FÖLSTER | INTRODUCTION TO CHINESE BOOK COLLECTORS‘ SEALS 25

Article Introduction to the History, Use and Function of Chinese Book Collectors’ Seals*

Max Jakob Fölster | Hamburg

εany old Chinese books (both printed ones and manuscripts) other hand, has a very long tradition of using seals to mark bear red stamps on them (see igs. 1 and β, for example). books and other collectibles, especially paintings and pieces seals’ of calligraphy. This dates back to at least the sixth century.6ش These are imprints of what is conventionally called (yinzhang 印). Book collectors’ seals (cangshuyin 印)1 What further distinguishes Chinese book collectors’ seals Ḳ one special kind of seal in China Ḳ are often compared from European ex libris is the common practice among to European bookplates or ex libris. In fact, some Western collectors of adding their seal imprint to those of previous libris seals’ for them.2 The owners.7 This sometimes resulted in large numbers of شscholars even use the term ex two have a number of common featuresμ they are not merely imprints being made in a single book. Not only can such marks of ownership, but have developed into a form of art in imprints be used to identify the various owners of a book, their own right, which could be used by collectors to express but they are also an important source of information in the their personality.3 Despite these similarities, however, there dificult task of authentication and open up the possibility of are also a number of important differences: bookplates are revealing which books once belonged to a speciic collector if a product of the age of printing in Europe, while Chinese the person did not happen to draw up or bequeath a catalogue book collectors’ seals are not exclusively conined to printed of the works in his collection. books.4 Bookplates only came into use around 14ι0 and This article is intended to provide a general introduction to were essentially printed for the most part.5 China, on the Chinese book collectors’ seals since these have not been the subject of much attention in Western scholarship so far. To this end, I have drawn on the rich Chinese secondary literature on * The research for this paper was sponsored by the German Research εanuscript this topic and have tried to include as many direct referencesش Foundation (Deutsche Forschungsgemeinschaft), SFB λη0μ Cultures in Asia, Africa and Europe’, and undertaken within the scope of tothe primary sources as possible.8 σeedless to say, this paper is Centre for the Study of εanuscript Cultures. I am indebted to Prof εichael Friedrich, the participants of his doctoral colloquium and my colleagues δinstill a mere outline and is by no means exhaustive. The article Hang 林 and Imre Galambos for their numerous helpful comments and corrections on earlier drafts.

1 Cangshuyin is the designation used most commonly todayν other terms are book is much older, of course. In Western Europe, such inscriptions are cangshuzhang or cangshu yinzhang 印. Historically used attested since the twelfth century (at least). τn ownership statements in bookmark’) as well as terms that may also the Islamic world, including the use of seals, see Gacek 1λκι and δiebrenzش) terms include tushuji 圖記 be used for seals in general such as tuyin 圖印, tuji 圖記, tuzhang 圖, 2011. tushu 圖 and yinji 印記. See also δai Fushun 1λλ1, 1γι. 6 In the ield of art history, seals are a well-known phenomenon and an 2 Van Gulik 1ληκ, 4βην Edgren 1λλι, ηλν Edgren β00θ, 1λι. important way of authenticating paintingsν see van Gulik 1ληκ, 41ιḲ4ηιν Contag and Wang 1λθθν Zhuang Yan et al. 1λθ4. 3 There are a number of studies comparing the twoμ Huang Zhiguang β011ν δiu Zhong et al. β001ν Wang Dongming 1λκιν Qian Jun 1λλκ, ικḲ101. 7 This use is not only restricted to China. In fact, it can be said that book Ex libris (cangshupiao 票) only came into use in China in the early collectors’ seals are characteristic of East Asian books in general (Kornicki twentieth century (δi Yunjing β000). 1λλκ, γλκ). Apart from China, a great deal of research on book collectors’ seals has also been conducted in Japan, e.g. τno 1λ4γ/1λη4, Watanabe and 4 Regarding the origin of Western bookplates, it has been argued that since Gotō β001 and Kokuritsu kokkai toshokan β00β. See also δin Shenqing printed books had lost their unique character, it was now necessary to β000b and δai Fushun 1λλ1, 1η1Ḳ1ηβ for an overview of the relevantش provide a designation of individual possession to protect them from theft or Japanese publications. even only confusion’ (Wolf 1λλγ, 14). Chinese seals have also been identiied as technical precursors of printing technology (Tsien 1λκη, 1γθḲ1γλ). 8 Since the completion of this article two book-length studies on the topic of Chinese book collectors’ seals have been publishedμ Wang Yuelin β014ν Wu 5 Pearson 1λλ4, 1βḲλθ. The common habit of inscribing one’s name in a Qinfang, Xie Quan β01η.

