Who without thee can

I say that the hexameter consists of six and the pentameter exist. of fiye meters. This is so true that it is a tautology. Mr. Barnard Mr. Barnard is welcome to furnish more literal and better ^avs, it is "a grammatical (!) error." According to him f should translations. If he deems that task too easy, he may translate say, " the hexameter has six feet" Why, then did the Greek not the following distich into Latin or German: call it ffdiroi'f (six-foot)? They called it ffauerpoc (six-meter). Barnard my scurrilous critic reveals a grotesque disposition. Incidentally a dactylic meter consists of one foot, but other Badly to libel himself, while he his neighbor reviles. meters, as the iambic, consist of two feet. This simple fact ex- If Mr. Barnard had known before, how little he knew of the plains why the inaccurate and sloven expression "foot " should subject, I do not doubt, he would have used more decent lan- not be used for the correct term "meter." guage, if he had spoken at all. An old Latin proverb savs: Although the pentameter consists of twice two and a half O si tacuisses, philosophus mansisses. meters, its name pentameter is a misnomer. I should take pleas- Dr. Paul Carus. ure in explaining this puzzle, but it would lead me too far now. Mr. Barnard asks why I did not use the proper term ccesura. BOOK REVIEWS. I did not use it because I wanted to avoid the Latin and Greek terminology. Facts and Fictions of Mental Healing. By Charles M. Mr. Barnard declares that I "as a crowning error omitted to Barrows, author of Bread Pills, a Study of Mind Cure. speak of ///*' ca:sura which divides the hexameter." also He Boston: H. H. Carter & Karrick, 1SS7. Cloth, pp. 248. blames me for having omitted it in the schedule. Let me state Price $1.25. that the hexameter can have many different caesuras (e. g. Kara The hold which psychological investigation or "Mental -,imv -<;,.-y,n,,i, Tn-ih/iii/itr)/-, iH(h/!it/

I advise Mr. Barnard to consult the English dictionaries before The work before us, written from the standpoint of a believer he writes. He will find that the division of the House of in the reality of many of the cures said to be effected by "Mental

Congress is no cutting it assunder like a piece of wood. How- Healers," is one of the most interesting we have seen on the subject. ever, the ciesura is a cutting of the verse. It is written in a style so clear, sensible, earnest and vigorous

I stated in my article that the two halves of the pentameter that whatever one may believe on the matter the attention is are separated by an incision. Mr. Barnard makes of it: "The held from beginning to end. Mr. Barrows, we understand, has pentameter is separated by an incision," and then asks what that had exceptional opportunities in his own family circle for study- nonsense means. , I do not know how the pentameter itself can ing the methods and phenomena of what he appropriately terms be separated. Mr. Barnard must first state from what, but can by "psychopathy," and has for several years in the spirit of sincere no means make me answerable for it's distortion of my sentence. impartial inquiry read all the pros and cons, and investigated Mr. Barnard says, that "my translations reveal a disposition personally many of the alleged "mind cures" effected by to make hexameters, whether the original lines are hexametric (!) "Christian Scientists," "Metaphysicians," " Mental Hearers," etc., or not." The original lines are not simply hexametric, they are and apparently has come to the conclusion that in many cases distichs and so are my translations. The term hexametric can real cures are effected by a force in nature which has not yet been not well be applied to the pentameters. sufficiently investigated to be rightly understood or made use of.

