Intercoast 38 P1-5 Food Security

INTERNATIONAL NEWSLETTER OF COASTAL MANAGEMENT

Coastal Resources Center, University of Rhode Island Food Security and Fisheries Narragansett, Rhode Island USA • #38 • Winter 2001 FOCUS ON: By Lamarr B.Trott runoffs and discharges. Further and biotic attributes became one of consequence have been due to the major challenges by the end of hy is food security an issue hunting and gathering (e.g., fish- this last century. Unfortunately, for fishery resources? FOOD SECURITY W ing) and natural phenomena (e.g., what has often happened is insuffi- Simply put, too many people are El Niño/La Niña). cient coordination between efforts harvesting a rapidly diminishing The population explosion, with to develop the coastal zone and supply of living aquatic resources. FOR COASTAL COMMUNITIES FOR COASTAL many nations doubling their popu- efforts by the harvesting sector to This resource is one of our last lation in only a quarter century, manage the fisheries—we are our remaining ‘common’ properties. along with this migration toward own worst enemy. Highlights In half a century, we have over- the coasts, exacerbates an already The complex physical character- harvested what was felt in 1950 to critical scenario. Hence, sustain- istics of coasts (bays, estuaries, and be an unlimited supply of seafood. ability of fishery resources is continental shelf) provide a home 8 The result is that many species that directly related to human popula- to 80 percent of living marine Enforcing once were abundant food sources, tion pressures. Management of species, at some stage of their life Coastal like cod and haddock in the North Management coasts with their special physical cycle. Offshore adult populations Atlantic, are now in short supply. (continued page 2) As common species were depleted, new areas and species were located 12 by ‘in-vogue’ exploratory fishing; Capacity in these species usually suffering the Living Marine same fate. More efficient gear on Food Security in the Coastal Zone: Resources an increasing numbers of fishing Anthropologic Considerations vessels overcapitalized the industry and over-harvested resources By Lisa Colburn level that precedes it.That is, successful national-level food 26 worldwide. hen the term ‘food security’ security may, for example, be Sharks:Their It is interesting that most sea life is mentioned what do you W viewed as dependent on inter- Role in is concentrated near the coasts, just think it means? For many of us it national-level considerations, Human/Marine as most human populations are may depend on the economic level while individual-level food Interactions concentrated near coastal areas or we consider. National food security security may be dependent on on rivers that lead to them.The may be very different from the household-level considerations trend in human migration, now ability of individuals to secure 28 and through history, is toward (Figure 1, page 30). food.This article is intended to According to the United Miskito Lobster coastal areas. One third of the provide a broad contextual frame- Fishery Nations’ Food and Agricultural world’s human population inhabit work for understanding food secu- Organization (FAO), “food coastal areas. Ingress of people, rity.To do this, an anthropological security exists when all people Theme with their multitude of effluents, perspective will be placed in the at all times have physical and Advisor: has had a direct effect on coastal context of coastal communities. economic access to sufficient aquatic life.We have dubbed this For this framework, each level of food to meet their dietary Lamarr B. ‘pollution,’ the cause being indus- consideration may usefully be needs for a productive and trial, agricultural, and urban understood as dependent on the healthy life.” Because average Trott (continued page 30) Trott freshwater habitats which is cur- (continued from page 1) may not be directly affected by rently underway in many parts of human coastal activity; however, the world is not curtailed, the yield INTERNATIONAL NEWSLETTER OF COASTAL MANAGEMENT these coastal activities can be disas- from natural stocks will continue Editor: Stephen B. Olsen to be reduced, and in some areas Editor: Noëlle F. Lewis trous to the larval and juvenile populations. Coastal degradation even eliminated. In the U.S., Designer: Matt Castigliego rebuilding stocks is now the InterCoast is an internation- reduces larval/juvenile survival charge, with management forced al newsletter of coastal man- and offshore harvesting reduces the agement, published three times breeding adults.The results are toward a precautionary approach, each year by the Coastal obvious. thus limiting harvests to levels Resources Management lower than desired by industry. Project of the University of World Fisheries Fishery products are the world’s Rhode Island's Coastal In 1997, the total world fish har- most important source of animal Resources Center (CRC) and vest was estimated to be 122 mil- protein, particularly important to the U.S. Agency for lion metric tons; in 1998 it had the poorer segments of coastal International Development decreased 4 percent. Capture fish- society. Fish contribute more ani- (USAID). Funding to publish eries (the harvest and utilization of mal protein for human consump- InterCoast is provided by natural stocks) accounted for 85 tion than beef and poultry com- USAID's Global Environment percent of the harvest. At the end bined. For many people in develop- Center and the National of the 20th century, United ing countries, fish provide more Institute for Coastal and Nations’ Food and Agriculture Marine Mangement,The than 40 percent of their basic Organization (FAO) estimated that Netherlands. needs for animal protein, and often InterCoast’s objective is to 70 percent of the world’s fishery is the cheapest or only affordable facilitate information exchange resources were either fully or over- source of this vital nutrient. Of the on coastal management. exploited. over 25,000 species of fish, only a Readers are invited to contact Over 50 percent of the world few species are harvested for direct Noëlle F. Lewis with contribu- harvest comes from waters of human consumption. More than 15 tions, questions and com- developing countries, and over half percent of the world harvest is ments. of that is caught by artisanal fish- used for other purposes (e.g., meal InterCoast ers.These fishers are in competi- and oil). In U.S. waters, the U.S. Noëlle F.Lewis tion for an ever-decreasing supply National Marine Fisheries Service’s Coastal Resources Center of fish. publication Our Living Oceans lists University of Rhode Island Factory trawlers became com- only 904 species involved in the 41 Narragansett, Rhode Island mon in the 1960s and 70s, severely fishery management plans that reg- 02882 USA depleting stocks in the most pro- ulate U.S. marine fisheries.This is Tel:401-874-6870 ductive areas.This led coastal insufficient information for man- Fax: 401-789-4670 nations to establish exclusive eco- agement for over 60 percent of E-mail: [email protected] nomic zones (EEZ), giving jurisdic- these species. Website:www.crc.uri.edu tion over waters 200 miles from InterCoast's policy is to their coasts.The U.S. declared its Role of Aquaculture limit submissions to a short EEZ with the passage of the Aquaculture (the controlled cul- essay or summary on a given Magnuson Fisheries Conservation ture of freshwater and marine topic.The editor routinely and Management Act in 1976. organisms) has been a significant edits submissions heavily and Nevertheless in 1996, 20 years method of producing fish for over a removes references. Such later, the Sustainable Fisheries thousand years. Aquaculture now changes are commonly made Act was passed recognizing that accounts for nearly 20 percent of without further consultation the total world harvest. But, until with the author. our fisheries resources had not been sustained and were rapidly recently, aquaculture has depended declining. largely on trial and error, and the The real issue is what level is basic parameters for production actually sustainable. If the over- are poorly understood. Carp and a exploitation of natural fish stocks, few salmonid species dominate fish environmental degradation and the culture worldwide, and penaeid destruction of oceanic, coastal, and shrimp dominate invertebrate cul-

2 InterCoast • Winter 2001 ture. Only a handful of marine fish brackish conditions necessary for obvious solution is to restrict har- species are successfully cultured, shrimp farming, freshwater is vests (e.g., number of fishing ves- with significant advances in orna- extracted from the water table to sels) and to close areas where mental species. Much of marine dilute seawater in the milkfish reproduction occurs, or that are culture is actually in brackish ponds. In both cases, and in most required for larval survival. water, with shrimp and milkfish other locations where shrimp Reserves and marine protected being good examples. farming has been practiced, the areas (MPAs) have been established Annual world aquaculture pro- immense profits initially gained by to do this.These zones limit fishing duction doubled from 10 to 20 shrimp farming suddenly turn to to specific areas, thus removing the million metric tons in just over a losses due to disease. However, element of time or season from decade (some of this is an artifact today, with increased attention to management decisions. of better reporting from China). disease prevention, shrimp produc- However, use of MPAs as a fish- Due to the rapidly increasing tion is again on the rise. eries management tool is some- human population, worldwide The Food Chain what new.A Presidential Executive demand for fish continues to Marine ecosystems are extreme- Order to coordinate U.S. national exceed demand. Assuming that ly complex. Habitats vary widely MPAs was just signed to coordinate production from natural stocks and are influenced by many factors work on state MPAs. However, for remains static, any increase will (e.g., climate, ocean currents, and some states such as California that have to be from aquaculture. water column and substrate charac- already have 100+ marine The price of fishery products teristics). Marine creatures have reserves, this is nothing new. continues to rise, with some being evolved to protect themselves from Several developing countries are truly excessive. A recent report predators. Understanding preda- also using MPAs to improve their from Tokyo tells of a single bluefin tor-prey interactions is indeed fisheries stocks. tuna selling for US$173,000. In understanding the food chain, an One effort of resource protec- Jamaica, tilapia (a group of fresh- area greatly studied. Species loca- tion that has been very successful is water fish native to Africa) are tion and concentration also drive the protection of turtle nesting marketed as “Caribbean red snap- the food chain. Upwelling off west- beaches. In most cases, this has suc- per,” demonstrating marketing ern Africa and the eastern Pacific cessfully limited egg harvesting by techniques for capitalizing on the provides nutrients for algal produc- coastal communities. An example is short supply of a popular, high tion, which in turn attracts small in Central America where there are market-value native species. In fish (sardines or anchovies), then large concentrations of nesting tur- contrast, in countries like Eritrea larger pelagic fish (mackerel and tles, on some beaches hundreds to where most fishery products tuna), and ultimately the apex of even thousands of nesting turtles remain in the country, the market the chain (e.g., tuna and sharks). As arrive, e.g., La Fleur on the Pacific cost of all species, whether lobster, we fish out larger fish, we are fish- coast of Nicaragua. In contrast, tuna, or lizardfish is the same ing more and more down the food where this strategy is not being (US$0.50 per pound in 1996). chain to lower trophic levels. used, green turtles are harvested Fish farm yield is increasing due for meat on the Miskito to research in bioengineering Possible Solutions (Caribbean) coast of Nicaragua. (genetics), nutrition, disease con- Efforts to protect the marine Recent estimates indicate 14,000 trol, and reproductive physiology. habitat have increased in the last large adult turtles are harvested However, in some countries, these decade. Restrictions on coastal per year.This practice is unlikely to increasing yields have had major development activities have been in be sustainable. effects on coastal ecosystems, caus- place in the U.S. for several ing pollution and altering physical decades, but this is not generally Socioeconomic surroundings. Shrimp farming is a true in developing countries. Factors major culprit, as seen in Ecuador Protection of mangroves and coral The economies of all nations are and Taiwan. In Ecuador, vast reefs is recent, occurring only after somewhat dependent on fish, shell- acreage of mangroves (a primary their importance was recognized, fish, and aquatic plant life.This is wild shrimp nursery) has been and it became clear that a signifi- especially true for those countries destroyed. In southern Taiwan, cant percentage is being lost. still developing their economic milkfish ponds were converted for One cause of over-fishing is bet- potential. shrimp farming affecting the sur- ter technology and a better under- Living aquatic resources, espe- rounding ecosystems, i.e., to make standing of marine processes. An cially fish, are essential to income (continued page 34)

InterCoast • Winter 2001 3 substitute often expensive import- The Contribution of Indonesia’s ed foodstuffs with locally available Coastal Resources to National produce. Because of the crisis, there has also been a substantial Food Security urban-rural migration as city work- By Ian M. Dutton and Significance of ers returned to their family villages Dietrich G. Bengen Coastal Resources to to obtain food and employment in sectors such as fisheries and agri- ndonesian’s refer to their country Food Security culture that are less affected by as tanah air kita (our land and Perhaps the most important sin- I regional and global economic water).This simple expression gle measure of the importance of forces.This has in turn placed fur- evokes both a strong sense of asso- coastal resources to the health, ther pressure on local resources ciation with the sea and an implied welfare, and food security of and intensified conflicts between recognition of the importance of Indonesia is the (1997) Food and subsistence and commercial uses. viewing both land and water in an Agriculture Organization statistic One of the consequences of the integrated fashion.These interde- on sources of animal protein sup- intensification of competition for pendencies are further substantiat- ply. Some 53 percent of Indonesia’s coastal resources and of the higher ed by the extensive socioeconomic total animal protein supply comes export prices for key fisheries and and biophysical linkages within this from fish, ranking only just behind aquaculture products has been an 17,000 islands of the archipelago. South Korean and Sri Lanka and increase in destructive fishing prac- More than 65 percent of ahead of Bangladesh, Japan and tices and inappropriate aquaculture Indonesia’s 220 million citizens live other Asian nations).This is well development. Many coastal com- within 60 kms (35 miles) of the above the reported global average munities are thus caught in a cycle coastline. Eight of Indonesia’s 10 of 16.5 percent and much greater of resource use that favors com- largest cities and most provincial than developed nations such as the mercial over subsistence uses, capital cities are located on the US (6.8 percent) and Australia (6.5 depletes resource stocks at unsus- coast.The largest, Jakarta, has long percent). tainable rates and ultimately dimin- played a dominant role in the This single measure belies, how- ishes the capacity of the ecosystem national economy because of its ever, the significance of coastal to supply future stocks.This cycle maritime trade focus. More than resources in periods of greatest is also a root cause of much con- 23 percent of the country’s total importance such as economic flict between communities and GDP is generated by marine indus- recession. No data are available on between communities and com- tries and these also provide formal informal employment in the mercial interests competing for employment for more than 16 mil- marine sector, or the relative sig- access to ever decreasing resource lion of Indonesia’s workforce. nificance of subsistence industries, stocks.Throughout much of west- Despite the obvious significance but a 1994 World Wildlife Fund ern and central Indonesia, many of these resources to the national study estimated that some 80 per- fisheries that communities previ- economy and to the well being of cent of coastal residents engage at ously relied upon for both income resource dependent industries and some time in marine resource- and subsistence are now commer- communities, there has, to date, dependent activities such as fishing cially extinct. It is feared that as been little systematic effort to (a) or gleaning.This observation and decentralization takes effect in document the importance of the importance of multiple sources early 2001, rates of unregulated coastal resources to national food of household incomes (e.g., from exploitation will increase, further security or (b) protect the agriculture, commerce, and fish- disadvantaging coastal communities resilience of those resources and eries) have been well documented who traditionally have had little thus ensure their sustained produc- in various recent studies of coastal voice in coastal resource manage- tion.This overview describes communities in North Sulawesi, ment. aspects of the significance of coastal Lampung, and East Kalimantan. In resources, reports on the results of those studies, it has been noted What do Indonesians a recent national attitudinal survey that access to coastal resources has Think About All This? of public perception of coastal become even more important to A recent national attitudinal sur- resources and outlines some of the rural and urban households in the vey of 1,600 Indonesians (in three steps being taken to promote food last three years of the Asian eco- provinces and in the greater Jakarta security in coastal regions. nomic crisis due to the need to area) commissioned by the United