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Fig. 1: Print (Kangxi, 1662–1722) of the ‘Selected Writings by Tao An’. Fig. 2: Manuscript (Qing, 1644–1911) of the ‘Literary Treasures of the Hanlin Academy’. consists of ive parts. As book collectors’ seals are just one 1. Chinese seals speciic way in which seals were used in China in bygone The use of seals in China has a long history and book collectors’ days, the irst part provides a brief overview of Chinese seals are just one speciic area of application. In terms of their seals in general. Part two, which is divided into two sections, size and shape, book collectors’ seals are no different than any provides a chronological presentation of the history of Chinese other seals, therefore it will be helpful to give a brief overview book collectors’ seals. Section one covers the beginnings up to of Chinese seals in general to begin with.9 Although the the eleventh century, a period in which there seems to be no origins are still disputed among scholars, judging by the many clearly deined boundary between seals used exclusively for archaeological inds dating back to the ifth to third century books and those used on other objects. It is only in the eleventh BCE, it is safe to assume that seals were already in wide use at century that we ind more concrete evidence of seals being this time.10 They were employed in oficial and private settings used exclusively in books. This is the subject of section two, from early on. Institutional seals served to authenticate oficial which traces developments up to the present day. Part three is concerned with the places where seals were applied in books 9 The most extensive work on Chinese seals in a Western language is still and includes a description of certain rules for afixing such Wagner 1λλ4. A recent Chinese publication by Sun Weizu β010 has been translated into Englishμ Sun β010. Van Gulik 1ληκ, 41ιḲ4ηι, is still very imprints. Part four discusses the rich variety of seal legends one useful. τn the early history, see also Veit 1λκη. Short general introductions encounters. Finally, part ive discusses the purpose of books are provided by δauer 1λλθ and Wagner 1λλι. collectors’ seals beyond being mere marks of ownership. 10 Wagner 1λλ4, κγḲ10ιν 1λλι, β0η. See also Veit 1λκη.

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documents such as deeds and were also a symbol of authority. The area for carving the seal Ḳ the seal face Ḳ is essential σo oficial was deemed to be in possession of executive for the seal imprint. This is what is used to imprint the seal power before he had adopted the seals of ofice used by legend (yinwen 印文) on different bases. Early seals were sealing clays’ (fengni 封泥), asش his predecessor.11 Private or personal seals could be used in impressed on clay. These business contracts as a way of providing a degree of security they are known, were used to seal letters and documents. for both parties. In the eleventh century, private seals started to Since it is impossible to attach clay directly to bamboo or be used as signatures.12 Besides the more utilitarian purpose of wood, which were writing supports that were commonly seals as tokens of proof and trust, painters now started to sign used at the time, they were usually afixed with the help of their artwork this way.13 δater, in the ifteenth and sixteenth a cord.19 With the gradual shift to paper as writing support century, private seals even developed into specimens of ine in the third or fourth century CE,20 however, seals were able iron brush’ to be impressed directly on the material after having beenش art. Seal cutting (zhuanke 篆), or the art of the the sister of calligraphy’.14 It inked with a red pigment. In the beginning, water-based inkش tiebi 筆鐵), was referred to as) has remained a vibrant form of art to this day and has many was used for this purpose. Honey was added later to attain a admirers in East Asia.15 thick, plastic substance that allowed an exact impression to seal’ in Chinese, be made and prevented any smearing from occurring. Fromش σowadays, the common word for yinzhang (印), is often used to designate a seal as an object, the early twelfth century onwards, further improved oil- i.e. as a tool, as well as meaning the imprint it makes.16 A based ink pastes were used.21 Red was probably the preferred variety of materials were used to make such a tool. For a long colour because the seal could be impressed over writing in period in Chinese history, bronze was the standard material black ink without obliterating it. Other colours like black employed in oficial and private seals. Precious metals like were only used during periods of mourning, while blue was gold and silver were reserved for high-ranking oficials and only to be used in the event of an emperor’s death.22 generals, while jade was only allowed to be used by the Seal legends generally have either Chinese characters Emperor.17 As of the ifteenth century, the use of relatively or a pictorial design on them Ḳ or a combination of both. soft stones also became popular. This material made it δegends only containing characters make up the vast possible for the literati, i.e. members of the educated elite,majority not of imprints as most seals are actually name seals only to design seals, but to produce them themselves. Before(names of individual people, ofices or institutions). The this became possible, the production of seals was limitednumber of characters ranges from one to over a hundred in to specialised craftsmen who cast or engraved bronze sealsrare cases, though four characters are particularly common. and carved hard materials like jade with the aid of specialThis has to do with the nature of Chinese personal names, implements. Soft stones, on the other hand, could be the cut vast majority of which consist of two or three characters.23 seal’ (yin 印) hasش easily with a seal knife (a kind of sharpened chisel, actually).18 Frequently the character for the word been added. In a two-character name, a further character

11 (the genitive particle zhi 之) is added in between, thus Van Gulik 1ληκ, 41λ, 4βη. making up to four characters in all (see ig. γ). The order 12 Wagner 1λλι, β0λ, β11. of the characters commonly follows the customary writing

13 Wagner 1λλ4, 140. direction in China, i.e. vertically from right to left. However, so-called reversed seals (huiwen yin 回文印) are also not 14 Van Gulik 1ληκ, 41ι, 4βλν Wagner 1λλι, β0ι. uncommon, especially for seals bearing a personal name, 15 In β00λ, the art of Chinese seal engraving was included in the Rep­ resentative List of the Intangible Cultural Heritage of Humanityμ httpμ// 19 www.unesco.org/culture/ich/index.phpςlg=en&pg=00011&Rδ=00β1ι Veit 1λκη, 10Ḳ11ν Wagner 1λλ4, βκβḲβλ0ν 1λλι, β0λ. For more infor- (accessed on β1 Jan. β014). mation on sealing clays, see Sun Weizu β00β and Tsien β004, ηιḲθ1.

