FINAL REPORT ASSESSMENT OF LOW-COST PRIVATE SCHOOLS IN FtF/RING II

DISTRICTS IN NORTHERN GHANA

November 11, 2019 This report was produced for review by the United States Agency for International Development. It was prepared by the USAID/WA ASSESS Project.

FINAL REPORT ASSESSMENT OF LOW-COST PRIVATE SCHOOLS (LCPSs) IN THE FEED THE FUTURE (FtF) /RESILIENCY IN NORTHERN GHANA (RING II) DISTRICTS IN NORTHERN GHANA

Prepared by: USAID/WA Analytical Support Services and Evaluations for Sustainable Systems (ASSESS)

Submitted by: Mr. Fedelis Dadzie, Chief of Party, USAID/WA ASSESS

Team of Experts: Dr. Leslie Casely-Hayford, Team Leader

Dr. Samuel Awinkene Atintono, EGRA/EGMA Learning Specialist

Mrs. Millicent Kaleem, Private Sector Specialist

Mr. Jones Agyapong Frimpong, Data Collection and Analysis Expert

DISCLAIMER The authors’ views expressed in this publication do not necessarily reflect the views of the United States Agency for International Development or the United States Government.

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CONTENTS

CONTENTS iii

TABLES v FIGURES v

ACRONYMS vi

EXECUTIVE SUMMARY 1 1.0 BACKGROUND AND PURPOSE 5 1.1 BACKGROUND 5 1.2 PURPOSE 5 2.0 METHODOLOGY 7 2.1 GENERAL ASSESSMENT APPROACH 7 2.2 LIMITATIONS 9 3.0 KEY FINDINGS 11 3.1 SUPPLY AND DEMAND TRENDS FOR LCPSs IN NORTHERN GHANA 11 3.1.1 Supply Trends 11 3.1.2 Demand Trends 13 3.2 EFFECTIVENESS OF LCPSs IN THE FTF/RING II DISTRICTS 16 3.2.1 Management and Leadership of LCPSs 16 3.2.2 Business Model and Sustainability of LCPSs 19 3.2.2.1 Business Models 19 3.2.2.2 Sustainability of LCPSs 24 3.2.3 Infrastructure 26 3.2.4 Learning Achievement 27 4.0 CONCLUSION 30 5.0 RECOMMENDATIONS 32

BIBLIOGRAPHY 35

ANNEXES 38 ANNEX 1: SOW Assessment of Low-Cost Private Schools (LCPSs) in Feed the Future (FtF)/Resiliency in Northern Ghana (RING) II Districts in Northern Ghana 38 ANNEX 2: List of Sampled Low-Cost Private Schools 50 ANNEX 3: Survey Instruments 53

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ANNEX 4: Enrollment 55 ANNEX 5: Locality and Waiting List 58 ANNEX 6: Excerpts from the FGDS 59 ANNEX 7: Correlational Analysis on School-Level Policies 62 ANNEX 8: Primary Pupil-Trained Teacher Ratio 63 ANNEX 9: Other Determinants of LCPS Participation and Demand 64 ANNEX 10. Proportion of Schools with Adequate Facilities by Region and District 69 ANNEX 11. EGRA and EGMA Distribution 70 ANNEX 12: Business Annexes 82 ANNEX 13: Samples Achieved 90

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TABLES Table 1: Annual school fee threshold used to identify low-cost private schools ...... 7 Table 2: Supply of LCPSs in the 17 districts ...... 11 Table 3 : Kindergarten and primary enrollment trends in the 17FTF/RING II districts ...... 14 Table 4: Enrollment within sampled households (children ages 6-11 years) ...... 14 Table 5: Educational Level of Household Head and School Preference ...... 15 Table 6: LCPS Teaching Staff Qualifications ...... 18 Table 7: Monthly Average Salaries of Teachers by Educational level ...... 21 Table 8: LCPS enrollment level and average revenue (GHS) per student per term ...... 22 Table 9: Average Annual Profitability Margins for LCPSs ...... 23 Table 10: Business advisory services fee range ...... 25 Table 11: Business service providers that assist LCPSs with services ...... 25 Table 12: EGRA zero scores for public schools and LCPSs ...... 28 Table 13: EGMA zero scores for LCPSs and public schools ...... 28

FIGURES Figure 1: Number of LCPSs established in the 17 target districts ...... 12 Figure 2: Average percent change in the number of public and private primary schools from 2013–2018 ...... 12 Figure 3: LCPS proprietors’ responses on beneficiaries of LCPSs ...... 13 Figure 4: Perceived child academic performance by school type ...... 15 Figure 5: LCPSs with Waiting Lists by Locality ...... 16 Figure 6: Management Structure of LCPSs ...... 16 Figure 7: Supervision and Management Practices ...... 17 Figure 8: School Level Policies ...... 18 Figure 9: Business Registration ...... 20 Figure 10: Cost structure of LCPSs ...... 21 Figure 11: Sources of Revenue for LCPSs ...... 22 Figure 12: LCPS business stage by locality ...... 23 Figure 13: Profitability of LCPSs by location ...... 24

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ACRONYMS BAC Business Advisory Centers CDCS Country Development Cooperation Strategy CSO Civil Society Organizations CTR Class Teacher Ratio DEO District Education Officer EG Economic Growth EGMA Early Grade Mathematics Assessment EGRA Early Grade Reading Assessment EMIS Education Management Information System ESPR Education Sector Progress Report FGD Focus Group Discussion FtF Feed the Future GES Ghana Education Service GLSS Ghana Living Standard Survey GNAPS Ghana National Association of Private Schools HND Higher National Diploma JHS Junior High School KG Kindergarten KII Key Informant Interviews LCPS Low-Cost Private School LCPSs Low-Cost Private Schools MIS Management Information Systems MoE Ministry of Education NBSSI National Board for Small Scale Industries NEAU National Education Assessment Unit NGO Non-Governmental Organization NPM Net Profit Margin PSG Parent Support Group PTA Parent Teacher Association P2 Primary 2 PTR Pupil-Teacher Ratio

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PTTR Pupil-Trained-Teacher Ratio RING Resilience in Northern Ghana SHS Senior High School SMC School Management Committees SSA Sub-Saharan Africa SSCE Senior Secondary School Certificate Examination TLM Teaching and Learning Materials UNESCO United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization USAID United States Agency for International Development VSLA Village Savings and Loan Association

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EXECUTIVE SUMMARY

Low-Cost Private Schools (LCPSs) are emerging as a viable option in countries that cannot meet the demand for quality primary education (IDP Foundation, 2016). Global evidence from the World Bank suggests there is a growing surge of private, low-cost schooling, particularly in low-income countries, evidenced in the doubling of pupil enrollment from 11 percent to 22 percent (World Bank 2015). In Ghana, despite rapid expansion in access to basic education over the last 20 years, the goal of providing every Ghanaian child with quality basic education poses a significant challenge. This is due primarily to poor quality instruction, low time on task, and the inability of government to deploy trained teachers to remote areas of the country. Studies over the last 20 years have shown poor learning efficiency, poor management accountability, high absenteeism, and low teacher time on task as the main challenges facing Ghana’s education system (World Bank, 2018; 2010).

Within the Ghanaian context, LCPSs have emerged as a viable model to provide schooling options for working-class and marginalized families that desire a higher quality education for their children but cannot afford medium and higher-cost private education.

The LCPSs Assessment in Northern Ghana investigated the supply and demand trends of LCPSs across 17 districts targeted for inclusion in the Feed the Future and Resiliency in Northern Ghana II (FtF/RING II) program1 The study aimed at informing USAID/Ghana’s Country Development Cooperation Strategy (CDCS) 2020-2025 with a specific focus on addressing the empowerment of marginalized populations, improving the equitable delivery of quality education services, and supporting private sector growth in impoverished areas of northern Ghana where USAID/Ghana’s Economic Growth (EG) project is active. The assessment questions included the following: 1. What are the supply and demand trends for LCPSs in northern Ghana, with a focus on the 17 FtF and RING II districts?

2. How effective are the LCPSs in the FtF/RING II districts in terms of management, leadership, business model and sustainability, infrastructure, and learning achievement?

3. What cost-effective assistance could help LCPSs in the FtF/RING II districts improve their business models and significantly expand enrollment of marginalized school-age children from the communities they serve?

The study used a mixed-method approach—i.e., a mix of quantitative and qualitative methods—to address the assessment questions. It analyzed data from primary and secondary sources. The assessment included interviews with proprietors, headteachers, teachers, and pupils in 51 LCPSs operating across 17 districts. The study assessed the effectiveness of learning outcomes by conducting the Early Grade Reading Assessment (EGRA) and Early Grade Mathematics Assessment (EGMA) at Primary 2 (P2) level in four schools each in 10 of the 17 districts.2 Household surveys were administered to 521 parents, which included those participating in low-cost private schooling as well as parents not participating in low-cost private schooling. Thirty-two focus group discussions (FGDs) were conducted, covering over 320 community members/parents. Sixteen FGDs were in USAID-supported ADVANCE communities3

1 The 17 districts included: Gushegu, Karaga, Mion, Nanton, Sagnarigu, Yendi Municipal, East Mamprusi, Mamprugu Moagduri, Bawku Municipal, Bawku West, Garu, Tempane, Daffiama-Bussie-Issa, Nadowli-Kaleo, Sissala East, Sissala West and Wa East. 2 The decision to conduct the EGRA/EGMA assessment in 10 out of the 17 districts was a result of the limited time available to conduct the survey before schools closed for a long vacation. 3 Agricultural Development and Value Chain Enhancement (ADVANCE) is a USAID funded project to transform Northern Ghana’s agricultural sector in maize, rice, and soybean to achieve a greater level of food security by increasing competitiveness in the domestic markets. The beneficiary communities are referred to in this study as ‘ADVANCE Communities’

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where most parents sent their children to public primary schools. Another16 FGDs were in communities participating in LCPSs, which were at least a one-hour distance from the district capital.

Key Findings and Conclusions Supply of LCPSs: An estimated 64 percent of private schools in the target districts are LCPSs with a 17 percent annual growth rate from 1986 to 2019 in the target districts. A five-year analysis of secondary data from the MoE/GES EMIS from the 2013/2014 to 2017/2018 academic years reveals that on average private schools in the 17 target districts grew by 36 percent over those five years compared to a 13 percent growth in public schools over the same period. Eighty percent of LCPS proprietors started their schools primarily because of their interest in education. Secondarily, they wanted to provide a viable alternative to public schools. Ninety-two percent reported that children enrolled in their schools were primarily from farming and households engaged in trading.

Demand for LCPSs: While enrollment in both public and private schools is progressing steadily, enrollment rates in private schools far outweighs those of public schools. Over the last eight years, annual enrollment for private and public schools increased by 19 percent and four percent respectively. The percentage of parents who perceive their children’s performance as ‘good’ is higher in LCPS households (86 percent) than in non-LCPS4 households (70 percent). Household heads with secondary education or higher are nearly three times more likely to have their children in LCPSs (35 percent) than public schools (12 percent). Forty-three percent of LCPSs have waiting lists, with more than 86 percent of proprietors rating the demand for their schools as medium5 (45 percent) to high (41 percent). LCPS proprietors attributed demand for private schools to high academic performance among its pupils (34 percent), affordability (24 percent), and the schools’ discipline and higher teacher standards (19 percent).

Effectiveness of LCPSs in the FtF/Ring II districts in terms of management, leadership, business model and sustainability, infrastructure, and learning achievement: LCPS proprietors (88 percent) are involved in the day-to-day management of their schools—i.e., in human resources management as well as administrative and operational duties. Although all 51 LCPSs surveyed had Parent Teacher Associations (PTAs), none had an independent board of directors. Approximately 65 percent of proprietors said they make management decisions in consultation with their PTAs. PTAs also assist in raising funds, particularly regarding infrastructure and feeding.

Proprietors (80 percent) take multiple measures to achieve maximum teacher supervision, including daily monitoring of classroom work and the use of attendance records. Additionally, 33 percent of proprietors use strategies, including salary deductions, for any days missed without permission. These measures help proprietors maximize teacher-pupil contact hours and strengthen discipline within the school.

Proprietors reported that almost eight out of 10 teachers lacked the minimum GES qualification (having the Teaching Certificate A or Diploma in Education). Per GES policy, at least 30 percent of teachers in a LCPS must be trained teachers—a requirement LCPS proprietors struggle to adhere to in their quest to keep costs low. In an attempt to compensate, eighty-seven percent of LCPS proprietors, therefore, organize in-service training to build the capacity of their teachers.

The LCPS business model in the target districts is characterized by:

4 They are participating in the public education system but not in the LCPS system. 5 Schools were rated as having medium demand if the school had a waiting list of 10 - 20 pupils and were classified as having high demand if the school had more than 20 children awaiting admission. Low demand schools were defined as having a waiting list less than 10 pupils.

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• Seventy percent are registered as sole proprietorships (Average NPM of 22 percent), six percent as limited liabilities (Average NPM of 11 percent), and two percent as partnerships (Average NPM of 58 percent). The remaining schools are non-profit: community-based schools (11 percent) and faith-based schools (11 percent).

• The majority (76 percent) of LCPSs own their school infrastructure, 13 percent operate from rented premises, and 11 percent operate from premises owned by extended family.

• LCPSs generate an estimated 87 percent of their income from a combination of tuition (41 percent), school feeding (24 percent), and extra classes (22 percent). The remaining 13 percent of revenue is through the sale of books, transportation, and charges for late child pick-up.

• The majority of teachers interviewed (72 percent) in LCPSs are senior secondary school certificate examinations/senior high school (SSCE/SHS) graduates, earning lower wages (GHC 1506 monthly) than degree and higher national diploma (HND) holders, who earn on average GHS 358 monthly. This strategy allows proprietors to charge lower tuition rates, which benefits parents who otherwise cannot afford private education. This study included interviews with 53 of the 527 teachers working in the 51 sampled schools.

• The primary mode of advertisement (90 percent) is referrals—mostly from parents and teachers who cite high levels of pupil performance.

To sustain operations, proprietors conduct extra classes, provide feeding services, and adopt other methods such as flexible payment structures (by the term/monthly, etc.) to improve cash flow. Twenty- six percent of proprietors also had other school branches. These multi-branch LCPSs are more profitable because they can produce a diversity of revenue streams as a result of operating in different economic contexts.7 Ninety-six percent of LCPSs consider business development services important. However, these services are not readily available to LCPSs in rural areas. Even urban LCPSs that had access to these services found them unaffordable. Ten out of 26 financial institutions (38 percent) are ready to meet the immediate needs of LCPSs, if the LCPS could establish governance structures and institute better financial management systems.

LCPSs operate with poor quality infrastructure. Two-thirds of proprietors (66 percent) rated their school buildings as ‘average’, i.e., requiring some repair. Fifty-nine percent rated their school buildings as having— “inadequate8” classroom facilities for children, with 43 percent of these citing poor ventilation. Seventy-nine percent of LCPSs have inadequate urinals, 87 percent have inadequate toilet facilities, and 83 percent have inadequate furniture.

In all EGRA/EGMA subtasks, the percentage of zero scores among public school pupils was higher than those of LCPS pupils, suggesting that LCPS pupils perform better on numeracy and reading skills than do public school pupils. Comparison of the percentage of zero scores of pupils in the LCPSs and public schools in Ghana was based on the 2015 EGRA conducted by the National Education Assessment Unit (NEAU). However, LCPSs (77 percent) have inadequate teaching and learning materials (TLMs) and in- service training. Interviews with district education directors, LCPS headteachers, and the Ghana National Association of Private Schools confirmed that textbook shortages within the public system result in textbooks not being issued to private schools.

6 GHC 150 is equivalent to about $30 at an exchange rate of GHS 5 = $1. 7 The branches of the schools were not in the same area but in adjoining communities or other districts. 8 ‘Adequate’ refers to having enough of specific facilities for the number of pupils enrolled and ‘Inadequate’ means having below the required number of specific facilities.

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Recommendations ● Since over 63 percent of those who patronize LCPSs are farmers, interventions that improve their incomes will better position them to access LCPSs. Involvement of these farmers in school feeding programs could be mutually beneficial. For example, USAID could support a large-scale effort to establish linkages between farmer groups in the ADVANCE and RING II districts with a program design that links their agricultural production to school feeding programs across districts in the five northern regions, particularly in rural areas. The agricultural value chain programs could be conditional on the sale to and purchase by LCPSs located in these areas. School farms could also be started to support the LCPS feeding programs and reduce the cost to parents. School Management Committees (SMCs) and PTAs should ensure that pupils are not used as farm labor under such initiatives. ● USAID could also support the expansion of home-grown school feeding models or village savings and loan association (VSLA) schemes, which are tied to agriculture incentives/capacity-building9 and participation of households in basic education, especially in areas with limited access to public schools within a 3-km radius. ● LCPSs could be helped to access business support services, including from financial institutions, to obtain the documentation needed to access funding from financial institutions. This will ensure effectiveness and growth. With access to external finance opportunities, the LCPS sector can expand, create jobs for teachers, and further improve the quality of education. ● The existence of the Ghana National Association of Private Schools (GNAPS) as a potential cost- effective and sustainable mechanism for the delivery of services to LCPSs presents a partnership opportunity that can further be capitalized by USAID. ● USAID could provide incentives for proprietors and educational entrepreneurs to establish LCPSs, particularly in rural areas. Cost-sharing partnership arrangements with prospective educational entrepreneurs could help achieve this. ● Enhance the capacity of GNAPS to improve advocacy efforts and create an enabling environment for LCPSs in Ghana. Advocacy efforts could aim to ensure GES provides in-service training and textbooks. Where possible, government should provide the necessary facilities, extend its supervision, and deploy trained teachers to areas with LCPSs and no public schools within a 3-5 km radius.

9 Rural banks and civil society can facilitate these programs, using a matching/conditional grant or provision of seed capital for the Village Savings and Loan Association/VSLA.

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1.0 BACKGROUND AND PURPOSE

1.1 BACKGROUND

Sub-Saharan Africa has 34.5 million (of the 63.7 million worldwide) primary school-age children who are not attending school, which is more than any other region in the world (UNESCO, 201910). UNESCO data (2019) estimate Ghana’s out-of-school population at 153,986, comprising 69,192 females and 84,794 males. Low-cost private schools (LCPSs) are, therefore, emerging as a viable option in countries that cannot meet the demand for quality primary education. Global evidence from the World Bank suggests there is a growing surge of LCPSs, particularly in low-income countries, evidenced in the doubling of enrollment from 11 percent to 22 percent of total enrollment (World Bank 2015).

In Ghana, despite rapid expansion in access to basic education over the last 20 years, the goal of providing every Ghanaian child with quality basic education remains a significant challenge. This is primarily due to poor-quality education, limited time on task, and the inability to deploy trained teachers—particularly to rural areas. Studies over the last 20 years have shown poor learning efficiency, constrained management accountability, high absenteeism and low teacher time on task as the main challenges facing Ghana’s education system (World Bank, 2018; 2010). The Human Capital Index under the World Bank study, Facing Forward for Learning in Africa (2018), shows that 11 years of Ghanaian public schooling (primary to senior high school/SHS) is equivalent to less than six years by international standards. Teacher deployment to rural and northern areas remains inequitable, resulting in reduced government expenditure per child in these areas (Casely-Hayford, 2018).

Within the Ghanaian context, LCPSs have become a viable schooling option for working-class and marginalized families that desire a higher quality education for their children but cannot afford medium and higher-cost private education. Obtaining data on private schools, especially LCPSs, has typically been challenging. The data is more complete for Ghana’s southern regions and urban areas than for northern Ghana. GNAPS is the largest private school association in Ghana, with over 5,000 member schools. However, this number is short of the estimated 9,488 private schools operating in Ghana, based on the 2017/2018 academic year government data set (ESPR 2018). To date, there is no complete national or northern Ghana data set for private education or LCPSs available to inform USAID/Ghana’s Country Development Cooperation Strategy (CDCS) 2020-2025 formulation process.

1.2 PURPOSE

The LCPSs Assessment in Northern Ghana assessed the supply and demand trends of LCPSs across 17 districts targeted for inclusion in the FtF/RING II program. These 17 districts include Gushiegu, Karaga, Mion, Nanton, Sagnerigu, Yendi Municipal, East Mamprusi, Mamprugu Moagduri, Bawku Municipal, Bawku West, Garu, Tempane, Daffiama-Bussie-Issa, Nadowli-Kaleo, Sissala East, Sissala West, and Wa East). The findings can help inform USAID/Ghana’s CDCS 2020-2025, with specific focus on addressing the empowerment of marginalized populations, improving the equitable delivery of quality education services, and supporting private sector growth in impoverished areas of northern Ghana, where USAID/Ghana’s Economic Growth project is active. The assessment addressed the following questions:

10UNESCO Institute for Statistics (UIS) (2019). Retrieved from http://data.uis.unesco.org/index.aspx?queryid=123&lang=en

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1. What are the supply and demand trends for LCPSs in northern Ghana, with a focus on the 17 FtF and RING II districts? 2. How effective are the LCPSs in the FtF/RING II districts in terms of management, leadership, business model and sustainability, infrastructure, and learning achievement? 3. What cost-effective assistance could help LCPSs in the FtF/RING II districts improve their business models and significantly expand enrollment of marginalized school-age children from the communities they serve?

This assessment includes recommendations for programmatic interventions that will increase the quantity and quality of supply of LCPSs directed to expanding enrollment to children of families living in marginalized communities in Northern Ghana (See Annex 1 - SOW).

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2.0 METHODOLOGY

2.1 GENERAL ASSESSMENT APPROACH

This LCPSs study used a mixed-method approach—i.e., it used both quantitative and qualitative methods—in its assessment questions. It analyzed data from both primary and secondary sources. Prior to the fieldwork, the assessment team undertook a preliminary scoping exercise in all the target districts to determine the number of private schools and to gather essential data needed to facilitate the selection of a sample of LCPSs for the study. The GES data on private schools guided the preliminary scoping exercise.

The scoping instrument included specific questions about each school: its type and the levels it included (kindergarten/KG, primary, junior high school/JHS), location, enrollment figures, fees charged, source(s) of funds, infrastructure, etc. The study deployed field teams across all 17 FtF/RING II districts over a two to three-day period. These teams visited the district education offices to collect district-level data on the number of private schools. They also visited the Associations of Private Schools at the district level to validate the private school data from the district offices, and they visited the individual private schools to speak to the proprietors. The definition of LCPSs was adapted from the Innovation, Development and Progress (IDP) Foundation and is based on the affordability threshold, using household incomes as measured by the Ghana Living Standard Survey (GLSS) six data sets. The IDP Foundation defines LCPSs as affordable if school tuition fees fall below GHS 402 per annum (IDP Foundation, 2016). The annual school fee threshold for each geographic category targeted was estimated by adjusting the IDP thresholds in these locations for inflation. The study used the maximum threshold of GHS 301 across the three regions to define and identify schools as ‘low-cost’ private schools (see Table 1).

Table 1: Annual school fee threshold used to identify low-cost private schools S/N Category 2016 Annual Fee 2019 Annual Fee Threshold Threshold (GHC) – IDP (GHS)11 – LCPS Foundation Assessment 1 Estimated Geographical N/A 301 Avg. 2 Upper East 155 212 3 Northern/North East 220 301 4 Upper West 210 287 Source: Preliminary scoping exercise

Key informant interviews (KIIs) with 142 stakeholders at the regional, district, and school level helped determine the supply and demand trends for LCPSs in the 17 FtF and RING II districts in northern Ghana. These included three KIIs with national stakeholders; four KIIs, each with GNAPS, non- governmental organizations (NGOs), and civil society organizations (CSOs) working in the education sector; one KII with each education director in the 17 districts; one KII with each proprietor and headteacher of the 51 sampled schools; and one interview each with P2 teachers (53 teachers in all) across the sampled schools. The team also conducted FGDs with district officers in charge of private schools to provide additional context to the findings.

11 2016 annual fee threshold adjusted for inflation (Average of 11% per annum). Source: https://www.statista.com/statistics/447576/inflation-rate-in-ghana/

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To further investigate the demand trends, the team collected data from 521 households out of an expected sample size of 540 households proportionally spread across the project districts. To triangulate data from the household survey, 32 FGDs were conducted with families across the 17 targeted districts. Half the FGDs were conducted with parents with wards in the LCPSs; the other half were with parents of wards in public schools.