4 InterCoast • Winter 2001 States Agency for International resources is a major step in devel- Conclusion Development (USAID)-National oping an integrated approach to It is somewhat ironic that while Development Planning Board coastal and marine resource man- much of Indonesia’s development (BAPPENAS) coastal resources agement. Prior to 1999, fisheries focus for the past 30 years was pri- management project, Proyek management was subordinate to marily on agriculture, the pursuit Pesisir, demonstrated the over- agricultural management, and of intensified land clearing and whelming concern that Indonesians there was no single national body agricultural work contributed to have for coastal ecosystems and concerned with marine resources. the rapid degradation of Indonesia’s species of importance to them. The new ministry is now working most highly productive marine Eighty-three percent of respon- with other levels of government ecosystems.Various recent studies dents believe that marine resources and with nongovernment interests have demonstrated conclusively are very important to them and to actively develop a comprehen- both the vast extent of ecological their future. Of the top 10 issues sive policy framework to better devastation that has occurred affecting them,‘pollution of the balance commercial and subsis- because of largely unregulated or sea’ ranked as sixth most important tence uses of marine resources and inappropriate coastal development after living costs, household protect the food and ecological and the massive social costs borne income, education costs, unem- security of local communities. by present and future generations ployment, and security and above In some locations this will be as a result of ecosystem damage. economic crisis, rubbish, bad achieved by better coordination of At the same time, the rapid roads, and crime. government, commercial, and expansion of commercial fishing Despite a generally low level of community interests in coastal activities, particularly fisheries factual knowledge (e.g., most areas. For example, the govern- involving destructive and inappro- Indonesians think that Indonesia ment of Lampung province has priate practices, now threatens the has less than 500 islands, and only recently approved a coastal strate- ability of Indonesia’s seas to sustain 19 percent can name the Minister gic plan that establishes shared previously unchallenged marine for Marine Affairs), there is clear vision and coordinated process for food security. Dealing with these evidence of informed concern for coastal development. threats requires a comprehensive resources of importance to them. In some cases, this will be program of action focusing on gov- For example, respondents identi- achieved by supporting communi- ernance measures and requiring an fied some 17 key threats.The top ty-led initiatives to improve ecosys- ecosystem level perspective. It may five were blast fishing, catching fish tem quality and protect or enhance even require such politically radical with cyanide, catching fish with a production. For example, in the measures such as food substitution trawl, oil pollution, and throwing villages of North Sulawesi, commu- if action can not be taken quickly waste into the sea. Of equal note is nity-based marine sanctuary pro- enough to deal with the decreasing respondents understand the con- grams are now actively supported quantity of fish stocks or the rapid- nection between sound manage- by local governments as a means of ly deteriorating quality of the ment of coastal resources and the promoting economic resilience and ecosystems that nurture those supply of food products from those sustainable fisheries production. stocks. systems. For example, there was In other cases, an active program For further information, contact strong support for measures such of ecosystem rehabilitation is being Ian Dutton, Proyek Pesisir as the return of captured juvenile pursued. In October 2000, the (Indonesia Coastal Resources fish, closed seasons for fishing to ministry supported the installation Management Program), E-mail: allow stock recovery and for pro- of artificial reefs in the Thousand [email protected] or Dietrich tection of coral reefs and man- Islands area offshore from Jakarta Bengenk, Bogor Agricultural groves. as a tool for promoting enhanced University (IPB), Kampus IPB, fish production for the benefit of Darmaga, Bogor 16680 Indonesia. Some Initial Steps to local communities. At a much larg- Protect Food Tel: 62251 626380. E-mail: er scale, the Coral Reef [email protected] Security Management Project (COREMAP) The establishment in 1999 of a is testing development of large- new Ministry of Marine Affairs and scale programs of improved coral Fisheries to coordinate conserva- reef management and supporting tion and development of those initiatives with a high profile Indonesia’s vast coast and marine public awareness campaign.

InterCoast • Winter 2001 5 • Sixty percent claim 75 to 100 Actions Needed to Achieve percent of their total income Food Security in the Philippines comes from fishing Out of the three most urgent By Catherine A. Courtney, Coastal Communit- personal concerns, 74 percent of Evelyn Deguit, and Rebecca ies’ Dependence on the respondents identified having Pestaño-Smith Seafood enough to eat everyday as their top he food security programs of The importance of nearshore concern. Tnational governments rarely fisheries to food security in the The majority of respondents consider coastal resources in the Philippines is well documented. cited all major indicators of over- inventory of stable, sustainable, and Fish caught in nearshore or munici- fishing as becoming worse over the last three years wherein: predictable food supply.This is sur- pal waters (extending to a distance • prising considering the importance of 15 km from the shoreline) pro- Seventy percent cited of nearshore fisheries in supplying vide approximately 50 percent of increased time to catch a kilo of fish the highest quality and most effi- the animal protein. In fact, the • ciently produced dietary protein in Philippines’ staple food is mainly Seventy-four percent cited a the world, especially in an archipel- composed of fish and rice. In rural decrease in the number of fish caught agic country like the Philippines coastal communities, nearshore • where the coastline extends 18,000 fisheries may supply 80 percent of Sixty-eight percent cited smaller fish being caught km and 60 percent of the popula- the dietary protein.The extensive • tion lives in the coastal zone.This shallow seas have historically been Seventy-four percent cited a neglect is alarming given that inter- rich with coastal resources (fish decrease in the quality of fish national research organizations and and shellfish) and their habitats caught experts confirm the global supply (coral reefs, seagrass beds, and Only eight to 16 percent cited of fish is dwindling, and in some mangroves). Currently, these improved fish catch, quantity, and cases, collapsing under the heavy resources are severely degraded quality over the last three years, pressure of increased demand. throughout the country.The while the remaining respondents Food security has been recently Philippines is facing the begin- cited no change. defined in the Philippines under ning of a crisis in food security The Decline in the 1997 Agriculture and Fisheries from the sea. Fisheries-Derived Modernization Act 8435 as a: In 2000, the Coastal Resource Food “Policy objective, plan and strategy Management Project (CRMP) of The most common strategy pro- of meeting the food requirements the Philippine Department of moted by governments to increase of the present and future genera- Environment and Natural food production and economic tions of Filipinos in substantial Resources, funded by the United benefits from the sea is to increase quantity, safety and nutritional States Agency for International fishing effort by providing fishing quality that meets desirable dietary Development, conducted a nation- gear, boats, and other incentives to requirements, ensuring the avail- wide quantitative survey to bench- increase the number of fishers and ability and affordability of food to mark the current fishers knowl- efficiency of exploitation. all, either through local production edge, attitudes and, practices, as Production-oriented programs to or importation, or both, based on well as provide inputs on priority increase fishing effort without the country’s existing and potential coastal issues and concerns. A total instituting adequate management resource endowment and related of 700 fishers from 16 provinces measures are largely to blame for production advantages, and consis- were interviewed for the study.The the current decline in fisheries pro- tent with the overall national study affirms the heavy dependence duction in the Philippines. As an development objectives and poli- of fish and fishing as a primary example, in 2000, as part of Fish cies. However, sufficiency in rice source of daily food and livelihood Conservation Week in the and white corn should be pursued.” for Filipinos, wherein: • Philippines, the national govern- In order to achieve this policy Eighty-nine percent used their ment distributed hundreds of bot- objective for the Philippines, the own catch from the sea as the tom-setting gill nets to small-scale sustainable supply of nearshore largest portion of food • fishers. Commercial fishing licenses fisheries resources must be consid- Eighty-two percent feed their continue to be issued to operators ered in the food security equation. families daily from their fish catch who illegally fish in municipal

6 InterCoast • Winter 2001 waters, thus contributing to the number of people for the longest to fishers and their children decline of nearshore fisheries that possible time. CRM accomplishes Critical Result 2: Illegal and supply the daily food to small-scale this goal through a participatory destructive fishing practices fishers. Other factors contributing process of planning, implementing, stopped to the decline of fisheries-derived and monitoring sustainable uses of Illegal fishing in municipal food in the Philippines include: coastal resources through collective waters has resulted in relatively • Lack of regulatory mechanisms action and sound decisionmaking. small economic gains to a few indi- to limit access to nearshore Local government units, in particu- viduals and large economic losses fisheries lar 832 coastal municipalities and to the majority of coastal stake- • Lack of enforcement of 57 coastal cities, have been given holders. Strategic interventions to fisheries laws the primary mandate under the stop illegal fishing in municipal • Lack of regulation of commer- 1991 Local Government Code to waters include: • cial fisheries manage coastal resources and Allocate funds from municipal • Continued increases in munici- municipal waters. In order to and city government for coastal pal and commercial fishing effort achieve a sustainable food supply law enforcement activities includ- from population growth and from municipal waters, local gov- ing training, seaborne assets, legal migration to coastal areas ernment units must deliver coastal assistance, and financial support for • Slow economic development resource management as a basic community-based coastal watch in coastal areas providing few alter- service to achieve three critical groups • natives to fishers results: Train and equip local police in • Conversion of coastal habitats Critical Result 1: Fishing effort the enforcement of fishery and such as mangroves to fish ponds reduced to sustainable levels other laws designed to protect the and reclamation areas Overfishing inside and, to a less- coastal environment • • Economic development of er extent, outside municipal waters Pass local legislation to prohib- local government inconsistent with is the primary cause of the serious it destructive fishing practices principles of sustainable develop- decline in fisheries in the Critical Result 3: Critical coastal ment Philippines. Strategic interventions habitats protected and managed • Slow development of an inte- to reduce fishing effort include: The quality of critical coastal • grated coastal management pro- Strictly regulate municipal habitats, in particular coral reef, gram at the local and national lev- fishing through licensing, minimum seagrass, and mangrove habitat, els size restrictions, seasonal closures, must be maintained and improved Together these issues have acted and other measures to reduce open for sustainable coastal resource use • (and continue) to damage coastal access Establish marine sanctuaries to • resources and decrease fisheries Strictly regulate and reduce rehabilitate habitats and increase production potential throughout commercial fishing by the number fisheries production • the Philippines. A new paradigm of licenses issued, not issuing Develop community-based must be embraced to achieve food licenses to repeat violators, clearly forest management agreements for security from the sea. identifying areas where commercial sustainable mangrove resource use fishing is allowed, and enforcing all • Revert abandoned fishponds to Three Critical terms of the commercial fishing mangrove areas and stop illegal Results Needed to license conversion of mangrove forests to Achieve Food • Identify sustainable economic reclamation areas and fishponds Security alternatives for coastal communi- • Monitor and regulate all Coastal resource management ties shoreline development, thus mini- (CRM) addresses two key elements • Ban all fish aggregating mizing environmental impacts of of the food security and poverty devices, artificial reefs and other activities such as reclamation, alleviation equation: ensuring a sus- types of fishing gear which when tourism, port and harbor develop- tainable food supply from the sea used improperly in municipal ment, and pollution on coastal and increasing the earning power waters result in overexploitation of habitats of coastal poor to purchase food. fisheries resources The goal of CRM is to manage all • Implement family planning Local Government the coastal resources in a sustain- programs Leadership in CRM able manner allowing the greatest • Provide technical skills, train- The primary mandate for man- benefit to accrue to the largest ing and educational opportunities aging municipal waters in the (continued page 17)

InterCoast • Winter 2001 7 Enforcing Coastal Management degradation in reef quality is a direct result of numerous illegal Regulations to Enhance Food activities including dynamite fish- ing, cyanide fishing, and muro ami Security in the Philippines fishing (when fish are scared into a By Tom G.Bayer and J.A. cope with low levels of food waiting net by a wall of young boys Atchue, III stocks. Both of these situations diving down and making a lot of he concept of food security ini- decrease food security. noise).This decrease in mangrove Ttially focused on access to Enforcement of coastal manage- and coral reef areas spells trouble grain resources.The concept subse- ment regulations is one way of for the future, considering that a quently has been enlarged to helping poor Filipinos maintain healthy coral reef can produce as account for access to all types of adequate food security. much as 20 metric tons of fish per food. The Role of Coastal square kms per year.This could What is Food Security? Resources in Food provide 50 kg of fish per year to Food security means that all Security 400 people. On the other hand, people at all times have access to Fish and other aquatic resources one square km of reef in poor con- enough food for an active, healthy provide about 25 percent of animal dition can produce no more than life. At a minimum, food security protein in Asia, and approximately five metric tons of fish per year. includes the ready availability of 50 percent in the Philippines. In These and other changes seem to nutritionally adequate and safe rural communities, fish caught in be linked with real and significant foods, and the assured ability to municipal waters can supply up to changes in the amount of fish acquire acceptable foods in socially 80 percent of the animal protein. caught by municipal fishers.The acceptable ways. For example, The Philippines historically has total catch for municipal fishers has without resorting to use of emer- been rich in coastal resources. been steadily decreasing since the gency food supplies. Food security Unfortunately, these resources are early 1990s. In addition, the catch also includes the need to create now in rapid decline due, in part, per individual fisher has significant- social and economic conditions that to severe human encroachment ly decreased since the 1970s. At empower individuals to gain access caused by a rapidly increasing pop- that time, approximately 20 kg per to food.This can be done by earn- ulation.This has lead to increasing fisher per day was reported, while ing the income to purchase food, needs for food which have been by 1998 the catch had dropped to participating in community food answered, in one way or another, less than two kg. security activities, and where prac- by increased fishing pressure along Another serious problem is the tical, by actually producing food. the coast. Also, there was an explo- unequal distribution of the catch Effective and efficient use of food, sion in the construction of aquacul- between commercial and small- including gleaning and food recov- ture ponds in mangrove forests scale fisheries.While commercial ery, is also an essential component from the late 1960s until the early fisheries catch about 85 percent of of food security today. 1980s. the fish, small-scale fisheries pro- In the Philippines, limited Most of the increase in effort has vide work for about 80 percent of resources and lack of access to food occurred in nearshore areas. For all Philippine fishers.This causes are the prime factors leading to example, mangrove forest cover severe problems among these two food insecurity. Chief among the has declined from 450,000 hectars groups. Although the government factors determining food secuity is (ha) in the early 1900s to only has banned trawling, push netting, low incomes. Families with very about 150,000 ha today, due in and shellfish racking within a dis- low incomes often must balance part to extensive (and often illegal) tance of three km from the shore paying for housing, medicine, fishpond development. Many stud- to protect the fishing grounds of schooling, and other expenses with ies have assigned mangrove forests the small-scale fishers, enforce- paying for food. Another factor is a crucial role in the coastal zone. ment of such measures is inade- lack of access to food because of Of the estimated 27,000 sq. kms of quate. As a result, the income of low stocks. In many cases, coral reefs in the Philippines, it is the small-scale fishers is below the Philippine coastal inhabitants living estimated that less than five per- national average.The coastal in rural and remote locations face cent is in excellent condition, resources are heavily exploited and high unemployment and high while over 70 percent is classified do not produce enough fish to poverty rates.They often must also as poor to fair condition.This guarantee a living for small-scale fishers.