20 16 τn the historical development of terms used to denote seals, see Wagner Tsien 1λκη, 4βḲ4ι. 1λλ4, 114Ḳ1βκ, 1γλ. See also Veit 1λκη, λλḲ10γ. 21 Van Gulik 1ληκ, 4β0Ḳ4β1ν Wagner 1λλ4, βλ1Ḳβλκ. 17 Wagner 1λλ4, βθ4Ḳβθκν 1λλι, β10. 22 Wagner 1λλι, β0ι. 18 Van Gulik 1ληκ, 4βλf.ν Wagner 1λλ4, βιιḲβκ1ν 1λλι, β10Ḳβ11. For details of the production techniques, see Wagner 1λλ4, γ1θḲγ4θ. 23 τn Chinese names, see Bauer 1ληλ and Jones 1λλι.

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Fig. 5: Imprints of the ‘Seal An Guo 之 Fig. 3: ‘Seal of An Guo’ ( of Yongxing prefec ture’ zhi yin). Personal seal of An Guo 印 國 (Yongxing jun yin) on the back (1481–1534). of Za’apitanxin lun.

慎 查 Fig. 4: ‘Cha Shenxing‘s Seal’ (Cha Shenxing yin). Personal seal of 行 印 郡 永 Fig. 6: ‘Seal of Yongxing pre- Cha Shenxing (1650–1727). fecture’ (Yongxing jun yin). 印 because this allows the family name and the given name to for oficial seals, which changed substantially over time. The be depicted in separate columns (see ig. 4).24 normal size for oficial seals of the Han dynasty (β0θ BCEḲ There is no rule about what script to apply for seal 220 CE) was one cun 寸 (approx. β.γḲβ.η cm), but they were legends, but thezhuanshu 篆 is by far the most common, generally larger from the seventh century onwards. Again, which is also the reason why it is generally translated as there were no rules regarding private seals, but even so, very seal script’. This script goes back to what was allegedlylarge private seals are rather uncommon.28ش the commonly used script up to the third century BCE when it was gradually replaced by the more convenient clerical 2.1. The history of book collectors’ seals – from the beginning to the script (lishu 隸). Subsequently it was mainly reserved eleventh century for inscriptions on stelae (mostly just the headings) and on When exactly book collectors’ seals irst came into use is mirrors, bronze objects, roof tiles and seals.25 Other scripts dificult to say. The oldest extant seal imprint on paper is nine-folded style’ jiudie( wen 九疊 found on a manuscript from Dunhuang 敦煌, an incompleteش employed include the 文) for oficial seals and the standard script kaishu( 楷). scroll with a copy of the Samyuktbhidharma­hṛdaya­stra Seals using other writing systems such as the εongolian or (Za’apitanxin lun 雜阿毗心論), a Buddhist text translated the εanchu script are also prevalent.26 into Chinese by Samghavarman 僧跋摩 sometime after The legend could either be cut in intaglio, the characters 4ικ. The imprint stems from a seal cut in a relief with a size appearing in white on a red background (baiwen 文), or of η.4 x η.4 cm. It is found on the back and at the end of the ’( ) Seal of Yongxing Prefecture永郡印ش in relief with the characters in red on a white background scroll and reads (zhuwen 朱文). A combination of both styles in one legend (see igs. η and θ).29 Luo Fuyi 羅福頤 (1λ0η-1λκ1), who irst was also possible. There is a wide range of forms Ḳ round, mentioned it, dated it to the Southern Qi dynasty (4ιλḲη0β) oval, heart-shaped, angular, etc. Ḳ but rectangular and square since the dynastic history notes that a Yongxing prefecture forms are by far the most prominent, both for private and was established in σingzhou (modern Yunnan) in the oficial seals.27 The size of seals can vary from less than year 4λ4.30 However, this dating has been challenged by β.η cm across to around 10 cm. There were strict regulations several scholars, who all place it in the sixth century. They remark that the style and size of the seal correspond to the larger oficial seals that came into use during the Sui dynasty 24 Wagner 1λλ4, βγηḲβ40ν 1λλι, β0κ. (ηκ1Ḳθ1κ). εost importantly, they have pointed to the fact

25 δedderose 1λι0, γḲ4, 1ι. The development and use of the script is much that the majority of manuscripts from Dunhuang originated more complicated, of course. For a detailed study on the development of the seal script, see Veit 1λκη, which is now a little outdated, though, due to the growing archeological evidence uncovered in recent decades. For details of more recent studies on the development of the Chinese script, see Qiu β000, 28 Wagner 1λλ4, 4θ1Ḳ4θγ, 4ιβḲ4ι4. ηλḲ14λ and Galambos β00θ. 29 Guojia tushuguanμ BD 14ι11 (Guojia tushuguan cang Dunhuang yishu 26 Wagner 1λλ4, θγḲθ4, 4ιιḲ4κ1, 4κγḲ4κθ. β010, vol. 1γβμ 1θι).