The assessment of the effectiveness of LCPSs in terms of management, leadership, business models, sustainability, and infrastructure was conducted in all the 17 districts. Ten districts were identified as focal districts, where the study team selected four LCPSs for data collection, with an additional two schools selected as back-ups (see Annex 2). However, in the remaining seven districts, the team selected two LCPSs for the assessment. The selection of schools for the administration of the Early Grade Reading Assessment (EGRA) and the Early Grade Mathematics Assessment (EGMA) was conducted separately in these 10 focal districts as a result of time limitations resulting from school closures for vacation.12 Using the adapted definition of LCPSs, the average number of LCPSs per district was 10, making the selection of four schools per district representative.

The EGRA/EGMA was used to determine student learning outcomes in the LCPSs. These assessments focused on P2 pupils across the LCPSs in the 10 study districts. The test was offered to 10 pupils per school, based on the average enrollment figures for grade levels (P2), which ranged from 15 to 25 pupils. For each class, the assessment team separated boys from girls. Then five boys and five girls were randomly selected to participate in the assessment. In instances where the number of girls or boys in the class was below five, more boys or girls in the same class were selected to make up for the shortfall. The EGRA/EGMA was administered in both English and a GES-approved local language—if the school instructed students in both languages. For schools where instruction was in English only, the test was administered only in English. Assessment data was analyzed using social, economic, gender, and educational themes in both qualitative and quantitative data sets. The quantitative data was exported from KoBoCollect to Microsoft Excel for cleaning and then exported to Statistical Package for Social Sciences (SPSS v24) for data analysis. The data cleaning process included checking for errors (i.e., scores of variables not within the range of plausible scores) and verifying and correcting the errors in the data file.13 Simple frequencies and cross- tabulations were generated for categorical variables. For continuous variables, descriptive statistics (minimum, maximum, mean, standard deviation) were generated and checked if the minimum, maximum, and the measures of central tendencies (mean, mode, median) were consistent. Frequencies and descriptive statistics procedures were rerun to validate results. The LCPSs and households served as the unit of analysis for the household-level analysis. Univariate level analysis using simple frequencies, tables, and charts was used extensively. Bivariate analysis, which involved cross-tabulations (primarily using gender, locality—urban/rural, and school type), was used in measuring cross-variable dynamics. Comparability-level analysis was performed using existing results to validate the findings of this study. Qualitative data was analyzed using a multistep thematic categorization of responses from the 32 FGDs. Demand and supply trends for LCPSs in northern Ghana

12 The EGRA/EGMA Assessment was administered in four schools per district across 10 of the 17 districts. The EGRA/EGMA test was not administered in schools across the seven remaining districts. 13 Data cleaning included amending or removing data in the database that were incorrect, incomplete, improperly formatted, or duplicated.

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Analysis of the demand and supply trends used both data from fieldwork and secondary data from the MoE/ GES Education Management Information System (EMIS). Demand trends were estimated using eight years (2009/2010 – 2017/2018) of enrollment rates for public and private schools across the 17 districts. The percentage of private school enrollment over the period was also computed to determine demand trends for LCPSs. Parental perceptions of school quality were analyzed from the household survey data along with the LCPSs’ proprietor data on market uptake and school demand. The supply trend data was mapped using five annual data points (EMIS data) from 2013/2014 – 2017/2018 to show the trend in supply across the 17 districts for both public and private schools.

Effectiveness and sustainability of business model Key variables used to determine the effectiveness of the business model included: 1) profitability and cost analyses: teacher salaries, school feeding, and operational costs; 2) the quality of LCPSs: infrastructure, affordability; and 3) school location, years of operation, and leadership structures. Assessment of the effectiveness of LCPSs included analysis of governance and leadership structures, teacher management/training, and parental involvement. The study also analyzed business/financial management practices and the sustainability of LCPSs using proprietor interviews and survey data.

Learning Outcomes Learning outcomes of LCPS pupils was based on the EGRA/EGMA tests administered to 391 P2 pupils (197 boys and 194 girls). Annex 11 includes details of the pupils assessed by sex, region, district, and locality. To make the data representative of the schools sampled, a sample weight was applied to account for the disparities in the number of pupils per class, regardless of school size. The percentages of pupils unable to provide a single correct response (i.e., a zero score) on a given subtask was also computed and compared with zero scores from the Ghana EGRA/EGMA 2013 and 2015 Study among public schools14. Assessment scores were also compared to the EGRA Final Report (2019) based on the USAID Partnership for Education: Learning—an early grade literacy intervention implemented across 100 districts.

2.2 LIMITATIONS

This study had limitations:

▪ Lack of comprehensive data on LCPSs for the 17 FTF/RING II districts: Neither GES nor GNAPS has a comprehensive list of LCPSs in these districts. Where data exist, it is not disaggregated by type. The study complemented the findings from the field with secondary data from GES to generate a comprehensive list of LCPSs in the targeted districts. The team used data from the scoping exercise to validate the private school figures from GES and the GNAPS.

▪ Data collection period and possible effect on pupil learning outcome: LCPSs were preparing to close for the long school vacation, and the data collection period coincided with the end of term examinations. These two factors may have affected the performance of the pupils on the EGRA/EGMA assessment as pupils’ attention could have been divided during the assessment.

▪ Major challenge in obtaining income and expenditure data from households and proprietors: Collecting data on the income and expenditure of schools was a major challenge as proprietors feared the income information might be used for tax purposes. Verifications were

14 This study was conducted by the National Education Assessment Unit (NEAU) of the Ghana Education Service (GES).

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made several times, and in a few cases, the figures provided by proprietors that were outliers were dropped during data analysis. The study did not collect data on specific household income. Rather, it used household assets and living arrangements as a measure of household wealth status.

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3.0 KEY FINDINGS

3.1 SUPPLY AND DEMAND TRENDS FOR LCPSs IN NORTHERN GHANA

3.1.1 Supply Trends

Finding 1: LCPSs are the major form of private schools in the target districts As shown in Table 2, an estimated 64 percent of private schools in the target districts were LCPSs. All the private schools in five of the 17 districts are LCPSs.

Table 2: Supply of LCPSs in the 17 districts District Total Number of Number Number of Percentage number of public schools of LCPSs of private schools private schools that (public and schools are LCPSs private) Northern Yendi 176 146 30 24 80 Karaga 121 109 12 12 100 Mion 89 86 4 4 100 Nanton 23 19 4 4 100 Sagnarigu 236 182 54 19 35 Gushegu 159 145 14 13 93 North East East Mamprusi 135 103 32 32 100 Mamprugu 60 53 7 7 100 Moagduri Upper East Bawku Municipal 140 89 51 25 49 Bawku West 140 117 23 14 61 Garu 97 83 14 3 21 Tempane 67 50 17 12 71 Upper West Nadowli-Kaleo 143 136 7 4 57 Sissala East 76 65 11 4 36 Sissala West 75 68 7 6 86 Wa East 162 162 0 0 NA Daffiama-Bussie- 70 68 2 1 50 Issa Total 1,969 1,681 289 184 64 Source: GES Data and Field Data, Assessment of LCPS in FtF/RING II Districts, July 2019

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Finding 2: There is growth in the supply of LCPSs in the target districts The study found a 17 percent annual growth rate in the number of LCPSs established in the target districts, as shown in Figure 1 below. The growth rate stagnated from 1985 to the early 2000s but steadily increased from 2000 to 2019.

Figure 1: Number of LCPSs established in the 17 target districts15 200

150

100

50 Number of LCPS 0 1980 1985 1990 1995 2000 2005 2010 2015 2020 2025 Year

Source: School Proprietor Survey, Assessment of LCPS in FtF/RING II Districts, July 2019

A five-year analysis of secondary data from the MoE/GES EMIS from 2013/2014 to 2017/2018 academic years reveals that, on average, private schools in the 17 target districts grew by 36 percent in comparison to a 13 percent growth in public schools over the same period. This data is presented in Annex 4, Table 4.3. Figure 2 presents the average percent change in number of public and private primary schools over the 5-year period.

Figure 2: Average percent change in the number of public and private primary schools from 2013– 201816 200 150 100 50 0 -50

% Change (Public) % Change (Private)

Source: MoE/GES EMIS Data, 2013 – 2018

The negative percentage change observed across Karaga and East Mamprusi districts is accounted for by the closure of some of the schools that had been established between the period of measurement (2013 – 2018). The closure was mainly attributable to the inability of the schools to break even, thus, running at a loss. The Mamprugu Moagduri district did not have a private school up until the 2015/16 academic year, hence, had a slow growth from six schools to six at the end of the 2017/18 academic year. The Mion district has only one (1) established low-cost private school over the period (2013/14 – 2017/18) and this accounts for the stationary growth.

15 This is based on the identified existing LCPSs and their year of establishment. It does not account for LCPSs established in previous years that no longer existed at the time of this study. 16 Figure 2 shows trends for only 16 of the 17 districts because Garu and Tempane used to be one district but are now split into two separate districts: Garu and Tempane. The EMIS dataset used for the trend analysis had figures for the then Garu-Tempane district.

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Finding 3: Proprietors’ interest in educational provision is a key reason for the establishment of LCPSs Eighty percent (41 out of 51) of the proprietors established LCPSs primarily because of their interest in and dedication to education. The second reason they gave was to offer a viable alternative to public schools (14 percent). Notably, only six percent of proprietors cited profit as their motive for establishing LCPSs. Finding 4: Children from farming households are the primary beneficiaries of LCPSs Ninety-two percent of proprietors reported that most children enrolled in their schools were from farming households, followed closely by children of traders (see Figure 3). The household data showed that 63 percent of household heads with children in LCPSs were farmers, 21 percent were formal sector workers (salaried workers), 24 percent were traders, and 11 percent were service providers (business people). This corroborates the findings from the school proprietors (See Annex 9, Table 9.6).

Figure 3: LCPS proprietors’ responses on beneficiaries of LCPSs

Farmers 92%

Traders 76%

Salaried workers 63%

Business people 61%

Other 14%

0% 10% 20% 30% 40% 50% 60% 70% 80% 90% 100%

Source: School Proprietor Survey, Assessment of LCPS in FtF/RING II Districts, July 2019

3.1.2 Demand Trends

Finding 5: The growth in enrollment in private schools exceeds that of public schools Table 3 presents enrollment trends at kindergarten and primary levels for public and private schools from 2009/2010 to 2017/2018. While enrollment in both public and private schools has progressed steadily, growth in private school enrollment far exceeds that of public schools. For example, from 2009/2010 to 2017/2018, while private school enrollment increased from 11,867 to 47,981 (304 percent growth), public school enrollment increased from 297,797 to 405,087 (36 percent growth). Over the same period, enrollment for private schools and public schools increased by an annual average of 19 percent17 and 4 percent respectively. The percentage increase in private school enrollment supports the assertion that demand for private schools is increasing from 4 percent of total school enrollment in 2009/2010 to 11 percent in 2017/2018.

17 The growth in private school enrollment over the period exhibits an exponential trend, hence, 19 percent (if the trend were linear, the average growth would be 34 percent). Exponential growth formula: Growth Rate= (Present/Past)1/n-1.

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Table 3 : Kindergarten and primary enrollment trends in the 17FTF/RING II districts Year Public Private Total Private School Enrollment as % of Total Enrollment 2009/10 297,797 11,867 309,664 3.8 2010/11 301,123 13,375 314,498 4.3 2011/12 295,719 21,995 317,714 6.9 2012/13 356,048 31,130 387,178 8.0 2013/14 312,961 30,865 343,826 9.0 2014/15 391,702 51,209 442,911 11.6 2015/16 414,017 46,392 460,409 10.1 2016/17 411,495 47,884 459,379 10.4 2017/18 405,087 47,981 453,068 10.6 Source: GES EMIS Data (2009/10 – 2017/18)

The 520 households surveyed had a total of 2,554 children (47 percent girls) of school age, of which 2,043 (80 percent) are attending school. Of children attending school, about 767 (38 percent) attend LCPSs (see Table 4). Sixty-two percent of households have children attending public schools within their communities. The higher proportion of children in public schools is attributable to the low number of private schools in some of the districts and the costs of attending LCPSs. Households in the study usually selected their younger children to attend LCPSs because of the perceived care given by LCPSs and because most public schools do not have kindergartens. School preference (decision to send either a male or female child to school) is independent of the gender of the household head (chi-square=0.246, p=0.620). Of the households sampled, 55 percent of female-headed households send their children to LCPSs, and 52 percent of male-headed households send their children to LCPSs (See Annex 9, Table 9.2).

Table 4: Enrollment within sampled households (children ages 6-11 years)18 Enrollment Boys Girls Total Total number of children in the surveyed households 1,355 1,199 2,554 Percentage of children out of school 20 21 20 Percentage of children in school 80 79 80 Percentage of children in public school 64 61 62 Percentage of children in LCPSs 36 39 38 Source: Household Survey, Assessment of LCPS in FtF/RING II Districts, July 2019

Finding 6: Perception of high performance for children in LCPSs Overall, 80 percent of parents rated the academic performance of their children as ‘good’ (55 percent), ‘very good’ (22 percent), or ‘excellent’ (three percent). The percentage of parents who perceive the academic performance of their children to be ‘good’ or better is higher in LCPS households (86 percent) compared to non-LCPS19 households (70 percent) (see Figure 4).

18 The survey did not interview households with children in high-fee private schools though these schools existed. 19 They are participating in the public education system but not in the LCPS system.

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Figure 4: Perceived child academic performance by school type

70% 58% 55% 60% 51% 50% 40% 27% 30% Public 30% 22% 20% LCPS 20% 13% 12%

Percentage Total 10% 5% 2% 1% 1% 3% 0% Poor Average Good Very good Excellent Child Academic Performance by School Type

Source: Household Survey, Assessment of LCPS in FtF/RING II Districts, July 2019

Finding 7: Educational level of parents influences demand for LCPSs Overall, 53 percent of household heads surveyed had no education, while 24 percent had secondary or higher education (See Table 5). Sixty-eight percent of household heads with children in public schools had no formal education compared to 40 percent of household heads who had their children in LCPSs. Household heads with secondary education or higher were almost three times more likely to have their children in LCPSs (35 percent) than in public schools (12 percent). Educational level of household heads had a significant effect on the type of school a child attends (chi-square=50.401, p=0.000).

Table 5: Educational Level of Household Head and School Preference Highest level of education Public LCPSs Total N % N % N % Never been to school 165 67.9 110 39.9 275 53.0 Less than MSLC/BECE20 27 11.1 30 10.9 57 11.0 MSLC/BECE/Vocational 22 9.1 40 14.5 62 11.9 Secondary or higher 29 11.9 96 34.8 125 24.1 Total 243 100.0 276 100.0 519 100.0 Source: Household Survey, Assessment of LCPS in FtF/RING II Districts, July 2019

Finding 8: LCPSs are not able to meet demand A key indicator of unmet demand for LCPSs is that 43 percent of LCPSs have waiting lists. More than 91 percent of proprietors who had waiting lists rated the demand for their schools as medium to high, while nine percent rated that demand as low21 (see Figure 5). Low demand was attributed to: parents’ inability to pay school fees (29 percent); inadequate infrastructure (14 percent); and lack of supervision, which led to poor academic performance (14 percent). For schools with high demand, the proprietors offered these reasons: high academic performance among pupils (34 percent), affordability (24 percent), and discipline and high moral standards among pupils (19 percent). During FGDs, parents stated that LCPS proprietors’ involvement in the day-to-day running of schools influenced their preference for LCPSs. Parents also cited effective management skills, strict supervision of teachers, and academic

20 Middle School Living Certificate / Basic Education Certificate Examination 21 Schools were rated as having medium demand if the school had a waiting list of 10 – 20 pupils and were classified as having high demand if the school had more than 20 children awaiting admission. Low demand means schools had waiting list less than 10 pupils.

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performance as key deciding factors (see Annex 6). The study found that demand for LCPSs was independent of the locality of the school (chi-square=0.112, p=0.946).

Figure 5: LCPSs with Waiting Lists by Locality

8% 11% 9% 31% 33% 32%

Low 43% No 62% Medium 57% Yes 56% 59% High

Rural Urban Total School Demand

Source: School Proprietor Survey, Assessment of LCPS in FtF/RING II Districts, July 2019

3.2 EFFECTIVENESS OF LCPSs IN THE FTF/RING II DISTRICTS IN TERMS OF MANAGEMENT, LEADERSHIP, BUSINESS MODEL AND SUSTAINABILITY, INFRASTRUCTURE, AND LEARNING ACHIEVEMENT

3.2.1 Management and Leadership of LCPSs

Finding 9: Proprietors of LCPSs are active in the day-to-day operations of their schools Eleven of the 51 proprietors (22 percent) worked as headteachers, while the remaining 40 proprietors (78 percent) employed others as headteachers. Of the 22 percent of the proprietors who worked as headteachers, 88 percent are involved in the day-to-day management of their schools. The remaining 12 percent rely on hired headteachers and family members to supervise the management and administration of the school. Available data showed Figure 6: Management Structure of LCPSs proprietors’ primary responsibilities are human resource management and administrative and operational duties. Proprietors played multiple roles in addition to their core leadership role. These included: marketing, financial management, recruitment, and supervision of teachers. Of the proprietors involved in the day-to-day running of schools, 71 percent performed administrative functions, 33 percent performed accounting roles, and 2922 percent performed headteacher functions. Challenges of poor cash flow resulted in proprietors’ inability to pay for the needed administrative, accounting, and financial support services.

22 This is a multiple response and therefore the cumulative proportions are more than 100.

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None of the 51 LCPSs surveyed had an independent board of directors, but all had PTAs. Approximately 65 percent of proprietors stated they make management decisions in consultation with their PTAs on a regular basis (once or twice a term). PTAs also assisted the LCPSs in raising funds, particularly for infrastructure and feeding. Figure 6 illustrates the management structure and roles found across the surveyed schools, a model that was perceived to increase the efficiency and effectiveness of the schools' operations. All LCPS proprietors reported they regularly obtained feedback from parents, which enables them to address parents’ concerns. During FGDs, parents stated that proprietors’ involvement in the day-to-day running of their schools influenced their preference for LCPSs. They cited effective management skills and strict supervision as other key deciding factors.

Finding 10: LCPSs use supervision as a measure to ensure high teacher performance Interviews with school proprietors suggest a high standard of supervision and monitoring across LCPSs (See Figure 7). Proprietors employ multiple measures to achieve high quality of teacher supervision, including daily monitoring of classroom teaching (80 percent) and the use of attendance records (80 percent) to monitor teachers’ arrival and departure times. Additionally, 33 percent of proprietors used strategies that include salary deductions for days teachers miss without permission. Eight percent used other management practices such as teacher award schemes; rewarding those with outstanding pupil performance; mentoring and coaching; and supporting teachers during events such as outdooring, funerals, and weddings. Another proven means of motivating teachers is providing them with help to plow their lands during the farming season. Combined, these measures help proprietors maximize teacher-student contact hours and ensure high-quality instruction.

Figure 7: Supervision and Management Practices

Attendance records 80%

Daily monitoring of teaching 80%

Salary deduction for absenteeism 33%

Other 8%

0% 20% 40% 60% 80% 100% Percentage of proprietors using each practice

Source: School Proprietor Survey, Assessment of LCPS in FtF/RING II Districts, July 2019

For proprietors who are also headteachers, the following measures were in place to ensure high quality teacher supervision: 64 percent adopted daily monitoring of teaching practice (85 percent for proprietors who have employed headteachers), 73 percent used attendance records (83 percent for proprietors who have employed headteachers), and 23 percent used salary deductions (35 percent for proprietors who have employed headteachers). This trend shows higher supervision in schools having separate and substantive headteachers compared to schools with proprietors who also play the role of headteacher.

Stakeholders agree that these measures increased teacher commitment levels and discipline within LCPSs. According to headteachers:

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“Private schools are more effective than public schools. When you don't come to school, the owner calls you. I cannot say the same for public schools.” – Headteacher of a school in Daffiama-Bussie-Issa district in the Upper West Region.

“Supervision is higher in private schools than in public ones. This engenders a high level of commitment and service delivery on the part of teachers.” – Headteacher of a school in Yendi district in Northern Region.

Eighty percent of LCPSs have policies that guide their administration. Among these LCPSs, 30 percent have financial manuals, 28 percent have human resource manuals, 36 percent have recruitment manuals, and 55 percent have child protection policy manuals. Approximately 65 percent had staff welfare schemes in place (See Figure 8). Schools that have financial manuals are less likely to have human resource manuals (correlation coefficient, r=0.33). See Annex 7 for details on the relationship between the policy types.

Figure 8: School Level Policies 70% 65% 60% 55% 50% 40% 35% 30% 28% 30% 20% 10% 10% 10% 0% Staff Welfare Child Recruitment Financial Human Procurement Travel Policy Policy Protection Manual Management Resource or Policy Manual Personnel Manual

Source: School Proprietor Survey, Assessment of LCPS in FtF/RING II Districts, July 2019 Finding 11: LCPS teachers do not meet GES qualification requirement The minimum GES qualification for teachers of public schools is the Teaching Certificate A or Diploma in Education. LCPS proprietors indicated almost 8 out of 10 teachers lacked this requisite qualification. Only 13 percent met this criterion. GES policy also dictates that at least 30 percent of the teaching force in any LCPS must be trained teachers. Proprietors struggle to adhere to this requirement as they try to keep costs low (See Table 6).

Table 6: LCPS Teaching Staff Qualifications Educational Level Males Females Total N % N % N % No Education 21 7.4 13 5.3 34 6.5 MSLC/JHS 1 0.4 4 1.6 5 0.9 SSCE/SHS 190 67.1 188 77.0 378 71.7 Vocational/Technical 4 1.4 9 3.7 13 2.5 Teacher Cert A/Diploma 52 18.4 17 7.0 69 13.1 Degree/HND 15 5.3 13 5.3 28 5.3 Total 283 100 244 100 527 100 Source: School Checklist, Assessment of LCPS in FtF/RING II Districts, July 2019

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Key indicators for measuring education quality include the Pupil-Teacher Ratio (PTR), Pupil-Trained- Teacher Ratio (PTTR), frequency of in-service training for teachers, and school infrastructure. The PTR across the 51 sampled schools is 34:1, with 13 percent of the teachers trained. The Education Strategy Plan for 2018-2030 requires that the PTTR should be 35:1 for public primary schools (Ghana Teacher Rationalization Report, 2018). LCPS data across the districts show a PTTR of 34 compared to secondary data from the MoE/GES EMIS 2017/18 academic year which shows a PTTR of 46 in public primary schools. See Annex 8 for PTR and PTTR disaggregated by district. Approximately 87 percent of headteachers reported they organized in-service training for their teachers. Fifty-three percent of the teachers interviewed at the school level confirmed this. Distribution of in-service training providers included the following: proprietors (61 percent), GES (32 percent), and GNAPS (seven percent).

3.2.2 Business Model and Sustainability of LCPSs 3.2.2.1 Business Models

The assessment investigated LCPS business models in terms of business registration, ownership, cost structure, revenue streams, and financial performance and profitability.

Finding 12: The predominant business model of LCPSs in focal districts is one that minimizes cost and maximizes revenue This model is characterized as follows: ● In all, 78 percent of the sampled schools are for-profit. Of this, 70 percent are registered as sole proprietorships (Average NPM of 22 percent), six percent as limited liabilities (Average NPM of 11 percent), and two percent as partnerships (Average NPM of 58 percent). The remaining schools are non-profit: community-based schools (11 percent) and faith-based schools (11 percent). ● The majority (78 percent) of proprietors own their school infrastructure, 14 percent operate from rented premises, and eight percent operate from premises owned by extended family. ● LCPSs generated an estimated 87 percent of their income from tuition, school feeding, and extra classes. ● A majority of teachers (72 percent) in LCPSs are SSCE/SHS graduates earning low wages, a strategy that allows proprietors to charge low tuition to the benefit of parents who otherwise cannot afford private education. ● The primary mode of advertisement is referrals by parents or teachers, who cite high pupil performance (90 percent of LCPSs).

Business Registration

Finding 13: Ninety-one percent of LCPSs surveyed are registered with GES The law governing business operations in Ghana requires all businesses to have an operating license and be registered before operations can begin23. All sampled LCPSs have one form of business registration. Seventy percent are registered as sole proprietorships, six percent are limited liability companies, and two percent are partnerships. Community-based schools and faith-based schools make up 22 percent of the sample (see Figure 9). Forty-six LCPSs have registered with the GES, 18 have registered with their

23 There is a general law on obtaining an operating license with the Registrar General’s Department and the GES accreditation for schools (Education Act 778, 2008, Section 23: Establishment of Private Educational Institutions). All are done at a fee with an annual subscription fee. Processes for GES registration includes: an application to GES to operate a school, inspection of school facilities (classrooms, furniture, WASH facilities, availability of Teaching and Learning Materials, teachers, etc.) by GES officials and then followed by an approval if one meets the specifications and standards. Aside these two registrations, the school will have also to register with the local district Assemblies and the Department of Social Welfare as well.