8 InterCoast • Winter 2001 These decreases in total volume of catch and the individual catch per unit effort are significant food security issues. Lower overall catch means that access to food is decreased, since there is less food in the marketplace. Lower catch per unit effort means that the fish- er has either less direct access to food since he may choose to sell his catch, or keep his catch for person- al use. In any event, it is clear that the use (and management) of coastal resources plays a crucial role in food security. Aquaculture in the Philippines (photo by Lamarr Trott) Without having a proper man- must of course align with national Maritime Group (PNP-MARIG) agement system along the coast, resource use policies. Coastal man- and the Philippine Coast Guard small-scale fishers may need to use agement efforts will only succeed (PCG) and other law enforcement more effective and destructive fish- when a high level of compliance is agencies are instructed under the ing gear for their survival. Such achieved with well-developed man- Fisheries Code to take the lead in action will eventually destroy the agement measures at all levels.This the enforcement of environmental coastal resources—including juve- requires the integration of four laws in collaboration and coordina- concepts: tion with community-based niles of commercially valuable • species—and lead to further mar- Resource users and managers Fisheries and Aquatic Resource ginalization of their economic situ- must have a strong working knowl- Management Councils (FARMCs). ation now and for future genera- edge of coastal management The code also instructs members requirements of the FARMCs to undergo train- tions. • Resource users must generally ing and be deputized as fish war- Coastal Management accept that compliance is necessary dens and natural resources officers. for Food Security and in the best interest of all stake- The appropriate government units The government has managed its holders to preserve the long-term are further instructed to issue dep- coastal resources in some form economic viability of the resources utization papers to the FARMC • since the 1960s. In the 1990s, the Individual resource users per- members and officers. government came to understand ceive a high risk of detection of Food security and poverty allevi- that it must put more effort into illegal activity and subsequent ation in coastal areas will be management. One result was the apprehension achieved only if coastal and fish- • introduction of local government Individual violators, when eries resources are managed sus- unit (LGU) responsibilities in detected, can expect certain prose- tainably through effective coastal coastal zone management as part of cution appropriate to the violation law enforcement.The three major the government’s (so far successful) Until the last few years, at least in areas that must be addressed experiment in devolution in the the municipal fishing community, through Monitoring Control and early 1990s. Another was the 1998 these concepts often were not Surveillance (MCS) are illegal and passage of the new Fisheries Code. acknowledged. destructive fishing practices, exces- This combination of laws, regula- The Need for sive fishing effort, and encroach- tions, executive orders, and fish- ment into environmentally sensi- eries administrative orders have all Coastal Law Enforcement tive areas. Fisheries managers are combined into what is now the finally recognizing that fisheries In 1998, the Fisheries Code infrastructure of coastal zone man- cannot be managed effectively (Republic Act 8550) was passed agement in the country. without the cooperation of fishers into law.The Fisheries Code intro- It follows that one of the most and the related groups. duced the concept of coastal law important missions for coastal Government agencies charged enforcement for the benefit of the managers in the Philippines is to with enforcement typically lack coastal resources and the commu- provide effective enforcement of sufficient personnel, equipment, nities that they support.The coastal management regulations at and financial resources to mount Philippine National Police- the municipal level.These efforts extensive patrols of the 18,000 km (continued page 21) InterCoast • Winter 2001 9 tors. For the assessment of the eco- Profitability and Cost Structure nomic performance of a fishing of Marine Capture Fisheries vessel, the ratio between net cash flow and total earnings is used.This By Uwe Tietze study is presently being updated ratio is a general indicator of eco- pecial efforts are presently and expanded. nomic profitability/viability of eco- Sbeing made to implement the Global Trend nomic enterprises as it shows the United Nations Food and The findings of the study suggest amount of total earnings that needs Agriculture Organization’s (FAO) that, in spite of heavily and some- to be earned by a certain type of Code of Conduct for Responsible times overexploited fisheries fishing vessel in order to generate a Fisheries.These include measures resources, marine capture fisheries given amount of net profit.The to reduce and adjust the capacity of is still an economically and finan- financial performance is assessed fishing fleets and to diversify fish- cially viable undertaking. In most with the help of the rate of return ing effort away from overexploited cases, it generates sufficient rev- on investment.The ratio shows resources to ones less exploited. enue to cover the cost of deprecia- how much money needs to be Environmental and natural tion and the opportunity cost of invested in an economic enterprise resource issues can only be capital, thus generating sufficient in order to generate a certain net addressed successfully if the social funds for reinvestment. Marine profit. and economic concerns of those capture fisheries are also an impor- Regarding productivity and whose livelihood, employment, and tant source of food and income and financial performance of trawl fish- income depend on fishing are taken generates employment and foreign eries, noticeable differences can be into consideration. In an effort to exchange earnings, which is partic- observed between developed and help collect background informa- ularly important for developing developing countries.While pro- tion on the fishing industries’ eco- countries. ductivity measured as value of pro- nomic situation, the Fisheries It is interesting to note that duction per crew member was Department of FAO is presently those few categories of fishing units found to be generally higher in the carrying out a global study on the which incurred operational losses developed countries, the rate of economic and financial viability of at the time of the study are located return on investment was found to marine capture fisheries. at the extreme ends of the scale of be generally higher in the develop- The study commenced in 1995 fishing operations, (i.e., in the very ing countries. in close cooperation with fisheries small-scale as well as in the very Of the countries studied, pro- research institutions and national large-scale sector of the industry) ductivity was found to be highest fisheries administrations in selected and include both artisanal gillnet- in France, followed by Argentina, countries in Asia,Africa, Latin ters and large industrial deep sea Peru, Germany, and Spain.The America, and Europe.The method- trawlers. In the former case, over- highest rate of return on invest- ology for studying and analyzing exploitation of inshore fisheries ment, however, was found in the data on costs and earnings of fish- resources and competition from Republic of Korea (37 percent), ing units follows the one used in more efficient fish capture tech- followed by Peru (34 percent), the 1993 study by the Dutch nologies, such as purse seiners and India (24 percent), Ghana (22 per- Department of Fisheries of the coastal trawlers, seem to be cent), and China (15 percent).The Agricultural Economics Research responsible for the negative finan- higher degree of productivity in Institute in The Hague. A first cial performance. In the latter case, the developed countries studied round of national level sample sur- excess capture capacity and related can probably be attributed to a veys and case studies was complet- excessive costs of operation and higher degree of mechanization and ed by 1997 in 13 selected countries investment (limited fishing grounds sophistication of equipment for fish in these regions.These countries and fisheries resources) seem to be detection, capture, and on-board accounted for 49 percent of the the important factors. handling.Their lower cost of opera- marine capture fisheries produc- tion in relation to gross earnings as tion in their regions in 1995 and Trawlers and Small- discussed above, and their lower for 41 percent of the global marine Scale Fishing Vessels cost of investment/higher depreci- production. A comparative analysis The economic and financial per- ation because of the use of older of the findings of the national level formance and efficiency of differ- fishing vessels, explains the higher studies has been published as FAO ent types of fisheries is compared profitability of trawl fisheries in the Fisheries Technical Paper 377.The below with the help of two indica- developing countries studied.

10 InterCoast • Winter 2001 As costs of labor increase in nomic development. industrial trawl fisheries. In France, developing countries in the course As could be expected, the cost as a developed country, labor costs of overall economic development of labor (costs include wages and remain the most important cost and as old fishing vessels are being other labor charges such as insur- component, as it already was the replaced with newly built ones, it ance, employer’s contributions to case in industrial trawl fisheries. can be expected that the difference pensions funds, etc.) is the most Running costs, however, now in profitability of fishing operations important cost component in the become the least important cost as compared to developing coun- more developed countries studied, component, while vessel costs tries might gradually disappear. (Spain, France, Germany, emerge as the second most impor- In the case of small-scale fishing Argentina, and Spain). It accounts tant cost component. In most vessels, the differences between for 40 to 60 percent of the total developing countries, labor costs productivity on the one hand, and cost of operation.The second most now emerge as the most important financial performance on the other important cost component is run- cost component of some of the are even much more pronounced. ning costs (costs include fuel, small-scale fishing units studied. Of the countries studied, produc- lubricants, cost of selling fish, har- This is related to a system of com- tivity is highest, by far, on handlin- bor dues, cost of ice, food and sup- pensation where the proceeds from ers and gill-netters in France.This plies for the crew, etc.) closely fol- the sale of fish are shared among is due to extremely small crew lowed by vessel costs (costs include the crew members. In cases were sizes and a relatively high degree of vessel and gear repair, maintenance crew are paid on a fixed wage mechanization and catch efficiency. expenses, vessel insurance, etc.). basis, running costs remain the However, the rates of return on In the developing countries stud- singly most important cost factor. investment (15 percent for the ied (Peru, Senegal, India, Malaysia, The cost of production of the handliner and only 1 percent for and China), labor costs only small-scale fishing vessels studied the gill-netter) are much lower account for somewhere between in relation to their gross earnings than those of most of the small- 17 to 40 percent of the total cost shows some distinct differences as scale fishing units studied in devel- of operation of trawlers, while compared to the cost of production oping countries. running costs and vessel costs of trawlers. First of all, it is rela- The financial performance of the account for the major share. As tively lower.The cost of producing small-scale fishing units studied in countries develop, and the level of one US$ worth of gross earnings developing countries is better compensation increases, the above ranges for most of the small-scale because of lower costs of invest- differences in the cost structure fishing vessels between US$0.56 ments and lower costs of opera- can be expected to disappear. (Ghanaian gill-netter) and tions. An outstanding example is When looking at the cost struc- US$0.78 (French gill-netter). the smallest and most traditional of ture of trawl fisheries in absolute Sustainability and the small-scale fishing vessels terms and in relation to gross earn- Economic Viability included in the study, an Indian ings, it is interesting to note that The general positive economic sailing log raft trammel-netter the cost of production per unit of performance of marine capture locally called kattumaram or teppa. gross earnings is significantly high- fisheries is being achieved in an This fishing craft has an annual rate er for the trawler fleets in devel- environment where fisheries of return on investment of as high oped countries (Germany, France, resources are fully exploited and in as 388 percent because of extreme- Spain, and Argentina) than for many cases overexploited. How ly low costs of investment and trawler fleets in developing coun- long will it last? The fishing indus- operation and of a selective fishing tries, i.e., Peru, China, India, and try, both small scale and large scale method that targets high value Malaysia.The cost of producing as well as the general public, have a species. one US worth of gross earnings $ vital interest in safeguarding and varies between US 0.91 and Differences in the $ sustaining the beneficial economic US 0.78 in the developed coun- Cost Structure $ and nutritional role of fisheries. tries studied, while the correspon- The cost structure of trawl fish- With a view to ensure sustainabili- ding range for developing countries eries again differs significantly ty and viability, there is an urgent lies between US 0.74 and between developing and developed $ need to strengthen and put in place US 0.68. countries.The differences seem to $ efficient measures to limit fishing The cost structure of small-scale be mainly related to differences in effort and to rehabilitate coastal fishing vessels shows some interest- the compensation of labor which areas and aquatic resources. In depend on the overall level of eco- ing differences as compared to (continued page 23)

InterCoast • Winter 2001 11 Capacity, Capacity Utilization, and Excess Capacity in Living Marine Resources By John M.Ward and Theo Changing the management institu- capacity to levels commensurate Brainerd tions for fisheries from one charac- with the sustainable use of fisheries apacity, when applied to living terized by a lack of property rights resources so as to ensure that fish- Cmarine resources is not a well to one in which clearly defined and ers operate under economic condi- understood term. enforceable property rights exist tions that promote responsible fish- for fish is the most plausible way eries. Such mechanisms should Capacity—What is it? for fisheries managers to correct include monitoring the capacity of In the fisheries management lit- both the overfishing and excess fishing fleets.” erature, capacity is often confused capacity problems that presently With this increased interest in with overcapitalization, a related plague domestic and international global fisheries, the U.S. but different concept. Given the fisheries. Department of State and the recent national and international National Oceanic and Atmospheric interest in measuring fishing capac- International Capacity Efforts Administration (NOAA) tabled a ity and determining if excess proposal at the 1997 Committee capacity exists, this confusion over The Food and Agricultural on Fisheries meeting that led to terminology only exacerbates an Organization of the United Nations three international plans of action already complex problem for fish- (FAO) and the U.S. National (IPOA) concerning sharks, sea ery managers. At issue is the idea Marine Fisheries Service (NMFS), birds, and fishing fleet capacity.The that excess capacity causes over- among other organizations, have fishing capacity IPOA directs FAO fishing.This seems a logical conclu- taken the first steps in understand- member nations to assess their sion since without excessive ing and managing capacity.This domestic fishing capacity through a amounts of labor and capital invest- process began with the series of voluntary individual and ed in the fishery, fish stocks would Environmental Agenda for the 21st collective national plans.The most not be over-harvested, leading to Century (Agenda 21), which significant elements of the capacity excessive exploitation. It is also resulted from the 1992 United IPOA are voluntary commitments assumed by some authors that it is Nations Conference on to assess levels of capacity in the the existence of subsidies to fish- Environment and Development domestic fisheries of each FAO eries by governments that has led United Nations’Rio Summit in Rio member and to develop national to this overcapitalization of some de Janeiro. It included a call for capacity management plans.To fisheries and has created excess governments to cooperate in facilitate these actions, FAO organ- capacity in these fisheries. Excess addressing crises in global fisheries. ized a technical working group capacity is a symptom of a manage- As a result of a series of negotia- meeting in La Jolla, California, ment institution called the open- tions beginning in 1993, three USA, in April 1998 that developed access fishery.This management international agreements were definitions of fishing capacity.A institution can take many forms completed, i.e., the FAO Code of technical consultation held in and names, but each is character- Conduct for Responsible Fisheries, Mexico City, Mexico, in November ized by the absence of property the FAO Agreement on 1999 continued this analytical work rights for ‘fish in the sea.’ Since no Compliance, and the United and reviewed case studies prepared one owns these fish, competitive Nations Agreement on Highly by experts from a number of markets that allocate resources Migratory and Straddling Fish developed and developing FAO (capital, labor, and fish stocks) can- Stocks.The FAO Code of Conduct member nations. Most significantly, not operate efficiently.That is, they recommends that “states should specific ways to measure fishing misallocate resources, causing fish- prevent overfishing and excess fish- capacity that NMFS experts pre- ers to over-invest in capital leading ing capacity and should implement sented were endorsed by the to overcapitalization in a fishery management measures to ensure Mexico City consultation as stan- and decreases in the fish stock that fishing effort is commensurate dards that FAO should disseminate causing overfishing (excess capaci- with the productive capacity of the globally. ty).Without access rights, attempts fishery resources and their sustain- to reduce or eliminate excess able utilization” and “where excess U.S. Capacity Efforts capacity in open-access managed fishing capacity exists, mechanisms Domestic concerns with fishing fisheries will likely be unsuccessful. should be established to reduce capacity also exist as can be seen in