27 Wagner 1λλ4, βγ4Ḳβ4η. For an overview of the variety of forms, see van 30 δuo Fuyi 1λκ1, ι1Ḳιβ. Nan Qi shu 1ημγ0ηḲγ0θ. Zhongguo lishi diming Gulik 1ληκ, 440Ḳ44β. dacidian 1λλη, γβη.

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from the surrounding area and that it is rather unlikely that together with the few early paper specimens we know of, is a manuscript from a place as far away as Yunnan in the taken as proof of the practice of impressing seals with red south-west found its way to Dunhuang in the north-west. ink onto paper.35 However, these traces could just as well Furthermore, they found textual evidence that Dunhuang have come from coloured clay as it is known that different belonged to a Yongxing prefecture in the period from ηθ1 to colours of clay were used for different purposes.36 Finally, ηκγ.31 However, this evidently is an oficial seal whose use it has been rightly argued that, apart from the lack of was probably not conined to books alone. textual and physical evidence, it is technically impossible It is quite obvious that the emergence of collectors’ seals to permanently apply seals with red ink on them to wood is closely related to the shift to paper as a writing support. or bamboo, which were commonly used for writing during Although specimens of paper have been discovered from as the Han period.37 early as the Western Han (β0θ BCEḲλ CE), it was not until Philological evidence suggests that collectors were putting the fourth or ifth century CE that paper became the dominant seals on paintings by the late third century. Zhang Yanyuan writing material.32 σonetheless, some scholars have dated 張彥遠 (c. κ1ηḲafter κιη) mentions this in his Record of the the emergence of collectors’ seals to the Western Han.33 The Painters of All the Dynasties (Lidai minghua ji 畫記)μ evidence presented by them is not very convincing, though. τne scholar’s argumentation is solely based on an anecdote 諸好家印，東晉僕射周印，古小雌 that cannot be attested in any historical sources. According to this, δiu Xiang 劉向 (ιιḲκ BCE) once lent a rare book Seals of various amateurs of the arts. [Among them] is the to his friend Ji Xiangru 稽相如 who took great pleasure seal of the Vice President of the Department of State Affairs in the book and therefore had a seal cut for it bearing the Zhou Yi (βθλḲγββ) of the Eastern Jin dynasty, with antique The addiction to books and the love of money are small female (i.e. intaglio) characters.38ش legend one and the same kind of greedν scholars store books like merchants store money (嗜好貨，為一貪，貨 These seals probably developed from signatures which ，儒為耳)’.34 Another scholar mentions two examples were added when admiring the paintings.39 The earliest of excavated seals dated to the Western Han, which are said archaeological evidence of a collector’s seal, not just the to have shown traces of red ink on the seal’s face. This, imprint, was found in a tomb dated to κ4ημ a seal with the Bohai tushu 渤圖’ was found in the tomb of aش legend certain δi Cun . The epitaph describes the tomb owner 31 σonetheless, there are minor discrepancies in the exact datingμ Yuan Shi 1λλ4 and Zhang Xiying β000 both date the seal to the years ηκ1 to ηκγ since as a bibliophile, hence the seal has been interpreted as a book it clearly resembles other known seals of the Sui dynasty (ηκ1Ḳθ1κ). δi Zhitan collector’s seal.40 β010, on the other hand, dates it to the years ηθ1 to ηι4 by drawing attention to the persecution of Buddhism under Emperor Wu of the Northern Zhou (ηηιḲηκ1) as of ηι4. Shen δeping β01β, λθ suggests the years ηικ to ηκ1, i.e. after the death of Emperor Wu and before the establishment of the Sui. 35 Zhang Xiying β000, 1ηκḲ1ηλ. Cao Jinyan β00β, β1Ḳβγ gives a more 32 cautious interpretation. Drawing on additional textual and archeological Tsien 1λκη, 4βḲ4ιν Pan Jixing 1λιλ, βηḲγ0, ηβḲθ1. evidence, he argues that seals were already being applied on silk during the Han period. Among the manuscripts from Dunhuang there is indeed 33 Wang Aixi β00β, 4κν Xiong Yan β00γ, θ0ν Wang Dongming 1λκι, 44. an example of a silk fragment with a seal imprint (British δibrary τther scholars, however, duly admit that there is no evidence of thisμ δiu τr.κβ11/ηγλaν Chavannes 1λ1γ, σo. ηγλ, p. 11κ), but this should not be σing et al. β00ι, ιιν Yang Yanyan β011, ηι. taken as an example of a book collector’s seal.