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respective district assemblies, 11 have registered under the Social Welfare department, 11 have registered under the Registrar General’s Department while nine have registered under GNAPS. Thirty- three of the LCPSs surveyed have registered with more than one of the above-listed institutions. Figure 9: Business Registration

6% 2%

11%

Sole proprietor Community-Based 11% Faith-based Partnership Limited liability company 70%

Source: School Proprietor Survey, Assessment of LCPS in FtF/RING II Districts, July 2019

Ownership Finding 14: LCPSs are owned by proprietors, with the majority being male-owned In all 51 LCPSs sampled, proprietors governed their schools. Of the total, 82 percent were male-owned and 18 percent female-owned, a trend representative of informal small business ownership across Ghana.24 In addition, 78 percent of proprietors owned the school buildings, 14 percent operated from rented premises, and eight percent used buildings owned by extended family. Data showed that proprietors who own the buildings save on average 17 percent more than those who rent. This made a difference in the sustainability of their businesses. Cost Structure Eighty-eight percent of proprietors provided the investment needed to set up their LCPS. Proprietors sourced funds from personal savings (77 percent) and/or loans advanced by family and friends (12 percent). Sixteen percent accessed loans from financial institutions: six percent from commercial/rural banks, and 10 percent from savings and loans. See Annex 12, Table 12.2 for the breakdown. Finding 15: Salaries are the major cost element in operating LCPSs The cost drivers of LCPSs are dependent on the location of the school, the qualification of teachers, infrastructure, ownership of facilities, and the provision of school feeding. Figure 10 summarizes the annual cost of operating an LCPS across the main cost categories. Costs for an LCPS comprise: salaries (46 percent), feeding (33 percent), books and stationery (seven percent), repairs and maintenance (six percent), and utilities (four percent). Training, fuel, bus maintenance, rent, and other expenses account for the remaining four percent. School owners sustain their operations and keep costs low using strategies that include paying low teacher salaries and keeping other expenditures low as well.

24 Investigating the Challenges and Prospects of Female Entrepreneurs in Ghana, Bamfo and Asiedu-Appiah, (2012).

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Figure 10: Cost structure of LCPSs

46% Salaries 33% Feeding 7% Books & Stationery 6% Repairs and maintenance 4% Utilities 2% Training cost 1% Other 1% Rent 0% 5% 10% 15% 20% 25% 30% 35% 40% 45% 50%

Source: School Proprietor, Assessment of LCPS in FtF/RING II Districts, July 2019

Teachers’ Salaries: Table 7 summarizes average teachers’ salaries per their qualifications at the primary level. Degree and HND holders earn on average GHS 358 monthly, while teachers with Diplomas/ Teacher Cert. A earn GHS 217 on average. Teachers with an SHS qualification average GHS 150 monthly, which is below Ghana’s minimum wage (GHS 234).

Table 7: Monthly Average Salaries of Teachers by Educational level Teachers Education Minimum Median Maximum Mean Number Std. of schools Deviation MSLC/JHS 170 210.00 250 210.00 4 40.825 SSCE/SHS 60 150.00 350 150.53 49 60.331 Vocational 60 150.00 350 180.91 11 96.172 /Technical Teacher Cert. A 60 150.00 700 216.82 28 160.604 /Diploma Degree/ HND 90 300.00 1200 357.50 12 294.838 Source: School Checklist, Assessment of LCPS in FtF/RING II Districts, July 2019

Promotion and Advertisement: There is more than one channel for advertisement and promotion of LCPSs. The primary mode is referrals—mostly from parents and teachers who are impressed by pupil performance (90 percent). Other advertising included: door-to-door promotions (29 percent), banners/brochures (24 percent), and radio advertisements (20 percent). Additional marketing approaches included graduation ceremonies, open days, and PTA events (16 percent). See Annex 12, Figure 12.1.

Revenue Streams

Finding 16: Tuition fees account for a majority of total revenue for LCPSs Figure 11 shows the different sources of revenue streams for LCPSs. Tuition accounts for 41 percent of total revenue, followed by school feeding (24 percent), and extra classes (22 percent). Other income sources (eight percent) included PTA dues, teacher motivation fee, printing fees and first aid fee. The remaining five percent comprise books and stationery, transportation, and late child pick-up.

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Figure 11: Sources of Revenue for LCPSs

Tuition 41% School feeding 24% Extra classes 22% Other 8% Books 2% Transportation 2% Late pick up 1%

0% 5% 10% 15% 20% 25% 30% 35% 40% 45% Source: Field Data, Assessment of LCPS in FtF/RING II Districts, July 2019 Fee structure and cash flow strategies Finding 17: LCPSs are challenged by the economic context in which they operate The average tuition fee for LCPSs was GHS 41 per term, while feeding costs were GHS 50 per term. This is based on an average primary enrollment of 243 (see Table 8). Fees differed by school and locality. The economic context within which an LCPS operates (e.g., rural and urban) and the dominant occupation in that LCPS community are two challenges facing these schools. They are factors that determine a school’s fee structure. For example, of the 32 LCPSs running a feeding program, three had stopped due to the inability of parents to make regular payments. Collection of school fees is one of the main challenges facing headteachers and proprietors. To encourage payment, some schools have instituted different payment structures (monthly, weekly, daily). LCPSs that operate JHS in addition to primary schools record lower revenues compared to those with only KG to primary level. The main reason cited was that parents enroll their children in public schools when they reach JHS level due to the high cost of private education. Parents corroborated this by citing the no-fee cost of public JHS25 and SHS26 as the main factor influencing their decision to exit the LCPS market. Table 8: LCPS enrollment level and average revenue (GHS) per student per term27 School Level (LCPSs) Pre-school Primary JHS Enrollment (number of students) 3,129 8,043 1,233 Average revenue per student tuition only (GHS) 38 41 56 Average revenue per student feeding only (GHS) 49.75 49.7 60.4 Source: Field Data, Assessment of LCPS in FtF/RING II Districts, July 2019

Financial performance and profitability factors Finding 18: Number of years in operation, feeding programs, and location affect financial performance and profitability

Number of years in operation About 33 percent of the LCPSs surveyed were at the start-up stage (less than five years), another 33 percent were at the growth stage (five to 10 years), and the remaining 33 percent were at the mature

25 The Education Reform Programme introduced in 1987/88 and the free Compulsory Universal Basic Education (FCUBE) 1996 Programme consist of six years of primary education followed by three years of junior/secondary education. 26 The free senior high school education policy started at the beginning of the 2017/2018 academic year and covers the full cost of education (MoE, 2017). 27 LCPSs have three terms per school year.

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stage (more than 10 years). Rural areas had more start-up schools than did the urban areas (41 percent versus 21 percent). In urban areas, more LCPSs were in the growth to mature stage than was the case in rural areas (79 percent versus 59 percent). Figure 12 presents LCPS business stage by locality.

Figure 12: LCPS business stage by locality

Total 33% 33% 34%

Urban 21% 37% 42%

Rural 41% 31% 28%

0% 10% 20% 30% 40% 50% 60% 70% 80% 90% 100%

Start-up Growth Mature

Source: Field Data, Assessment of LCPS in FtF/RING II Districts, July 2019

Average annual profitability margins for LCPSs are presented in Table 9. Start-up LCPSs are experiencing, on average, annual losses of 11 percent, while LCPSs at growth and mature stages are making annual net profits of eight percent and 18 percent respectively. The major challenges facing newly established LCPSs include management of cash reserves, low enrollment, poor cashflow, and poor market penetration. Start-up LCPSs are working to improve the capacity of their teachers as an important step toward increasing their enrollment. To sustain operations for LCPSs at the growth stage, proprietors conduct extra classes, provide feeding services, and adopt other methods such as flexible payment structures (term/monthly) to improve cash flow. Poor marketing, weak financial management practices, and poor infrastructure to meet increased demand are major challenges for LCPSs at the growth stage. While matured LCPSs are growing in terms of enrollment, infrastructure, and performance, there is still considerable effort required for them to be profitable. Challenges confronting schools in this stage include limited access to finance for infrastructure expansion, inability to meet increased demand, non- existent transportation services for pupils who travel long distances to school, and poor financial and administrative management.

Table 9: Average Annual Profitability Margins for LCPSs Categories Revenue Operating Profit Tax Net profit Net profit (GHS) cost (GHS) (GHS) (GHS) (GHS) margin (%) Business Stage Start-up 10,960 8,913 2,047 863 1,184 (11) Growth 20,301 16,075 4,226 1,534 2,692 8 Mature 15,392 11,484 3,908 1,073 2,835 18 Feeding Without feeding 15,457 12,144 3,313 1,158 2,155 3 With feeding 27,510 17,303 10,208 2,356 7,852 20 Locality Rural 14,328 11,860 2,468 938 1,530 2 Urban 18,280 12,856 5,424 1,706 3,718 6 Source: Field Data, Assessment of LCPS in FtF/RING II Districts, July 2019

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School Feeding Feeding programs improve the profitability of LCPSs and constitute the second-largest revenue stream. Sixty-three percent of LCPSs operate feeding programs. The average net profit margin for LCPSs with feeding programs is 20 percent compared to three percent for LCPSs without feeding programs.

Location (Urban/ Rural) Sixty-three percent of LCPSs sampled were in rural areas (32 out of 51 schools), while the remaining 37 percent were urban. Figure 13 shows the profitability of LCPSs by location. LCPSs in urban areas are more likely to be profitable than LCPSs in rural areas (83 percent versus 50 percent). This could be attributed to the higher earning power of parents in urban locations and the schools’ ability to charge higher tuition. Overall, 62 percent of LCPSs are making a positive net profit margin (NPM), while the remaining 38 percent are realizing losses.

Figure 13: Profitability of LCPSs by location

Total 38% 62%

Urban 17% 83%

Rural 50% 50%

0% 10% 20% 30% 40% 50% 60% 70% 80% 90% 100%

Negative Positive

Source: Field Data, Assessment of LCPS in FtF/RING II Districts, July 2019

3.2.2.2 Sustainability of LCPSs

Finding 19: LCPSs subsidize operations with funds from other sources Over 60 percent of LCPSs subsidize operating costs due to low and irregular cash in-flows. Proprietors use their pension benefits and funds from other economic activities to subsidize operating costs. However, non-profitability of LCPSs (17 percent urban and 50 percent rural) is a disincentive for financial institutions to provide lending.

Finding 20: LCPSs consider business development services as important and expressed the need for capacity-building to grow

Business Development Services Ninety-six percent of LCPSs consider business development services important and expressed the need for capacity-building interventions. Proposed capacity-building needs include: business management training (20 percent), business management advisory services (19 percent), advertising/promotion (15 percent), accounting/audit services (12 percent), business plan preparation (nine percent), legal consultancy services (six percent), and management information systems (MIS) accounting software (four percent). See Annex 12, Table 12.4.

Business support services are not readily available to LCPSs operating in rural areas. In the urban areas where they exist, 92 percent of the 19 urban LCPSs cannot access these services due to cost. This is affirmed by the eight percent that have accessed these services and consider them expensive. Business

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advisory centers (BAC) of the National Board for Small Scale Industries (NBSSI) at the district level are mandated to support manufacturing and agribusiness sectors of Ghana, which excludes LCPSs. There are, however, private business advisory service providers across the three regional capitals—Tamale, Bolgatanga, and Wa. Business fee structures depend on the type of services rendered as well as the type of client being served. Table 10 indicates that advertisements/ promotion and accounting software services have the highest fees, ranging from GHS 500 to GHS 3,000.28 A total of 13 business support service providers were working at the regional capitals of the Northern, Upper East, and West regions.

Table 10: Business advisory services fee range Type of advisory service Number of service providers Fees charged Business advisory service 4 GHS 150 per month Financial management training 4 GHS 50 – GHS 150 per day Business plan preparation 3 GHS 1,200 – GHS 2,000 Accounting software 2 GHS 500 – GHS 3,000 per job Advertising and promotion 1 GHS 500 – GHS 10,000 depending on the type of advertisement Auditing 1 GHS 150 per month Source: Field Data, Assessment of LCPS in FtF/RING II Districts, July 2019 Approximately 36 percent of business advisory service providers have assisted LCPSs with general business advisory service, financial management training, and development of business plans. Ninety-six percent of LCPSs view business advisory services as an important part of business management (see Annex 12, Table 12.13). Table 11 shows business service providers that are assisting LCPSs with business management training and business plan development.

Table 11: Business service providers that assist LCPSs with services Name of Service Type of service Location Region provider Dansman Business Business management and Tamale, Northern, Upper Consult advisory service Bolgatanga, Wa East, Upper West regions Africa Center for Business management and Wa, Tamale Upper West, Strategic Business and advisory service, business plan Northern regions Entrepreneurship development, financial Development management training Universal Developers Financial management training, Tamale, Bawku Northern region, Consultancy business advocacy training municipal Upper East region Positive Action Against Business skills training Wa, Tamale Upper West region Poverty Source: Field Data, Assessment of LCPS in FtF/RING II Districts, July 2019 Access to Finance The LCPS sector requires proper restructuring to attract financial services from the banking sector to meet the growing demand for more LCPSs. Currently LCPSs are unable to access loans from financial institutions because they are unable to meet lending requirements, such as the provision of collateral. Consequently, proprietors use personal funds to subsidize operating costs. Sixty-nine percent of LCPSs

28 Over 27 business service providers were interviewed across the 17 FtF/RING II sampled districts

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sampled (35 out of the 51) have bank accounts. Of this, 69 percent (24 out of 35) are business accounts, and 31 percent are personal accounts that the proprietors use to cover their school business transactions (See Annex 12, Table 12.8). Only eight percent of proprietors have secured business loans from financial institutions. These were used to purchase land and vehicles (50 percent) and to construct new classrooms (25 percent) (See Annex 12, Table 12.10a). Fees are the primary source for repayment of loans. Reasons for not accessing loans29 include unreliable cash flow (39 percent), high interest rates (18 percent), no collateral (14 percent), and lack of knowledge on how to access finance (43 percent). See Annex 12, Table 12.10b.

Lending Model – Financial Institutions Finding 21: Financial Institutions are ready with a model to assist LCPSs expand their enterprises. The financial sector in Ghana is repositioning itself to meet the demands of the private sector. Small and medium scale enterprise (SME) departments have strengthened their risk management procedures to meet the demands of businesses and facilitate access to funding. The 26 financial and non-financial institutions surveyed include two commercial banks, four credit unions, 10 rural banks, and 10 business advisory centers (i.e., NBSSI). These institutions provide services that include banking, advisory, business plan support, financial literacy training, and mentorship. Sixty-five percent of the financial institutions reported having knowledge of LCPSs’ operations, but only 31 percent are currently providing some form of support to these types of schools (see Annex 12, Table 12.11).

Ten out of the 16 financial institutions sampled across the 17 target districts (63 percent) are ready with a model that could assist LCPSs to improve and expand their operations. Financial institutions are well- placed to meet the immediate needs of LCPSs, if the latter establish governance structures and institute better financial management systems. Requirements for LCPSs to access loans include: registration of the school, business plans, projected cash flow statement, cash or asset collateral, banking relationship, loan application letter, and more. However, proprietors stated they need technical assistance with the documentation needed to meet these prerequisite conditions. Business service providers cited some factors that may hinder an LCPS’s access to finance. These include lack of collateral, expired GES certificate or accreditation, poor cash flow, non-disclosure of financial status, poor record-keeping, poor business management skills, and low profitability.

3.2.3 Infrastructure

Finding 22: LCPSs operate within poor quality infrastructure A self-assessment with proprietors showed that two-thirds of proprietors (66 percent) rated the condition of their school buildings as ‘average’, requiring some repair work on the roof and building structure. Seventeen percent rated their school buildings in ‘good condition’ (i.e., well maintained structure, adequate ventilation, adequate lighting, and no roof leakages). Thirteen percent considered their school buildings ‘not in good’ condition, with several structural damages. The remaining four percent consider their school buildings as ‘hazardous’—i.e. structures that are unstable and defective and could cause harm.30

Figure 13 shows the proportion of schools with adequate facilities (ventilation, lighting, furniture, toilets, and spaces for children). Fifty-eight percent of LCPSs rated their school buildings as having ‘inadequate’ classroom facilities for children (e.g., not enough school spaces, poor lighting and ventilation). Fifty-seven percent do not have safe ventilation, 79 percent have inadequate urinals, 87 percent have inadequate

29 Over 45% of LCPSs indicated that they had multiple reasons for not taking loans from a bank. 30 This was corroborated through physical observation of the facilities by assessors.

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toilet facilities, and 83 percent have inadequate furniture. For detail on the proportion of LCPSs with adequate facilities by region and district, see Annex 10, Table 10.1.

Figure 13: Adequacy of Facilities

43 58 55 83 79 77 87 96 87 57 42 45 13 17 4 21 13 23 Staff Classrooms Seating Furniture Computers Urinal Toilets Ventilation Storeroom common for children spaces for in room children classrooms

Adequate Inadequate

Source: School Checklist, Assessment of LCPSs in FtF/RING II Districts, July 2019

3.2.4 Learning Achievement

Finding 23: Pupils in LCPSs perform better on numeracy and reading skills than pupils in public schools The GES-approved Ghanaian languages of instruction differ across the 10 target districts. The assessment adopted the GES NEAU 2015 approach of determining learning outcomes by comparing the EGRA zero-score percentages of one group of pupils to another based on their inability to provide a single correct response to a given reading subtask. The basic assessment procedure of the EGRA test used to compare learning outcomes among pupils is to compare the inability of pupils’ performances across subtasks in different languages rather than by their ability. Detailed performance scores and related tasks are presented in Annex 11, Table 11.1 – Table 11. 12.

Zero Score Performances of Pupils in the EGRA Subtasks The EGRA performance in LCPSs covers a range of literacy skills involving five subtasks: letter-sound identification, non-word decoding, listening comprehension, oral passage reading fluency, and reading comprehension. Table 12 presents the percentage of zero scores of pupils in the LCPSs and public schools in Ghana based on the 2015 EGRA conducted by NEAU. On oral reading fluency, the zero- score percent in the Ghanaian language (Dagaare 68 percent; Dagbani 64 percent) is twice the overall zero score for English (32 percent). In the LCPSs, more attention was being given to teaching English compared to Ghanaian languages. Evidence that the LCPSs taught primarily in English supported this. Due to the differences in languages, the EGRA assessment does not attempt to compare the fluency rates and scores between languages but rather compares the percentages of pupils who were unable to provide a correct response to a given task. Comparing one language to another is beyond the scope of this study.

Pupils’ performance on the reading comprehension subtask is low, as evidenced by the high number (more than 80 percent) of zero scores in both English and Ghanaian language (Dagaare and Dagbani). The number of zero scores is significant, with 81 percent of pupils in LCPSs and 85 percent in public schools unable to read and comprehend English. A high number of zero scores were equally observed in Dagaare reading and comprehension (LCPSs at 80 percent versus public schools at 98 percent) and in Dagbani (LCPSs at 81 percent versus public schools at 90 percent). This confirms that pupils in LCPSs, like their public counterparts, are unable to read and comprehend at the end of P2, as observed in the EGRA 2013 and 2015 reports. It further suggests that pupils in both LCPSs and the public schools do

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not receive the level of basic literacy instruction necessary to enable them to read fluently and comprehend. However, across all subtasks, the number of zero scores of public-school pupils is higher than for LCPS pupils. This suggests that LCPS pupils perform better than public school pupils in literacy and reading skills.

Table 12: EGRA zero scores for public schools and LCPSs EGRA subtasks EGRA in LCPSs , EGRA in public schools 2019rivate School (GES, NEAU, 2015) Letter-sound Identification 22.51 48.7 Non-Word Decoding 60.36 75.7

Oral Reading Fluency 31.97 40.4 Listening Comprehension 47.57 79.5

English Reading Comprehension 81.33 85.4 Letter-Sound Identification 22.50 63.2

Non-Word Decoding 67.50 91.8 Oral Reading Fluency 67.50 88.2 Listening Comprehension 7.50 27.4

Dagaare Reading Comprehension 80.00 97.7 Letter-sound Identification 31.36 49.6

Non-Word Reading 83.05 84.1 Oral Reading Fluency 63.56 77.6 Listening Comprehension 29.24 52.9

Dagbani Reading Comprehension 80.93 90.0 Source: GES, NEAU 2015 and EGRA Data Scores, Assessment of LCPS in FtF/RING II Districts, July 2019

Zero Score Performances by Pupils in the EGMA Subtasks LCPS pupils perform better in EGMA, particularly in the basic subtasks such as number identification, number discrimination, missing numbers, and addition but perform poorly in the conceptual knowledge subtasks. In the overall performance as shown in Table 13, no child scored zero in number identification, indicating all the pupils were able to recognize and mention a number in the test. There is an overall zero score of one percent in number discrimination, three percent in addition, and three percent in missing numbers.

The number identification subtask involves identifying and recognizing numbers as a basic procedural mathematical skill and is the least demanding of the EGMA subtasks. However, pupils have some difficulties with conceptual knowledge application, which involves some high order reasoning, such as the subtraction subtask and word problems subtask. For example, 15 percent were unable to complete subtraction subtasks, while six percent have a zero score in word problems. This suggests that pupils can recall facts, rules, and procedures but lack basic conceptual knowledge that will aid them in acquiring basic concepts in math. This leads pupils to memorize math rules. In all the subtasks, the LCPS pupils had fewer zero scores than public school pupils. This suggests that despite the challenges, LCPSs pupils perform better than public school pupils.

Table 13: EGMA zero scores for LCPSs and public schools

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EGMA subtasks EGMA for EGMA for public EGMA for public LCPSs, 2019 schools (GES, schools (GES, NEAU, 2013) NEAU, 2015) Number Identification 0 0.6 0.8 Number discrimination 1.0 3.5 3.3 Missing numbers 2.5 7.6 6.5 Addition (Level 1) 3.3 8.1 9.6 Subtraction (Level 1) 14.8 19.3 22.1 Word Problems 5.9 9.1 8.7 Source: GES, NEAU, EGMA Data Scores, 2013 & 2015, and Assessment of LCPS in FtF/RING II Districts, EGMA Data Scores, July 2019

Finding 24: Government does not support LCPSs with teaching and learning materials Teaching and learning materials (TLMs) are inadequate in LCPSs; only 23 percent of the 51 LCPSs have a sufficient supply (six out of 19 in urban area and six out of 32 in rural area). Ghana’s Education Strategic Plan (ESP, 2018-2030) states the government will provide private schools with textbooks. In practice, this does not occur. Interviews with district education directors, LCPS headteachers, and GNAPS confirmed the government is not issuing textbooks to private schools because of shortages within the public system.

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4.0 CONCLUSION

The following conclusions are discussed as they relate to the assessment questions 1 and 2. 1. What are the supply and demand trends for LCPSs in northern Ghana, with a focus on the 17 FtF and RING II districts?

● LCPSs have proven to be a viable alternative for basic education. They serve the needs of families in the assessment areas, recording increased growth in enrollment (private school enrollment increased from four percent in the 2009/2010 academic year to 11 percent in the 2017/2018 academic year, as shown in Table 4).

● Demand for LCPSs is based on parents’ perception that the private sector is delivering higher quality results and educational learning outcomes. The higher early grade literacy and numeracy skills of LCPS pupils compared to public school pupils would support this.

● Farming households and traders are the primary beneficiaries of LCPSs, though LCPS proprietors also target families with various occupational backgrounds.

● LCPS pupils outperform their counterparts in public schools based on EGRA and EGMA zero scores documented in this assessment.

● There is still unmet demand for LCPSs, as evidenced by long waiting lists. Forty-three percent of the LCPSs across the sampled districts have waiting lists.

2. How effective are the LCPSs in the FtF/RING II districts in terms of management, leadership, business model and sustainability, infrastructure, and learning achievement?

● Proprietors and headteachers are actively involved in running their schools. They ensure high teacher performance through multiple measures, including close supervision and monitoring, award schemes, incentive packages, and disciplinary actions such as salary deductions for absenteeism. These measures account for parents’ perception that LCPSs have higher teacher commitment levels and stronger disciplinary measures than do public schools and that these factors may contribute to better learning outcomes for LCPS pupils.