12 InterCoast • Winter 2001 the 1996 reauthorization of the alone in pursuing the issue of second step in this program was to U.S. Magnuson-Stevens Act, or the domestic and international levels of develop measures of capacity levels Sustainable Fisheries Act (SFA). fishing fleet capacity.The in domestic federally managed fish- Although it placed a moratorium Organization for Economic eries.While estimates concerning on the use of individual transfer- Cooperation and Development is capacity levels in global fisheries able quota management programs, conducting a study of the impacts exist, estimates of capacity levels in the SFA has provided the agency of financial transfers on the transi- U.S. fisheries are lacking. Both with expanded authority for imple- tion to responsible fisheries, and qualitative and quantitative esti- menting fishing capacity reduction the role they play in augmenting mates can be created that comply programs,“ to obtain the maximum fish harvesting capacity.The World with the short-run definitions of sustained reduction in fishing Bank is working with Argentina to capacity that have been developed capacity at the least cost and in a develop a fishing capacity reduction by NMFS.The qualitative assess- minimum period of time.”The program.The UN Commission for ment of domestic capacity catego- reauthorization also mandated a Sustainable Development resolved rizes each of the federally managed study completed in the summer of in 1997 that nations should cooper- fisheries into excess, none, or 1999 on the role of the U.S. feder- ate in analyses to identify and assess unknown fishing capacity level cat- al government in subsidizing the the positive and negative environ- egories.The quantitative capacity expansion and contraction of fish- mental roles of fishing fleet subsi- measures needed to comply with ing capacity, and otherwise influ- dies in fisheries.The White House international agreements, to effec- encing the aggregate level of capital and United States Trade tively conserve and manage our investment in fisheries.The SFA is Representative proposed a fish- fisheries, to promote the competi- also the primary factor behind the eries sectoral initiative for the next tiveness of the U.S. fishing indus- inclusion of capacity management World Trade Organization multilat- try, and to aid in the development as a formal NOAA planning objec- eral trade round that will address of sustainable fisheries and fishing tive. Under the Build Sustainable all major trade issues, including communities, can be employed as a Fisheries element of the NOAA subsidies to fishing firms (as metrics that NMFS can determine Fisheries Strategic Plan, the goal is opposed to a focus on tariff reduc- if U.S. capacity reduction objec- to achieve 20 percent fewer over- tions).This explicitly sought to deal tives are being achieved through capitalized fisheries by the year with both the trade and conserva- our management regulations. 2005.This planning element gives tion implications of trade liberal- The qualitative capacity report NOAA, for the first time, a quanti- ization in the fisheries sector that is presently nearing comple- tative capacity management target including their impact on fleet size tion indicates that most US fish- and a time frame. and capacity. eries can be characterized as having In addition, the recommenda- NOAA’s Fisheries some level of excess capacity. It tions of the National Research concludes that over half of the fed- Council (1999) report calls for a Capacity Program erally managed fisheries assessed reduction in excess fishing capacity As a result of these international exhibited qualitative indications of and states that “...managers and agreements and plans of action to excess capacity (e.g., overfishing policymakers should focus on monitor and assess fishing capacity existed, managing as an open- developing or encouraging socioe- and the NOAA Fisheries Strategic access fishery, harvesting exceeds conomic and other management Plan overcapitalization objective, the total allowable catch, a declin- measures that discourage excess NMFS has undertaken a program ing fishing season length, declining capacity and that reward conserva- to qualitatively and quantitatively catch per unit effort, and the exis- tive and efficient use of marine assess domestic fishing capacity in tence of latent effort).The federal- resources and their ecosystems.” each of its federally managed fish- ly managed fisheries without excess This report also notes that “...there eries.The first step in this program capacity are the two individual is a need for better information was to establish definitions and transferable quota fisheries on the about capacity, including fleet size, measures of capacity.A National East Coast of the U.S., and fish- types of ships and gear, ownership, Task Force report developed eco- eries that are not fully utilized, and status of operation.” nomic and technical definitions of such as several low-value pelagic capacity in terms of the level of species fisheries and various small- Increased output that could be produced by a International scale and largely part-time and sub- firm. In general terms, fishing sistence fisheries in the western Commitment capacity is the ability of a vessel or Pacific.The quantitative report that The NMFS and FAO are not fleet of vessels to catch fish.The (continued page 29) InterCoast • Winter 2001 13 The village lies 2.6 miles from Tourism:Paradise and Paradox the first community-based marine By Kathryn Tanner in marine research, wastewater protected area (MPA) in raditional fishing villages on treatment, and increased respect Madagascar.This MPA is funded TMadagascar’s southwestern for the environment.Tourism posi- exclusively by a per capita tourist coast already face food security tively impacts the local economy by tax.Villagers want tourists to come problems.This coastal population is creating employment opportunities to the village, not only because marine dependent and is therefore for cooks, maids, chauffeurs, and they pay tourist taxes that benefit limited by weather.These food boat drivers, among others. the community collectively, but security problems occur during the Tourism also generates new jobs in also because they spend money in rainy season between November other fields such as masonry, car- the village which can benefit indi- and March when weather condi- pentry, and gardening, which also viduals directly.Tourists buy local tions are unreliable and cyclones support the tourism industry. shells and small wooden sailboats, are a constant threat to being able Unfortunately, tourism also leads eat in local restaurants and buy to access food.This coastal popula- to negative impacts on the local merchandise in local stores.With tion lacks good, year-round, over- culture and environment.The dam- economic interests in mind, vil- land access to regional markets age tourism has on the traditional lagers are willing to take part in which means they often lack access culture by the introduction and conservation in order to attract to fruits, vegetables, and staples practice of sex tourism, the adop- more tourists. Although conserva- such as cassava, rice, corn, and tion of foreign customs by vil- tion may attract more tourists and potatoes. However, the food secu- lagers, and the breaking of local tourist revenues, some village lead- rity issue could be exacerbated by taboos and customs by tourists is ers and tour operators are begin- the influx of over 1,000 tourists often not considered.Tourism can ning to recognize the real benefit between June and December. lead to the destruction of of conservation is the management The role of tourism in the issue Madagascar’s flora and fauna by of marine resources in hopes of of food security in this region is a capture and illegal trade of endan- assuring their future sustainability. complicated one.The white sandy gered, endemic species. It can also Although tourism brings the beaches and clear blue water cause deforestation of mangroves benefit of inspiring conservation, attract tourists to this exceptional for beach access, coral mining for the tourists themselves add envi- environment.Tourists are an incen- construction materials, and an ronmental and social pressures to tive for the conservation of this increase in sewage and waste. the community.These pressures are paradise, but they also increase the The village of Anakao, intensifying at an alarming rate due demand on limited marine Madagascar, is a tourist destination to the rapid increase of tourism. resources due to their own dietary on the Mozambique Channel for With a year-round population of needs.The contradiction is that adventure-minded Europeans. 4,000, not only does the additional tourism may simultaneously be a Drawn by the reputation of world- mouths to feed add pressure to the solution and a major contributor to class SCUBA diving and the natural resources, but the amount a food security problem in the increasing availability of hotel of marine resources they consume coastal zone of southwestern accommodation, the number of is disproportionate to the amount Madagascar.This essay will exam- tourists visiting the nearby port villagers consume. In the summer ine whether the existing food secu- town of Tuléar nearly doubled of 1999, the diets of tourists were rity problem is exacerbated by the between 1994 and 1998.The vil- studied in comparison to the diets needs of tourists. lage of Anakao, which is accessible of villagers. It was found that A study completed in March by boat from Tuléar, has also expe- tourists consume 13 times the 2000 highlighted the positive and rienced an increase in tourism. amount of marine resources on a negative impacts of tourism in this Between June 1999 and November daily basis than villagers. In June region.Tourism has been reported 2000, the village increased its through August 1999, the amount to positively impact the local econ- occupancy rate from 37 per night of seafood sold to tourist resorts omy, environment, and education. to 167, a 400 percent increase.This represented 10 percent of the The presence of tourists exposes has led to the villagers identifying locally harvested fish, 100 percent villagers to foreign cultures and tourism as the primary reason for of the lobsters, 4 percent of the languages, and improves access to conservation of marine resources, squid, and 2 percent of the octo- medical treatment.The integration including coral islands and the bar- pus. In addition, villagers also sell of tourism into villages may result rier reef. fish and shellfish to fish buyers who

14 InterCoast • Winter 2001 export to foreign markets.This Association for the Protection and food security by creating a reliable means that villagers decide on a Development of Nosy Ve (FIMI- food source. daily basis what portion of the MANO), has been established in Effective management of catch to keep for household con- order to manage the marine pro- tourism must be considered in sumption versus exporting as a tected area. FIMIMANO repre- order to maximize the positive cash commodity. sents collective efforts of impacts of tourism while minimiz- In addition to environmental Madagascar’s National ing the negative impacts. Although pressures, tourists add social pres- Environmental Office, village rep- the paradox of tourism exists, sures to the community that influ- resentatives, and hotel owners. through effective management ence food security.Tourism has FIMIMANO’s primary objective is tourism can function almost exclu- introduced foreigners, and there- to manage the current and future sively as an aid to food security for fore foreign goods and priorities, marine resources in the region. In coastal populations.Tourism devel- to this community.Tourists wear response to the impact of tourism opment can have a paradoxical nice clothes, listen to audio play- on coastal food security, two cours- effect on food security in the ers, drink Coca-Cola, and eat es of action should be pursued by coastal zone, by both imposing a prepackaged food.Villagers desire FIMIMANO in order to sustain the potentially unsustainable demand these goods, and with the revenue positive role of tourism while con- on local resources and acting as a they earn from fish sales, villagers trolling the adverse effects. force for conservation. It is possi- are presented with a choice of The first course of action should ble, however, for tourism to play a whether to buy food or desired be to determine a carrying capacity positive social role in local goods.The result is often the vil- for tourists.Without a plan for economies if the government, the lagers substitute cheaper and less managing the number of tourists in tourism industry and local peoples nutritious food into their diets, and the village, there is potential for begin to be explicit about the num- sell the more expensive and nutri- explosive growth of tourist num- bers of tourists that can be accom- tious foods for money to buy these bers, as seen by the growth during modated based on local resources. unnecessary, but desired goods. the past 15 months.With a per For further information, contact Thus, villages are making dietary capita consumption rate for Katie Tanner, Fulbrighter, PAO- sacrifices to obtain these desirable tourists that is 13 times greater Tana, U.S. Department of State, goods by using money originally than of villagers, even a small 2040 Antananarivo Place, spent on high-quality sources of increase in the number of tourists Washington, DC 20521-2040 protein. In addition, those villagers can have a significant impact on a USA. (after 9/01) 36 Church who do wish to use their fish-sale community with access to finite Street, Noank, Connecticut 06340 revenues towards alternate sources food resources.The local govern- USA. Tel: 860 536 2327. E-mail: of protein might find it difficult ment and FIMIMANO should con- [email protected] due to the unavailability of these trol the growth of tourism by cap- resources during certain times of ping the number of tourists the year.The fishing village of allowed to stay and eat in the vil- Anakao does not cultivate food nor lage on a given day.The second raise animals, so they rely on course of action should be to import of non-marine products charge a meal tax for tourists in from inland villages. Although order to reflect the disparity in some food is transported overland, marine resource consumption.The the bulk of imported food comes revenues acquired by the adminis- from the Onilahy River by boat. tration of this tax should be used to During the rainy season from proactively promote food security November to March, cyclones within the community.The meal can make this water transport tax revenues should be used to impossible. implement an aquaculture project Due to the multiple factors con- in the village. Aquaculture projects tributing to the food security prob- have been pursued in nearby vil- lem in this region, there is a clear lages with similar physical environ- need for management of these ments and socioeconomic situa- marine resources. A community- tions. An aquaculture project based conservation association, would help ease the problem of

InterCoast • Winter 2001 15 Fish, People, Land and Food Security By Magnus Torell especially so in the fertile—and or ownership to productive land fish rich—flood plains and deltas and water to cultivate that land and he relation between of the Mekong River, the Red to keep animals on that land. As Trural/coastal people, the avail- River, andChao Phraya River, suggested above—those living on ability of land—inland as well as among others.The United Nations coastal fisheries have lower coastal—and the relative impor- reports that population, perhaps incomes than the average popula- tance of fish and other (wild) with the exception of Singapore tion—Vietnam could provide one aquatic resources for food security and Thailand, is rapidly growing, example. In the coastal districts of and livelihood is important to and in some cases very rapidly, by Quang Binh Province there is a acknowledge. People in rural areas global standards (Cambodia, Laos, marked difference between urban that lack or only poses limited land and the Philippines).The growth in and coastal households: are often among the poorer groups population has also meant that peo- • Urban households: 414,000 of the society. Lack of arable land is ple occupy more marginal and Dong for the rich and 91,000 one of the factors that contribute infertile land within the flood Dong for the poor (average income to coastal households being among plains, along coasts, and in moun- per person per month) the poorer strata of the population tain areas. • Rural households: 277,000 in various countries.The non-avail- Seen in another context, based Dong for the rich and 65,000 ability of land has also been a rea- on World Bank indexes, some of Dong for the poor (average income son for people to settle along the world’s poorest countries are per person per month) coasts, rivers, and lakes, where the located in this area. Laos, Continuing the example from open access to marine, aquatic, and Cambodia, Myanmar, and Vietnam Southeast Asia—in a theoretical sit- coastal resources have been provid- are among the poorest countries uation without too much pressure ing for a large number of people to based on a gross domestic product on the aquatic resources (marine sustain their livelihood. Also in per capita. According to these and freshwater) and where there many countries it is estimated that World Bank indexes, many people are not too many competing uses those living on coastal fisheries are living below the poverty line. of resources and space (i.e., regula- (i.e., small-scale fishing house- It is important to note that, con- tion of flood plains, coastal devel- holds) have significantly lower cerning nutrition (and health), opments, etc.)—there should also incomes than the average popula- these countries are in a much bet- be an abundance of fish, frogs, tion. ter position than what their pover- snails, crabs, etc. to sustain a fairly The notion of being ‘poor in all ty index would indicate.The large amount of people with small but fish’ was first applied to expected number or percentage of or no land holdings. But there is describe the Cambodian fisheries. people being considered under- over-fishing, and there is destruc- The context is actually a very good nourished is much less than those tive fishing, pollution, and environ- way of capturing the importance of being rated as being under the mental degradation reducing the fish and other aquatic products poverty line.This relative well- coastal stocks.This leaves a coastal (frogs, snails, crabs, etc.) for poor being is to a large extent linked to fishing household with limited rural/coastal households. If fish is the access to aquatic resources. It resources for their subsistence and taken or disappears from people has been said that the nutritional livelihood. Subsequently, they will that have no real access to other value of wetland products is equiv- become poorer.The situation is resources, they will become really alent or even higher than that of especially difficult in marginal or poor in all aspects.The group other foods. Also suggested is that isolated areas where presently few includes landless people, those if it were not for the abundance of alternatives for supplementary with relatively small (and unpro- these aquatic animals, Cambodia) employment exist. ductive) landholdings, those living might not be able to survive at all In connection with the develop- on (infertile) coastal land, etc. on poor rice lands. Note that ment of a master plan for fisheries For example, Southeast Asia is an according to the definition of the in Vietnam, the critical situation area that is very rich in both Ramsar Convention, coastal waters was highlighted together with the marine and freshwater resources down to six meters depth at low urgent need to take some action. (using paddy rice as an aquatic or tide are considered wetlands. Even though there is little scien- wetland product). Subsequently, It is again important to state that tific evidence, there is no doubt the area is well populated and rural poverty is linked to the access that most coastal resources are

16 InterCoast • Winter 2001 either fully or overexploited. Also, reduces the availability of fish and all.Where numbers are stated there is no doubt that the contin- other living aquatic resources. It those are in general underestima- ued expansion in coastal fisheries also reduces the accessibility to tions of the real production levels. needs to be stopped if a massive water bodies (as well as wetlands in The general situation is critical, social and socieconomic disaster is a wider context) which implies and changes in land use (coastal to be avoided.The expansion and further hardship for those with and inland) tends to be neglecting over-fishing of coastal resources are limited or no land.They will again the needs of the poor, especially driven by a complex interaction become poorer, together with a with regards to the importance of between several social and socioe- significant decrease in food securi- fish and other aquatic resources for conomic factors (e.g., low income ty. food security and to sustain their levels of coastal populations, pover- Lakes, rivers, swamps, man- livelihood.The importance of these ty, population growth, and low lev- groves, and coastal waters are aquatic resources and the serious- els of labor mobility), coupled with mostly considered public lands, and ness of present trends is frequently the open access issue. resources therein common proper- stated, yet little has changed. In inland aquatic systems, regu- ty if not under specific regulations. For further information, contact lation of floodplains, irrigation and It is also important to stress that Magnus Torell, Regional Advisor intensification of agriculture, flood the knowledge is lacking and the to Sida, Policy Research and protection schemes, regulation of statistics on the production level of Impact Assessment Programme rivers, drainage of swamps and coastal and inland fisheries (includ- (PRIAP), ICLARM. E-mail: other ways of limiting the easy or ing frog, snails, rice field fishing, [email protected] free access to water-bodies, etc.) are unreliable, if existing, at

Courtney, Deguit, and Pestaño- policy guidelines and laws related cal coastal habitats−will achieve Smith to coastal management backed by positive and measurable impact on (continued from page 7) financial investment at the local food security today and into the Philippines lies with local govern- level signify leadership and political future.While local government ment, municipalities, cities, and will to implement CRM programs. units, being closest to the day-to- provinces who must serve as action • Partnerships with private sec- day problems, will have the unique centers for results. Local govern- tor, financial institutions, and for- insight and incentive to implement ment units cannot, however, eign donors can facilitate sustain- sound practices, they also represent accomplish the job alone and must able economic development activi- the last safety net.Without leader- receive technical assistance and ties in coastal areas.These sectors ship and action on the part of local support from national government must align their resources and sup- government and communities, the agencies and other organizations to port to reinforce the critical results coastal resource base that supports implement sound management. needed to achieve food security economic development in coastal • Leadership from coastal from the sea. areas will ultimately collapse under municipalities and communities is • Multisectoral implementation the pressure of overpopulation and needed to implement coastal groups formed at the provincial overexploitation. resource management programs level can provide a mechanism to For further information, contact that will rehabilitate degraded consolidate resources and technical Catherine A. Courtney, Coastal coastal resources and stop illegal capacity available from national Resource Management Project of activities that adversely affect the government agencies, academic the Philippine, 5th Floor, CIFC state of coastal resources in order institutions, and nongovernmental Towers, J. Lunacor. J.L. Briones to improve food production and organizations in support of local Sts. Cebu City, Cebu, Philippines. increase economic benefits. CRM programs Tel: 6332 232 1821. Fax: 6332 Initially, some actions to achieve Through leadership, partner- 232 1825. E-mail: courtney@moz- the three critical results may be ships, and multisectoral collabora- com.com. Website: www.oneo- unpopular. Local leaders must pro- tion, the three critical coastal cean.org mote coastal resource management resource management results− measures as providing the greatest reducing fishing effort, stopping benefits to the most people. Sound illegal fishing, and protecting criti-