34 Wang Dongming 1λκι, 44. The anecdote states that although δiu Xiang 36 Wagner 1λλ4, βκι. repeatedly tried to reclaim his book, Ji refused to return it. In the end, δiu Xiang appealed to Emperor Cheng 帝 (r. γγḲι BCE), with the result that 37 Hua Jifen β004, 10η. Clay seals were predominantly used to seal books the book was ultimately incorporated into the imperial collection. δiu Xiang off and were not directly stamped onto writing material (Wagner 1λλ4, and Emperor Cheng are well-known and well-attested historical igures, but βκβḲβκγ). I was unable to identify any person named Ji Xiangru. What’s more, the 燈前隨錄 is not allegedly lent-out ancient book entitled Dengqian suilu 38 attested anywhere. With a minor exception, the alleged legend of the seal is Lidai minghua ji γμ4β (translationμ Acker 1λη4, βγβ). a combination of expressions found in Xu Fei’s許棐 (ςḲ1β4λ) Meiwu 39 shumu xu 梅屋目序 (inμ Xianchou ji 獻醜集βA/γB) and Fei Gun’s Sha εenghai 1λκι, ιγν Hua Jifen β004, 10η. Lidai minghua ji γμγι ornamental signatures of theش 费衮 Liangxi manzhi 梁谿漫 γμβλ. At best, the anecdote is a much later (translationμ Acker 1λη4, β1θ) mentions the ictive story, if not entirely the product of Wang Dongming’s imagination, connoisseurs and art experts of the time (當時識藝人押署)’. as he fails to provide any references. It has nonetheless found its way into a recent popular work on the history of booksμ Cai Jiayuan β01β, 4θ. 40 Jia Zhigang β011, κθ. There is yet another excavated seal, which probably

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Chinese scholars generally agree that collectors’ seals these seals.} […]. There are also seals [with the characters] had become widely used by the beginning of the seventh Hongwen (standing for Hongwen guan, i.e. College for the century.41 Again, this is based on Zhang Yanyuan’s indings Development of δiterature). I suppose that these were old Ḳ he clearly states that oficial collectors’ seals were not in seals from the Eastern Tower. Those used for stamping books use until the early seventh centuryμ are very small.44

前御府，自晉周隋，收聚圖畫，行印記[...] The general practice of applying seals to pictures and books at the Tang court is also attested in a poem by Wang Jian 王 In the Imperial Storehouse of former dynasties Ḳ from Jin and 建 (ιθιḲκγ0)μ Song times down to the (later) Zhou and Sui (c. middle third century to early seventh) Ḳ it was not yet the practice to afix 集殿内圖滿 / 點頭邊御印 / 真跡進來依數 seals to the paintings assembled in them [...].42 / 别收鎻在玉函中45

However, according to Zhang, the early Tang emperors used The Hall of the Assembled Worthies is full of pictures and seals not only for paintings (tuhua 圖畫), but also for books books / Carefully examining their front, the imperial seal is (shu ) in their collection. As the word shu, stemming identical / Authentic works enter according to the amount of to write’, can be used to denote anything characters / They are separately gathered and locked in jadeش from the meaning written,43 a clear distinction between manuscript books and caskets. calligraphies as pieces of art is not possible. Zhang further mentions the Emperor’s private seals as well as oficial seals However, evidence from administrative sources suggests of different imperial institutions: that the practice of afixing seals to books in the imperial collection of the Tang was discontinued at some point, 帝自觀小小印，觀玄帝自 probably due to the disruptive An δushan 祿山 rebellion 開元小一印，開元又集印閣印翰 (ιηηḲιθγ). At least, this is suggested by two memorials from 林印朮各司収掌圖定印細后凡凡凡成又文之 the early ninth century, in which the casting of new seals for 印，恐是東觀舊印印者，印小 this purpose is requestedμ

Emperor Taizong (ηλκḲθ4λ) had the two small characters 長慶四，少監隨奏當省請置閣圖 zhen (true) and guan (contemplation) written in his own 印一面，伏當省御開元寶前，並小印 hand made into two small seals, zhenguan. Emperor 印縫自難來，印失墜今寫經史，都無記 Xuanzong (θκηḲιθβ) had the two small characterskai 驗伏請鑄造，勅旨依奏46 (to open) and yuan (origin) made into a seal written in his own hand: kaiyuan. Also there are the seals of the [Hall of In the fourth month of the third year of the Changqing the] Assembled Worthies, of the Secret Pavilion, and of era (κβγ), δi Sui, Vice-Director of the Palace δibrary, the Academy of the Forest of Writing Brushes. {[Glossμ] memorialised the Emperorμ This department (i.e. bishu In each case the pictures and books received and cared for sheng 省, Palace δibrary) requests to set up a Palace by the authorities [of these institutions] were stamped with Library book seal to imprint the originals of the imperial books in this department. Before the eras of Kaiyuan (ι1γḲ

Wuwei xiyu tushu 武ش also dates back to the Tang dynasty, with the legend 威習御圖’. This has also been interpreted as a book collector’s seal. See also Shen δeping β01γ, 10γ. 44 Lidai minghua ji γμ4β (translation, modiiedμ Acker 1λη4, βγ1Ḳβγβ). τn the institutions mentioned here, which all had libraries of their own, 41 Wang Jing 1λιλ, ηλν Cao Zhi 1λλβ, 4λ0ν Xu Xi 1λλη, ηκν δin Shenqing see Drège 1λλ1, ι0Ḳκβ. The two emperors’ private seals are very famous 1λλι, 1ν Hua Jifen β004, 10ην Bai Shuchun β011, θβν Cheng Qianfan, Xu (Wagner 1λλ4, 1γγ). For reproduced imprints of these, see Zhong Yinlan Youfu 1λλκ, γθ4ν Sun Xuelei et al. β004, vol. 1μ γḲ4. β00κ, 40γ, 41θ.