● Sixty-two percent of LCPSs are profitable on an annual basis based on NPM. The predominant business model is one that minimizes costs (particularly teachers’ salaries) and maximizes revenue. Given that salaries are the major cost element, proprietors minimize cost by hiring primarily SHS graduates in order to keep salaries below GHS 200 per month.31 The majority of proprietors also own their structures, which helps minimize operational costs.

31 The minimum wage in Ghana per month is GHS 243.

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● Although tuition remains the principal source of revenue, LCPSs use funds from school feeding schemes, extra classes, and other sources to sustain operations, improve cash flow, increase profitability, and incentivize teachers. LCPSs with school feeding as part of their business model are more profitable than those without.

● PTAs were active and, in most cases, involved in decision making (65 percent of LCPSs had highly active PTAs that were involved in decision making). None of the LCPSs had a board of directors.

● Proprietors are aware of the importance of business advisory services and are open to receiving such support to boost chances of accessing funds to expand their operations.

● Financial institutions have a ready model to support LCPSs. Improving documentation will qualify LCPSs to access funds under this model to address current challenges, including poor- quality infrastructure.

● Although the majority of the surveyed schools are registered with GES, they do not meet the GES regulation that requires at least 30 percent of a school’s teachers to be trained teachers.

● Government was not providing LCPSs with teaching and learning materials on a regular basis.

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5.0 RECOMMENDATIONS

The three key actionable recommendations from this study are:

● USAID could support a large-scale effort to assist the private sector to expand LCPSs in the ADVANCE and RING II districts, with a program design that increases the supply of LCPSs, financially supports business development services, and provides financial incentives to strengthen their business models. This will require access to affordable business services, which will help existing LCPSs to improve their profitability and develop strategic business plans. It could also expose them to highly successful LCPSs (e.g., OMEGA). Where possible, it could lead to expanding LCPSs’ branches to reach more rural areas of the district.

● USAID in collaboration with GES could expand their Partnership for Education: Learning to improve reading efficiency at lower grade levels across LCPSs by conducting training, empowering proprietors and headteachers to monitor/mentor/support, and providing teaching and learning materials. Increasing pupil enrollment in existing LCPSs will depend on improving learning quality and efficiency.

● USAID could support loan incentive schemes. These could be targeted at families with children who are not in school, with children who have dropped out, and with girls and other vulnerable groups in the regions where RING II operates. The demand and affordability of LCPSs among the poor in northern Ghana will be enhanced if parents who are already involved in VSLA schemes or rural bank savings programs can improve their incomes to invest and participate in LCPS education through matched education conditional loans.

What cost-effective assistance could help LCPSs in the FtF/RING II districts improve their business models and significantly expand enrollment of marginalized school-age children from the communities they serve?

● USAID could pursue expansion of home-grown, school feeding models or VSLA schemes, which are tied to agriculture incentives/capacity building,32 and pursue the participation of households in basic education, especially in areas with limited or no access to public schools within a 3 km radius.

● USAID could facilitate LCPSs’ access to business support services. This includes assisting LCPSs in obtaining the documentation needed for them to access funding from financial institutions. This will ensure the effectiveness and growth of the LCPSs. With this access to external financing opportunities, the LCPS sector can expand, create jobs for teachers, and further improve the quality of education.

Demand-side interventions

1. Given that over 63 percent of those who patronize LCPSs work in agriculture, interventions that improve their incomes will better position them to access LCPSs. Involvement of these farmers in school feeding programs could have a mutual benefit. For example, USAID could support a large-scale effort to establish linkages between farmer groups (including VSLAs) in the ADVANCE and RING II districts with a program design that links their agricultural production

32 These programs can be facilitated by rural banks and civil society using a matching/conditional grant or provision of seed capital for the VSLA.

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to school feeding programs across districts in the five northern regions, particularly in rural areas where public schools are not available. The agricultural value chain programs could be conditional on the sale to and purchase by LCPSs located in these areas. Also, establishing school farms could support LCPS feeding programs and reduce cost to parents. PTAs/SMCs should monitor this process to ensure the schools do not use the children on the farms.

2. To sustain demand for LCPSs, USAID could provide incentives to rural and low-income parents by providing agricultural inputs and providing support from existing programs such as RING and ADVANCE, with the aim to improve incomes.

3. Agriculture- and livelihoods-focused NGOs could support parents to form Parent Support Groups (PSGs) to provide grants and skills training in enterprises such as: enhancing shea butter production, agro-processing, etc. (selected enterprises would be based on their viability in the communities) as an alternate source of income during the farming off-seasons.

4. The Ministry of Agriculture, financial institutions, the Grameen Foundation, and CSOs could establish revolving loan or VSLA schemes to support family businesses. Strong linkages should be made between agricultural value chain programs and other agriculture growth programs (e.g., RING/ADVANCE) to improve parents’ ability to invest in LCPSs for their children. Such efforts could have a two-fold advantage of increasing household incomes while also improving children’s access to a higher quality education offered through LCPSs.

Supply-side interventions

5. USAID could provide incentives for proprietors and educational entrepreneurs to establish LCPSs, particularly in rural areas. This could be achieved through cost-sharing partnership arrangements with prospective educational entrepreneurs.

6. USAID could partner with financial institutions to expand LCPSs’ access to financing.

7. GNAPs could support civil society networks for LCPSs to lobby for capitation grants, training, textbooks, and uniforms for underprivileged children.

The study revealed the need to build capacity and improve performance in order to sustain the quality of educational delivery by the LCPSs:

● GNAPS’ capacity could be enhanced to lobby government to provide TLMs, furniture, textbooks, and trained teachers. Also, reduced taxes on imported educational items, etc., would improve LCPS operations.

● GNAPS, GES and the teacher training colleges could support LCPSs to deliver higher-quality teaching and learning standards through capacity-building efforts33.

● LCPSs could lobby government to provide in-service training for untrained teachers in private schools and/or to increase access to distance education through scholarships and/or subsidies. Both could contribute to improving teacher capacity in private schools.

33 The GES sees LCPSs as complementing quality education in Ghana but does not live up to fulfilling its mandate in the areas of supplying LCPSs with textbooks, TLMs, trained teachers, etc. and supporting LCPSs to grow. Although GES supports LCPSs with capacity-building, this is done at a fee.

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● Proprietors could explore ways to conduct in-service training, with support from GES, teacher training institutions, and/or external sources. Literacy instruction must be improved, with an emphasis on teaching pupils the accelerated phonics-based approaches for early grade reading.

● District Education Officers (DEOs) could be tasked to train LCPS proprietors and headteachers on the early grade reading and math interventions. Extend the USAID Partnership for Education: Learning pedagogic approaches and training to LCPSs. Headteachers and DEOs should conduct monitoring on a regular basis to assess improved student and teacher performance.

● GES in collaboration with GNAPS could strengthen LCPSs’ ability to ensure child protection, safety, and gender equity policies, early childhood development, etc. through social welfare mechanisms under the District Assembly and GES.

Strengthen business models and profitability of LCPSs

● Non-state actors (entrepreneurship agencies) and consultants could work to enhance LCPSs’ capacity to develop business plans, improve their business models, stabilize cash flow, explore alternative sources of income, and ensure systematic collection of school fees (e.g., daily fee tracking).

● Similar to the Omega School model34 where there is an enhanced engagement with parents to ensure daily collection of tuition fees, LCPSs will need to improve their daily or weekly tuition collection fees through a strengthened parent engagement structure.

Improving Governance and Accountability

● LCPS expansion could be tied to the existence of a functioning board of directors and business registration with the relevant statutory bodies, including the Registrar General and the Department of Social Welfare.

● GES in collaboration with GNAPS could review and strengthen the minimum standards of accountability and quality educational delivery that are demanded of the public schools and apply these standards to LCPSs. These standards should include child protection and safety measures as well as educational quality standards.

● GES in collaboration with GNAPS35 could enhance GNAPS’ capacity to improve advocacy efforts and create an enabling environment for LCPSs in Ghana. These advocacy efforts should include ensuring that GES provides in-service training and textbooks.

34 https://www.omega-schools.com/payl-model.php 35 Education quality standards and child friendly school standards have been developed by MoE/GES and these should be adopted by LCPSs.

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1. Abdul-Hamid, H., Baum, D. R., De Brular, L. L., Lusk-Stover, O., & Tettey, L. O. (2017). Ghana engaging the private sector in education: SABER pilot country report 2015. 2. Akyeampong, K., & Rolleston, C. (2013). Low-fee private schooling in Ghana: Is growing demand improving equitable and affordable access for the poor? Low-fee private schooling: Aggravating equity or mitigating disadvantage, 37-64. 3. Akuguri, L. (2013) ‘Fee Free Public or Low fee Private Basic Education in Rural Ghana: How Does the Cost Influence the Choice of the Poor?’ Compare: A Journal of Comparative and International Education: 1-22. 4. Akuguri, L. and K. Akyeamong (2010) ‘Public and Private Schooling in Rural Ghana, Are the Poor Being Served’ CREATE Ghana Policy Brief 3. 5. Ardila, A., Rosselli, M., Matute, E., & Guajardo, S. (2005). The influence of the parents’ educational level on the development of executive functions. Developmental Neuropsychology, 28(1), 539–560, Lawrence Erlbaum Associates, Inc. 6. Casely-Hayford, L., Ghartey, A. and J. Quartey (2018). Parental Choice and Preference in Basic Education in Extreme Poverty Zones of Northern Ghana. (DFID Commissioned study under the Complementary Basic Education program, Ghana) 7. Casely-Hayford, L. (2018) Education Budget Analysis for 2019. Presentation to the Parliament of Ghana. 8. Center for Education Innovations (2013). Low Cost Private Schools; Database at a Glance. Retrieved from https://educationinnovations.org/topics/low-cost-private-schools 9. Day Ashley, L., Mcloughlin, C., Aslam, M., Engel, J., Wales, J., Rawal, S., & Rose, P. (2014). The role and impact of private schools in developing countries: a rigorous review of the evidence. Final Report. USA [United States of America]: Education Rigorous Literature Review, Department for International Development. 10. Feed the Future. (2018). The Global Food Security Strategy (GFSS) Ghana Country Plan 11. Gadkari, M., Epstein, A., Albornoz, M., Tettey, L., Higgins, J., & Dawuda, M. (2018). USAID Partnership for Education: Evaluating Systems Teacher Rationalization, Retention, And Language Study: Final Report. USAID Ghana. 12. Gadkari, M., Epstein, A., Albornoz, M., Tettey, L., Higgins, J.,Thompson, Tommie., & Dawuda, M. (2019). Ghana Early Grade Reading Impact Evaluation 2018 Midline Report. USAID Ghana. 13. Gadkari, M., Epstein, A., Cole, K., Duthie, M., L., Higgins, J.,Thompson, Tommie., & Dawuda, M. (2019). Ghana Early Grade Math Pilot Impact Evaluation 2018 Endline Report. USAID Ghana. 14. Ghana Education Service, National Education Assessment Unit. (2015). 15. Ghana 2015 Early Grade Reading Assessment and Early Grade Mathematics Assessment. Report of Findings. USAID Ghana Partnership for Education: Testing. USAID, Washington, DC, and RTI International, Research Triangle Park, North Carolina. 16. Ghana Education Service, National Education Assessment Unit. (2018)USAID. Ghana Early Grade Reading Program Impact Evaluation 2017 Baseline report. Retrieved from https://pdf.usaid.gov/pdf_docs/PA00SWTF.pdf 17. ILM/IDEAS (2014). Access to Finance for Low Cost Private Schools in Pakistan. Retrieved from https://www.educationinnovations.org/sites/default/files/Access to finance for low cost private schools May 2014 FINAL.pdf 18. IDP (2018) Banking on Education, Accra - Ghana, IDP Foundation and CapPlus, 2018. 19. IDP Foundation. (2016) Understanding Household and School Proprietor Needs in Low-Fee Private Schools in Ghana. Retrieved from http://www.idpfoundation.org/assets/downloads/LFPS Needs Assessment Final Report_External-20171026115202.pdf 20. IFC (2010) Final Ghana Country Report: Market Research Project on Low Income Private Schools, IFC, 2010. Retrieved from http://www.edify.org/wp.../Edify-IFC-Ghana-report-low-cost-schools-Oct 2010.pdf

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21. Kaeveney, E., Epstein, A., K., Duthie, M., Sidiqqui,H., Dawuda, M. Wang, M., & Hoo, B. (2018). Ghana Numeracy Pilot Impact Evaluation 2017 Baseline Report. USAID Ghana. 22. Little, A. W. (2010). Access to Basic Education in Ghana: Politics, Policies, and Progress. CREATE Pathways to Access. Research Monograph No. 42. Online Submission. 23. McLoughlin, C. (2013). Low-Cost Private Schools: Evidence, Approaches and Emerging Issues, ePS- Peaks. 24. Mendez, A., Islam, S., & Ardington, C. S. (2019). Impact Assessment of IDP Foundation, Inc. and Sesame Workshop's Techniques for Effective Teaching Program in Ghana. Retrieved from http://www.norc.org/Research/Projects/Pages/impact-assessment-of-idp-foundation-inc-and-sesame- workshops-techniques-for-effective-teaching-program-in-ghana.aspx 25. Ministry of Education. (2018a). Education Sector Medium-Term Development Plan 2018- 2021. Accra Ghana. (draft) 26. Ministry of Education (2018b) Education Sector Analysis 2018, Accra Ghana (draft) 27. Ministry of Education (2018c). Ghana 2018 National Education Unit Assessment Report of Findings. Ghana Education Service, National Education Assessment Unit. Accra Ghana. 28. Ministry of Education. (2018d) Education Sector Performance report 2018, Accra Ghana 29. Ministry of Education. (2017) Education Sector Performance report 2017, Accra Ghana 30. Ministry of Education. (2016a) Education Sector Performance report 2016, Accra Ghana 31. Ministry of Education. (2016b). Ghana 2016 National Education Unit Assessment Report of Findings. Ghana Education Service, National Education Assessment Unit. Accra Ghana. 32. Ministry of Education. (2010) Education Sector Performance report. Accra Ghana 33. Nagarajan, A., & Tabberer, R. (2016). The Inner Workings of Affordable Private Schools; A guide for entrepreneurs and investors. Retrieved from https://www.pearson.com/content/dam/corporate/global/palf/pdf_files/the-inner-workings-of- affordable-private-schools.pdf Pearson 34. OECD. Organization for Economic Co-operation and Development Staff. (2012). Public and private schools: how management and funding relate to their socio-economic profile. Organization for Economic Cooperation and Development (OECD). 35. Oketch, M., Mutisya, M., Ngware, M., & Ezeh, A. C. (2010). Why are there proportionately more poor pupils enrolled in non-state schools in urban Kenya in spite of FPE policy? International Journal of Educational Development, 30(1), 23-32. 36. Tooley, J., & Longfield, D. (2015). The Role and Impact of Private Schools in Developing Countries: A Response to the DFID-Commissioned “Rigorous Literature Review”. 37. Tooley, J., & Yngstrom, I. (2013). School choice in Lagos state. Report prepared for DFID. 38. World Bank (2018) Facing Forward: Schooling for Learning in Africa, Washington : World Bank 39. World Bank Group (2015) Engaging the Private Sector in Education. SABER Pilot Country report. Washington: World Bank. 40. University of Birmingham (2014). The role and impact of private schools in developing countries: a rigorous review of the evidence. Unpublished Final Report. USA [United States of America]: Education Rigorous Literature Review, Department for International Development. The University of Birmingham. (2014). The Role and Impact of Private Schools in Developing Countries: A Rigorous Review of the Evidence. 41. UNESCO (2015) Global Education Monitoring Report: Private Schools: Punishing the Poorest or providing much needed access to education. Paris: UNESCO. 42. United States Agency for International Development. (2011). Education: Opportunity through Learning. USAID Education Strategy, 2011-2015. ERIC Clearinghouse. 43. United States Agency for International Development. (2019) Education Policy Program Cycle Implementation and Operational Guidance. Retrieved from https://www.usaid.gov/documents/1865/education-policy-program-cycle-implementation-and- operational-guidance 44. United States Agency for International Development. (2019) 2018 USAID Education Policy. Retrieved from https://www.usaid.gov/documents/1865/2018-usaid-education-policy

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45. USAID/Evaluating Systems; Ghana Early Grade Reading Impact Evaluation Mid-Line Report, March 2019, USAID/Partnership for Learning.

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ANNEXES

ANNEX 1: SOW Assessment of Low-Cost Private Schools (LCPSs) in Feed the Future (FtF)/Resiliency in Northern Ghana (RING) II Districts in Northern Ghana ASSESS Program – Commissioned Activity Assessment of Low-Cost Private Schools (LCPSs) in Feed the Future Activity (FtF)/Resiliency in Northern Ghana (RING) II Districts in Northern Ghana Requestor USAID Ghana/Education Office Budget US XXXXXXXXX Timelines June 10 – September 27, 2019

1. Background Ghana has experienced rapid expansion in access to basic education. Between 2000 and 2018, the net primary school enrollment rate more than tripled from 30 percent to 93 percent due to a variety of factors including the rollback of education fees for primary education, a tripling of education spending, and rising incomes (Education Sector Analysis (ESA) 2018; Innovation Development Progress (IDP) 2018). Despite impressive gains in access to basic education, the goal of providing every Ghanaian child with quality basic education remains distant. This is evidenced by the low and stagnant learning outcomes measured in national standardized achievement tests in reading and math in grades two (Early Grade Reading/Early Grade Math Assessments (EGRA/EGMA) 2013 and 2015), four and six (National Education Assessment (NEA) 2016 and 2018) at the primary school level.

The management of public basic schools is weak, teacher/head teacher absenteeism is high, the quality of instruction is poor, and in certain areas, access to private schooling, as an alternative, remains low or out of the financial or geographical reach of families that are in the lower income quintiles. To fill the quality gap in basic education, the number of private primary schools increased by more than 46 percent between 2009 and 2015, and enrollment rates in private schools also increased rapidly, from 18 to 25 percent of the total national primary school enrollment (Education Sector Progress Report (ESPR) 2016, 2017 and 2018). This exponential growth of private schools in Ghana has occurred with minimal support from the government. The growth in private schools has been felt mainly in regions, and urban areas in the southern belt of the country as fewer private schools have been established in the 5 northern regions (ESPRs 2016-18). Private schools do not receive government funds. Also, the government is mandated by policies to provide material and training support for private schools; these types of assistance do not, in practice, exist.

Within this context, the “Low-Cost Private School” has emerged as a viable model to provide school choice for working class and marginalized families that desire a higher quality education for their children but cannot afford medium and higher-cost private education. Data collection on private schools, especially LCPSs, has typically been challenging to obtain. Private school proprietors do not rely on public funding, and collecting this type of data is not currently a priority of the Government of Ghana.

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Several national and local NGO/CSOs within the private sector exist, but their data is more complete for the southern regions and urban areas of Ghana than it is for northern Ghana. Further, there is less information on private schools in northern Ghana than there is for the southern belt. The Ghana National Association of Private Schools (GNAPS) is the largest private school association in Ghana with over 5,000 member schools. This number is short of the estimated 9,488 private schools operating in Ghana during the 2017/18 academic year (ESPR 2018). To date, there is no complete national or northern Ghana data set for private education or LCPSs available for informing USAID/Ghana’s CDCS 2020-2025 formulation process.

2. Purpose of the Assessment USAID/Ghana seeks to conduct an assessment on the supply and demand of Low Cost Private Schools (LCPSs) in the 17 districts targeted for inclusion in Feed the Future and Resiliency in Northern Ghana II (FtF/RING II) districts (Gushiegu, Karaga, Mion, Nanton, Sagnerigu, Yendi Municipal, East Mamprusi, Mamprugu Moagduri, Bawku Municipal, Bawku West, Garu, Tempane, Daffiama-Bussie-Issa, Nadowli- Kaleo, Sissala East, Sissala West, and Wa East). The findings from the LCPS assessment will be used to inform USAID/Ghana’s emerging Country Development Cooperation Strategy (CDCS) 2020-2025 with specific focus on addressing the empowerment of marginalized populations, improving the equitable delivery of quality education services, and supporting private sector growth in impoverished areas in northern Ghana in which USAID/Ghana Economic Growth (EG) project is active. The proposed LCPSs assessment will identify the supply of LCPSs in the 17 FtF/RING II districts; their business strengths/weaknesses; the quality of the supply of current LCPSs operating in those districts; and, the demand for LCPSs basic school services in the communities that they serve. Lastly, the assessment will recommend programmatic interventions that would increase the quantity and quality of supply of LCPSs directly related to expanding enrollment to children of families living in marginalized communities in which these institutions serve.

3. Scope of the Assessment The scope of the assessment is as follows: 1. What are the supply and demand trends for LCPSs in northern Ghana, with a particular focus on the 17 FtF and RING II districts? 2. How effective are the LCPSs in the FtF/RING II districts in terms of management, leadership, business model and sustainability, infrastructure, and learning achievement? 3. What cost-effective assistance could help LCPSs in the FtF/RING II districts improve their business models and significantly expand enrollment of marginalized school-age children from the communities they serve?

3.1 Geographic Scope The geographic scope of the assessment includes:

- The 17 districts targeted for inclusion in Feed the Future and Resiliency in Northern Ghana II (FtF/RING II) districts including Gushiegu, Karaga, Mion, Nanton, Sagnerigu, Yendi Municipal, East Mamprusi, Mamprugu Moagduri, Bawku Municipal, Bawku West, Garu, Tempane, Daffiama- Bussie-Issa, Nadowli-Kaleo, Sissala East, Sissala West, and Wa East.

3.2 Sector Scope

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Collect and understand the most relevant information and data on the quantity and quality of the supply of LCPSs in FtF/RING II districts of northern Ghana.

4. Approach and Methods ASSESS recognizes the importance of this assessment results, which will inform USAID/Ghana’s CDCS 2020-2025 formulation process for analyzing cost-effective support to LCPS in FtF/RING II districts. ASSESS will leverage its expertise in conducting assessments, evaluations, and other studies to execute this task on time while producing high-quality deliverables. ASSESS will work closely with the USAID/Ghana Education Office in the implementation of this assessment. ASSESS will conduct the assessment in three phases, namely: 1) Inception and Documentation Review phase; 2) Training and Fieldwork phase; 3) Data Analysis and Report Development phase. Details of activities to be carried out under each phase are presented below.

Phase 1: Inception and Documentation Review 1.1 Inception Meeting The Assessment Team, including ASSESS, will have an inception meeting with USAID/Ghana Mission Education Office at the USAID/Ghana office. This will allow the team to understand USAID’s expectations with regards to the quality of the Deliverables and also to understand USAID’s quality assessment processes and timelines. We will also use the inception meeting to get further clarifications of our mandate and use the opportunity to obtain all relevant project documents for review.

I.2 Documentation Review The documentation review will provide a deepened understanding of the assignment and inform the development of the data collection tools and protocols as well as the fieldwork schedule. Information sources or documents to be reviewed during the desk-review include, but not limited to:

● Access to Basic Education in Ghana: Politics, Policies, and Progress; Angela W. Little; Create Pathways to Access, Research Monologue No. 42; August 2010. ● Banking on Education, Accra, Ghana; IDP Foundation, Inc.; March 2018. ● Education Sector Medium Term Development Plan (ESMTD) 2018-2021 (MoE). ● Education Sector Analysis, 2018, September 2018 (MoE). ● Education Sector Performance Report, 2016, Ghana (MoE). ● Education Sector Performance Report, 2017, Ghana (MoE). ● Education Sector Performance Report, 2018, Ghana (MoE). ● Education Strategic Plan (ESP) 2018-2030, September 2018 (MoE). ● Engaging the Private Sector in Education; SABER Pilot Country Report; 2015. ● Fee-free Public or Low-fee Private Basic Education in Rural Ghana: How Does the Cost Influence the Choice of the Poor; Compare: A Journal of Comparative and International Education; December 2015. ● Ghana 2015 Early Grade Reading and Early Grade Mathematics Assessment: Report of Findings (MoE). ● Ghana 2016 National Education Assessment, Report of Findings (MoE). ● Ghana 2018 National Education Assessment, Report of Findings (MoE). ● Ghana Teacher Rationalization Study, February 2019, USAID/Evaluating Systems.