InterCoast • Winter 2001 17 Integrating Women’s Subsistence Fishing into Pacific Fisheries and Conservation Programs By Elizabeth Matthews Although lifestyles have of these activities. However, in changed, the taste for traditional 1993 it was estimated that women ishing is generally thought of as foods remains. Some invertebrates in Vavau,Tonga, collected about what fishers do—catch fish. A F are exported, most notably 230 tons/year from the reef flats. sentiment among some Pacific trochus, dried and smoked sea This includes shellfish, mangrove Island fisheries departments is that cucumbers, and in some areas both crabs, jellyfish, sea cucumbers, and “women don’t fish, they just collect live and dead corals. After cen- algae (especially sea grapes, shells.” The extent or affect of that turies of continued exploitation, Caulerpa sp.). At one time these shell collecting is often minimized some invertebrate species are were purely subsistence activities; or overlooked completely.This has showing localized signs of deple- today, however, most women sell at helped to isolate women’s concerns tion. Stocks that could once sup- least part of their catches in mar- from mainstream fisheries pro- port daily harvest are feeling the kets. grams. For instance, the Secretariat effects of overexploitation and pol- Occasionally women resort to of the Pacific Community (SPC) lution.The combination of overex- destructive methods in order to began a Women in Fisheries pro- ploitation from a growing popula- collect some species.They break gram within its coastal fisheries tion and from increasing commer- coral heads, overturn rocks, and section. Although women’s needs cial enterprises, habitat degradation walk on delicate corals in their and collection activities are increas- (especially mangrove destruction, search for food species. In Tonga, ingly acknowledged and studied, erosion due to land-based con- for example, reef gleaners often they are usually the focus of a sepa- struction and development, use knives, iron poles, or hammers rate and special office, not integrat- destructive fishing, collecting prac- to smash corals in order to find ed into the fisheries development tices, and pollution), and the lack shells.They also leave coral program as a whole. In addition, of conservation programs for encrusted rocks overturned after regional organizations and govern- invertebrate species have con- their visits to the reef flats, which ments rarely integrate the impacts tributed to this decline. can cause the death of the exposed and needs of these collection activ- organisms.Women in some areas ities into broader fisheries conser- Women’s Activities continue to use traditional methods vation and management programs. and Impacts that utilize poisons obtained from Many women in the Pacific Women generally engage in reef plants and sea cucumbers to stun Islands ensure a daily supply of gleaning by walking along the reef fish, possibly affecting other species fresh seafood for their families by flats at low tide, collecting inverte- as well. In Fiji, women may collect gathering invertebrates from brates, small fish, and seaweeds. freshwater prawns by pouring nearshore areas.This aspect of the They engage in other activities as bleach, pesticides, or fertilizers traditional food production pattern well. In Fiji, women collect fresh- into streams and rivers. Although has remained prominent even as water mussels from rivers, small many of these practices have not imported and processed foodstuffs crabs, shells, sea cucumbers, and been officially documented in the have gained wide local acceptance. urchins from reef flats, and mud region, fisheries and conservation Various fresh and saltwater mol- lobsters and crabs from mangroves. department personnel have lusks, crustaceans, sea cucumbers, In Palau, women collect clams acknowledged them as one of the urchins, and prawns are eaten on a from mangrove areas as well as serious threats facing the reef envi- daily basis throughout the region. mollusks, sea cucumbers, crabs, ronment. These invertebrate species are col- and urchins from reef flats. In lected from the reef flats at low Kosrae, women use gillnets to Environmental tide, or from mangroves, rivers, catch a variety of fishes from shal- Degradation and streams in both rural and low reef flats. A quarter of Kosrae’s Environmental degradation of urban areas. Often the inverte- fish catch is caught by women in inshore areas is an increasing con- brates are collected in rural loca- this way.Women also collect man- cern as many countries in the tions, transported, and then sold in grove crabs, octopus, eels, region contend with growing pop- urban areas where adults are more anemones, seaweeds and numerous ulations and increasing urbanization likely to work in offices than in tra- kinds of mollusks. Little quantita- and industrialization, under the dif- ditional gardens and lagoons. tive data is available on the extent ficult island conditions of limited

18 InterCoast • Winter 2001 resources and space.The major signs of decline. environmental problems affecting In order to more coastal areas in the region include fully protect inverte- land-based sources of pollution, brate species and deforestation leading to erosion women’s collection and sedimentation, mangrove and activities, a more other habitat destruction, holistic and integra- unplanned and rapid coastal devel- tive view of fisheries opment, and destructive fishing management should methods.These are compounded be taken. A manage- by rapid urbanization, a growing ment strategy should: • population, and the low priority Include inverte- given to environmental concerns in brate species in fish- many places in the region. eries management Invertebrate species, because programs. Species they often live close to land on the important for subsis- In Palau, women fishing for snapper trapped in pools by low tide lagoon or shore bottom, can be tence and small-scale local markets women to take additional pressure very susceptible to land-based pol- should be included off local resources. • • lutants.They can accumulate bacte- Increase priority of environ- Use a holistic view of fisheries ria or diseased organisms from mental protection of inshore areas management that focuses on human wastes, pesticides, or heavy and their resources in the Pacific ecosystems and habitat rather than metals making them dangerous for islands region individual species. One means of • human consumption.The inverte- Decrease the amount of man- creating holistic conservation and brates can also be killed outright by grove and other habitat destruction management strategies is through • contaminants, suffocated by sedi- Develop local education and the use of linked marine and ter- mentation, or eliminated due to outreach programs focusing on restrial protected areas as part of a loss of appropriate habitat. wise collection strategies, especial- larger management program. ly the use of non-destructive meth- Women and other reef gleaners Integrating Women’s ods, the need for environmentally will continue to collect these Needs into Fisheries sound local practices at the village inshore invertebrates, whether or Management level, and the importance of all not fisheries personnel take notice. Fisheries departments through- species to the health of the lagoons They will collect invertebrates out the Pacific region are con- and nearshore areas from reef flats that may not be able cerned with downturns in • Use locally important and to sustain a continued harvest if the nearshore fish stocks, due to over- depleted species (i.e., sea cucum- environment is continually assault- fishing and habitat loss. One of the bers, mollusks, urchins, small ed by damaging human activities. most common solutions is to crabs, and seaweeds) instead of Serious efforts should be made to encourage the use of offshore non-native introduced species in assess the status of these inshore resources. Men receive gear, train- aquaculture and mariculture trials. invertebrate stocks and to develop ing, and advice on how to move Small-scale village aquaculture sensible management strategies for their fishing activities offshore to projects could be used to rejuve- their protection take the strain off the heavily uti- nate popularly harvested species in For further information, contact lized inshore coastal resources. local areas and contribute to local Elizabeth Matthews, Marine Affairs Women, however, receive little or participation in stock management Department, University of Rhode none of the benefits of these pro- and conservation: Island, Kingston, Rhode Island grams due to oversight or isolation • Integrate conservation plans 02881 USA. Tel: 401 874-6513. from mainstream fisheries pro- into all future women’s fishing and Fax: 401 874-6869. E-mail: grams. In fact, even as men are collecting projects.There is going [email protected] moving into deeper waters to pro- to be an increasing danger of over- tect the inshore lagoon resources, exploitation of invertebrate species women continue to collect small as women’s fishing projects become fish and invertebrates from the more prevalent in the region. shallow waters. Many nearshore • Explore non-fisheries-related invertebrate species are showing income generation schemes for

InterCoast • Winter 2001 19 Raft Method of Seaweed Cultivation in Tanzania By Lugazo Zuberi en at Kijiru and Moa, in the Tanga harvest; whereas, a seaweed farmer region of Tanzania, in 1998 and using peg and line will take nine eaweed farming has contributed 1999.The objective was to explore harvests. In addition, given favor- to Tanzania’s coastal economy S the technical, social, and economic able conditions, the raft method of since the 1940s, with the export of feasibility of seaweed farming cultivation produces higher yields indigenous algal species harvested using the raft method.The experi- compared to the peg and line.This from the reefs.The first cultivation ment assessed growth and survival is true even thought the operating efforts were made in the late rates, gender applicability, and cost costs of the raft method are higher 1980s.The introduction of seed effectiveness. than the peg and line. stock of Eucheuma spp. from the These varying production rates Philippines led to the large-scale Methodology can be caused by biological and cultivation of seaweed in Tanzania. The experiment ran from July physical influences. Rafts have an Seaweed farming became an eco- 1998 to January 1999.Two villages advantage because grazing by fish nomic base for coastal residents, (Moa and Kijiru,Tanga) were cho- can be minimized, and the system and a reliable source of foreign sen because of the willingness of offers a constant level for optimal exchange, especially in Zanzibar. the villagers and the local seaweed light intensity allowing higher Seaweed farming first started in developer in these villages. yields. In addition, the rafts are set Zanzibar and later spread to the Materials used were bamboo at the surface and receive consis- mainland. poles, anchor ropes (nylon/sisal), tent water exchange, and nutrient Two species are commonly monolines, tie tie, seaweed limitations are reduced. However, farmed in Tanzania, Eucheuma cot- seedlings and one-litre empty plas- peg and line requires less labor, tonii and Eucheuma spinosum. tic bottles.The experiment includ- thus more economical and easier to Carrageenen, an emulsion stabiliz- ed 20 rafts of 3 sq. metres and 20 maintain, i.e., amount of cleaning er in the pharmaceutical industries, plots for the peg and line. Each of the plants. is extracted from both. Currently, area had the same amount of The disadvantage of the peg and there are three seaweed companies monolines and seedlings.The initial line system in this trial is the graz- in Zanzibar: Zanzibar Agro weight of the seedlings was 100 ing by herbivore fishes causing Seaweed Company Ltd. (Zascol), grams.Thirty seedlings were used lower production. Physical condi- Kingsway International (KI), and for each method.The growth and tions such as salinity and turbidity Zanzibar East Africa Company survival rates after every two can also contribute to differences (ZANEA).The Tanga region on weeks were measures. in seaweed production.This study Tanzania’s mainland currently has showed that rafts can be considered two companies, Kingsway Results a viable alternative where the peg International and Zanzibar Agrow 1. At both sites and for all and line method is difficult to Seaweed Company Ltd. months, the rafts produced higher operate, i.e., in areas where the The cultivation method com- yields compared to peg and line seafloor is rocky. monly used in shallow intertidal 2. Highs and lows of production It is still unknown whether areas is the peg and line method. for both methods followed the women, especially those from the This method uses pieces of seaweed same pattern—when one method mainland, would adopt the peg and (thallus) tied to a monoline that is of production was high, so was line method. In general, women do attached between two pegs driven the other not leave the shore or use boats. A into the seafloor. Seaweed is har- 3.The mean production of the few women from the Kijiru village vested at every low tide (two surviving seeds for the rafts was are accustomed to crossing the weeks). 116 grams, and for every 100 channel to Kirui Island to collect An alternate method for cultiva- seeds sown, 73 percent survived. firewood and go to farms, and may tion is the raft method. Here, The mean production of the sur- be willing to use this method. monolines are attached to a float- viving seeds for peg and line was ing bamboo frame.This method 43 grams, and for every 100 seeds Recommendations allows a larger area of the seafloor sown, 60 percent survived. 1.The yield of the raft method to be farmed since it is not restrict- Discussion of production is greater than peg ed to the shallow intertidal areas. Looking at operating costs, a and line, although its operating A raft compared to peg and line seaweed farmer using rafts will costs are higher. Raft culture culture experiment was undertak- start getting his profits after two involves using a boat, which is also

20 InterCoast • Winter 2001 commonly used by the peg and line the intertidal areas, this method As a way to minimize this, studies farmers to ferry the seaweed from can be more easily expanded than should be done to see if the intro- the farms to the beach.Thus, rafts the peg and line. Raft areas need to duction of groupers to these sites should be encouraged in areas by required to be clearly marked to reduces grazing activities (as com- where the seabed is not ideal for reduce user conflicts, often seen in pared to a control site with no peg and line. However, at the other areas. groupers). moment, a significant problem 3. Additional research should be For further information, contact with the raft method is that the done on the environmental impact Lugazo Zuberi, P.O. Box 5415, bamboo for construction of the of both methods. Tanga, Tanzania. Tel: 255-27- rafts is unavailable. 4. Herbivores (grazing fish) hin- 2647156. Fax: 255-27-2647465. 2. As rafts are not restricted to der peg and line production rates. E-mail: [email protected]

Bayer and Atchue agencies to enforce coastal fisheries town councilors and municipal (continued from page 9) involving many small boats and officials may even join the patrols. of Philippine coastline.To address fishers through physical patrolling. This provides a good opportunity this weakness and to respond to the If management authority is legally for the community to work togeth- clamor of civilians for authority to delegated to a group of fishers, as er, supporting one another in apprehend fishery law violators, is the case in Bantay Dagat opera- achieving common goals.This con- the national government has begun tions, then this decentralized certed effort becomes even more to involve coastal community MCS will be more effective and meaningful in instances when members in defending the security less costly. neighboring municipalities under- of the coast. Under these condi- Local coastal law enforcement take joint patrols. tions, delegation of fisheries man- teams enforce laws on closed areas The role of local and national agement authority to the local fish- and seasons, license requirements, government agencies in coastal law ers and community level (also prohibited gear, banned fishery enforcement is to provide effective known as Bantay Dagat, or Sea products, and protected species. and professional support that Watch) may be more effective than Depending on the nature of the achieves full compliance with the management efforts which dis- violation, and whether a national coastal zone management regula- tant, understaffed and under-fund- or local law is broken, violators tions and objectives.The public ed national government fisheries may be fined directly at the time of must also become a full partner in agencies can provide. the violation, or charged in an offi- providing coastal enforcement The Role of Coastal cial court of law.The gear, the fish- services. Enforcement is but one Communities ing vessel, and the catch may be piece of the overall integrated Coastal law enforcement has confiscated, and the license of the coastal management process.With moved beyond the concept of indi- operator can be revoked depending proper coastal management meas- vidual organizations working on on the severity of the crime. ures, being effectively enforced their own. Due to the growing There are certain advantages to both at sea and ashore, coastal threat of illegal activities, and the employing local fishery enforce- resources sustainability—and food growing responsibilities of individ- ment teams. Authorizing civilians security—should occur.The ual municipal local government to go after violators provides them Philippine’s emphasis on partner- units (LGUs) to manage their with a significant stake in the man- ships between LGUs, the national resources, it is becoming increas- agement of their resources.This agencies, and local commun- ingly attractive for LGUs and local can facilitate empowering the com- ities is a significant step towards organizations to work together. munity to make informed decisions achieving this. This not only saves on manpower and be responsible for their fishery For further information, contact in the field; it broadens the avail- resources.The team may be multi- Tom Bayer, Coastal Resource able scope of activities that any one sectoral, comprised of deputized Center, University of Rhode coastal law enforcement effort can fish wardens, members of the Island, Narragansett, Rhode Island take. Certain management authori- police force who may be assigned 02882 USA. Tel: 401 874 6407. ty should also be delegated to the to the municipality, as well as rep- Fax: 401 789 4670. E-mail: tgbay- fishers. MCS is always a serious resentatives of the PCG, PNP- [email protected] or J.A. Atchue, E- problem. It is almost impossible MARIG and other related agencies. mail: [email protected] and expensive for government Occasionally, the mayor and some