42 Lidai minghua ji γμγι (translation, modiiedμ Acker 1λη4, β1θ). 45 Yuding Quan Tang shi γ0βμβB, inμ Siku quanshu 14βθ, ηι.

43 Cha Qisen 1λλ4, βι. 46 Tang huiyao θημ11βη.

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ι41) and Tianbao (ι4βḲιηθ), a small seal had to be imprinted and writing (shu) seems doubtful anyway. εaggie Bickford, on the seam. This book seal has been lost ever since the chaos for instance, although working on slightly later material, has of war (i.e. the An δushan rebellion, ιηηḲιθγ). σone of the shown that what modern scholars classify as pictures are canonical and historical works copied today have any marks actually illustrated manuscripts.52 Furthermore, the termtu might designate almost any form of graphic representationش on them. I therefore humbly request to cast one. An imperial decree approved the request. including charts, diagrams, maps and illustrations in general’.53 The locus classicus for the concept of tu in the Book of Changes Theش 開元四，集殿御院請鑄小印一面，御為 (Yijing 易經) also mentions shu at the same timeμ 印文，從之47 [Yellow] River brought forth a chart (tu) and the δuo [River] brought forth a writing (shu)ν the sages took these as models In the fourth month of the irst year of the era Kaicheng (κγθ), (河出圖，洛出，聖人則之)’.54 This shows the close the Imperial Academy of the Hall of the Assembled Worthies connection between the two.55 Sutra collecting seals’ (cangjingyin 經印) fromش requested to cast one small seal with imperial book as its legend. The request was approved. Buddhist monasteries are yet another case. Imprints of these are found on some of the Dunhuang manuscripts. Seals According to Zhang Yanyuan, private collectors also of eight different monasteries have been identiied and embraced this practice. He lists a number of private seals, are said to have been in use from the seventh to the early eight of which have the charactershu in their legend.48 This eleventh century.56 They were probably reserved for marking probably indicates their use as book collectors’ seals. The term scriptures once kept in the monastic libraries.57 Among the tushu 圖 is often employed in the legends, as in the case Dunhuang manuscripts there are also numerous imprints Seal of the great sutras of Gua and Sha Prefecturesش of the excavated seal belonging to δi Cun, which has been of the mentioned above.49 Also a generic term for books in general, (瓜大坙印)’. This is only found on copies of sutras this has frequently been interpreted as an alternative colloquial and is believed to have been the ownership mark of a private term for private seals.50 τthers believe the term is used to collector.58 highlight the function of the seal, being used exclusively for pictures (tu) and books (shu).51 This reinforces the assumption 52 that no collectors’ seals were used exclusively for books Bickford β00θ.

-Chinese Cosmoش ,[initially. However, an absolute distinction between picture ( tu) 53 Clunas 1λλι, 10ι (quoting John B. Henderson [1λλ4 graphical Thought. The High Intellectual Tradition’, in J. B. Harley and D. Woodward [eds.], The History of Cartography, vol. β, bk. β, Chicagoμ 47 Tang huiyao θ4μ11β1. University of Chicago Press, β14)ν see also 104Ḳ10η.

54 48 Lidai minghua ji γμ4βḲ4θ (translation Acker 1λη4, βγβḲβ40). The eight Yijing zhengyi, in Shisanjing zhushu ιμγ41. Clunas 1λλι, 10ι. seals are: Pengcheng hou shuhua ji 彭城侯畫記, Liushi shuyin 劉氏 印, Shuyin 印, Ye hou tushu kezhang 鄴侯圖, Mashi tushu 馬氏圖 55 The statesman and philosopher Song Lian 濂 (1γ10Ḳ1γκ1) states in his writing and paintingش Xiao gong shuyin 蕭印, Chushi shuyin 褚氏印 and Yuanshu 遠. essay The Origins of Painting (Huayuan 源畫) that , Zhang Yanyuan was unable to identify the collectors of the last three, while are not different Ways, but are as one in their origin’ (Clunas 1λλι, 10λ). only Li Bi 泌 (ιββḲικλ), the owner of the second seal, is known to have collected works (see Fan Fengshu β00λ, γλ, 4β). Further evidence of the use 56 Shen δeping β01γ, 101Ḳ10β, 104Ḳ10η further speciies that the seals of the of book collectors’ seals by private collectors is found in a poem by Pi Rixiu Baoen 報恩 and Longxing 龍 monasteries were in use between the seventh δu Wang xiti shuyin nang fenghe ciyun魯望戲題 and eleventh century, while those of the Kaiyuan 開元, Jingtu 淨土, Sanjieش 皮日休 (c. κγ4Ḳκκγ)μ 印囊奉和次韻’ (Yuding Quan Tang shi θ1ημηA, inμ Siku quanshu 14βλ, β1λ). 界 and Liantai 蓮 monasteries only came into use in the eighth century and those of the Xiande 顯德 and Qianming 乾明 monasteries only in the 49 Apart from the two excavated seals (Jia Zhigang β011, κθ), one also inds tenth century. He also observed that the imprints of legends in seal script are tushu yin 諭使圖印’ on in red, while those in regular script kaiti( 楷體) are in black. According to ش a seal imprint with the legend Xuanyushi some Dunhuang manuscripts. See Shen δeping β01γ, 10βḲ10γ. Shen, this rule began to be observed from the κγ0s/κ40s onwards.