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● Ghana Early Grade Reading Impact Evaluation Mid-Line Report, March 2019, USAID/Learning. ● Ghana Early Grade Math Pilot Impact Evaluation End-Line Report, April 2019, USAID/Learning. ● Ghana’s Global Food Security Strategy Country Plan. ● Impact Assessment of IDP Foundation, Inc. and Sesame Workshop’s Techniques for Effective Teaching Program in Ghana, NORC, University of Chicago for IDP Foundation, Inc., November 2018. ● Low-Fee Private Schools in Low-Income Districts of Accra, Ghana; Dr. Joanna Harma; March 2018. ● Quality Low-Fee Private Schools for the Rural Poor: Perception of Reality? Evidence from Southern Ghana; Luke Akaguri; Create Pathways to Access, Research Monologue No. 69; May 2011. ● Understanding Household and School Proprietor Needs in Low-Fee Private Schools in Ghana, IDP Foundation, Inc., 2018. ● USAID ADVANCE FY 2018 Annual Report. ● USAID Education Policy, November 2018. ● USAID Education Policy: Program Cycle Implementation and Operational Guidance, November 2018. ● USAID Education Strategy, February 2011. ● 2015 RING-SPRING Baseline Report.

1.3 Development of Inception Report As required in the SOW, ASSESS will develop an inception report to USAID within three (3) weeks of approval of the response SOW and budget. The Assessment Team will develop the inception report within two weeks and as part of ASSESS quality checks, one (1) week would be spent to review the inception report with our partners before submission to USAID. The inception report will detail our methodology, assessment work plan, field research plan, and data collection tools. We expect to receive reviews and comments on the inception report from USAID within one week of submission.

1.4 In-brief with USAID/ Ghana Education Office Comments received from USAID/Ghana on the inception report will be incorporated, and a final inception report submitted to USAID/Ghana. Before the fieldwork, the assessment team will develop MS-PowerPoint presentation slides and deliver on the assessment work plan and the field research plan to USAID/Ghana Mission in-person. The presentation will last for 30 minutes, followed by Q&A. The in- brief with USAID/Ghana Mission will provide the opportunity for the assessment team to receive further guidance concerning the basis for assessing the completion and quality of the assessment report.

Phase 2: Training and Field Work 2.1 Training of Research Officers ASSESS will recruit a total of ten (10) Research Officers experienced in early childhood assessment and educational surveys. The Research Officers, though experienced, will be trained on the objectives of the assignment, background information, household selection criteria, and on the survey instruments. Key techniques to be adopted during the session will be plenary sessions including lectures, practical work in small groups (simulating interview, role plays) and discussions to ensure that Research Officers understands the survey instruments as well as the overall goals of the assessment. The sessions will also

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serve as avenues to refine the instruments where appropriate. We estimate five (5) days for the training of the Research Officers on the survey instrument. All training materials, including printed questionnaires, will be finalized before the training. The training will be conducted by the Team Leader, Private Sector Specialist, and the EGMA/EGRA Learning Assessment Expert.

2.2 Field Work After training of the Research Officers, the team will conduct key informant interviews (KIIs) which will target key businesses and the government agencies at the national and district level who are responsible for private sector coordination. These include KIIs with the Ministry of Education (MoE), the Ghana Education Service (GES), Non-Governmental Organisations (NGO), and Civil Society Organisations (CSO); field survey and mapping of LCPSs; interviews with private and public education experts and officials (national, regional, district, sub district, municipal and SMCs, traditional leaders, parents and community members, PTA officials, parents, school-age children, and beneficiaries of FtF/RING activities; early grade reading and math assessments; and FGDs. The field work will be for three (3) weeks. Details of our field research plan will be presented in the inception report.

Phase 3: Data Analysis and Report Development Phase 3 involves four (4) main activities – Data Analysis, Initial findings and out-brief, generation of Draft Assessment Report, and Finalization of Final Assessment Report. Details of each activity are presented below.

3.1 Data Analysis The Team Leader will coordinate data analysis and work with the Data Collection and Analysis Expert and the Reading/Maths Learning Assessment Specialist to develop the assessment report.

3.2 Initial findings and Out-brief The assessment team will develop MS-PowerPoint presentation slides and deliver their preliminary findings to USAID/Ghana Mission in-person one week after completion of fieldwork. The presentation will last for 30 minutes followed by Q&A. The presentation and documents will be in English. The out- brief with USAID/Ghana Mission will provide the opportunity for the assessment team to receive further guidance with respect to the structure and format of the assessment report. The primary audience of this out-brief presentation is USAID/Ghana Mission Education Office. Sensitive information obtained through interviews will not be published publicly. A public and USAID-only version of the final report will be developed by the assessment team.

3.3 Generation of Draft Assessment Report The assessment Team Leader will deliver a draft assessment report with all attachments to USAID/Ghana. The draft report will be 35 pages with a short executive summary and an accompanying PPT presentation of not more than 10 slides. The draft assessment report will be shared as a Google Doc to facilitate team review by USAID/Ghana. The Draft Assessment Report will be submitted to USAID/Ghana three (3) weeks after the out-brief presentation. The assessment team will use two (2) weeks to generate the draft assessment report and ASSESS partners will use one week to review to provide quality assurance. ASSESS expect to receive feedback from USAID/Ghana within two (2) weeks.

3.4 Finalization of Assessment Report

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Upon receiving feedback from USAID/Ghana, the Team Leader with support from the team members will revise the report incorporating all questions and comments from USAID/Ghana, and submit a final report through ASSESS within fifteen (15) business days. Where necessary, ASSESS will send a request to USAID/Ghana Mission Education Office for additional days. If necessary, the team may need to create a report for USAID and a separate one for public dissemination that excludes sensitive information provided through interviews. All interview data and records will be submitted in full and should be in electronic form in an easily readable format, organized and documented for use by those not fully familiar with the subject or region, and owned by USAID/Ghana Mission Education Office.

5. Deliverables ASSESS will work with the assessment team on the following deliverables:

1) An inception meeting (in-person): The assessment team will participate in an inception meeting with USAID/ Ghana Mission Education Office.

2) Inception Report: The assessment team will develop and submit an inception report to USAID/Ghana Mission Education Office at the end of the first phase of the assessment. The inception report will detail the proposed approach, methodology timeline, team composition, and estimated budget for the completion of the work. Also, the inception report will include: ● Key findings from the initial desk review. ● A work plan which indicates the phases in the assessment with key deliverables ● Proposed field research plan detailing the description and rationale for all assessment instruments, interview/FGD guides for each phase of the assessment. ● Appended draft data collection tools for conducting the assessment.

USAID/Ghana Mission Education Office may require modifications to the inception report before approval.

3) In-brief presentation to USAID/Ghana Mission Education Office: Before the fieldwork, the assessment team will develop MS-PowerPoint presentation slides and deliver the assessment work plan and the field research plan to USAID/Ghana Mission in-person. The presentation will last for 30 minutes, followed by Q&A. The presentation and documents will be in English. The in-brief with USAID/Ghana Mission will provide the opportunity for the assessment team to receive further guidance concerning the basis for assessing the completion and quality of the assessment report. The primary audience of this in-brief presentation on the assessment is USAID/Ghana Mission Education Office.

4) Out-brief presentation to USAID/Ghana Mission Education Office: The assessment team will develop MS-PowerPoint presentation slides and deliver their preliminary findings to USAID/Ghana Mission in-person, one week after completion of fieldwork. The presentation will last for 30 minutes followed by Q&A. The presentation and documents will be in English. The out-brief with USAID/Ghana Mission will provide the opportunity for the assessment team to receive further guidance concerning the structure and format of the assessment report. The primary audience of this out-brief presentation is USAID/Ghana Mission Education Office. Sensitive information obtained through interviews will not be published publicly. The assessment team will develop a public and USAID-only version of the final report.

5) Draft Assessment Report: The assessment Team Leader will deliver a draft assessment report with all attachments to USAID/Ghana. The draft report will be 35 pages with a short

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executive summary and an accompanying PPT presentation of not more than 10 slides. The draft assessment report will be shared as a Google Doc to facilitate team review by USAID Ghana. The Draft Assessment Report will be submitted to USAID/Ghana two (2) weeks after the out- brief presentation. ASSESS will expect to receive feedback from USAID/Ghana within two (2) weeks.

6) Final Assessment Report: Upon receiving feedback from USAID/Ghana, the Team Leader with support from the team members will revise the report incorporating all questions and comments from USAID/Ghana, and submit a final report through ASSESS within fifteen (15) business days. Where necessary, ASSESS will send a request to USAID/Ghana Mission Education Office for additional days. If necessary, the team may need to create a report for USAID and a separate one for public dissemination that excludes sensitive information provided through interviews. All interview data and records will be submitted in full and should be in electronic form in an easily readable format, organized and documented for use by those not fully familiar with the subject or region, and owned by USAID/Ghana Mission Education Office. The assessment shall not be complete until USAID/Ghana Mission Education Office approves the final report. The final assessment report should be no longer than 35 pages in length, written in English, single-spaced in Gills Sans MT, size 11 type font. The final assessment report must contain the following sections:

● Executive Summary ● Background and purpose ● Methodology: This section must detail the methodology and related protocols undertaken in conducting the assessment and related constraints or limitations encountered during implementation. ● Findings: Findings must be presented as analyzed facts, evidence, and data and not based on anecdotes, hearsay, or the compilation of people’s opinions. The findings must be specific, concise, and supported by strong quantitative and qualitative evidence. ● Conclusion ● Recommendations (Proposed actions for management): This section must present recommendations drawn from specific findings. The recommendations must include cost-effective assistance that could help LCPSs in the FtF/RING II districts to improve their business models and significantly expand enrollment of marginalized school-age children from the communities they serve. ● References: This section should include all documents reviewed, including background documentation and records of interviews. ● Annexes: These will include maps created to communicate the information gathered and may include, but not be limited to, statement of work, tools used in conducting the assessments such as questionnaires, checklists, discussion guides, sources of information, etc. The annexes to the report shall include: o The assessment SOW; o All data collection and analysis tools used in conducting the assessments, such as questionnaires, checklists, and discussion guides; o All sources of information and interviews properly identified and listed; o Meeting summaries, and: o Any “statements of difference” regarding significant unresolved differences of opinion by funders, implementers, and/or members of the assessment team. o Contact list including names, e-mails and phone numbers of people met o Mapping of the LCPS

● Final Presentation: The assessment team will update and submit a final MS PowerPoint or similar slide show presentation to USAID/Ghana Mission Education Office.

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6. Assessment Team Composition and Management 6.1. Team Composition, Roles and Responsibilities ASSESS has assembled a team of experts with significant work experience in Ghana, working on several assignments collaboratively with the Ghana Education Service (GES) and the Ministry of Education (MoE). The proposed team is composed of a Team Leader (with over 20 years’ experience in Ghana’s education sector), Private Sector Specialist, Data Collection and Analysis Expert, and Reading/Maths Learning Assessment Expert. The Team Leader will provide oversight and direction for the assessment while the Private Sector Specialist, Data Collection and Analysis Expert and the Reading/Maths Learning Assessment Expert will support the conduct of the data collection on the field and analyze the findings from the field. The communities, schools, NGOs, and CSOs to be interviewed and assessed will be presented in the inception report of the assessment. During the fieldwork, the team will also be supported by Field Research Officers to be recruited from the assessment operational areas. All the experts are based in Ghana and have the skills and knowledge to immediately commence the assignment. All the experts except the Team Leader are Ghanaian citizens who collectively can operate within the 11 official national languages of instruction and English. They also understand the structure and workings of Ghana’s basic school sector, the private school environment and are also familiar with the culture and geography of the target districts. The composition and roles of the team are as follows:

Designation Expert Roles of the proposed team member

Team Dr. Leslie ● The Team Leader will be responsible technically for the overall Leader Caseley- assessment and will provide methodological orientation to other Hayford experts in the team to ensure a relevant sampling methodology, a harmonized approach to data collection and consultation with stakeholders. ● Responsible for ensuring the timely completion of all deliverables, including the inception report, draft assessment report, and the final assessment report. ● Develop MS-PowerPoint slides for in-briefing and out-briefing presentations. The slides will be in accordance with the scope of work and USAID’s requirements. ● Provide technical advice on effective approaches for identifying NGOs, CSOs, and other key sectors. ● Define the methodology for assessing the effectiveness of LCPSs in terms of management, leadership, business model and sustainability, infrastructure, and learning achievement. ● Lead the analysis of the supply and demand trends for LCPSs in northern Ghana with particular focus on the 17 FtF and RING II districts.

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● Provide recommendations on cost-effective assistance that could help LCPSs in the FtF/RING II districts to improve their business models and significantly expand enrollment of marginalized school-age children from the communities they serve.

Private * Millicent ● Provide analysis of the types of private schools existing in the zone Sector Kaleem and identify relevant variables for the design of an adequate sampling Specialist methodology covering relevant variables. ● Analyze factors related to the small business strength/weaknesses/opportunities and threats of the identified LCPSs. ● Assess LCPS as businesses using profit flows, market analysis, and segmentation. ● Evaluate overall business and management systems to identify business strength, growth, and revenue opportunities for the schools. ● Contribute to defining the methodology for assessing the effectiveness of LCPSs in terms of management, leadership, business model and sustainability, infrastructure, and learning achievement. ● Provide technical input for analyzing the supply and demand trends for LCPSs in northern Ghana with particular focus on the 17 FtF and RING II districts. ● Assist the Team Leader to analyze information gathered and advise on the areas of interest for cost-effective assistance that could help LCPSs in the FtF/RING II districts to improve their business models and significantly expand enrollment of marginalized school-age children from the communities they serve.

Data Jones ● Work closely with the Team Leader and provide expert advice to Collection Agyapong ensure successful implementation of the assessment, in compliance and Analysis Frimpong with the Scope of Work (SOW). Expert ● Review draft reports and contribute to improving the quality of all deliverables, including the inception report, draft assessment report, and final assessment report in accordance with the SOW and USAID’s requirements. ● Review the data collection tools and contribute to finalizing them, taking into consideration the objectives and scope of the assessment.

● Contribute to defining the methodology for assessing the effectiveness of LCPSs in terms of management, leadership, business model and sustainability, infrastructure, and learning achievement. ● Provide technical input for analyzing the supply and demand trends for LCPSs in northern Ghana with particular focus on the 17 FtF and RING II districts.

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● Assist the Team Leader to analyze information gathered and advice on the areas of interest for cost-effective assistance that could help LCPSs in the FtF/RING II districts to improve their business models and significantly expand enrollment of marginalized school-age children from the communities they serve.

Reading/Mat Samuel ● Work closely with the Team Leader and provide expert advice to hs Learning Awinkene ensure successful implementation of the assessment, in compliance Assessment Atintono with the Scope of Work (SOW). Expert ● Review draft reports and contribute to improving the quality of all deliverables, including the inception report, draft assessment report, and final assessment report, in accordance with the SOW and USAID’s requirements. ● Review the data collection tools and contribute to finalizing them, taking into consideration the objectives and scope of the assessment.

● Contribute to defining the methodology for assessing the effectiveness of LCPSs in terms of management, leadership, business model and sustainability, infrastructure, and learning achievement. ● Provide technical input for analyzing the supply and demand trends for LCPSs in northern Ghana with particular focus on the 17 FtF and RING II districts. ● Assist the Team Leader to analyze information gathered and advise on the areas of interest for cost-effective assistance that could help LCPSs in the FtF/RING II districts to improve their business models and significantly expand enrollment of marginalized school-age children from the communities they serve. ● Lead the development and quality assurance reviews for standardized EGRA, EGMA, and ASER assessment tests. ● Responsible for leading the adaptation of the instrument EGRA, EGMA, and ASER assessment tests and, later, guiding the assessor training and data collection; ● Responsible for presenting reading/maths research and pedagogical/instruction processes.

Logistics ASSESS ● Recruit field officers. Coordinator ● Manage travel arrangements for the Research Team ● Support research team with logistical and administrative duties related to training workshops and fieldwork.

6.2. ASSESS Technical and Administrative support The ASSESS technical support staff comprises Fedelis Dadzie, COP, Patrick Koomson, M&E Specialist and Nana Fredua-Agyeman, Activity Manager-Evaluation Specialist.

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● The COP, Fedelis Dadzie, will be responsible for the overall technical, administrative and logistical assistance needed by the assessment team for effective coordination and communication among the public institutions and private schools, NGOs, CSOs and key stakeholders in the focus communities. He will provide technical support on research approaches, methods, and data analysis and reporting.

● The M&E Specialist, Patrick Koomson, will provide technical and administrative support to the assessment team with respect to the development and administration of assessment tools, and provide technical backstopping of the analysis process. The M&E Specialist will participate in the field visits and will also contribute to data analysis and reporting.

● The Activity Manager-Evaluation Specialist, Nana Fredua-Agyeman, will coordinate and facilitate field visits for the assessment team by liaising with the local experts to assist in scheduling appointments with the identified institutions and organizations to be reached for the key informant interviews. He will contribute to the data analysis and reporting processes.

Role of ASSESS Staff in the fieldwork ASSESS staff participation in fieldwork is mostly for monitoring and quality control purposes. ASSESS staff will be responsible for ensuring that expert teams implement the assessment in line with the methodology as outlined in the approved inception report. Through direct participation and observation, the staff will monitor the data collection process and provide input and feedback to the team as and when necessary, to facilitate the data collection process. This includes ensuring the correct application of data collection tools. In addition, the ASSESS staff will participate in the internal team working sessions to monitor the trend of initial data analysis/discussions and provide backstopping where necessary, to ensure compliance with the objectives and the scope of the assessment. The staff will also liaise with the USAID/WA POC to confirm meetings (out-brief and in-brief) with the USAID Ghana Mission Education Office and will also assist the team to prepare for these meetings, including reviewing draft presentations. 6.3. USAID Participation Periodic communication between USAID and the assessment team will be critical for the success of the assessment. Any major deviation from this statement of work will require that USAID be informed and approve the change. A representative from USAID Ghana Mission will accompany the assessment team to some of its meetings during field work if interested. GIS Support ASSESS will develop a series of maps to display and communicate the information collected by the assessment team in the targeted districts. This would include maps of the LCPSs and information on the location of displaced and marginalized groups. The GIS Specialist will not travel but will only receive GPS data in a prescribed format. The GIS Specialist will provide orientation to the experts prior to fieldwork to facilitate the collection of the requisite information for developing the maps. ASSESS will engage the services of a GIS Specialist to support the process. 7. Schedule and Estimated Timeline Based on the SOW, the current assignment is expected to be completed within 3 months (June 1– August 30, 2019). However, based on our experience on assignments of similar nature, we estimate a total of 84 working days (16 weeks) with approximately fifteen (15) days (3 weeks) for data collection in the 17 districts. We have also allowed one week for USAID to review the inception report and two (2) weeks to review the Draft Assessment Report. As part of ASSESS’ quality assurance processes, all deliverables are reviewed by our partners before submission to our clients. Our partners will require at least a week to review each of the deliverables – inception report, draft assessment report and final assessment report.

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The detailed work plan for the assessment will be incorporated in the inception report and will be finalized in consultation with USAID/Ghana. Details of our work plan are presented below for your consideration.

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ANNEX 2: List of Sampled Low-Cost Private Schools Region District Name of Name of School Locality Community Sampled schools in Yendi Northern Yendi Gagbeni Riyaadud-deen Educational Complex Urban Northern Yendi Yendi Lucky Star International Urban Northern Yendi Bunbon Vision International School Rural Community Northern Yendi Bonbon Future Leaders Academy Rural Community Sampled schools in Karaga Northern Karaga Karaga Christian International Academy Urban Northern Karaga Karaga High College Academy Urban Northern Karaga Pishigu Tiyumtaba Academy Rural Northern Karaga Nyong-Gumah Nyong-Gumah Nasara Academy Rural Sampled schools in Mion Northern Mion Sang Burhanudeen Islamic primary and KG Rural Northern Mion Sang Grace and Glory Academy Rural Northern Mion Sang NKA INTERNATIONAL ACADEMY Rural Northern Mion Sambu Burhanudeen Islamic primary and KG Rural Sampled schools in Nanton Northern Nanton Nanton Tehi-suma Experimental Primary School Rural Northern Nanton Nanton Tiyumba Basic School Rural Northern Nanton Liman fong, Nasara Academy Rural Nanton Northern Nanton Boglini, Yumzaa Academy Star School Rural Nanton Sampled schools in Gushegu Northern Gushiegu Limam Fong Supreme Academy Rural Northern Gushiegu Gushegu Azare Schools Complex Urban Northern Gushiegu Yishelanyili Neesim Basic School Rural Northern Gushiegu Gushegu Blessed Infant Academy Urban Sampled schools in Sagnarigu Northern Sagnarigu Fou The Good Shephard Early Childhood Rural Development Centre Northern Sagnarigu Kalpohin Rev. Boateng Memorial Primary/KG Urban School Northern Sagnarigu Nyanshegu Bright Masters Academy Rural Northern Sagnarigu Jisonaayili King of Glory Academy Urban Sampled schools in Bawku Upper East Bawku Yirongo Baptist and Glory International Urban

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Region District Name of Name of School Locality Community Upper East Bawku Missiga Royal International Academy Rural Upper East Bawku Kpalwega Unity Stars Academy Rural Upper East Bawku Dadure Kids International School Urban Sampled schools in Bawku West Upper East Bawku Kamega Light for the Vulnerable Rural West Upper East Bawku Kukore Excellent International School Rural West Upper East Bawku Areringa Mother Cynthia Preparatory Rural West Upper East Bawku Sapeliga- Father Paul International School Rural West Zongo Sampled schools in Nadowli-Kaleo Upper Nadowli- Kaleo Bless Foundation KG Rural West Kaleo Upper Nadowli- Nadowli New Life International School Urban West Kaleo Upper Nadowli- Nadowli Light House Christian Mission School Urban West Kaleo Upper Nadowli- Nadowli Pentecost Preparation School Rural West Kaleo Sampled schools in Sissala East Upper Sissala Kusinjan Trine Christian Academy Urban West East Upper Sissala Takorojan Niaa Zomo Academy Urban West East Upper Sissala Nanyua Fountain Gate International School Urban West East Upper Sissala Diglafuuro Green OAKS School Urban West East Selected schools in East Mamprusi North East East Gambaga Buggee Educational Ambition Star Rural Mamprusi Academy Primary School North East East Langbinsi Charity Primary School (LANGBINSI) Rural Mamprusi Sampled schools in Mamprugu Moagduri North East Mamprugu Yagaba Maligu Academy Rural Moagduri North East Mamprugu Tantala Active Child Academy Rural Moagduri Sampled schools for Garu

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Region District Name of Name of School Locality Community Upper East Garu Nomboko Youth Vision Academy Rural

Upper East Garu Garu- Natinga Miracle A/G International School Rural Sampled schools for Tempane Upper East Tempane Kolsabliga Albaraka Educational Complex Rural Upper East Tempane Tubong Saint Bartholomew Academy Primary Rural Sampled schools for Sissala West Upper Sissala Gwollu Living Brook Academy Rural West West Upper Sissala Gwollu Grace provide academy Rural West West Sampled districts for Daffiama-Busie-Issa Upper Daffiama Busie Glory Reign International School Rural West Busie Issa Upper Daffiama Kojokperi Royal International School Rural West Busie Issa

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ANNEX 3: Survey Instruments 1. Full Instrumentation EGRA/EGMA 1. Pupil questionnaire Kasem_FINAL.pdf 2. 2015 EGMA stimulus sheets.pdf 3. EGMA Dagaare_FINAL_2015.pdf 4. EGMA Dagbani_FINAL_2015.pdf 5. EGRA (English) (Dagaare)_2015_FINAL.pdf 6. EGRA (English) (Dagbani)_2015_FINAL.pdf 7. ENGLISH_EGRA stimulus_FINAL_2015.pdf 8. Ghana teacher questionnaire_12June2015.pdf 9. PQ STIMULUS SHEETS.pdf 10. Pupil questionnaire Dagaare_FINAL.pdf 11. Pupil questionnaire Dagbani_FINAL.pdf 12. Pupil questionnaire Gonja_FINAL.pdf

2. Household Level Instruments 1. FGD Guide for HH Head_Parents_23.06.19s.docx 2. FGD Guide with parents in ADVANCE.RING communities with children in LCPSs_25.06.19.docx 3. FGD Guide_Parents in ADVANCE.RING communities with children in public schools_25.06.19s.docx 4. Household Questionnaire_Assess. of LCPS_25.06.19s.docx

3. National and District Level 1. District Education Director Interview Guide_Assess. of LCPS_25.06.19.docx 2. Interview Guide for Financial and non-financial Institutions.Businesses_26.06.19.docx 3. Interview Guide for GNAPS_26.06.19s.docx 4. Interview Guide_District GES Private School Coordinator_Assess. of LCPS_26.06.19.docx 5. Interview Guide_NGOs at the District and National Levels_Assess. of LCPS_26.06.19s.docx 6. Interview guide for Planning Officer or District Coordinating Director at District Assembly Office.