InterCoast • Winter 2001 21 suming. Because this fishing result- Fishing and the Future of Brazil’s ed in very small individual cap- Northeastern Reefs tures, there were no official regis- trations or studies concerning this By Beatrice Padovani cities, the economy of the coastal fishing. Ferreira and Mauro Maida districts relies on the exploitation The assessment was first con- of reef resources through fishing ishing is one of the oldest of ducted in Tamandar‚ a municipal and gathering. human activities and has been district of seven thousand inhabi- F During the last decade, fishing practiced since Palaeolithic times tants and 13 km of coast.This area villages grew with tourism, and by almost all ethnic groups in the was chosen because of the facilities now the population of most coastal world.Today, technology advances available, and the artisanal fisheries districts increases up to five fold and increasing human population in the area were intense and repre- during the summer.The recogni- have caused an overall increase in sentative of the region. Six field tion that the reefs and associated the exploitation rate of natural agents were hired from the local environments were being threat- resources, and fish communities community to conduct the fishing ened raised the concern of the are no exception. Until the first surveys.They participated in authorities, and in 1997 led to half of the last century, it was designing the sampling strategy development of a large multiple- mostly freshwater and anadramous because of their knowledge of the use marine protected area (MPA) fishes that were affected, but the fishing operations. After one year of Costa dos Corais.The project, century ended with the collapse of of sampling, it was found that Recifes Costeiros, financed by the many fisheries in the world. In every day an average of 50 fishers Inter-American Development Bank tropical regions, fishing has retain- operated along the coast using hand and Brazilian institutions, started in ed many of its traditional charac- lines, nets, spears, cast nets, and 1998 todevelop a management plan teristics, but the population has other gear.The fishers reached the for the area. increased and habitat degradation nearby reefs by sailing, rowing, In 1998, a fisheries assessment has led to severe stock depletion. swimming or just walking the was started.This included inter- This depletion in the fish stocks has beach during low tide. On average viewing fishers, collecting fisheries threatened the food security of the they caught two to three kg of fish, catch statistics, and making an coastal communities. octopus, or lobster per day. underwater visual census. Although In northeast Brazil, about 18 Throughout the year, it was esti- all the fishing activities fell into the million people live on the coast in mated that a total of 43 tons was official definition of artisanal, it an area marked by coral reefs and removed from a 14 sq. km area of was clear that they could be subdi- mangroves.The ecosystems of this the reef—a productivity of 3 tons vided into two distinct types: the area are among the most intensely per sq. km per year. commercial fishing and the subsis- used; and, apart from the large The subsistency fishery had a tence fishing.While the com- total productivity much smaller mercial fleet operated off- than the commercial fleet. Also, shore from motor or sail the products were worth much boats, the subsistence fishing less, but because the costs involved was basically a daily activity were very low (no fuel, ice or food restricted to the nearshore, for trips), and the product was sold in which fishers operate directly or consumed by the fish- from sail or row boats or ers, the final income generated was from no boat at all.The com- larger. Currently, the results indi- mercial fisheries targeted cate the activity is very important, prawns, lobsters, and highly the total capture of this fishing is prized finfish, while the sub- significant in terms of total biomass sistency fishery was mainly captured, many people are small individual catches of involved, and this is a significant less valuable fish. source of nourishment for a great Because the subsistency part of the population that does fishery had no specific place not have other source of income. for landings, sampling was Signs of overfishing, however, very difficult and time con- Mother and son fishing in Brazil can be seem even before analyzing

22 InterCoast • Winter 2001 the dynamics of the exploited pop- activities are closely associated, as Integration of fishing and ulations. Reports from older fish- tourist come to the beach expect- tourism is a management alterna- ers indicate a drastic reduction in ing to see fishers and to eat their tive through zoning that incorpo- the quantity and quality of the catches.The limitation is tourism is rates one or both activities. Recent catches over the last decade. Most seasonal.The last, but perhaps the proposals for tourism development fishers do not want their children best is undertaking better manage- along the coast will lead to even to become fishers, as they see no ment of the resources. greater changes.With the use of future in the activity.Alternatives The exclusion of fishing from MPAs and other best management such as better-equipped vessels or designated marine protection areas practices, loss of the fishing prac- more sophisticated fishing tech- (MPAs) first appeared in the trop- tices and fish abundance, which niques are successful only if there ics.This practice is increasingly will in turn affect tourism, may be are additional fishing grounds to be used and has been recognized as avoided.The situation is urgent. A exploited. Incentives through loans one of the more efficient strategies strong emphasis must be placed on for the construction of boats and for fisheries management. zoning and other measures to pro- equipment have failed to pay back, Expectations of MPAs are that, tect this area. perhaps because there are no alter- besides allowing fish populations to For further information, contact native grounds left, or because they reach and maintain natural levels, Beatrice Padovani Ferreira or are not worth the risk to the fish- the no fishing zones help to main- Mauro Maida, Departamento de ers, as most fishers prefer to keep tain or even increase catches in Oceanografia, Universidade land in sight and do not want to adjacent areas. Federal de Pernambuco, Recife - venture far offshore. In February 1999, an area of 3 PE -Brasil, CEP 50739-540. Tel: What are the alternatives to fish- sq. km was closed to all activities 55 81 6761355. Fax: 55 81 ing? In northeast Brazil, the most in Tamandar‚ Brazil.A survey com- 6761437. E-mail: beatrice@ sought solutions, or at least the paring this MPA and a similar open free.elogica.com.br ones most mentioned, are aquacul- fishing area nearby indicated a ture, tourism, and better manage- rapid increase in fish abundance in ment options. Aquaculture mainly the MPA.While there were no pre- means shrimp farming, a highly vious surveys to compare, some profitable business, but generates clear changes were detected. fewer jobs and can cause significant These included fish behavior and environmental degradation. the occurrence of species that Tourism as an option already had been rarely seen in the pre- exists; however, fishing and tourist ceding years.

Tietze that the economic performance (continued from page 11) of this sector has already been order to be successful, these meas- negatively effected through over- ures need to be designed and exploitation of coastal fisheries implemented in close cooperation resources and competition by with fishers and fishery industry more catch efficient commercial associations. fishing vessels such as purse sein- In order to safeguard the impor- ers and trawlers. tant economic and social role of For further information, con- the small-scale fisheries sector as tact Uwe Tietze, Fisheries the provider of employment, Industry Office, FAO Fisheries income, and food, particularly in Department, Viale delle Terme rural areas of developing countries, di Caracalla 00100, Rome, Italy. special efforts are needed to pro- Tel: 396 57056451. Fax: 396 tect small-scale fisheries sectors. 57055188. E-mail: Uwe.Tietze@ The findings of the study suggest fao.org

InterCoast • Winter 2001 23 fishing vessels that relied on natural Food Security and Fisheries in India harbors found throughout Kerala. By Eberhard Weber The export of fishery products The attempt to supply cheaper fish contributed about three to four to those inland failed totally.This hen India became independ- percent to India’s foreign exchange was because the increasing costs to ent in 1947, the small-scale W earnings. In the 1970s, India was fish (energy, processing, preserv- fishers belonged to the poorest sec- the world’s biggest producer of ing, and transporting) increased the tor of the population. At this time, prawn.It has been overtaken over price of fish and made it unafford- fish was the cheapest source of by China and Indonesia. Almost 90 able for many consumers. protein. More than 50 years later, percent of the export earnings In order to catch fish that could protein from fisheries products is from marine products are from be sold at much higher prices in the most expensive in India, but prawns, lobsters, and cuttlefish the foreign market (pomfret and the fishers are still among the being exported to Japan and tuna instead of sardines and mack- poorest sector of society.They did the U.S. erel), additional major changes not benefit when fish became an were made in the industry.World expensive food item. In addition, as Modernization of market prices for these high-priced India has become a major exporter India’s Fisheries fish and prawns were on the rise of marine products, fishers’ liveli- Since its independence, India’s during the 1960s and significant hood became threatened. government has put much effort effort was given to their catch and Outsiders entered the lucrative into modernizing the fishing sector. export.This new strategy benefited market, and for more than 40 years Modernization of the fisheries the Indian government by bring in there has been a fierce fight required a whole package of meas- badly needed foreign exchange at a between traditional fishers and ures, starting from supplying the time when India was facing a fishing companies. fishers with new vessels, construct- severe imbalance of payment. More than one million people ing harbors and landing and repair By the end of the 1960s, more work in India’s fisheries sector. facilities, and ensuring fuel for the than 1,200 trawler boats were About 450,000 are active fishers, fishing fleet. Another important operating in Kerala, almost all most of them working on tradi- change was the modernization of catching prawn. Already the major- tional fishing boats, while the rest the fish processing and marketing ity of the boats belonged to large are fish vendors or working in fish infrastructure. fishing houses.This was the begin- processing plants.The fisheries sec- The first major fishery project ning of a new class of entrepre- tor has undergone many changes. after India’s independence was the neurs who were interested only in The fish landings increased five- Indo-Norwegian Fisheries Project maximizing profits in the shortest fold, and in 1998 India’s share in (INP) in Kerala.The objective was time possible, with no considera- the world’s fish landings was about to improve food security of the tion to food security of the poorer 4.2 percent, being about 2 percent poorer sector of society by consumers, the livelihood security of India’s gross national product. strengthening fisheries and fish of artisanal fishers or the environ- marketing.The project was to ben- mental sustainability of the efit the poor fishers by increasing resource. their productivity, and to benefit There are huge differences Kerala’s inland consumers by between this modernized fishing improved marketing of fresh sector and the traditional small- marine products to the hinterland. scale fishers.The traditional fishers In the early 1960s, the modern- are highly immobile, both in spatial ization project was facing severe as well as in occupational terms, difficulties. Efforts to equip the and for generations they have existing fishing boats with out- depended on the resources they are board engines failed miserably. exploiting for their livelyhood. In Also, fishing vessels that could be addition, they do not have any operated from beaches, thus not other place to go or any other needing harbor facilities (beach- work to do.This is very different landing craft), were not accepted than the big fishing entrepreneurs; by the local fishers.This resulted in they are mobile and their main the development of mechanized Fish landing near Kerala interest is to totally exploit the

24 InterCoast • Winter 2001 destroying the population, the level of living of seafloor and its habi- the fishers decreased, partly violent tat.The mash size of conflict between the traditional and the trawl net is small modern sectors emerged, and enough that juvenile depletion of the raw material, par- fish and prawns are ticularly the shrimps, set in. Still, caught, thus effecting however, the project was a success the species’ reproduc- in the sense of being a major tion ability. In addi- source of foreign currency.” tion, a large percent For further information, contact

Fish drying for market in India of the fish caught are Eberhard Weber, School of Social resources.The more they exploit not economically and Economic Development, the resource, the higher their prof- important and are discarded as Geography Department, it.When the resources are deplet- waste. In the Bay of Bengal, this by- University of the South Pacific, ed, they can easily shift their atten- catch constitutes as much as 85-95 Suva, Fiji Islands. Tel: 679- tion to fisheries elsewhere or shift percent of the catch that could 212620. Fax: 679-301487. E-mail: to an entirely different activity. instead be consumed by the poor. [email protected]. Website: What started as an effort to For these reasons, many developed http://www.usp.ac.fj/geography increase protein supply for local countries ban bottom trawling consumers ended up in benefiting many years ago. Another harmful big business houses that sold to the yet profitable fishing practice is to international market, and helping fish for prawn during the monsoon India’s government by gaining for- season when they come close to eign exchange.The problems the shore to breed. Fishing during increased when some of the mod- the monsoon season depletes the ern fishing vessels started to fish juvenile population, thus destroy- species caught by artisanal fishers. ing the future stock. Sardines, anchovies, and mackerels Today, more than 50 years after were considered to be the poor modernization started in Kerala, man’s fish, but caught in volume by the fishers are among the poorest modern vessels were quite prof- sector of Kerala’s society. More itable when sold to produce chick- than 80 percent live below the en feed. poverty line, meaning they don’t Today the atmosphere in many even have a balanced and sufficient coastal areas is highly explosive. diet. In 1956 a person lived on Violent conflicts occur daily and about 14.5 kg a year. In 1992 this lives are lost. John Kurien, the vice has dropped to 8.4 kg. In 1953 fish chair of the Advisory Committee was among the cheapest food items on Fisheries Research in India, in Kerala. By the mid 1990s, it was noted, “I don’t see this as a law and the most expensive. In 1956 almost order problem, but a consequence 50 percent of sardines caught were of failing to address development marketed locally. By the late 1990, issues. If we don’t put a check to this figure had fallen to less than 25 this the situation is bound to percent. explode. In Kerala, everybody is Johan Galtung, a prominent tense.The fishers, the administra- social scientist working on peace tors, the politicians are tense. But and conflict research for over 40 nobody wants to get together and years, summarizes his experience address the issue—it is so highly with the Indo-Norwegian Project political.” in Kerala, “My evaluation is that it Fishing practices today use some is a scandal, and not a partial scan- of the most damaging equipment. dal but a total scandal...the INP The bottom-trawl net is a plow, project failed in four ways: less protein became available to the

InterCoast • Winter 2001 25 Their entire skeleton is constructed Sharks:Their Role in the from cartilage. Furthermore, the Human/Marine Species sensory organs of sharks are unbe- lievably complex and efficient. Interaction When these long-range sensory organs are combined with high By Vincent Gallucci Sharks are fish that are located at migratory capability, it suggests mong the fishes, sharks are the top of the food chain.They are that most species will live essential- Aunique in several different cat- excellent predators, feeding adap- ly solitary lives.While sharks are egories.These include their skele- tively on other fish, and sometimes often observed milling around in tons and sensory organs, their smaller sharks of their own and clusters, this is likely associated methods of reproduction, and their other species. Being at the top of with a local feeding source that has ecosystem niches, especially their the food chain generally implies become available for a limited feeding and migratory patterns. In fewer numbers of animals and a time. In terms of their exploitation one way or another, each of these susceptibility to changes in their by humans, their non-schooling categories has some role in the food base.These animals are behavior protects them from being sharks’ current biological status, known, as a group, to have extend- harvested in large numbers as are and the likelihood of them being a ed migratory routes and the ability tuna. But, their long-range ability reasonable candidate to support a to follow local environmental to detect food makes them suscep- sustainable fishery for human com- changes such as oceanic current tible to chumming and other artifi- munities. For the purposes of this changes under El Niño conditions. cial types of lures. article,‘sharks’ is a generic term An implication of their migratory A combination of the above meaning a group of similar fishes: flexibility is that sharks occupy a three categories: migration, repro- sharks, rays, and skates. wide range of oceanic and coastal duction, and sensory sensitivity niches, often at different times of leads some species to use bays, the year or lives.This flexibility estuaries, and coastal regions with- accounts for the high species diver- in 10 miles of shore as nursery sity in tropical environments and areas for juveniles.The separation their extension to niches in polar of mature and juvenile animals regions.These observations suggest from each other reduces the juve- a group of species with the ability nile mortality.Though this also to adapt to ecosystem change and raises juvenile mortality from natural selection. Despite their humans who focus on large num- adaptability, the question of how bers of juveniles clustered in small- they will react to not being at the er areas. At the moment, the top of the food chain, but instead impacts of the removal of large being heavily hunted, remains numbers of pre-reproductive (juve- unanswered.Will the species as a nile) animals will have on the group be able to compensate for whole population is unknown. the increased harvests by changes From the viewpoint of fisheries in in their life histories? developing countries, the already The reproductive patterns observed decreases in the number employed by sharks are also diverse of juveniles available for harvest is but, as a group, can be categorized a source of concern. as involving high parental care and The last category of interest is low reproductive rate. It is shark skeletons, skin, and organs, unknown whether shark species and their growth rate.Two decades will be able to adapt to the ago shark meat was low on the list decreased density of smaller fish of desirability in most fish markets, due to increased fishing mortality but in the last decade has become by humans. desirable. Reasons include decreas- A major reason that sharks are ing supply to the established shark considered a different type of fish markets, decreasing abundance of Shark fishers, top predator is that they do not have bones. other fish in the primary and sec-