If Mr. Barnard really made an attempt at comparing the two He says: "The day is not far distant, let us hope, when a repu- versions, he betrays that his knowledge of German does not sur- table doctor may elect to employ mental treatment instead of pass his knowledge of Latin. prescribing a drug, and not lose caste." In this work the author The original of the first distich is: gives a comprehensive risumi of the history of mental healing, In' Weimar und' in Je' na macht' man Hexa' meter wie' der. and in doing so goes much further back in time than many readers A'ber die Pen' tameter' Sind' doch noch ex' cellenter'. would expect. He quotes from many authorities both for and THE OPEN COURT. 447 against the practice, and nowhere emphasizes his own particular at the same time open to new ideas; the weak side of Kant's cate- views, but gives what he thinks impartial evidence and leaves the goric imperative is not hidden from his critical eye although he reader to draw his own conclusions. He treats the subject in a is not lacking in appreciation of the great thinker of Koenigsberg. philosophical as well as historical manner, devoting one chapter Sigwart carefully considers the claims of a happiness theory to a consideration of the Brahminic philosophy, and another to in ethics and although in the end he does not accept it, it never- Emerson's idealism, considering both as having relation to the theless serves to moderate the rigidity of his traditional altruism. more spiritual aspects of his theme, and illustrates his points He concludes his essay with these words: often with pertinent and charming quotations from the best poets. "The satisfaction which can be equally realised by all men must be found ultimately in the certainty of purpose which lies Christian Science pamphlets, containing addresses by beyond individual consciousness and its limits. This purpose is Emma Hopkins, Ursula Gestefield and Mrs. M. Phelon, have to work for humanity and the universe in order to appreciate one's been received, all substantially agreeing in their views. Of own value as the bearer of a higher idea and the executor of a "Christian Science" Mrs. Hopkins says, we see the lion and the divine will. Here ethics and metaphysics meet." lamb lie down together, when science, the sworn enemy of The contrary path has been pursued by Mr. Lighthall. He past, religion, religion in the and stern persecutor of science in all started from utilitarianism and found it insufficient as a solid ages, are yoked together as fellow-workers in a common cause, ethical foundation. In the search for supplying this deficiency he by calling each the explanation and defense of the other, and bv went to the ancient as well as to the German philosophers and each claiming to be the enlightener and saviour of humanity. found what he wanted. The result of his search is what he calls Ursula N. Gestefield declares that "Christian Science" means " a new utilitarianism " —a utilitarianism in which he gets rid of vastly more than a new and improved method of healing the hedonism and the theory that an exclusive personal happiness is sick. It does not simply mean the cure of disease in others by and must be the only spring of man's actions. His utilitarianism the use of something which one has been taught. It means has broadened into altruism. He concludes with the famous dic- self-conquest, spiritual growth and development ; and through this tum of the philosopher on the Roman throne- Aurelius: "Con- self-conquest, growth and development, which are the result stantly regard the universe as one living being, having one sub- of the understanding of what he is aiming at, he becomes stance and one soul ; and observe how all things have reference that which enables him both to prevent and overcome all forms to one perception —the perception of this one living being; and of Buffering; and Mrs. Phelon feels sure that disease only came how all things act with one movement." P. c. " " with man's fall" and consequent knowledge of good and evil ; if man knew not evil," she oracularly says, " but thought only good, The Monk's Wedding. Boston: Cupples & Hurd. his mentality, latent or active, nould never produce disease or This novel, which comes to us in the most alluring type and suffering upon himself or others." paper, the daintiest of binding, for summer reading, is translated by Miss Sarah Adams, from the German of Conrad Ferdinand Among other literature on the subject recently received by us Meyer. It is a tragic story of med:vval times, purporting to be is a little book, price 50 cents, written by L. P. Mercer and told by Dante to a princely group of listeners around the hearth published bv C. II. Kerr & Co., of this city, entitled The Net*) of a Noble in Verona. It is told in modern style and with a dig- /Hr///, with a chapter on "Mind Cure," which is written from " nitv quite in keeping with the " mingled seriousness and disdain the Swedenborgian standpoint. Mr. Mercer remarks of the made to characterize the narrator, and the novel is full of all the "Physical Wave," of which "Mind Cure" is one of the devel- tragic elements of that boisterous period. The hero of the story, opments that "there are epochs marked by the influx of new as the title indicates, is a monk. He has been from childhood forces, giving new impulses to popular thought and accompanied restrained by his vows to a life so blameless as to be proverbial with revelation of new truths as to the material of thought. Not for its saintliness. When for reasons of family policy he is oscillations of thought, but advances to new platforms and released from these monastic vows, the reaction is so violent and standpoints. A characteristic of our time is the vague conscious- immediate that his passion overrides all law and all intention ot ness of such a beginning. * * * It means that the Lord will conduct and he becomes a victim to the wildest and most disas- have a new church and a new religion. The time is come and the trous impulses. There is material enough for a much longer forces are set in motion. The new church [i. e. Swedenborgian]

story and tragedy enough for those murderous Italian times ; and stands unmoved in the midst of all these fluctuations. * * * if other stories told by the friends who were gathered around that She expects these movements before they occur. She knows the Verona fireside for evening entertainment, were as bristling with meaning of them before they mature." events and daggers as Dante's was, the guests must have all Yorfragen der Ethik. By Dr. Christoph Sigwart. Freiburg needed the stirrup cup before they separated for sleeping. im B. 1S86. Sketch of a New Utilitarianism. By W. Don.. Lighthall, The Scientific Basis of Progress, including that of Morality.