4. School level instruments

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1. Headteacher Interview Guide_Assess. of LCPS_25.06.19.docx 2. School Checklist_Assess. of LCPS_26.06.19.docx 3. School Proprietor Interview Guide_Assess. of LCPS_26.06.19.docx 4. Teachers Interview Guide_Assess. of LCPS_26.06.19.docx

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ANNEX 4: Enrollment Enrollment in Public Primary Schools Table 4.1 presents enrollment figures across public schools in the 17 target districts and out-of- school population. Figures varied across the primary school population (6-11 years) and total enrollment across the 17 target districts. Population (6-11 years) outstripped total enrollment in six out of 17 districts, leading to high proportions of out-of-school children. This implies six of the districts have high out-of- school populations, especially in the Gushegu and the Mion districts.

Table 4.1: Enrollment and Out-of-School Children

Public Primary School Enrollment

District Population Total Total Out-of-school Out of school (6-11yrs) Enrollment Enrollment population population (6-11yrs) using total enrollment (6- enrollment 11 yrs) Gushegu 23,042 17,910 15,469 5,132 7,573 Karaga 15,758 13,258 12,459 2,500 3,299 East Mamprusi 26,541 23,990 23,222 2,551 3,319 Savelugu Nanton 26,207 25,035 25,467 1,172 740 Yendi 22,525 28,240 25,080 -5,715 -2,555 Mamprugu Moagduri 9,980 8,585 7,548 1,395 2,432 Mion 16,423 12,764 11,222 3,659 5,201 Sagnarigu 23,519 44,162 37,788 -20,643 -14,269 Bawku 18,118 21,739 18,518 -3,621 -400 Bawku West 19,966 26,466 22,124 -6,500 -2,158 Garu-Tempane36 28,543 31,509 25,836 -2,966 2,707 Nadowli-Kaleo 11,556 13,339 11,892 -1,783 -336 Sissala East 10,844 12,464 10,957 -1,620 -113 Sissala West 10,279 12,359 10,625 -2,080 -346 Wa East 15,060 15,987 14,184 -927 876 Daffiama-Bussie-Issa 6,255 6,810 5,876 -555 379 Source: EMIS Data (MoE/GES), 2017/18

4.2: Enrollment in Primary Schools by Type of Education, Region and Sex, 2017/2018 Regional distribution of enrollment in primary schools in the Table below reveals that the Ashanti region has the highest enrollment in primary schools (786,370), while the Upper West region has the lowest enrollment (160,901). For all regions, boys’ enrollment exceeds girls’ enrollment except for the Greater Accra region, where the contrary is observed.

36 This district has recently been split into Garu and Tempane districts, and as such there is currently no disaggregated data for either Garu or Tempane.

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Table 4.2: Enrollment in Primary Schools by Type of Education, Region and Sex, 2017/2018

Region Public Private Total Boys Girls Total Boys Girls Total Boys Girls Ashanti 265,023 255,103 520,126 132,535 133,709 266,244 397,558 388,812 Brong Ahafo 170,695 166,328 337,023 52,215 52,319 104,534 222,910 218,647 Central 152,987 145,756 298,743 76,494 77,034 153,528 229,481 222,790 Eastern 160,513 150,368 310,881 54,828 54,665 109,493 215,341 205,033 Greater 128,765 135,974 264,739 146,700 148,172 294,872 275,465 284,146 Accra Northern 241,038 219,608 460,646 29,284 29,320 58,604 270,322 248,928 Upper East 104,640 101,033 205,673 16,067 14,908 30,975 120,707 115,941 Upper West 75,589 75,028 150,617 4,990 5,294 10,284 80,579 80,322 Volta 151,824 143,763 295,587 32,932 33,204 66,136 184,756 176,967 Western 169,252 162,051 331,303 65,924 65,262 131,186 235,176 227,313 Total 1,620,326 1,555,012 3,175,338 611,969 613,887 1,225,856 2,232,295 2,168,899 Source: EMIS Data, 2017/2018

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Table 4.3: Trends in Number of Public and Private Schools from 2013 – 2018 for Project Districts

Districts 2013/14 2014/15 2015/16 2016/17 2017/18 Percent change (2013 – 2018) Public Private Public Private Public Private Public Private Public Private Public Private Yendi 97 8 108 8 105 11 104 17 104 19 7.2 137.5 Gushegu 99 7 105 7 104 8 104 9 106 10 7.1 42.9 Savelugu 93 17 93 20 95 22 95 23 97 24 4.3 41.2 Nanton Sagnarigu 121 32 118 38 121 39 124 40 124 43 2.5 34.4 Karaga 84 6 85 7 87 8 89 10 90 5 7.1 -16.7 Mion 63 1 64 1 66 1 69 1 69 1 9.5 - East 74 26 71 29 73 25 73 25 75 22 1.4 -15.4 Mamprusi Mamprugu 32 0 33 0 35 2 38 3 40 6 25.0 - Moagduri Bawku 47 28 50 28 52 29 52 33 54 43 14.9 53.6 Bawku 66 8 79 12 82 12 82 15 82 15 24.2 87.5 West Garu- 89 21 94 20 92 25 92 28 92 28 3.4 33.3 Tempane Nadowli- 63 2 67 2 71 1 73 3 77 3 22.2 50.0 Kaleo Sissale East 53 4 55 5 59 4 59 6 61 7 15.1 75.0 Sissale 45 2 46 3 51 5 54 5 59 5 31.1 150.0 West Wa East 61 0 62 0 68 0 72 0 75 0 23.0 Daffiama- 26 0 29 0 29 0 28 0 33 0 26.9 Bussie-Issa Source: MoE/GES EMIS Data, 2013 - 2018

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ANNEX 5: Locality and Waiting List Forty-three percent of LCPSs have lists of children waiting for enrollment. A higher proportion (47 percent) of schools in urban communities have waiting lists compared to 41 percent in urban schools. Waiting lists are independent of the locality of the school (Fisher’s exact test= 0.772).

Figure 5.1: Locality and waiting list

100% 90% 80% 41% 47% 43% 70% 60% 50% 40% Waiting list 30% No waiting list Percentage (%) Percentage 59% 53% 57% 20% 10% 0% Rural Urban Total Locality

Source: School Proprietor, Assessment of LCPS in FtF/RING II Districts, July 2019

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ANNEX 6: Excerpts from the FGDS Region Reasons for the preference of LCPSs: Perceived Source quality FGD LCPS Parents

Northern We generally send children right from age 2 to private Parent with child in LCPSs, schools. We think they would get enough [more] Sagnarigu District, Northern attention than public schools and this is what the Region majority of parents do. The parents who would send their kids to the public school are few. In terms of proportions, respondents voted that about 70 percent of parents would send their kids to private schools compared to the remaining 30 percent who would settle for public schools. The private schools provide a good foundation for kids FGD with parents having children at the early age and this leads to high learning in LCPSs, Sagnarigu District, outcomes in future. There is usually a high number of Northern Region kids at the public school such that teachers are overwhelmed with the population of students and are unable to monitor performances of individual students. The private school's attention for kids is so excellent to the extent that class teachers have contacts with each parent and are able to contact them in case of emergency, like a sick child. This doesn't happen at the public schools. Private schools in the community have very good FGD with parents with children in teaching and learning outcomes due to their approach LCPSs, Sagnarigu District, to teaching and learning; and also due to monitoring by Northern Region the proprietors (in contrast to what happens at public schools in the community). Private schools have a very good disciplinary system compared to public schools and emphasize speaking English when kids are in school, which makes them learn English faster than their colleagues in the public schools. We think the private schools teach better, teachers are FGD with parents with children in more committed, and children are well taken care of. LCPSs, Gusheigu District, Northern Region They said the private schools: 1. Give great attention FGD with parents having children to the kids and their parents in their day-to-day in LCPSs, Sagnarigu District, interaction and they share common ideas on how to Northern Region groom the kids; and teachers generally listen to their inputs, which is not the case in public schools, 2. The health of kids is well managed by private schools with their health practices in hand washing and availability of water in the schools compared to public schools, which don’t have water 3. Teachers in private schools

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constantly update parents on their individual kids’ performance, which they said is not done in public schools. Teachers in private schools are well monitored, there FGD with parents having children is an effective use of instructional time in class, and the in LCPSs, Yendi Municipal, students learn better and produce desirable academic Northern Region results. Upper East Parents take their wards to the public school mostly FGD with parents having children because of financial constraints, but they are now trying in LCPSs, Bawku Municipality, hard to take their children to private schools because Upper East Region they teach better and take care of the children well. Children attend private schools mostly in this area. FGD with parents having children Parents are trying hard to take their wards to the in LCPSs, Garu –Tempane private schools because of the care and attention they District, Upper East Region give to the kids. They also teach better than the public school. The private schools teach better than the public FGD with parents having children school. The children are taken better care of in the in LCPSs, Bawku West District, private schools than in the public schools. The Upper East Region infrastructure and learning methods are more adequate in the private schools than the public school. The teachers in the public schools -- though they have attended training college -- are not committed. The children in the private schools speak better and FGD with parents having children also are better disciplined than their colleagues in the in LCPSs, Bawku West public schools. Supervision here is better, which leads to good grades in exams. I think the private schools are generally better than the public ones. The children in the private schools are smarter. They FGD with parents having children learn when they are home and they also bring home in LCPSs, Bawku homework. They tell us their teachers teach them well. We are impressed with what we are seeing. North East The people have interest in education and some go to FGD with parents having children private school because they perform well. in LCPSs, East Mamprusi We think the private schools teach better, teachers are FGD with parents having children more committed, and children are well taken care of. in LCPSs, East Mamprusi Upper West The private schools’ teachers teach better than the FGD with parents having children public-school teachers. The private schools have better in LCPSs, Nadowli-Kaleo supervision. The private schools have time for the children. Quotes on sending children to grasps concepts in early years and then sent to public Upper West Some of us send our children to private schools after FGD with parents having children they have grasped the basics, then we enroll them in in LCPSs, Nadowli-Kaleo the public schools because it all boils down to finance. When we enroll them in the private school till, they get FGD with parents having children to class 4 onwards we take them to the public schools in LCPS, Nadowli-Kaleo

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because the fee in the private schools then becomes higher. FGD Non-LCPS Parents Northern Private schools have better learning outcomes than FGD with parents having children Region public schools, but we cannot afford it. in public schools, Sagnarigu, Tamale We understand there is effective teaching and learning FGD with parents having children in private school, though we have no experience with in public schools, Yendi Municipal such forms of education in this community. Upper East 1. Students in private schools can read better than FGD with parents having children students in the public schools. in public schools, Teringanga, 2. They have better understanding of the TLMs than Tempane those in the public schools 3. Students from private school attain better results than public school students Upper East Students in private schools do better in exams (BECE) FGD with parents having children than their colleagues in public schools. in public schools, Bawku Municipal Upper West Private schools pass their exams better than public FGD with parents having children schools. These days the public schools do not perform in public schools, Nadowli-Kaleo at all. Upper West Teacher absenteeism is common; sometimes the Daffiama-Bussie-Issa, Upper West teachers come, but they do not teach. When you ask Region your child ‘what did you learn today?’ they sometimes tell you ‘nothing; the teacher came but did not teach.’ Upper West Children in private schools in the nearby community FGD with parents having children speak English when they come here, but our children in public schools, Nyemati, Sissala just speak Sissala all the time. West Upper West Though we know private schools in the community, FGD with parents having children from what most of us have seen at different towns and in public schools, Funsi, Wa East communities, the private schools’ students are able to speak and write good English. Source: Focus Group Discussion with Parents, Assessment of LCPS in FtF/RING II Districts, July 2019

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ANNEX 7: Correlational Analysis on School-Level Policies Correlationsc Financial Human Resource or Recruitment Procurement Travel Child Staff Other Management Personnel Manual Manual Policy Policy Protection Welfare Manual Policy Financial Pearson Correlation 1 .330* .206 .145 .145 .154 .137 -.247 Management Manual Sig. (2-tailed) .038 .202 .370 .370 .344 .398 .124 Human Resource or Pearson Correlation .330* 1 .370* .355* .168 .332* -.018 -.233 Personnel Manual Sig. (2-tailed) .038 .019 .025 .300 .036 .914 .148 Recruitment Manual Pearson Correlation .206 .370* 1 .454** .280 .032 -.011 -.277 Sig. (2-tailed) .202 .019 .003 .081 .846 .946 .083 Procurement Policy Pearson Correlation .145 .355* .454** 1 .444** .134 .245 -.126 Sig. (2-tailed) .370 .025 .003 .004 .410 .128 .439 Travel Policy Pearson Correlation .145 .168 .280 .444** 1 .302 .070 -.126 Sig. (2-tailed) .370 .300 .081 .004 .059 .668 .439 Child Protection Pearson Correlation .154 .332* .032 .134 .302 1 .179 -.418** Sig. (2-tailed) .344 .036 .846 .410 .059 .269 .007 Staff Welfare Policy Pearson Correlation .137 -.018 -.011 .245 .070 .179 1 -.515** Sig. (2-tailed) .398 .914 .946 .128 .668 .269 .001 Other Pearson Correlation -.247 -.233 -.277 -.126 -.126 -.418** -.515** 1 Sig. (2-tailed) .124 .148 .083 .439 .439 .007 .001 *. Correlation is significant at the 0.05 level (2-tailed). **. Correlation is significant at the 0.01 level (2-tailed). c. Listwise N=40 Source: School Proprietor, Assessment of LCPS in FtF/RING II Districts, July 2019

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ANNEX 8: Primary Pupil-Trained Teacher Ratio District Public Schools LCPSs KG Primary Primary

PTR PTTR PTR PTTR PTR PTTR Yendi 48 55 38 42 28 36 Karaga 72 98 43 58 23 31 Mion 77 93 41 46 24 42 Nanton 42 47 31 35 23 42 Sagnarigu 26 36 26 32 21 44 Gushiegu 73 128 45 64 35 28 East Mamprusi 89 114 51 67 20 43 Mamprugu Moagduri 114 155 57 67 35 27 Bawku Municipal 44 55 39 49 36 15 Bawku West 51 76 44 54 16 7 Garu 48 73 41 53 13 17 Tempane 19 37 Nadowli-Kaleo 49 71 26 35 25 31 Sissala East 31 36 30 41 20 73 Sisala West 42 46 15 18 30 54 Wa East 65 95 38 44 18 14 Daffiama-Bussie-Issa 54 64 35 38 Source: School Checklist, Assessment of LCPS in FtF/RING II Districts, July 2019 and EMIS Data, 2017/18

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ANNEX 9: Other Determinants of LCPS Participation and Demand 9.1 Educational Level of Household Head and School Preference

Akyeampong and Rolleston (2013) revealed that factors such as gender, age, and education level of parents exert a stronger influence on LCPS participation (2013). The educational level of parents has been established to have a significant association with the type of school children attend, whether private or public (Ardila, A. et al, 2005). Most of the household heads have no education (53 percent) and only 24 percent have secondary school or higher (See Table 9.1). A higher proportion of household heads with children in public schools (68 percent) have no formal education compared with household heads with no formal education who have their children in a LCPS (40 percent). Household heads with secondary education or higher are three times more likely to have their children in a LCPS (35 percent) than in a public school (12 percent). The educational level of household heads has a significant effect on the type of school a child attends (chi-square=50.401, p=0.000).

Table 9.1: Educational level of household head and school preference Highest level of Public LCPS Total education N % N % N % Never been to school 165 67.9 % 110 39.9 % 275 53.0 % Less than MSLC/BECE 27 11.1 % 30 10.9 % 57 11.0 % MSLC/BECE/Vocational 22 9.1 % 40 14.5 % 62 11.9 % Secondary or higher 29 11.9 % 96 34.8 % 125 24.1 % Total 243 100.0 % 276 100.0 % 519 100.0 % Source: Household Survey, Assessment of LCPS in FtF/RING II Districts, July 2019 9.2 Gender of Household Head and School Preference

Table 9.2 shows the distribution of gender of household head and school preference. More than half of the households (53.3 percent) have their children in LCPS. School preference is independent of gender of household head (chi-square = 0.246, p=0.620). For example, 55 percent of female-headed households send their children to LCPS, and 52 percent of male-headed households send their children to LCPS.

Table 9.2: Gender of household head and school preference Gender of School Preference Household Public LCPS Total Head N % N % N % Female 85 45.2 % 103 54.8 % 188 100.0 % Male 158 47.6 % 174 52.4 % 332 100.0 % Total 243 46.7 % 277 53.3 % 520 100.0 % Source: Household Survey, Assessment of LCPS in FtF/RING II Districts, July 2019

9.3 LCPS Affordability

The literature on LCPSs indicates differences in affordability levels depending on which income quintile the household is placed. As discussed in the previous section, the proportion of expenditure on education can vary from household to household depending on the number of children, direct and indirect costs. Access to LCPSs is not only a direct relation to affordability but is influenced by other drivers such as desire for a child’s higher educational attainment, better quality, potential higher learning outcomes and returns on education. The costs of LCPS education to households include tuition, feeding, books, transportation, uniforms, testing fees, and co-curricular activities. Additionally, the issue of

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affordability is also linked to the households work pattern (whether seasonal, regular and/or informal), which could result in irregular income flows. Day Ashley et al (2014) reveal in their study that access to LCPS by the poor is limited particularly to the lowest quintiles due to financial constraints which often requires making ‘welfare sacrifices’ such as reduced spending on health and feeding. Others argue that the cost of public-school education is only marginally lower for the poor compared to LCPS education, and poorer households are either unable to afford sending their children to government schools or see LCPSs as a better investment (Tooley and Longfield (2015). “Education costs are also burdensome for many who attend LCPSs. Using the commonly accepted definition of education affordability—where education is affordable if a household spends less than 10 percent of his/her income on education expenses—(in Ghana) 27 percent of those families incurring education expenses fail to meet the affordability threshold. This figure increases to 36 percent in the rural, lower-income Upper East Region,” (IDP 2016). One study in Ghana also found that LCPS fees per child amounted to 30 percent of household income in the poorest quintile compared to 16 percent if a child attended a government school. In comparison, the proportions of these costs for families in the richest quintile are three percent and approximately two percent (Akaguri and Akyeampong, 2010). This suggests that households in low-income quintiles have a strong demand for private education and are willing to pay for it despite financial constraints. The study also suggests that private education providers are able to capitalize on that demand through developing creative fee structures that provide flexibility in payment and alleviate some of the financial constraints on households (Akaguri and Akyeampong, 2010). However, this highly contested area lacks quality longitudinal studies on the long-term cost and types of sacrifices families of lower quintiles make when using LCPS. This is discussed in the next section below on household expenditure on LCPSs. The IDP 2016 study in Ghana found that school fees represented a significant financial burden to most households and the greatest strain for those at the bottom quintiles. “The average household in this study’s sample spends 8.2 percent of its income on education expenses. Unsurprisingly, the financial burden of school fees is much higher among the lowest-income households in the sample. Households in the lowest income quintile spend over 18 percent of their income on school fees, while households in the highest income quintile spend on average only 2.7 percent of their income on school fees. Given the large difference in spending relative to income between the top and bottom quintiles, it is evident that households choosing LCPS do not all fit one financial or socioeconomic profile—private school choice is associated with more than just household income.” (IDP Foundation, 2016). The IDP findings are significant because they show that the poorest household quintiles in Ghana pay on average 10 percent of household income on one child’s school fees but are unable to pay or afford to send more than one child to a LCPS. This is validated in recent studies on parental choice in complementary basic education in the extreme poverty zones in northern Ghana, which found that households could send one child or two children to public schools, while the other one or two children would be sent to complementary basic education (Casely-Hayford et al, 2018).

9.4 Proportion of Family Income Spent on Education

The proportion of household income spent on education is a determinant of how important education is to household heads/primary care givers. The LCPS study assessed the percentage of family income directed at educating all children within the household. The findings in Table 3 show that on the average, parents with children in LCPSs spend more of the family income on the education of their children than parents with children in public schools. Fifty-two percent of LCPS parents reported spending over 30

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percent of their income to support all aspects of primary education for their children including payment of school fees, feeding, buying of textbooks, etc. compared to 25 percent of parents in non-LCPS households. The study survey results reveal that LCPS households spend twice as much on the education of their children compared to non-LCPS parents (parents participating in the public primary school system). This result was also found in the IDP study (2016) on low-fee private schools, which found that, on the average, households spend about 10 percent of household income on the education of their children.

Table 9.3: Percentage of family income invested in education Percent of family income spend on education Public LCPS N % N % 0-10 83 34 29 10 11-20 54 22 49 18 21-30 44 18 56 20 31-40 23 9 33 12 41-50 17 7 60 22 51+ 22 9 50 18 Total 243 100 277 100 Source: Household Survey, Assessment of LCPS in FtF/RING II Districts, July 2019

9.5 Income Sources for Educational Expenditure

Different households depend on different sources to ensure the payment of their children’s educational expenses. The findings in Table 9.4 show that most households in both LCPS (91.3 percent) and non- LCPS households (84 percent) use family income for the payment of school expenses. Since most LCPS households are engaged predominantly in farming, the majority of their income is derived from the sale of farm produce and those households depend on revenues from their farm activities to keep their children in school. The LCPS data also reveal that a small proportion of LCPS households (26 percent) and non- LCPS households (15 percent) depend on their family savings to pay or help pay their children’s education, with only one percent relying on scholarship for the payment of educational expenses. While literature has noted that some LCPSs accepted the use of the barter-system37 in the payment of school fees in certain rural communities, this LCPS study did not find evidence of this approach to the payment of educational expenses.

Table 9.4: Sources of educational expenses Sources of educational expenses Household Type Public LCPS Total N % N % N % Family Income 204 84.0 253 91.3 457 87.9 Savings 37 15.2 72 26.0 109 21.0 Loans 0 0.0 0 0.0 0 0.0 Scholarships 11 4.5 0 0.0 11 2.1 Barter approach 0 0.0 0 0.0 0 0.0 Other 20 8.2 6 2.2 26 5.0 Total 243 100.0 277 100.0 520 100.0 Source: Household Survey, Assessment of LCPS in FtF/RING II Districts, July 2019

37 The system of paying for school fees using farm produce

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9.6 Equity in Relation to Participating in LCPSs

Issues of demand also relate to accessibility/geographical location of the school, gender equity, and affordability, which are inextricably linked to equity. The international literature describes how LCPSs are becoming increasingly prevalent in rural areas, although this does not mean that their presence ensures access for the poor since parents still need a minimum income level to ensure participation (Pal, 2010 in IDP, 2016). See section 3.4 for a more in depth analysis of the equity findings from the LCPSs in northern Ghana. The location of a household has been shown to determine socio-economic characteristics and influence indices of development (Bigsten and Shimeles, 2008; Neilson et al. 2008). The study assessed the location of households as a determinant of their relative wealth and access to basic services (e.g., education, health). The findings in Table 9.5 show that 92 percent of households whose children attended public schools (i.e., non- LCPSs) were in rural communities, and just eight percent were in urban communities. Of the households with children in LCPSs, 66 percent were from rural localities while 34 percent were from urban localities.

Table 9.5: Locality of household head by pupil education type Locality Public School HH % LCPS HH % Total Rural 223 92 182 66 405 Urban 20 8 95 34 115 Total 243 100 277 100 520 Source: Household Survey, Assessment of LCPS in FtF/RING II Districts, July 2019

9.6 Characteristics of Households Who Participate in LCPSs

Occupation of Household Heads

The occupation of the household head or the primary care giver, defined as the major wage earner, is the key index by which the social class of a respondent can be determined. Its usefulness is perhaps now undermined by increasingly flexible and fluid household composition and working patterns, but it remains relevant in measuring household economic status. The findings in Table 6 show that a higher percentage of household heads in both LCPS and non-LCPS households are working in agriculture (farming and animal rearing).