26 InterCoast • Winter 2001 ondary categories, increasing desir- Nicaragua and Costa Rica were thus shrinking the source from ability as a delicacy (European, and the two Central American coun- which juveniles are added to com- U.S. markets), and some sharks are tries that first sustained commer- pensate for the removals (delayed valued either for shark fin soup or cial shark harvests for both export by the 12 to 70 years to become as an aphrodisiac (primarily in and domestic markets.The pattern reproductive). Also, the removal Asian markets).The increase in the spread to other Central American from the juvenile stock by artisanal number of markets makes the ani- countries as supplies to the tradi- fisheries actually removes some mal one worthy of targeting by tional domestic fisheries on snap- fraction of the juveniles that did fishers everywhere. Another factor pers, croakers, etc., were strained, result from natural reproduction. is that sharks are extremely slow and as supplies to the export mar- Thus, most stock assessment mod- growers and reach sexual maturity ket on shrimp were also strained. els assume that only ‘surplus pro- at any age between 12 to 70 years. The different countries have dif- duction’ is being harvested, thus Worldwide, and more locally in ferent utilization rates of the vari- allowing an equilibrium or sustain- Central America, food security ous shark parts.These parts are able harvest to develop. However, based on shark captures alone is an categorized as fresh meat, dry current and predicted shark har- unlikely situation in general. Food meat, salted meat, fresh fin, dry vests appear to be contributing to security based on shark captures as fin, cartilage, liver oil, jaws, and the likelihood of future stock fail- a part of the management of a gen- skin. Depending on the category, ures. In agricultural terms, these eral marine fishery is an attainable nearly 100 percent could be for harvests are analogous to consum- goal, within bounds. Fisheries man- export, while others will be ing the seeds this year for next agement is usually partitioned into retained for domestic consump- year’s wheat crop. the parts dealing with human insti- tion.The point here is that the In summary, the statistics provid- tutions and their policies, and those value of the meat and fin markets ed for Central American shark fish- concerned with stock assessment. probably approaches US$100 mil- eries do nothing more than indicate The best predictive models of shark lion and is growing. From 1987 to that similar data would be needed populations are quite similar to 1997, the fin market in Costa Rica for the fishing activities in South those used for marine mammal alone increased by 236 percent. In America, Southeast Asia, Africa, populations.The analogy is a useful Central America, the removal of and many other locations around one to keep in mind since the biol- the income from the shark catches the globe.The future is dire for ogy and ecosystem role of sharks would be sorely felt by the fishers, both the shark species and the are more closely related to mam- the owners of the large corpora- human dependencies that have mals than to most fishes. tions, and the national treasuries build up around the associated Annual worldwide shark, skate, via taxes. It cannot be denied that market places for shark products. and ray catches reached 800,000 these human needs must be consid- For further information, metric tons (about 2 billion ered when shark species’ conserva- contact Vincent F. Gallucci, pounds) in year 2000.Their cap- tion needs are considered. School of Aquatic and Fisheries tures occur as a result of: The point of the statistics on Sciences, Box 355020, Univer- • Being targeted by artisanal catch is not only the big numbers. sity of Washington, Seattle, fisheries in developing countries The point being made is these Washington 98195 USA. • Being targeted by small, semi- catches are distributed over ages Tel: 206-543-1701. E-mail: vgal- industrial fisheries in both devel- that range from juvenile, and thus [email protected] oped and developing countries in will never become reproductive, coastal environments from tropical and large, old sharks that took to temperate waters decades to become reproductive. • Being taken as incidental catch In other words, by definition, a in larger, industrialized fisheries sustainable fishery for any species is where tuna, swordfish, or related based upon the premise that the species are targeted harvested biomass removed is bal- While the distinction between anced by the biomass added from targeted-catch and by-catch is often natural reproduction.While no made, there is evidence that many conclusive statistical evidence fisheries target sharks during the exists, it appears that too much of part of the year when the tuna or the harvest today comes from the swordfish are not available. mature segment of the population,

InterCoast • Winter 2001 27 Cays.The Miskito Coast Marine Miskito Coast Reserve and Reserve was established to protect the Lobster Artisanal Fishery these systems, while allowing their utilization for limited fishery pro- By Jose A. Robleto (approved in September 1987) that duction. contributed to decentralization of The communities in the Miskito he Miskito coast lowland is some political power and tied Coast Marine Reserve are almost almost 1,000 km long and in T resource exploitation decisions to a entirely dependent upon the har- places is 150 km wide. It is one of trilateral agreement between local vests of the natural resources found the more extensive coastal plains in communities, autonomous govern- in the reserve, such as green turtle, lower Central America. In general, ments, and the central govern- shrimp, and lobsters. From quick the entire Caribbean coast of ment. assessments conducted in the past, Nicaragua is drained by rivers.The Despite the fact that the Miskitos it has been found that the resources Miskito coast is well east of the won their war against the are adequate to support the 38 Maya region and cuts across a num- Sandinistas, they did not view the communities, but because of the ber of tribal and language groups in Autonomy Law as a victory.They nation’s economic development, Honduras and Nicaragua. felt this has become a barrier to there has been increasing pressure After the 16th century, Miskito effective indigenous territorial con- on the existing resources. In addi- tribes were composed of a mixture trol, due to its contradictions. tion, pressures are increased by the of linguistic groups.The Miskito Though the two governments after increasing human population. Nation has survived almost 500 the Sandinistas have accepted years of attempts by foreign states autonomy as a principle, overall Lobster Fishery to seize and annex its territory and autonomy is seen as a barrier to The Miskito Cays Marine resources. exploiting much-needed natural Reserve is a relatively pristine During the 1980s, autonomy resources that would benefit the mangrove/coral reef ecosystem increasingly became accepted as a reconstruction and economic and an ideal habitat for Caribbean solution to the war between the recovery of the non-indigenous spiny lobsters, Panulirus argus. Sandinistas and the Miskito, Sumo, west coast. Nicaraguan fishers fish for lobsters and Rama nations that make up the in the Miskito Cays using both slat collective territory of Yapti Tasba. Natural Heritage traps called nasas and divers armed Miskitos wanted autonomy based Nicaragua has a very rich natural with long, hooked spears. on indigenous political and eco- heritage. A proof is the existence of According to the Center for nomic self-determination, control a very highly productive coastal Fishery and Aquatic Research of resources, and sea and land ter- system located on the Miskito coast (CIPA), it seems that in the Miskito ritory. On the other hand, the (the Northeast Atlantic region). Cays, lobsters are harvested more Sandinistas proposed a Nicaraguan This is due to a wide, shallow con- through diving than with nasas.For constitutional Autonomy Law tinental shelf and a series of coastal many years, fishers from nearby lagoons that provide coral, sea- countries have come to fish illegal- grass, and mangrove habitats. ly in this productive group of The Miskito Cays are a series of islands. mangrove islands along the broad Although the lobster fishery continental shelf off the northwest exceeds the shrimp fishery in vol- coast of Nicaragua.This shallow- ume (pounds harvested), in terms water region has extensive seagrass of economic return, lobsters are beds, fringing coral reefs, and mud still the most important fishery in banks dotted with mangroves.This the Miskito Cays region. Statistics area also is home of the Caribbean from the National Fishery spiny lobster. Administration (ADPESCA) show In 1991 the central government that in 1999 the artisanal sector established the Miskito Coast harvested 1.5 million pounds of Marine Reserve, a 20 km wide tails (46 percent of the total cap- coastal strip from the Honduran ture reported for the Caribbean) border to Wounta, and a 25 km which represents in economic Coastal fish market in Senegal (photo by Lamarr Trott) radius circle around the Miskito terms about US$19 million.

28 InterCoast • Winter 2001 Despite these numbers, the out any agreement on spatial or ment that achieves this by balanc- Miskito coast region is still poor, temporal benchmarks. It is impos- ing the demands of environmental undeveloped, and a huge portion of sible to freeze the biosphere in its protection, resource utilization, its inhabitants are jobless.The present state for future generations and economic prosperity. national government benefits from or restore equilibrium of the past. For further information, contact most of the richness produced in Changes in population density and Jose A. Robleto, Environmental the region, and a very small per- distribution, and national and local Consultant & Associated, Thomas cent of the economic production economies are adversely contribut- More University, Managua, stays in the region. Unfortunately, ing to the evolution of the area. As Nicaragua. E-mail: jrobleto@ because of political interests, the a result, the myth of equilibrium is usa.net people are not benefiting from replaced by variability, uncertainty, their own resources; on the con- precaution, and irreversibility. trary, they are contributing to the What the region needs is to nation’s extreme poverty. develop a means of management Unfortunately, in the last five that balances, in time and space, years, neither the central nor the interactions between econom- regional governments have done ic, ecologic, social, and natural much to maintain a healthy ecosys- variability, thus allowing the tems (ocean and lagoon).There has ecosystem and development to been little thought given to main- exist side by side. taining or increasing the standards Maintaining an ecosystem of living in the communities on a includes a plurality of factors long-term, sustainable basis.The between resources and uses.The only way for this to happen is to issue is therefore a matter of coor- implement an integrated coastal dination between the many possible area management program.The uses and those who want to use sustainable development concept them. commonly strives to maintain or The Miskito Cays Marine restore a balance between the natu- Reserve has the potential to be a ral and human environments with- model of marine fisheries manage-

Ward and Brainerd and short-run capacity measures presently causes fishers to overin- (continued from page 13) may not accurately represent the vest in capital and labor that develops short-run capacity esti- capacity level for fishery manage- depletes our living marine mates has found similar results for ment purposes. In addition, the resources to one that encourages those fisheries that have been ana- Fishery Management Councils need fishers to conserve all the lyzed using capacity estimation to decide upon an appropriate resources used in the recreational techniques based on data envelop- course of action to reduce or elim- and commercial harvest of fish. ment analysis. inate excess capacity levels in fed- For further information, contact Future Capacity erally managed fisheries.While John M. Ward, NMFS/Office of Activities accurate capacity metrics will aid Science and Technology, HQTR, The process is far from com- fishery managers in determining if Route: F/ST1, Bldg: SSMC3, 1315 plete. Once estimated, these must their management actions are suc- East-West Highway, Silver be thoroughly reviewed before cessful, they will not in and of Springs, Maryland 20910-3282 determinations of what constitutes themselves provide solutions to the USA. Tel: 301 713-2328. Fax: 301 a level of excess capacity can be management problem.What is 713-4137. E-mail: john.ward@ made for U.S. fisheries. Excess needed is to develop a program noaa.gov capacity in open access fisheries is that will change our fishery man- really a long-run phenomenon, agement institutions from one that

InterCoast • Winter 2001 29 Colburn dependent on, but is not limited to, international (continued from page 1) (i.e., political alliances, trade relationships, debt national or regional conditions do not necessarily apply to all people, this article ratios) and national (political and economic sta- will emphasize the mechanisms through which food security is achieved at the bility, natural resource base, degree of market to household and individual level (micro-level). However, food security at these subsistence economy, infrastructure, health) level most basic and elementary levels still needs to be understood in the larger con- concerns. How well a country is able to either text of macro-level considerations.These will be considered first. produce or procure sufficient food to feed its Macro-level food security tends to arise as a policy consideration in national- people is of primary consideration.The reasons and international-level discourse discussed in terms of political economy.The why some countries are more successful than World Food Program of the United Nations,The World Bank, FAO, and the others at insuring adequate food availability vary World Health Organization are examples of organizations involved in developing widely (political instability such as war, climatic policies and implementing programs. Food security at this level tends to be conditions such as flooding and drought, lack of natural resources, insufficient financial Figure 1 (continued from page ) resources). In addition to international dispari- Macro and Micro-Level Food Security Considerations ties, in-country regional variations in ecosystems and climate may result in some regions produc- MACR-LEVEL CONSIDERATIONS: Political Economy International ing a food surplus exported to other regions, * Political alliances (inter-country conflict) while some regions may experience a food pro- *Trade relationships duction deficit, relying on inter-regional and * Balance of trade international imports. Macro-level analysis * Debt ratio includes local and community assessment. At the National local level in coastal areas, food security may be * Political stability (civil conflict) * Economic stability dependent on the availability of marine (fish, * Natural resource base (land and marine) shellfish, mangroves, sea grass, coral reef) and * Degree of market vs. subsistence economy agricultural resources (soil conditions, climate) * Infrastructure (roads and ports) * Communications and the richness and fragility of these resources. * Health For cash-based communities, access to food com- * Nutrition modities is also a consideration. * Morbidity and mortality * (AIDS, diarrhea, upper respiratory infection) In coastal states, fishing and aquaculture may Regional contribute to food security by increasing locally * Ecosystem differences available food supply.This is particularly impor- * Coastal (estuary, mangrove, sandy beaches, coral reefs) tant at times when there may be a reduction in * Others (desert, rainforest, plains, mountain) the availability or scarcity of other foods. Fish * Climatic differences * Rainfall, drought, flooding, temperature (including vertebrates and invertebrates) as a Local source of food has the potential to provide a sig- * Marine resource utilization nificant portion of animal protein.This is particu- * Richness and fragility of marine and/or agricultural resources larly true for small island nations and countries * Fin fish, shell fish, mangroves with a significant coastline where often greater * Reliance on marine resources as part of total and total animal protein * Agricultural resource utilization than 50 percent of the animal protein consumed * Local government is from fish and marine resources. Further, the MICRO-LEVEL CONSIDERATIONS:Cultural Mechanisms at Work continuity of local-level food supply is enhanced Household by capture fisheries and fish culture production. * Household resource base Fish surplus that is cured and stored can bridge * Food production (subsistence vs. market economy) significant gaps in food availability between plant- * Marine, agricultural, animal husbandry, other wage labor * Social networks ing and harvest seasons. Fish and other marine * Labor resource pool resources are a source of income in many poorer * Family and friends communities where they are consumed and trad- * Knowledge and education ed.Through the trade of fish, both fishers and *Traditional and formal * Household decisions aquaculturists contribute to their own personal * Male or female headed household household food security and also to consumer * Acquisitions and allocative priorities households not involved in trading fish. * Food, health care choices, ceremonies, and child care Implementation of national food security policies Individual *Valuation and relative prestige of each household members at the local level may overlook important cultural * Male or female, elderly, children, pregnant or lactating behaviors and patterns that affect the food securi- * Per person receipt of resource benefits (food) ty of individuals. * Personal preferences on the part of the allocator or receiver * Beliefs (taboos) that may restrict the consumption of some resources The micro-level of analysis considers factors that contribute to food security in households and individuals. Here we see most dramatically

30 InterCoast • Winter 2001 the impact of cultural mechanisms disadvantage. Knowledge and edu- fish may instead be sold in the mar- that can be overlooked in a macro- cation (traditional or formal) are ketplace to generate cash. level analysis.The resource base of important resources to the others While the person responsible for a household (food production capa- in one’s kin network and may be an allocating food may make decisions bility, social networks, and knowl- indicator of the ability of people to that discriminate between individu- edge and education) is highly influ- maximally obtain what they need als within a household, household ential in determining the extent to during periods of shortfall. members may have their own dis- which a household can successfully Decisions within a household criminatory preferences regarding produce or procure an adequate (often gender specific) as to whom what foods they can consume. food supply to meet the energy within and outside the household Individual taboos and preferences needs all members through the receive a share of the food and may vary from those observed by exploitation of marine resources, other resources available may vary the majority of household mem- agriculture, animal husbandry, and greatly depending on cultural bers. Such preferences can influ- wage labor.While a simple analysis beliefs about the relative impor- ence consumption. Some foods of the food available to a household tance of expected outcome. Female that may be available in abundance is important for evaluating coastal heads of household tend to be may be considered taboo, there- communities, it may not be enough responsible for making decisions fore restricting its consumption to explain or predict the nutrition- regarding food acquisition and to only those who do not believe al outcomes (a measure of the suf- preparation, and what foods will be it is taboo. ficiency of diet) of individuals. served to whom. Male heads of The individual well being of There are two additional factors to household tend to make decisions household members is the product consider: the interactions between regarding capital purchases.That is, of both macro- and micro-level fac- households and the actions of indi- an increase of one kilo of fish may tors described here. Individual- viduals within a household. not directly translate to an equiva- level food security can be affected Further, individuals may them- lent level of calories entering the by one or more factors at the selves respond to food availability household, as a portion of that kilo macro level that are outside the differently based on cultural norms may customarily be reserved for direct control of individuals. and individual preferences regard- some other purpose (shared with Micro-level considerations are ing food (prestige, taboos, illness, someone from their social net- dependent on the decisions made and pregnancy). work). Also, fish may be sold to by key individuals within house- Social networks are often an generate money that will be used holds.While it is clear that the overlooked household resource. to buy processed (often less nutri- political economy influences Having a group of people outside tious) foods. macro-level food security consider- one’s household to rely upon to The allocation of food to indi- ations, the cultural mechanisms meet the labor needs of households viduals within the household may that influence micro-level food at peak periods of need (prepara- depend on the relative status or security considerations must be tion of fish or shrimp for market, prestige of individual household evaluated to insure the maximum or agricultural planting and har- members. Differences in food dis- success of programs focused on vest) may be an important deter- tribution may be determined by insuring or improving local-level minant of the ability of some sex (men tend to get the choicest food security. households to meet their food sup- pieces of food), age (the elderly For further information, contact ply needs.Those without ready and infants may be served first), Lisa Colburn, Coastal Vision, 215 networks of kin and friends may be and health of household members Eustis Avenue, Newport, Rhode at a disadvantage for meeting such (pregnant and lactating women) Island, 02840 USA. Tel: 401-849- needs.The degree of inter-related- may be given special foods. 8118. E-mail: lcolburn@etal. ness with other households (i.e., Cultural practices and beliefs can uri.edu or l.colburn@worldnet. family and friends) may be viewed be influential in guiding food allo- att.net as an important household cation. In many cases, the person resource. People who participate in who serves food has primary influ- social networks provide valued ence on how food is allocated. labor at peak times and may be the Simply because a natural resource means through which scarce such as fish or other foods collect- resources can be obtained during ed from coastal areas may exist, deficit periods. Generally, net- does not guarantee that it will be works are ideally comprised of at consumed. Culturally-based dietary least some kin.Those households taboos for some fish species may without kin connections (new prevent them from being used for immigrants) may be at a distinct personal consumption.The same