.1/. A., B. C. L. By G. Gore, I.L. D., /•". R. S., author of Tiie Art of Scien-

Two pamphlets on ethical subjects lie before me. One from tific Discovery, The Principles and Practice of Electro-deposition, the Old World, the other from the New, the one written byacorv- The Art of Eiectro-Mctallur±!\\ etc. London and Edinburgh : pheus of German philosophy, viz., a well-known professor of the Williams & Norgate; pp. 21S. old University of Tubingen, the other by an American, who is The aim of this work is to show that the essential starting not as far as I know, a philosopher by profession but only from point of human progress lies in scientific discovery, that new- inclination. Each so different in character and education, start- truths are evolved by original research made in accordance with ing from quite contrary principles finally agrees with the other scientific methods, to illustrate these processes by examples and and fundamentally they teach the same ethics—Sigwart, the to point out how such research can be encouraged. The greatest scholar of Nestor-like wisdom, carefully weighing all pros and obstacle to the discovery of new knowledge the author declares cons, Lighthall, the confident and aspiring American, boldly to be the wide-spread ignorance of the dependence of human soaring to loftier heights and thus amplifying his horizon. welfare upon scientific research, of the vast importance ot new

Sigwart is imbued with the spirit and tendencies of the accu- truth as a fundamental source of progress. As advance origi- mulated religious and philosophic thought of humanity, but he is nates in new knowledge, unless new discoveries are made, new — :

44§ THE OPEN COURT.

inventions and improvements must sooner or later cease. A is very interesting and undoubtedly the magic of color lends it a chapter is devoted to showing the importance of new scientific wonderful charm. Margaret Bertha Wright gives a pleasant little knowledge as a source of mental and moral advancement. sketch of Normandy, " The Artists' Country." The technical Dr. Gore shows not only large acquaintance with science, but and decorative articles are good as usual. We are shocked to find philosophic insight and breadth and comprehensiveness of thought. the Amateur allowing the use of the word phenomenal in its pres- The work is one which should be read by all those who, under ent slang meaning. " His success was phenomenal," how absurd!