Over two-thirds (86 percent) of non-LCPS household heads38 are working in agriculture with 63 percent of LCPS heads classified as farmers. A key finding from the HH survey data was that 21 percent of LCPS household heads work in the formal sector with salaried jobs (i.e. teachers, nurses etc.). In the HHs attending public schools (non LCPSs) only five percent of household heads work in the formal sector (Table 9.6). This confirms the findings that people working in the formal sector are more likely to send their children to private schools than household heads working in the informal sector. A study by Donkoh and Amikuzuno (2011) on the determinants of household education expenditure in Ghana found that household heads working in the formal sector have a greater probability of sending their children to private schools basically as a result of the likelihood of they themselves having achieved higher levels of education or having the financial ability to fund private education for their children. The findings also show quite a number of household heads have multiple jobs, with their main jobs being supplemented with other jobs as a way of increasing household income.

38 They are participating in the public education system but not in the LCPS system.

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Table 9.6: Occupation of household heads Type of work engaged in by Respondents Household Type Public LCPS Total N % N % N % Agriculture 209 86.0 174 62.8 383 73.7 Fishing 1 0.4 0 0.0 1 0.2 Manufacturing 1 0.4 0 0.0 1 0.2 Selling/Trading 31 12.8 66 23.8 97 18.7 Providing Services 9 3.7 31 11.2 40 7.7 Formal sector workers (Teachers, nurses, etc.) 11 4.5 59 21.3 70 13.5 Construction 1 0.4 1 0.4 2 0.4 Others 10 4.1 9 3.2 19 3.7 Total 243 100.0 277 100.0 520 100.0 Source: Household Survey, Assessment of LCPS in FtF/RING II Districts, July 2019

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ANNEX 10. Proportion of Schools with Adequate Facilities by Region and District Table 10.1 presents details on the adequacy level of facilities across all the project districts. The findings generally show that LCPSs do not have enough seating spaces for pupils and access to computers was extremely low across all the districts.

Table 10.1: Adequacy of school facilities Region/District Staff common Classrooms Seating spaces Furniture Computers Urinals Toilets Classroom Store- room for children for children Ventilation room North East 0.0 25.0 75.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 100.0 0.0 East Mamprusi 0.0 50.0 100.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 100.0 0.0 Mamprugu Moagduri 0.0 0.0 50.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 100.0 0.0 Northern 12.5 29.2 25.0 12.5 4.2 16.7 16.7 33.3 8.3 Gushiegu 0.0 75.0 75.0 50.0 0.0 25.0 0.0 50.0 0.0 Karaga 25.0 25.0 25.0 0.0 25.0 25.0 25.0 25.0 0.0 Mion 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 Nanton 25.0 25.0 25.0 25.0 0.0 25.0 25.0 75.0 25.0 Sagnarigu 25.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 25.0 25.0 25.0 25.0 Yendi 0.0 40.0 20.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 20.0 20.0 0.0 Upper East 7.7 53.8 61.5 15.4 0.0 23.1 7.7 69.2 15.4 Bawku 25.0 100.0 50.0 25.0 0.0 50.0 25.0 100.0 25.0 Bawku West 0.0 0.0 25.0 0.0 0.0 25.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 Garu 0.0 66.7 100.0 33.3 0.0 0.0 0.0 100.0 33.3 Tempane 0.0 50.0 100.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 100.0 0.0 Upper West 25.0 58.3 58.3 33.3 8.3 33.3 16.7 75.0 66.7 Daffiama-Bussie-Issa 50.0 50.0 100.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 100.0 50.0 Nadowli-Kaleo 0.0 0.0 25.0 25.0 0.0 25.0 25.0 25.0 50.0 Sissala East 25.0 100.0 75.0 50.0 25.0 75.0 25.0 100.0 100.0 Sissala West 50.0 100.0 50.0 50.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 100.0 50.0 Source: Household Survey, Assessment of LCPS in FtF/RING II Districts, July 2019

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ANNEX 11. EGRA and EGMA Distribution 11.1 Introduction The USAID-ASSESS West Africa conducted the Early Grade Reading Assessment (EGRA) and the Early Grade Math Assessment (EGMA) in July 2019 in 40 Low-cost Private Schools (LCPSs) in three northern regions (Northern, Upper East and Upper East) of Ghana as part of the assessment to obtain data on the demand and supply trends of LCPSs in Feed the Future (FtF)/resiliency in northern Ghana. The EGRA and EGMA assessments aim to contribute data to determine the learning outcomes or effectiveness, particularly on reading and math performances, among pupils in these schools. This is the first administration of the EGRA/EGMA in low-cost private schools in Ghana. The previous national EGRA/EGMA assessments were conducted by USAID/Ghana Partnership for Education: Learning in collaboration with the Ghana Education Service (GES) National Educational Assessment Unit (NEAU) in 2013 and 2015 in only public Ghanaian primary schools as noted in the EGRA and EGMA reports (2013 & 2015 respectively). Apart from these two assessments, there has also been a baseline EGRA survey in 2017 by USAID Evaluation Systems to evaluate the implementation of the USAID/Ghana Partnership for Education: Learning reading programme; a midline impact evaluation of the Early Grade Reading (EGR) program, implemented under the U.S. Agency for International Development (USAID)/Ghana Partnership for Education: Learning activity in 2018; an endline report on USAID learning Early Grade Math Pilot program (EGMA) in 2018; and the Ghana Early Grade Reading Program Impact Evaluation 2019 report by USAID Learning. This current report takes into account the findings in all these assessments by making comparison where it is relevant to identify the similarities and differences between the EGRA/EGMA performances in the LCPSs and USAID Learning results as well as the results of the national EGRA/EGMA in public primary schools in Ghana.

11.2 Pupils Demographics by EGRA and EGMA The EGRA/EGMA data was collected in July 2019 from 40 low-cost private schools from primary 2 (P2) pupils in the Northern, Upper East and Upper West regions of Ghana. A total random sample of 391 pupils made up of 197 (50.38 percent) males and 194 (49.62 percent) females took part in the EGRA/EGMA assessments. Table 11.1 presents the data from the schools included from each region. Regional distributions showed the Northern region with the highest of 236 (60.3 percent), followed by Upper West with 79 (20.20 percent), and Upper East with 76 (19.44 percent). The rural and urban distributions are 132 (33.76 percent) and 259 (66.24 percent) respectively. In each of the 10 districts in which the EGRA/EGMA was conducted, four schools were selected with 10 pupils each (5 boys and 5 girls) per school for the assessment. The district distributions range from those with the fewest number of participants, i.e., 30 participants (Mion district) to the highest number of participants, i.e., 49 (Yendi). Tables 11.1 breaks down this data in detail by pupil demographics, sex, region, district, and location.

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Table 11.1: Number of pupils assessed on EGRA and EGMA by sex, region, district and locality Variables EGRA ASSESSMENT EGMA ASSESSMENT Boys Girls Total Boys Girls Total N % N % N % N % N % N % Region Northern 123 62.44 113 58.25 236 60.36 123 62.44 113 58.25 236 60.36 Upper East 37 18.78 39 20.10 76 19.44 37 18.78 39 20.10 76 19.44 Upper West 37 18.78 42 21.65 79 20.20 37 18.78 42 21.65 79 20.20 Total 197 100.00 194 100.00 391 100.00 197 100.00 194 100.00 391 100.00 District Bawku 19 9.64 21 10.82 40 10.23 19 9.64 21 10.82 40 10.23 Bawku West 18 9.14 18 9.28 36 9.21 18 9.14 18 9.28 36 9.21 Gushiegu 18 9.14 19 9.79 37 9.46 18 9.14 19 9.79 37 9.46 Karaga 20 10.15 20 10.31 40 10.23 20 10.15 20 10.31 40 10.23 Mion 19 9.64 11 5.67 30 7.67 19 9.64 11 5.67 30 7.67 Nadowli-Kaleo 17 8.63 23 11.86 40 10.23 17 8.63 23 11.86 40 10.23 Nanton 21 10.66 19 9.79 40 10.23 21 10.66 19 9.79 40 10.23 Sagnarigu 20 10.15 20 10.31 40 10.23 20 10.15 20 10.31 40 10.23 Sissala East 20 10.15 19 9.79 39 9.97 20 10.15 19 9.79 39 9.97 Yendi 25 12.69 24 12.37 49 12.53 25 12.69 24 12.37 49 12.53 Total 197 100.00 194 100.00 391 100.00 197 100.00 194 100.00 391 100.00 Location Rural 66 33.50 66 34.02 132 33.76 66 33.50 66 34.02 132 33.76 Urban 131 66.50 128 65.98 259 66.24 131 66.50 128 65.98 259 66.24 Total 197 100.00 194 100.00 391 100.00 197 100.00 194 100.00 391 100.00 Source: EGRA/EGMA Assessment of LCPS in FtF/RING II Districts, July 2019

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11.3. Language(s) of Assessment The EGRA was administered in English and the approved GES Ghanaian language of instruction used in the schools. In the Northern and Upper West regions, Dagbani and Dagaare were used respectively. In the Upper East only English was used because the Ghanaian language used in Bawku Municipal and Bawku West is Kusaal and Kusaal is not a GES- approved Ghanaian language.

11.4 Detailed Description of the EGRA Subtasks

Listening Comprehension Subtask

The listening comprehension subtask was administered to measure oral language comprehension and vocabulary. Each child listened to a story the assessor read aloud, then orally answered three questions about the story. Listening comprehension is a pre-reading skill, and there is a strong link between a child’s ability to speak and understand a language and his or her ability to learn to read in that language.

Letter-Sound Identification Subtask

The letter-sound identification subtask measured pupils’ ability to provide the sound (i.e., phoneme) that corresponds to an individual letter. This basic literacy skill contributes to word recognition. All selected pupils were shown 100 letters, both upper and lower case, arranged in a random sequence, and were asked to identify the sounds of as many letters as they could within one minute. If a pupil named the letter instead of the sound, failed to say anything at all, or gave the wrong sound, the answer was marked as incorrect. Studies have shown that there is a strong correlation between letter-sound identification and future reading ability.

Non-Word Decoding Subtask

The non-word decoding subtask measured pupils’ ability to decode words and combine letter-sounds to pronounce words. There were 50 non-words of a maximum of three letters shown to each pupil. The pupil has 60 seconds to read as many non-words as possible. Although the non-words were not real words in the language of the assessment, they follow the structure and orthography of the language. Using non-word decoding is a useful means for determining a pupil’s ability to apply phonics knowledge to reading unfamiliar words.

Oral passage reading subtask

The subtask of oral reading passages measured pupils’ ability to read connected text. Each pupil was given a grade-appropriate short story to read within one minute. Research has shown that when beginning readers start to read connected text, they use most of their cognitive resources to decode and identify the individual words of the text. They are attending to accuracy. Because they do not yet read words automatically, their short-term memory is focused on decoding the words, leaving minimal cognitive resources to process meaning. As pupils gain decoding fluency (accuracy and automaticity), they use less short-term memory for decoding and can use sufficient cognitive resources to comprehend the meaning of the text. Thus, fluency in reading connected text is a prerequisite for comprehension.

Reading Comprehension subtask

The reading comprehension subtask is designed to measure pupils’ ability to understand the text they just read aloud. This skill is the main target for literacy instruction. For each short story used in the oral passage 72 | REPORT - ASSESSMENT OF LCPS IN 17 FTF/RING II DISTRICTS IN NORTHERN GHANA

reading subtask, there were five comprehension questions. Once the oral passage reading subtask was completed, the assessor asked the pupil comprehension questions, but only those that corresponded to the portion of the story passage the pupil was able to read within the one-minute time limit. So, if the pupil was able to read only the first sentence of the passage, the assessor asked the pupil only the first question. The preliminary questions assessed direct recall, while subsequent questions were inferential in nature.

11.5 Zero Scores Performances by Pupils in the EGRA Subtasks

The percentage of pupils scoring zero on EGRA subtasks is presented in Table 11.2. Zero scores for letter- sounds are lower for both English (22.5 percent) and Ghanaian Language (50.6 percent) than are the percentage of zero scores for other categories. For example, there is a significant percentage of zero scores on non-word reading and reading comprehension for both English and Ghanaian Language (60 - 80 percent). The EGRA zero scores show that pupils have very limited phonics-based knowledge, particularly in the Ghanaian language. The high rate of Ghanaian language zero scores across the subtasks could be attributed to the intensive usage of English for instruction and limited Ghanaian language education or phonics-based training among the teachers (>70 percent have SSCE). This result is similar to P2 public school performance recorded in the national EGRA 2013 and 2015, where the majority of pupils were not able to read with comprehension by the end of P2. The EGRA results suggest that even in the LCPSs, pupils are not receiving the sufficient basic literacy instruction to read with fluency and comprehension.

Table 11.2: EGRA Zero Scores by Language, Sex, and Locality EGRA subtasks N Males Females Rural Urban Overall ( %) (%) (%) (%) (%) English Oral vocabulary 6 1.02 2.06 2.27 1.16 1.53 Letter-sound 88 23.35 21.65 15.91 25.87 22.51 identification Non-Word 236 58.38 62.37 68.18 56.37 60.36 Reading Oral Reading 125 28.43 35.57 28.79 33.59 31.97 Fluency Listening 186 50.76 44.33 64.39 39.00 47.57 Comprehension Reading 318 84.77 77.84 85.62 79.15 81.33 Comprehension Ghanaian Letter-sound 198 50.25 51.03 46.97 52.51 50.64 Language identification Non-Word 338 85.79 87.11 81.06 89.19 86.45 Reading Oral Reading 292 73.60 75.77 75.00 74.52 74.68 Fluency Listening 187 49.24 46.39 51.52 45.95 47.83 Comprehension Reading 338 88.32 84.54 85.61 86.87 86.45 Comprehension Source: EGRA/EGMA Assessment of LCPS in FtF/RING II Districts, July 2019

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Listening Comprehension Subtask

The listening comprehension subtask was administered to measure the oral language comprehension and vocabulary. Each child listened to a story that the assessor read out loud, then orally answered three questions about the story. Listening comprehension is a pre-reading skill, and there is a strong link between a child’s ability to speak and understand a language and his or her ability to learn to read in that language.

The overall zero percentage score in the listening comprehension in the EGRA was almost the same in English and the Ghanaian language, which is 47.57 percent and 47.83 percent respectively (Table 11.2). This percentage is just under half of the pupils who were able to answer the questions correctly. These performances are encouraging compared with the national EGRA assessment of this subtask in 2015 where 81 percent of pupils scored zero in English.

Letter-Sound Identification

The letter-sound identification subtask measured pupils’ ability to provide the sound (i.e., phoneme) that corresponds to an individual letter. This is a basic literacy skill that contributes to word recognition. All selected pupils were shown 100 letters, both upper and lower case, arranged in a random sequence, and were asked to identify the sounds of as many letters as they could within one minute. If a pupil named the letter instead of the sound, failed to say anything at all, or gave the wrong sound, the answer was marked as incorrect. Studies have shown that there is a strong correlation between the letter-sound identification and future ability to read. The data from this study show that the proportion of pupils who could not identify a sound for a single letter, which translates into a zero score, was less in English (22.51 percent) compared to the Ghanaian language, which is 50.64 percent (see Table 11.2). This result is to be expected given the fact that phonics methods are employed mainly in teaching English in the low-cost private schools compared to the weaker emphasis on teaching Ghanaian language.

Non-word decoding subtask

The nonword-decoding subtask measured pupils’ ability to decode words and combine letter-sounds together to pronounce words. There were 50 non-words shown to each pupil. Each word had a maximum of three letters. This subtask is timed for 60 seconds. In that time, the pupil reads as many nonwords as possible. Although the non-words were not real words in the language of the assessment, they did follow the structure and orthography of the language. Using non-word decoding is a useful means for determining a pupil’s ability to apply phonics knowledge to reading unfamiliar words.

Table 11.2 results show that 60.36 percent could not read the non-words in English, while 86.45 percent could not read non-words in the Ghanaian language.

Oral passage reading subtask

The oral passage reading subtask measured pupils’ ability to read connected text. Each pupil was shown a grade-appropriate short story to read within one minute. Research has shown that when beginning readers start to read connected text, they initially employ most of their cognitive resources in decoding and identifying the individual words. They are attending to accuracy. Because they do not yet read words automatically, their short-term memory is almost entirely engaged in the decoding of words, leaving minimal cognitive resources to process meaning. As pupils gain decoding fluency (accuracy and automaticity), they

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use less short-term memory for decoding and are able to use sufficient cognitive resources to comprehend the meaning of the text. Thus, fluency in reading connected text is a prerequisite for comprehension. The performance of pupils in this subtask shows the marked differences between pupils’ oral reading skills in English and the Ghanaian language. The overall zero percent score in oral reading in Ghanaian language is 74.68 percent, which is almost double the overall zero score of 31.97 percent for oral reading in English (Table 11.2). This again indicates LCPSs pay greater attention to the use of phonics methods in teaching English and less attention in teaching Ghanaian language, leading to the low performance in the latter category. More phonics-based instruction in Ghanaian can improve this skill.

Reading comprehension subtask

The reading comprehension subtask measures pupils’ ability to understand the text they just read aloud. This skill is the main target for literacy instruction. For each short story used in the oral passage reading subtask, there were five comprehension questions. Once the oral passage reading subtask was completed, the assessor asked the pupil the comprehension questions, but only those that corresponded to the portion of the story passage the pupil had read within the one-minute time limit. If the pupil was able to read only the first sentence of the passage, the assessor asked the pupil only the first question. The preliminary questions assessed direct recall, while subsequent questions were inferential. Pupils’ performance in the reading comprehension subtask was generally low as the overall zero scores in both English and Ghanaian language were high. For instance, the zero score in English stood at 81.33 percent while that of the Ghanaian language is 86.45 percent. Among those who did not score zero are pupils who managed to provide one correct answer. The mean performance in this subtask indicates 0.21 for the Ghanaian language and 0.07 for English. This result confirms that most LCPSs pupils, similar to their public counterparts reported on in the national EGRA 2013 and 2015, are unable to read with comprehension at the end of P2. It further suggests that pupils in these schools are not receiving the appropriate basic literacy instructions to be able to read with fluency and comprehension.

11.6 Pupil Mean Performance on EGRA Subtasks As shown in Table 11.3, P2 pupils read on average 14 correct letter-sounds per minute (clspm), 13 correct non-words per minute (cwpm), and 20 correct oral reading fluency in English EGRA results. However, they performed poorly on listening comprehension (39.67 percent) and reading comprehension (10.0 percent). Female pupils performed better than males in English (five out of six subtests) and Ghanaian Language (four out of five subtests) EGRA results, although not statistically significant. Children performance in the Ghanaian language was lower relative to English in all subtests—likely a result of the higher usage of English than Ghanaian language in instruction across sampled LCPSs. Children’s performance across urban and rural contexts revealed significant differences in English but not in Ghanaian language with children in urban areas performing better than their counterparts in rural areas.

Table 11.3: EGRA Performance in English and Ghanaian Language, Overall and Disaggregated by Locality EGRA subtasks Overall Rural Urban P- (Mean) (Mean) value English Oral vocabulary 5.98 5.32 6.32 0.000 Letter-sound identification (clspm) 13.83 13.08 14.21 0.486 Non-Word Reading (cwpm) 13.10 4.56 17.45 0.418 Oral Reading Fluency (cwpm) 20.34 10.08 25.56 0.047 Listening Comprehension (percent) 39.67 19.67 49.67 0.000 Reading Comprehension (percent) 10.00 6.60 19.33 0.046

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EGRA subtasks Overall Rural Urban P- (Mean) (Mean) value

Ghanaian Letter-sound identification (clspm) 9.99 10.80 9.58 0.449 Language Non-Word Reading (cwpm) 3.40 4.75 2.71 0.089 Oral Reading Fluency (cwpm) 4.05 4.26 3.94 0.799 Listening Comprehension (percent) 30.33 28.00 31.67 0.288 Reading Comprehension (percent) 5.20 5.40 5.20 0.901 Source: EGRA/EGMA Assessment of LCPS in FtF/RING II Districts, July 2019

11.7 EGRA Performance of Low-cost Private School Pupils

The EGRA performance of pupils by language indicates pupils are better in English than in the Ghanaian language, as shown in Table 11.4 below. The subtask that shows a significant difference is oral reading fluency with 20.34 and 4.05 respectively.

Table 11.4: EGRA performance disaggregated by language EGRA subtasks Mean Mean Mean P- English Ghanaian Diff value Language Letter-sound identification (clspm) 13.83 9.99 3.84 0.000 Non-word reading (cwpm) 13.10 3.40 9.7 0.198 Oral reading fluency (cwpm) 20.34 4.05 16.29 0.000 Listening comprehension (percent) 39.67 30.33 9.34 0.000 Reading comprehension (percent) 10.00 5.20 4.80 0.000 Source: EGRA/EGMA Assessment of LCPS in FtF/RING II Districts, July 2019

11.8 EGRA Performance in English and Ghanaian Language by Sex Table 11.5 presents the performance of males and females by sex. There is little difference between the two sexes except for non-word decoding in English, where females out-performed males with a mean value of p=0.28.

EGRA EGRA subtasks Overall Males Females P- Performance in Mean Mean value English and Ghanaian Language by Sex English Oral vocabulary 5.98 6.11 5.86 0.222 Letter-sound identification (clspm) 13.83 13.59 14.07 0.757 Non-word reading (cwpm) 13.10 5.14 21.18 0.287 Oral reading fluency (cwpm) 20.34 14.61 26.15 0.118 Listening comprehension (percent) 39.67 39.00 40.33 0.821 Reading comprehension (percent) 10.00 7.80 12.00 0.078

Ghanaian Letter-sound identification (clspm) 9.99 10.02 9.97 0.975 Language Non-word reading (cwpm) 3.40 3.14 3.67 0.642 Oral reading fluency (cwpm) 4.05 3.61 4.49 0.445

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Listening comprehension (percent) 30.33 30.00 30.67 0.853 Reading comprehension (percent) 5.20 4.20 6.20 0.171 Source: EGRA/EGMA Assessment of LCPS in FtF/RING II Districts, July 2019 11.9 Comparison between LCPSs and National EGRA of 2015

As expected, LCPSs P2 learners scored higher on average in both English and Ghanaian Language on all EGRA subtests than public school P2 learners, except for Ghanaian letter-sound identification and Ghanaian language listening comprehension (Table 11.6).

Table 11.6: Comparison of LCPS EGRA and National EGRA 2015 EGRA subtest Low-cost private Public schools schools (baseline) English Letter-sound identification (clpm) 13.83 12.803 Non-word reading (cwpm) 13.10 2.948 Oral reading fluency (cwpm) 20.34 9.141 Listening comprehension (percent) 39.67 15.872 Reading comprehension (percent) 10.00 4.789

Ghanaian Letter-sound identification (clpm) 9.99 10.07 Language Non-word reading (cwpm) 3.40 2.49 Oral reading fluency (cwpm) 4.05 2.52 Listening comprehension (percent) 30.33 44.45 Reading comprehension (percent) 5.20 2.31 Source: EGRA/EGMA Assessment of LCPS in FtF/RING II Districts, July 2019 and Social Impact (2017) EGRA Baseline on Ghana Learning

11.10 The EGMA performance trends The performance of the LCPSs’ pupils in the EGMA show remarkably high performance in the most procedural items, such as number identification, number discrimination, missing numbers and addition but not the conceptual knowledge subtasks. In the overall performance as shown in Table 11.7, no child scored zero in number identification. Thus, all the pupils were able to recognize and mention a number in the test. There was also an overall zero single digit score of 1.02 percent in number discrimination, 2.56 percent zero score in missing numbers, and 3.32 percent zero score in addition. The number identification subtask involves the identification and recognition of numbers as a basic procedural, mathematical skill and the least demanding of the EGMA subtasks. However, in the conceptual knowledge application, which involves some amount of high order reasoning such as the subtraction subtask and the word problems, the pupils had some performance difficulties. Table 7 shows that 14.83 percent were not able to do the subtraction subtask, and 5.88 percent had a zero score in the word problems. This suggests that pupils are able to recall facts, rules, and procedures but lack basic conceptual knowledge that will aid them in acquiring basic math concepts. This leads pupils to memorize math rules. The data further show that, overall, both the rural and urban performances in the EGMA are not significantly different. The exception is in the word problems subtask, where 1.52 percent of those from rural schools had zero scores, while those from urban schools recorded 8.11 percent zero scores.