InterCoast • Winter 2001 31 Three Community-Based Marine Protected Areas Successfully Designated in Indonesia Blongko Marine Talise Marine Tumbak Marine Sanctuary after Sanctuary is Sanctuary Two Years Inaugurated ommunity-based marine sanc- nspired by the success of the n November 15, 2000, Ctuaries in the Philippines and IBlongko Marine Sanctuary estab- OTumbak Marine Sanctuary South Pacific have proven to be lished in 1998, the community of was formalized through a village effective in conserving coral reef Talise, hand-in-hand with local gov- ordinance and inaugurated by the ecosystems, increasing fish biomass ernment, worked to establish their local government of North within sanctuaries and increasing own marine sanctuary. On August Sulawesi. Using similar processes of fish production in adjacent areas to 25, 2000 the community, local establishing community-based these permanently closed areas. government, and the Regency of marine sanctuaries in Blongko and Efforts have been underway in Minahasa inaugurated the Marine Talise villages, with the assistance North Sulawesi since 1997 to adapt Sanctuary. of Proyek Pesisir, the community this approach to the Indonesian Assisted by Proyek Pesisir, the of Tumbak worked together with context, Proyek Pesisir (Indonesian process of establishing and imple- the local government to establish Coastsl Management Program) has menting a community-based their own marine sanctuary. been pioneering the establishment marine sanctuary in Talise started Tumbak is the third community- of community-based marine sanc- in 1997. Many steps were taken in based marine sanctuary established tuaries in several villages. the establishment of the Talise in North Sulawesi. The Blongko marine sanctuary Marine Sanctuary, such as socializa- The process of establishing com- was approved by the community tion of the community-based munity-based marine sanctuaries and then formalized through an marine sanctuary concept in village started in 1997, using identifica- official village ordinance signed by meetings, cross-visits to Blongko tion, village profiles and manage- the head of village and the district village, public education, and train- ment plan development. Supported head in November 1998. In ing in coral reef monitoring. by a local ordinance, the manage- October 1999, a coastal resources Proyek Pesisir facilitated the ment plan, which called for devel- management and marine sanctuary process of establishing the marine opment of marine sanctuaries, was management plan was approved by sanctuary by conducting meetings, launched in 1999. Marine sanctu- the village of Blongko. A manage- coral reef monitoring training, ary development, as stated in the ment program has been formally cross visits, public education, semi- management plan, was aimed at adopted by the village. nars on environmental laws and protecting the marine resources As a result, there have been a provided the community with a and to provide for the local com- number of quality of life changes legal consultant to help draft the munities in terms of benefits from for the village community.These ordinance. fish production and ecotourism. include improved drinking water The subsequent steps in the devel- supply, sanitation improvements, opment of the management plan improved understanding of coastal were socialization of the communi- management issues and their con- For further information on ty-based marine sanctuary concept sequences, among others. marine sactuary development in village meetings, cross-visits to In the sanctuary, signboards with in Indonesia, contact J. Blongko village, public education, the rules of the marine sanctuary Johnnes Tulungen, Field and training in coral monitoring. have been installed in the village. Program Manager, Proyek After much discussion, the activ- Marker buoys have been deployed Pesisir (CRMP), North ities prohibited or allowed in the and the community itself is under- Sulawesi, Jl. W. Mongisidi 5, sanctuary were decided.The next taking surveillance and enforce- Manado 95115 Indonesia. Tel: challenge for the community is ment activities. Several instances 62 431 841671. Fax: 62 431 enforcement. occurred where village residents 841673. E-mail: crmp@mana- have been punished for violating do.wasantara.net.id or tulun- the sanctuary and where outside [email protected] (Continued facing page)

32 InterCoast • Winter 2001 Blongko Marine Sanctuary inside the sanctuary since it was (Continued from previous page) established.These preliminary fishers have been prevented from results suggest the community- bomb fishing in the sanctuary. based marine sanctuary in Blongko Local fishers have reported that is being effectively protected. It they believe fish abundance in and tends to confirm community-based around the sanctuary is increasing. marine sanctuaries can be an effec- Preliminary results of a recent tive means of coral reef conserva- study show an increase in coral tion in Indonesia. cover of approximately 20 percent

Sign showing the location of the Blongko Marine Sanctuary Western Indian Ocean Region Meets on MPAs he Coastal Zone Management More specifically, GEMPA aims access to external networks for the TCentre of the Netherlands and at coordinating and facilitating sharing of experience, knowledge, the Institute of Marine Sciences of implementation of activities and expertise. the University of Dar es Salaam geared towards improving the •To provide advice on the devel- organized a regional meeting of a management of MPAs in the opment and implementation of Reference/Working Group on region.The terms of reference of MPA policies, legislation and insti- marine protected areas (MPAs) in the group are: tutional arrangements at all appro- the region to coordinate and facili- •To provide and promote a priate levels based on a sound tech- tate implementation of activities coherent regional vision for MPAs nical platform. geared towards improving the within the context of environmen- The GEMPA-EA will be hosted management of MPAs in the tally sustainable development. initially by WIOMSA and UNED region. Regional experts and rep- •To advocate and build a con- until WIOMSA or another relevant resentatives of regional and inter- stituency for MPAs among formal regional organization has the capac- national organizations attended the and informal stakeholders includ- ity to host and maintain it. meeting.These included:The World ing governments, management The GEMPA-EA core member- Conservation Union-East Africa authorities, the private sector, ship comprises of prominent Regional Office (IUCN-EARO), coastal communities, and NGOs. experts whose selection is based on Worldwide Fund for Nature •To assist and facilitate linkages their strong regional knowledge (WWF), Secretariat for Eastern and dialogue between potential and experience in MPA matters as African Coastal Area Management collaborators with the aim of maxi- well as a firm commitment for the (SEACAM), Kenya Wildlife Service mizing synergies at all levels of group’s activities. (KWS), National Environment MPA support and management, In addition, organizations with a Management Council (NEMC) and including the identification of strong interest and involvement in Western Indian Ocean Marine needs and the coordination of MPAs will also be requested to Science Association (WIOMSA). activities such as capacity building nominate their representatives to A representative of the University and research. the group from the roster of of Queensland, Australia, also •To provide and facilitate access experts. attended. to technical advice across all levels (Excerpted from the WIOMSA The meeting resulted in the of MPA planning and management Newsbrief, September 2000, establishment of the Group of including: the monitoring and Vol. 5 No. 3) Experts for Marine Protected review of guidelines and codes of For further information, contact Areas in Eastern Africa (GEMPA- practice; development of methods Julius Francis, WIOMSA EA).The broad goal of the and criteria for a consistent high Secretariat, PO Box 3298, GEMPA is to build a constituency level of management quality; and Tanzania. Tel: 255 24 2233852. for MPAs in the region and to pro- the harmonization of MPA tech- Fax: 255 24 2233050. E-mail: vide a forum for linkages and dia- nologies within the region consis- [email protected]. logue between MPA practitioners tent with global thinking. Website: www.wiomsa.or.tz and experts and between govern- •To encourage and facilitate the mental and nongovernmental development of a regional network organizations. of MPA professionals and provide

InterCoast • Winter 2001 33 Trott Honduran fishers, sometimes through limiting licenses and own- (continued from page 3) resulting in armed conflicts. ership of sub-tidal coastal areas will generation in much of the develop- Development increase in developed countries. ing world. A minimum of 15 mil- Land for aquaculture, for both lion people are estimated to engage Assistance marine and freshwater, will contin- directly in fishing, and many mil- A prime culprit for the current ue to increased, but with compet- lions more are employed in associ- state of depleted world fish stocks ing use demands. Only through ated processing and manufacturing could actually be the effort to development of intensive culture activities. In Southeast Asia and the develop the fishery sector. Many methods, after solving associated South Pacific, there are an estimat- assistance efforts by development disease and feed issues, can higher ed four million fishers.There are banks and international donors levels of aquaculture production be more than a million fish farmers focused on increasing harvests. It expected. Frankly, most developing in Indonesia alone. In many coun- was only five years ago the U.S. nations that have traditionally tries, fisheries represent more than Agency for International depended on fish and fishing can 25 percent of the employment in Development (USAID) changed its look forward to experiencing some the agriculture/food production approach from increasing harvests level of desperation (already seen sector, and in some countries fish- to increasing sustainability. It is fair in the Philippines). ers earn significantly more than to say that the majority of assis- Currently, progress towards farmers. tance programs concentrate their food security is likely to be limited In many countries, destructive efforts on aquaculture, rather than to developed nations that have the fishing practices (dynamite and on building vessels and using more means to make major investments cyanide fishing) have developed efficient gear. toward this goal. Hopefully, in from pressures to feed the family The Future time, the techniques developed can or produce at least limited income. Worldwide, demand for fish will be rapidly adapted to developing The economies of many nations continue to significantly exceed countries to quicken the pace of are largely dependent on the pres- supply unless there is proper man- achieving sustainability, thus food ence or absence of social conflicts. agement to ensure sustainable security. Though probably not the rule, yields from natural stocks. In con- Lamarr B. Trott is the Deputy locations like the southern Red Sea cert, there must be efforts to Director of the Office of Science and Caribbean Central America, reduce/eliminate environmental and Technology of the U. S. where long-term wars have occu- degradation and habitat destruc- National Marine Fisheries Service. pied the energies of Eritrea and tion, as well as to develop and He spent 14 years, until fairly Nicaragua potential, fish popula- transfer technology to increase recently, as the Senior Fisheries tions were able to increase. mariculture production. Although Advisor for the U. S. Agency for However, in the case of lobster har- this is a worldwide problem, the International Development. He vesting in Nicaragua, there is still impact of this deficit will be most previously built and directed the constant illegal fishing by seriously felt in developing coun- Marine Science Laboratory of the tries where the loss of food and Chinese University of Hong Kong. employment from fisheries-related He also operates a small plantation activities could be catastrophic. in Fiji, in the South Pacific. The bottom line is that the Lamarr B. Trott, National earth’s population, already at 6 bil- Marine Fisheries Service, HQTR, lion, will continue to increase. Route F/ST, Bldg SSMC3, Room Pressures on coastal fisheries will 12451, 1315 East-West Highway, continue to increase. Even with Silver Spring, Maryland 20910- efforts to restore traditional fish- 3282 USA. Tel: 301 713 2367. eries, it is unlikely that wild stocks Fax: 301 713 1875. E-mail: can increase much above their cur- [email protected] rent level. Mariculture will contin- ue to increase, both in numbers of species and level of harvest, but environmental effects will offset Green turtle harvest,Caribbean Miskito Coast, production by effects on natural Nicaragua (photo by Lamarr Trott) stocks. It is likely that limited entry

34 InterCoast • Winter 2001 COLLECTED ESSAYS ON THE ECONOMICS OF CORAL REEFS Edited by Herman Cesar his is the first book completely devoted to economic analysis of coral reefs. It gives the state-of-the-art thinking on economic Taspects of coral reef management.Through case studies, it gives examples of these aspects in relevant real-life circumstances. Intended for a wide audience, academic jargon is kept to a minimum.The 16 chapters are structured in four parts: methodology, threats, policy and management, and case studies. In addition, a detailed annotated bibliography gives an overview of the main publications on coral reef threats and stakeholder analyses, economic valua- tion as well as policy/management issues. Methodology: Chapters 2 and 3 discuss the various functions, services and goods of coral reef ecosystems; the uses and economic valuation of these; and explain recent advances in the contin- gent valuation method. Threats: Chapters 4 through 8 discuss El Niño revisited, the economics of cyanide fishing, costs and benefits associated with blast fishing, two case studies on the economics of coral min- ing, and the economic costs of the recent massive coral bleaching. Policy and Management: Chapters 9 through 12 summarize the rapidly growing literature on the economic implications of fully-protected marine reserves; introduces the economics of coral reef restoration; describe policy options for combatting cyanide fishing; and discuss economic principles that can be applied to marine parks. Case studies: Chapters 13 through 17 present a comparative study of socioeconomic and man- agement issues related to coastal resources; present a summary of a large World Bank-funded study on ecological economic decision support modeling; present a case study of the benefits and costs of coral reef and wetland management; and describe the challenges of private-sector management of marine protected areas. The book has been published through the CORDIO program with financial support from the Swedish International Development Co-operation Agency (Sida).The book brings together the experience gained over the last decade on economic aspects of coral reefs. For further information on how to order, please contact Herman Cesar. E-mail: [email protected]

MARINE AND COASTAL PROTECTED AREAS A GUIDE FOR PLANNERS AND MANAGERS By Rodney V.Salm and John R. Clark, with Erkki Siirila Third Edition here have been major advances in the last two decades on the challenges of sustainability of marine pro- Ttected areas (MPAs) through innovative financing mechanisms, partnerships with private sector and non- governmental organizations, and collaborative management between government and coastal communities. These have brought new approaches for MPA establishment and management that are more participatory, involving communities through interaction and collaboration rather than prescription. This book mainly addresses conservation in tropical coasts and seas. It is meant to compliment mod- ern texts covering policy and design of MPAs by providing approaches and tools for application in field sites.The volume is arranged in three parts. Part I introduces MPAs as an important approach to man- aging coastal and marine resources. Part II considers principles and mechanisms for planning and manag- ing protected areas in different environments. Part III presents case histories from around the world. Available from: IUCN Publishing Service Unit, 219c Huntingdon Road, Cambridge CB3 0DL, UK.Tel: 1223 277894. Fax: 1223 277175. E-mail: [email protected]: www.iucn.org/bookstore/index.html or IUCN Marine Programme, 1630 Connecticut Ave. NW,Washington, DC 20009 USA.Tel: 202 387 4826. Fax: 202 387 4823. E-mail: [email protected]

InterCoast's Policy on References. Upstream/Downstream: The Pacific Salmon's Story by Syma A. Ebbin (Issue#36, p.13) was printed without the references originally appearing in the article when submitted to InterCoast.This reflects InterCoast's policy of limiting sub- missions to a short essay or summary on a given topic.The editor routinely edits submissions heavily and removes references. Such changes are commonly made without further consultation with the author.

InterCoast • Winter 2001 35 INTERCOAST, SPRING 2001, ISSUE #39 ACROSS-PORTFOLIO LEARNING FOR ENHANCING IMPACTS OF INTEGRATED COASTAL MANAGEMENT he challenges of integrated coastal management (ICM) that are being addressed around the world are com- Tplex.To improve performance, practitioners and the donor community need information on the benefits of alternative frameworks and approaches to ICM. In order to achieve a better understanding about what strategies and practices of ICM planning and implementation are most effective, ICM must understand and address: • Under investment in self-assessment, monitoring and evaluation • Cause-and-effect relations of ICM • Methods for mapping ICM strategies and outcomes • Ways to measure objectives and intermediate and end outcome goals of ICM • Ways to network for exchanging information and advancing strategies for donor-funded ICM In response to these challenges, many projects in ICM have been experimenting with activities that promote learning across project portfolios and have constructed learning programs to harvest experience, capture lessons learned, and assess performance.These efforts recognize that effective practice in a maturing field requires the documentation and analysis of experience in order to better understand what works, what doesn’t and why. The next issue of InterCoast invites papers that describe: • Experience in different approaches to learning • Learning topics and why they were chosen • What was learned and the impacts of learning Articles on other coastal management issues are also welcome Deadline is April 1, 2001 To contribute to InterCoast, please contact: Noëlle F. Lewis Coastal Resources Center, University of Rhode Island Narragansett, Rhode Island 02882 USA Tel: 401-874-6870 E-mail: [email protected] Articles are 1,000-1,700 words. Photos are strongly encouraged.Articles are edited; please do not include references.

Coastal Resources Center University of Rhode Island Narragansett Bay Campus Narragansett, RI 02882 USA Address service requested

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