50 Bai Shuchun β011, θβ. According to Wagner 1λλ4, 1γγ, 1γλ, it originally 57 Rong β01γ, 4κιḲ4κκ (transl. of Rong Xinjiang β00β, γ44)ν Shen δeping only denoted book collectors’ seals. δater on, it also became a general β01γ, 101Ḳ10β, 104Ḳ10η. Drège 1λλ1, β1θḲβ1ι remarks that inscriptions term for seals. Sha εenghai thinks this usage of the term is inadequate stating the name of a monastery are actually more common. For a list of (Sha εenghai 1λκι, 1θ, ιγḲι4). A similar verdict is found in Yindian 印典 these marks and seal imprints in the major collections, see Drège 1λλ1, (ημβ4A, inμ Siku quanshu κγλ, λβθ), where the origins of the term are traced βγκḲβ4η. τn the St Petersburg collection, see Chuguevskii 1λλλ, 14η, 14κ. back to Song times. See also Ch’en 1λθ0, κ, 11, 1β.

51 Cao Jinyan β00β, 1γλḲ140ν Jia Zhigang β011, κθ. 58 Rong β01γ, 4κιḲ4κκ (transl. of Rong Xinjiang β00β, γ44). Ch’en

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Evidence on collectors’ seals from the period of disunity belonged to δi Yu 煜 (λγιḲλικ), the last emperor of the 62 following the Tang still suggests that there is no clear Southern Tang and known as a poet and lover of art. However, Seal of the δibraryش distinction between collectors’ seals for books and those forone of the other seals mentioned Ḳ the pieces of art. Chen Shidao陳師 (10ηγḲ110β) mentioned of the Assembled Worthies Academy (集殿院印)’ an old catalogue with a seal imprint, which belonged to Ḳthe points to an educational institution already mentioned collection kept by Li Bian 昪 (κκκḲλ4γ), the irst emperor by Zhang Yanyuan. This institution was irst established in of the Southern Tang (λγιḲλιθ)μ ιβη and served as an advisory college. Under the Tang, it is said to have had the largest collection of books (invariably 澄心堂，南唐烈節度金之宴居也，為元 manuscripts at that time) after the imperial library.63 It is safe 殿，誤矣趙翰彥家澄心堂目，才千餘 to assume that this seal was predominantly used for books, 卷，建業文之印，後主者，牙校也 although maybe not exclusively.

The Hall of Clarifying the Heart was the pleasure palace 2Ṭ2Ṭ The history of book collectors’ seals – from the twelfth in the capital, Jinling (i.e. σanjing), used by Emperor century to the present day δiezu of the Southern Tang (i.e. δi Bian) when acting as Book collectors’ seals became increasingly common in the εilitary Commissioner [before becoming Emperor]. δater eleventh century Ḳ their use speciically in books is slightly generations believed it to be the library of Emperor Yuanzong more evident than in earlier times. 64 This period witnessed (i.e. δi Jing 璟, λ1θḲλθ1). This is wrong. The family of the an upsurge in the availability of books that is probably Palace Writer Zhao Yanruo59 possessed the Book Catalogue related to the emergence of printed books.65 σonetheless, the of the Hall of Clarifying the Heart, [which records] a total of manuscript remained dominant. The proliferation of printed more than two thousand juan60, with [an imprint of] the Seal books does not seem to have reached every tier of society, but of the Jianye Study. δater owners were all inferior military was restricted to the elite, who could afford to buy them.66 It oficers.61 also seems that the term tushu 圖, sometimes at least, may now be understood to stand for books in general. A Chinese The same seal is also mentioned by Shen Kuo 沈括 (10γ1Ḳ scholar has estimated that in the period roughly from the 10λη) in his Dream Pool Essays (Mengxi bitan 夢溪筆談). eleventh to the early twentieth century, there were more than Shen mostly talks about this and two other seals being found 1,100 scholars who put their collectors’ seals on books.67 εi on pieces of art (calligraphy and paintings) which once Fu’s 米芾 (10η1Ḳ110ι) History of Calligraphy (Shushi 史)