Table 11.7: Percentage of EGMA Zero Scores by gender and locality

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EGMA subtasks N Boys Girls Rural Urban Overall (%) (%) (%) (%) (%) Number Identification 0 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 Number discrimination 4 1.52 0.52 2.27 0.39 1.02 Missing numbers 10 2.54 2.58 4.55 1.54 2.56 Addition 13 4.06 2.58 3.79 3.09 3.32 Subtraction 58 17.26 12.37 15.15 14.67 14.83 Word Problems 23 7.11 4.64 1.52 8.11 5.88 Source: EGRA/EGMA Assessment of LCPS in FtF/RING II Districts, July 2019

11.11 The EGMA Mean Performance Table 11.8 data illustrate similar performances among both sexes across EGMA subtasks overall. Most pupils performed well in the number identification subtask, with an overall mean score of 21.18, a mean of 21.32 for boys, and a 21.04 mean for girls. The worst performance was in relation to the higher order subtasks involving word problems, which recorded an overall mean score of 2.89. With a mean of 2.86 for boys and 2.93 for girls, the data show no significant difference between male and female performance on this subtask.

Table 11.8: EGMA Mean Performance by Sex (n = 391) EGMA subtasks Overall Boys Mean Girls Mean P-value Number identification 21.18 21.32 21.04 0.799 Number discrimination 7.28 7.38 7.18 0.423 Missing numbers 3.40 3.30 3.50 0.322 Addition 9.65 9.09 10.22 0.009 Subtraction 6.65 6.14 7.17 0.025 Word problems 2.89 2.86 2.93 0.670 Source: EGRA/EGMA Assessment of LCPS in FtF/RING II Districts, July 2019

11.12 The EGMA Mean Performance by locality Data in Table 11.9 show that mean performance by both the rural and urban are comparable across the EGMA subtasks, with no significant difference (Table 11.9).

Table 11.9: EGMA Mean Performance by Locality EGMA subtasks Overall Rural Urban P-value Number identification (cpm) 21.18 20.63 21.46 0.482 Number discrimination (percent correct) 72.8 70.2 74.2 0.131 Missing numbers (percent correct) 34.0 31.8 35.1 0.130 Addition (cpm) 9.65 9.69 9.63 0.894 Subtraction (cpm) 6.65 6.72 6.62 0.836 Word problems (percent correct) 48.17 48.5 48.00 0.869 Source: EGRA/EGMA Assessment of LCPS in FtF/RING II Districts, July 2019

11.13 EGMA Zero Scores by Region The zero scores in EGMA subtasks are generally comparable across regions. The overall picture shows that Upper West had the least zero scores compared to Upper East and Northern. Both the Upper East and Upper West regions recorded no zero scores in the number discrimination subtask but northern region had 1.69 percent (Table 11.10).

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Table 11.10: EGMA Zero Scores by Region EGMA subtasks N Northern Upper East Upper West Overall (%) (%) (%) (%) Number identification 0 0 0 0 0 Number discrimination 4 1.69 0.00 0.00 1.02 Missing numbers 10 1.69 6.58 1.27 2.56 Addition 13 3.81 3.95 1.27 3.32 Subtraction 58 13.98 21.05 11.39 14.83 Word problems 23 4.24 10.53 6.33 5.88 Source: EGRA/EGMA Assessment of LCPS in FtF/RING II Districts, July 2019

11.14 Pupils’ Performance on EGMA subtasks by sex Table 11.11 shows the mean score on EGMA subtask by sex. The overall EGMA performance shows that on average pupils correctly identified 21 numbers in one minute. They also correctly solved 10 level1 addition problems and seven subtraction level 1 problems in one minute. For more conceptual subtasks, pupils performed reasonably well, averaging 73 percent on number discrimination, 34 percent on missing numbers, and 48 percent on word problems. Girls performed better than boys in four out of six subtasks but only addition and subtraction were statistically significant. There was no significant statistical difference in EGMA subtasks among rural and urban pupils.

Table 11.11: EGMA Performance by Sex EGMA subtasks Overall Boys Girls P- Mean Mean value Number identification (cpm) 21.18 21.32 21.04 0.799 Number discrimination (percent correct) 72.8 73.8 71.8 0.423 Missing numbers (percent correct) 34.0 33.0 35.0 0.322 Addition (cpm) 9.65 9.09 10.22 0.009 Subtraction (cpm) 6.65 6.14 7.17 0.025 Word problems (percent correct) 48.17 47.67 48.83 0.670 Source: Field Data, Assessment of LCPS in FtF/RING II Districts, July 2019

11.15 EGMA zero scores by sex and locality The EGMA subtasks for the zero scores by sex and locality are presented in Table 11.12. The zero scores were low (<3.5 percent) on all subtasks except subtraction (14.8 percent) and word problems (5.9 percent), with no child scoring zero on number identification. This suggests pupils are able to recall facts, rules, and procedures but lack basic conceptual knowledge that will aid them in gaining basic math concepts. This weakness leads pupils to memorize math rules. Male pupils and female pupils in rural areas scored more zeros than their counterparts in the urban areas.

Table 11.12: EGMA Zero Scores by Sex and locality EGMA subtasks N Males Females Rural Urban Overall (%) (%) (%) (%) (%) Number identification 0 0 0 0 0 0 Number discrimination 4 1.52 0.52 2.27 0.39 1.02 Missing numbers 10 2.54 2.58 4.55 1.54 2.56 Addition 13 4.06 2.58 3.79 3.09 3.32 Subtraction 58 17.26 12.37 15.15 14.67 14.83

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EGMA subtasks N Males Females Rural Urban Overall (%) (%) (%) (%) (%) Word problems 23 7.11 4.64 1.52 8.11 5.88 Source: EGRA/EGMA Assessment of LCPS in FtF/RING II Districts, July 2019

Comparing the performance of LCPSs with the National EGMA results of 2013 and 2015, the LCPSs’ performance appears to be better. For example, in this study no child scored zero in the number identification subtask. In the national assessments, while pupils also did well in this subtask, 21 percent to 30 percent had a zero score.

11.16. Major Findings of the EGRA and EGMA EGRA Findings The key findings in the EGRA performances include the following:

• The results show that a majority of LCPS pupils are not able to read with fluency and comprehension, with 81.33 percent having a zero score in English and 86.45 percent with a zero score in Ghanaian language. These results are similar to those of the national EGRA results for public school pupils in 2015, where only two percent or less were found to have acquired reading fluency and comprehension. Of LCPS pupils, 22.15 percent had a zero score in English, while double that (50.64 percent) had zero scores in the Ghanaian language. The LCPS pupils are weak in prereading skills in the oral reading subtasks, particularly in the Ghanaian language with 74.68 percent with a zero score. Though they have mastered this skill in English (only1.53 percent with a zero score), they are still struggling to read with fluency.

• The zero score performances in the non-word decoding are also high, with 86.45 percent in English and 60.36 percent in the Ghanaian language. This is a required skill for pupils to read well.

• About half the pupils (50.64 percent) cannot correctly read a single letter-sound (phoneme) in the Ghanaian languages. This is a foundational skill that pupils need in order to identify individual letters, recognize the corresponding sounds, and combine those sounds to read. Although in English, the LCPS P2 pupils performed relatively well in this subtask (22.51 percent with a zero score), they still need improvement since they are not able to read with fluency. Pupils who cannot read letter- sounds correctly and decode words will find it difficult to acquire reading comprehension skills. It points to pupils’ lack of phonics-based knowledge.

• Another finding is that the performance in the oral passage reading was low, particularly in the Ghanaian language, where the pupils obtained a zero score of 74.68 percent, as compared to 31.97 percent with zero scores in English. The passage was adapted from the 2015 EGRA instrument and the materials were familiar to the pupils from their P2 reader. Still they still had problems.

• A striking finding in the study is that across the subtasks, the overall performance of pupils in the EGRA in English was better than in the Ghanaian language (Dagbani and Dagaare). This points to the fact that most LCPSs use English instead of the Ghanaian language in delivering their instruction.

EGMA Findings

• The EGMA results in this study show that most pupils performed well in the foundational skills of number identification, number discrimination, and identification of missing numbers. See Table 11.12 where no pupil had a zero score in number identification and only one percent had a zero score in

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the number discrimination subtask. These subtasks are the basic procedural skills needed to gain conceptual knowledge in math.

• Pupil performance in subtraction and word problems was the lowest, with 14.83 percent with zero scores in subtraction and 5.88 percent with zero scores in word problems.

• Similar to results in the 2015 EGMA performance of 2015, the LCPS pupils’ performance in the procedural tasks was much stronger, suggesting that the teaching of math is more focused on memorizing the facts in these schools than acquiring concepts and applying them to solve math problems. This is a pedagogical issue requiring teachers to teach concepts and skills rather than facts.

• Males and females show similar performances, especially in the low order subtasks such as number identification, number discrimination and missing numbers. The exception is in the conceptual knowledge subtasks, where girls outperformed boys. For example, in the addition subtask, 2.58 percent of girls obtained a zero-score compared to 4.06 percent of the boys. Similarly, in the subtraction subtask, 12.37 percent of the girls had a zero score, comparted to 17.26 percent of the boys.

• There is almost no difference in the EGMA performance between urban and rural schools in the study.

11.17 Recommendations

• The findings reveal that pupils cannot read letter-sounds correctly, making them unable to read and decode text. What is needed is provide LCPS teachers with in-service training on phonics-based instruction so they can to teach this foundational skill in the classroom. School proprietors should explore with GES or other external partners ways to support (including but not limited to funding) such training.

• It is also shown that most pupils cannot read fluently and comprehend text in either English or the Ghanaian language, with EGRA zero score results of 81percent and 86 percent respectively. Literacy instruction needs to be improved, with emphasis on teaching pupils the basic literacy skills that will then enable them to gain the higher order skills.

• Regarding EGMA performance, proprietors should increase efforts to engage teachers who can teach pupils basic math concepts and how to apply these to problem solving—in contrast to the practice of teaching pupils to memorize facts and use recall.

• The pedagogical skills in teaching math should equip both pre-service and in-service teachers with the knowledge of how to solve real problems based on real life experiences.

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ANNEX 12: BUSINESS ANNEXES 12.1 Business Model: Roles Table 12.1 Responses by LCPS proprietors on the functions they perform in school management, record keeping, and the types of records kept (showing both multiple responses and individual responses from proprietors)

Table 12.1: Business Models No. N % of % based on multiple number of responses respondents 1. Other roles played by Headteacher 13 17.8 28.9 proprietor in managing the Operational deputy 2 2.7 4.4 school, aside being a Accountant 15 20.5 33.3 proprietor Administrator 32 43.8 71.1 Other 11 15.1 24.4 Total 45 61.6 100.0 2. N % Record keeping for No 10 19.6 management of LCPS Yes 41 80.4 Total 51 100.0

N % of % based on multiple number of responses respondents 3. Types of written records Financial management manual 12 12.2 30.0 Human resource or personnel manual 11 11.2 27.5 Recruitment manual 14 14.3 35.0 Procurement Policy 4 4.1 10.0 Travel policy 4 4.1 10.0 Child protection 22 22.4 55.0 Staff welfare policy 26 26.5 65.0 Other 5 5.1 12.5 Total 40 40.8 100.0 Source: Field Data, Assessment of LCPS in FtF/RING II Districts, July 2019

12.2 SOURCES OF START-UP INVESTMENT CAPITAL (ACROSS 51 SAMPLED SCHOOLS) Table 12.2 shows the sources of school start-up capital as indicated by proprietors. The findings show clearly how start-ups used personal savings as a major source for funding their schools, as financial institutions perceive them as a risky investment.

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Table 12.2: Sources of start-up capital

Sources of start-up investment capital Frequency % of multiple % based on number of responses (N=64) responses N=51 Personal savings 39 60.9 76.5 Friends and families 6 9.4 11.8 Commercial banks/rural banks 3 4.7 5.9 Microfinance 0 0.0 0.0 Savings & Loans 5 7.8 9.8 Donor support 5 7.8 9.8 Money lenders 0 0.0 0.0 Other 6 9.4 11.8 Source: Field Data, Assessment of LCPS in FtF/RING II Districts, July 2019

12.3 BUSINESS MANAGEMENT PRACTICES AND ADVISORY SERVICES LCPSs’ sources for business management and advisory services to enhance their businesses and profitability. Table 12.3 shows low patronage of these services even though proprietors perceive them as important to their businesses. The primary reason for their low patronage is the high cost of acquiring these services.

Table 12.3: Business Management Practices, and Advisory Services Business management practices of LCPSs Frequency % of multiple % based on number responses of responses (N=66) N=51 Financial services 11 16.7 21.6 Human resource and recruitment 22 33.3 43.1 Marketing and communications 7 10.6 13.7 Audit 6 9.1 11.8 Other 20 30.3 39.2 Source: Field Data, Assessment of LCPS in FtF/RING II Districts, July 2019

12.4 LCPSs’ approach to school marketing/advertisement to the public Proprietors use various promotional tools to attract new parents. Figure 12.1 shows proprietors use referrals by teachers and parents as the major source of promoting and marketing their schools to potential parents.

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Figure 12.1: LCPSs’ approach to school marketing/ advertisement to the public

Referrals by teachers/parents 90.2%

Door-to-door promotion 29.4%

Banner/brochures 23.5%

Radio advertising 19.6%

Other 15.7%

0% 10% 20% 30% 40% 50% 60% 70% 80% 90% 100%

Source: School Proprietor Data, Assessment of LCPS in FtF/RING II Districts, July 2019

Business development service required to grow LCPSs LCPSs see business development services as important to their growth and profitability. The table below shows a higher proportion of responses indicating LCPSs need business management training.

Table 12.4: Business development service required to grow LCPSs Kind of business development Frequency % of multiple % based on number of responses service required to grow responses (N=139) N=51 Accounting/auditing 16 11.5 31.4 Business management training 28 20.1 54.9 Business management advisory 27 19.4 52.9 Legal consultancy 8 5.8 15.7 Advertising/promotion 21 15.1 41.2 Technical/vocational training 15 10.8 29.4 Business plan preparation 13 9.4 25.5 MIS accounting software 6 4.3 11.8 Other 5 3.6 9.8 Source: Field Data, Assessment of LCPS in FtF/RING II Districts, July 2019

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12.5 LCPSs’ AVERAGE PROFIT AND LOSSES - REGIONAL LEVEL Table 12.5 shows the profitability statement of LCPSs at the regional level, the profitability of LCPSs charging their clients tuition, and the LCPSs charging both tuition and school feeding. Profitability of LCPSs that charged for both tuition and school feeding had higher revenues than LCPSs that charged only for tuition.

Table 12.5: Average Annual Profit and Loss Tuition Only (GHS) Average Tuition and Feeding Combine across d regions

North Northern Upper Upper North Northern Upper Upper East East West East East West Total revenue (GHS) 10,864 16,493 15,699 14,856 15,457 13,232 29,269 26,286 32,995 27,510 Total cost (GHS) 9,608 10,631 14,227 14,129 12,144 10,920 17,195 17,202 21,414 17,303 Profit (GHS) 1,256 5,861 1,472 728 3,313 2,312 12,074 9,084 11,580 10,208 Tax (22 %) 553 1,575 911 795 1,158 727 2,785 2,081 2,594 2,356 Net profit (GHS) 704 4,287 561 (67) 2,155 1,584 9,290 7,003 8,987 7,852 Net profit margin (%) 4 20 (18) (7) 3 13 26 13 22 20 Source: Field Data, Assessment of LCPS in FtF/RING II Districts, July 2019

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12.6 LCPS AVERAGE COST STRUCTURE - REGIONAL LEVEL

Table 12.6 shows the cost structure of LCPSs at the regional level, with salaries the highest cost element Table 12.6 LCPS average cost structure - regional level AVERAGE LCPS COST STRUCTURE PER SCHOOL ACROSS REGIONAL LEVELS COST ITEMS Region North East Northern Upper East Upper West Average cost % Average % Average % Average % per school cost (GHS) cost cost (GHS) (GHS) (GHS) Salaries 1,575.00 43 % 4,729.26 51 % 5,116.92 53 % 4,674.00 38 % Rent - 0 % 120.48 1 % 268.33 3 % - 0 % Utilities 25.00 1 % 252.78 3 % 286.15 3 % 705.27 6 % Communication 10.00 0 % 13.50 0 % 33.85 0 % 32.73 0 % Repairs and maintenance 212.50 6 % 800.43 9 % 420.00 4 % 477.27 4 % Training cost 42.50 1 % 147.36 2 % 369.77 4 % 213.18 2 % Feeding cost 437.50 12 % 2,798.64 30 % 2,476.77 26 % 5,802.27 47 % Fuel and bus maintenance - 0 % - 0 % 30.77 0 % 104.55 1 % Books and stationery 1,337.50 37 % 227.39 2 % 551.67 6 % 358.64 3 % Transportation - 0 % 15.05 0 % 13.08 0 % - 0 % Other - 0 % 156.52 2 % 111.69 1 % - 0 % TOTAL 3,640.00 100 9,261.40 100 % 9,679.00 100 % 12,367.91 100 % % Source: Field Data, Assessment of LCPS in FtF/RING II Districts, July 2019

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12.7 LCPS BANKING STATUS AND RELATED INFORMATION The banking culture of LCPSs is impressive as they have recorded higher scores for operating bank accounts; a higher proportion of them (68.6 percent) have business accounts out of which 7.8 percent have received loans from the bank.

Table 12.7: LCPS Banking Status and Relate Information Frequency % LCPSs operating bank account No 16 31.4 Yes 35 68.6 Total 51 100.0 Source: Field Data, Assessment of LCPS in FtF/RING II Districts, July 2019

Table 12.8: Type of Bank account operated Type of bank account operated Frequency % Business Account 24 66.7 % Personal Account in owner's name 8 22.2 % Other 4 11.1 % Source: Field Data, Assessment of LCPS in FtF/RING II Districts, July 2019

Table 12.9: LCPSs receiving credit from Financial institutions LCPSs receiving credit from financial institutions Frequency % No 47 92.2 Yes 4 7.8 Total 51 100.0 Source: Field Data, Assessment of LCPS in FtF/RING II Districts, July 2019

Table 12.10a: Purpose of loans Frequency % of % of responses respondents Purpose for the loan Purchase of new land 1 20.0 % 25.0 % Construction of new 1 20.0 % 25.0 % classrooms Construction of new 1 20.0 % 25.0 % school/campus Purchase of school bus 1 20.0 % 25.0 % Renovation of school 1 20.0 % 25.0 % Source: Field Data, Assessment of LCPS in FtF/RING II Districts, July 2019

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Table 12.10b: Reasons for not taking loans Reasons for not taking loans Frequency % of responses % of respondents

Don’t have access to a Financial Institution 3 4.7 % 6.8 %

No collateral 6 9.4 % 13.6 %

Cannot meet loan repayment scheduling 17 26.6 % 38.6 %

Don’t need money from the financial 8 12.5 % 18.2 %

Institution Complicated loan procedure 3 4.7 % 6.8 %

Never made any attempt 11 17.2 % 25.0 %

Don’t know how to access loan 2 3.1 % 4.5 %

No savings at financial loan to access loans 2 3.1 % 4.5 %

High interest rate 8 12.5 % 18.2 %

Other 4 6.3 % 9.1 %

Total 44 68.8 % 100.0 %

Source: Field Data, Assessment of LCPS in FtF/RING II Districts, July 2019

Table 12.11: LCPS Supported Financially by Financial and Non-Financial Institutions N % Sampled financial institutions extending financial support to Yes 8 31 % LCPSs No 18 69 % Total 26 100 % Source: Field Data, Assessment of LCPS in FtF/RING II Districts, July 2019

12.8 FINANCIAL SUPPORT TO LCPSs A higher proportion of LCPSs will need financial support to improve their school’s learning environment and increase enrollment.

Table 12.12: Financial support to LCPSs Frequency (Base: Cases Responses) (%) How support from a financial Improve reputation 18 17.6 % 36.0 % institution will impact an LCPS Improve learning outcomes 33 32.4 % 66.0 % Increase enrollment 30 29.4 % 60.0 % Increase profitability of 8 7.8 % 16.0 % school Other 13 12.7 % 26.0 % Total 50 49.0 % 100.0 % Factors considered when taking Interest payments 39 32.5 % 76.5 % a loan Pay-back time 31 25.8 % 60.8 % Fees and charges 14 11.7 % 27.5 %

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Frequency (Base: Cases Responses) (%) Friends working in the 0 0.0 % 0.0 % institution Penalties for late payment 13 10.8 % 25.5 %

My capacity to payback 15 12.5 % 29.4 % Other services provided by 1 0.8 % 2.0 % the institution Other 7 5.8 % 13.7 % Source: Field Data, Assessment of LCPS in FtF/RING II Districts, July 2019

Table 12.13: Importance of Business Development Services Category Frequency % Don’t know 1 2.0 Somewhat important 1 2.0 Very important 49 96.0 Total 51 100.0 Source: Field Data, Assessment of LCPS in FtF/RING II Districts, July 2019

Table 12.14: Financial Institutions Knowledge about Low-Cost Private Schools Frequency % Financial Institutions knowledge about Low-Cost Private Schools Yes 17 65 % No 9 35 % Total 26 100 % Source: Field Data, Assessment of LCPS in FtF/RING II Districts, July 2019

Table 12.15: Financial Institutions Currently Working with any Low-Cost Private School Frequency % Financial and non-financial institutions currently working with Low-Cost Yes 9 35 % Private School No 17 65 % Total 26 100 % Source: Field Data, Assessment of LCPS in FtF/RING II Districts, July 2019

Table 12.16: Financial Institutions That Have Financial Model that can Support the Development of Low-Cost Private Schools Frequency % Financial institutions with financial models that can support the Yes 10 40 % development of low-cost private schools No 15 60 % Total 25 100 % Source: Field Data, Assessment of LCPS in FtF/RING II Districts, July 2019

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ANNEX 13: Samples Achieved DATA KEY TYPE OF TARGETS Planned Achieved COLLECTION STAKEHOLDERS INTERVIEW (SAMPLE) Total LEVEL PER DISTRICT OR SCHOOL Household Household survey Household 5 parents with 270 277 targeting survey wards/children parents/household in LCPSs heads with wards in LCPSs Household survey Household 5 parents with 270 243 targeting survey wards/children parents/household in public schools heads with wards in public schools (PS) or wards out of school in ADVANCE/RING II communities Community FGDs with parents FGD 1 per district 17 16 with wards/children in LCPSs FGDs with parents FGD 1 per district 17 16 with wards/children in public schools in ADVANCE/RING II districts National Development partners Interview with USAID KII 1 1 0 Education Division Interview with World KII 1 1 0 Bank Education Division MoE/GES Interview with KII 1 1 0 Director/Deputy Basic Education Interview with KII 1 1 0 MoE/GES Officer in charge of private schools Region Private school KII 1 per region 3 3 associations NGOs working with KII 1 per region 3 19 private schools in the region (OMEGA, IDP, etc.)

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District District Director of KII 17 per district 17 16 Education District officers in KII 1 per district 17 14 charge of private school Business services KII 2 per district 34 29 providers, including financial and non- financial institutions District Planning KII 1 per district 17 17 Officer or District Coordinating Director School Interviews with KII 1 per school 5439 44 headteachers and proprietors Household Household survey Household 5 parents with 27040 277 targeting survey wards/children parents/household in LCPS heads of children in LCPSs Household Household survey Household 5 parents with 270 243 targeting survey wards/children parents/household in public schools heads of children in ADVANCE/RING II communities Source: Field Data, Assessment of LCPS in FtF/RING II Districts, July 2019

39 This comprises four schools each across the 10 focus districts and two schools each in the seven other districts. 40 The 270 household interviews comprise 200 household interviews across the 10 focus districts and an additional 70 household interviews from the other seven districts.

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DATA KEY STAKEHOLDERS TYPE OF TARGETS Planned Achieved COLLECTION INTERVIEW (SAMPLE) TOTAL LEVEL PER DISTRICT OR SCHOOL

National Development partners KIIs 3 3 0

Key stakeholders at the KIIs 3 3 0 Ministry of Education / Ghana Education Service

Region Private school associations KIIs 1 per region 3 3

NGOs working with LCPS in KIIs 1 per region 3 19 the region (OMEGA, IDP etc.)

District District Director of Education KIIs 1 per district 17 16

District officers in charge of FGD 1 per district 17 14 private schools with about three circuit supervisors

Business Service Providers KIIs 2 per district 34 29 including banks `

District Planning Officer KII 1 per district 17 17

School Interviews with KIIs 1 per school 54 53 headteachers/proprietors

Proprietors KII 1 per school 51

Teachers KIIs 1 per school 54 53

Pupil/learner assessment (only EGRA/EGRM 10 per school 400 391 across the 10 focal districts) Tests across 40 schools Source: Field Data, Assessment of LCPS in FtF/RING II Districts, July 2019

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