the influence of theological and metaphysical theories and We think he would have preferred that it should be real. methods, are unable to see the intimate relation between scientific and moral progress. The Revue de Belgique for August, begins with an article by Count Goblet d'Alviella, on the reorganization of Belgian Review of the Evidences of Christianity. By Abner Knee- liberals. There is also the first essay of a series giving a minute account of the revolution in Brabant in 1790. Much more general land. Boston : P. Mendum, Investigator office, 1S87 204. J. ; pp. Abner Kneeland was for a number of years a Universalist interest will be excited by a very able review of Taine's History of the French proved guilty not minister, recognized in his denomination as one of its rrlost learned Revolution. The famous author is representatives. But he changed his views and more than half a only of contradicting himself frequently, but of omitting to men- century ago was a figure of considerable prominence owing to his tion many of the best 'acts of the Convention, for instance, the as outspoken opposition to all forms of supernaturalism. He founded establishment of a uniform system of weights and measures, well as of schools. progressive and the Boston Investigator and was its first editor. He was tried for normal and polvtechnic All liberal it is great pity " blasphemy," convicted and sentenced to two months imprison- movements have so much in common that a to the French ment in Leverett street jail, Boston. The specific charge was that see public opinion in America and England, about he had expressed disbelief in the existence of a God. He was Revolution, molded into reactionary channels by that excessive admitted by his prosecutors and persecutors to be a man of fondness for finding fault which mars the otherwise brilliant work upright life and of many noble traits of character. ofhothTaine and Carlyle. We are reminded of these facts by this volume, the tenth This story, which appeared a few months ago in an English edition of a course of lectures given in New York by Mr. Kneeland journal, is heartily at both sides the in 1829. The lectures were drawn chiefly from a series of essays laughed on of Tweed Long ago a dreadful war was between the of which appeared in the fifth volume of the Correspondent, a radi- waged King Cornwall and the King of Scotland, in which the latter pre- cal freethought journal published in New York." Mr. Kneeland vailed. The Scottish king, highly elated by his success, sent for refers to the author of the articles, who wrote over the pseudonym his Prime Minister, Lord Alexander. " Philo Veritas," as " my learned friend." The author, if we mis- Weel, Sandy," said he, " is there ne'er a king we canna con- quer the noo?" [now.] take not, was Professor Thomas Cooper, of Columbia College, " An' it plase Yer Majesty, I ken but o' a'e king that Yer S. C, a man of ability and learning and of great vigor expres- of Majesty canna conquer." sion, who wrote on scientific, political and theological themes "And wham is he, Sandy?" with equal readiness and zeal. The lectures contain many facts, Lord Alexander, reverently looking up, said: "The King of Heeven." citations and references and much sound argument in regard to "The King of whaur, Sandy?" Christianity" historically considered, but it would be strange if " The King of Heeven." after more than fifty years of research and discussion, more accu- The Scotch King did not understand, but was unwilling to rate and valuable treatises on the same subject had not appeared. show any ignorance. "Just gang yer ways, Sandy, and tell the King of Heeven to give up his dominions, or I'll come mysel' and ding him o' them, The Bible: is It? What By J.D.Sliaiv. Waco, Texas; pp.49. and mond, Sandy, ye do not come back till us until ye have done Price 25 cents. our biddin'." Lord Alexander retired, much perplexed, but met a priest, The Divinity of Christ. By J. D. Shazr; pp. 49. Price 2ocents. the sight of whom put a thought into his head which reassured In these pamphlets, Mr. Shaw, formerly a Methodist minister him, and he returned and presented himself before the throne. of some prominence, now editor of a liberal monthly, The Inde- "Weel, Sandy," said the King, "have ye seen the King of pendent Pulpit, discusses the fundamental claims of orthodox Heeven, and what says he to our biddin'?" " it himsel', Christianity. The author attempts no original criticism, but he An' plase Yer Majesty, I ha'e no seen the King but I ha'e seen one of his accredited meenisters." presents some of the objections to the popular belief as to the " Well, what says he?" authority and infallibility of the Scriptures in a concise and forci- " He says Yer Majesty mav e'en ha'e his kingdom for the ble manner and in a temperate spirit. asking o' it." "Was he saeceevil?" said the King, warmed to magnanimity. The Art Amateur fitly ushers in the golden month of Sep- "Just gang yer ways back. Sandy, and tell the King o' Heeven that for his civility, nae Scotchman shall ever set foot in his tember by an excellent simile in color from fac a painting of kingdom!" Chrysanthemums by Victor Dargon. The little head, intended for a plaque by Ellen Welby, is too naive and pretty to be copied PRESS NOTICES. and distorted by all manner of fault in the workmanship of young We have on our table a copy of The Open Cockt, a new scientific relig- amateurs. The reading matter is rather largely commercial, occu- ious semi-monthly journal, published at Chicago, 111. It is rilled with interest- pied more with the sale of pictures than their production. We ing articles from the pens of the best writers in the countiv. Battle Lake (Minn.) Review. find, however, a pleasant sketch with a portrait of a young Penn- The Open Coukt, a fortnightly journal published in Chicago and sylvania artist, Wm. Anderson Coffin, and some notes of his "devoted to establishing ethics and religion upon a scientific basis," has recollections of Bonnat's Life School. Those young students who reiched our table. It has a list of able writers and discusses live topics of the think themselves neglected if a teacher is not always at their day. We hope it will continue to come to us. — Cameron (Mo.) Observer. elbow, will be surprised to find that he thought three weeks a very We are in receipt of a copy of The Open Coukt, a journal published at reasonable interval between his visits. Three weeks," he 175 La Salle street, Chicago, 111., every other week, and is devoted to the work of establishing ethics and religion upon a scientific basis. find that the laughed, "oh, that is nothing, sometimes le Pere Coynet did not We journal possesses no little amount of common sense and sound logic, and that come for a year." The picture of " Salome," by Henri Regnault, it contains contributions of many of the ablest thinkers of this age. — Tustin is far from attractive in black and white, but the description of it (Mich.) Echo.