62 εengxi bitan 夢溪筆談, bu bitan 筆談 βμληι, no. ηθθ. These and 1λθ0, λ, Drège 1λκ4, ηηḲηθ and Chuguevskii 1λλλ, 144 read the legend as other seals are also mentioned in Shaoshi wenjian houlu 邵氏聞見後錄 .Seal of the great king of Gua and Sha prefectures (瓜大王印)’. Drège βιμβ1ηḲβ1θ by Shao Bo 邵博 (ςḲ11ηκ) and in Guo Ruoxu’s 郭虛 (cش .great king’ with the Cao family, which is known 10θ0Ḳ1110) Tuhua jianwen zhi 圖畫見聞誌 θμ11A/Bش and Chuguevskii identify the king’. According to Drège, this is probably Cao Yijinش to have used the title 63 金, who is believed to have governed the two prefectures from λ14 to Drège 1λλ1, ιβḲιθν εcεullen 1λκκ, 1ηḲ1θ, βββḲββγ. There is yet Imperial Book Seal of the Hall ofش λγη. Shen δeping β01γ, 101 convincingly argues against this reading from a another, slightly different seal, namely the palaeographic viewpoint as well as a historical one. the Assembled Worthies (集院御印)’. See Zhongguo lidai jiancangjia yinjian shujuku 中國家印數據庫 2011. 59 That is, Zhao Yuankao趙元考 , a contemporary of Chen Shidao (Chang 64 Bide 1λι4, γηγβ). τn the translation of the title, see Hucker 1λκκ, 41ικ. Qu εianliang 1λκκ, λ0 argues that the use of speciic book collectors’ seals only began in the Song period. 60 This term originally designated a scroll made of bamboo slips, silk or 65 paper (Tsien 1λκη, ββκḲβγ1). The term was preserved even after scrolls were The impact of printed books in this period is undisputed. However, superseded by the codex format. Since it no longer corresponds to the physical scholars like Inoue Susume argue that contrary to older views, the Song unit, it should be understood as a chapter (Wilkinson β01β, λ14). σonetheless, did not witness a printing revolution, but the manuscript still remained although it might correspond to one physical volume, it very often does not. dominant. A radical transformation to the printed book only occurred in the sixteenth century when large collections of works were made up of more 61 Houshan tancong 後山談叢 βμγθ. δater in the same work, there is an almost prints than manuscripts. Brokaw β00ηa provides a summary of Inoue’s identical passageν what is most striking here is that the names are differentμ work. See also εcDermott β00ην β00θ, 4γḲκ1 and Brokaw β00ηb, βγḲβ4ν instead of the Book Catalogue of the Hall of Clarifying the Heart , it is Jianye β00ι, βηλḲβθβ. Study’s Book Catalogue, but with only slightly more than a thousand juanν 66 .Seal of the Jinling library ( 金圖 Brokaw β00ηa, 1η0ν β00ι, βθ0Ḳβθ1ν δee 1λλη, 1λ4ش Seal of the Jianye Study’, it isش instead of 院印)’. This was already noticed by the editorsμ Houshan tancong γμ4η. .Seal of the Jianye Study’ is found in Zhong Yinlan β00κ, γλ4. 67 Bai Shuchun β011, θγش The imprint of

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informs us in detail about the seals used by the early Song In accordance with the regulations, books belonging to the emperors. σonetheless, as far as imperial use is concerned, prefectual school of Jiaxing Prefecture are not allowed to be there still seems to be no clear distinction between seals for lend out. This was issued during the term of ofice of prefect books and seals for paintings and calligraphies: He Sizheng, marked on day [ ], the seventh month in the year jiaxu of the Jiading era [1β14]. 印文須，圏須文等，閣圖之 印，不滿寸，圏文閣圖印亦 Similar repeated bans on lending out books, which was a 然仁後，印經院賜經，用閣圖大印， continuous threat to the integrity and survival of government 粗文畫，占紙素，畫多損 collections, are known to have been issued in the capital (the I]n 1ββκ, book theft had become so common]ش .(帖近館閣之印，文雖，圏乃粗如半指， irst in λλλ ogging off forض 亦印損畫也68 that some scholarly oficials were said to be a proit the books they had removed from court libraries and The seal legend should be delicate and the edge should be equal then impressed with their private seal.’72 This reveals the to the legend. The Book Seal of the Secret Pavilion used by increasing evidence of private book collectors’ seals. During our Emperor Taizu (reigned λθ0Ḳλιθ) is less than two inches the Song period (λ0θḲ1βιλ), bibliophilism grew among the the beginnings of seriousش long and both the edge and legend are delicate. The characters elite. Thomas H. C. δee identiies of the seal Books of the Upper Pavilion are in the same book collecting’ in this period. This love of books not only [style]. After Emperor Renzong (r. 10ββḲ10θγ), one would use derived from the increased emphasis on education as this a large seal with the characters Books of the Upper Pavilion was demanded by the imperial civil-service examinations, simply for knowledgeش for the classics issued by the Classics Printing Bureau,69 the but also from a passion for books legend [being carved rather] roughly. When applied on books and self-cultivation’.73 It became a main characteristic of all throughout the rest of the imperial period Ḳ thatش and paintings on the paper’s blank area, the characters’ strokes literati, and are very harmful to the calligraphy. Recently, although legends is, until 1λ11 Ḳ possession of, or at least access to, books was of the seals of the Three Institutes and the Secret Pavilion are essential to respectability in Chinese society’.74 delicate, their edges were very rough Ḳ as thick as half a inger. The following anecdote on Fu Bi 富弼 (1004Ḳ10κβ) is These seals are also harmful to books and paintings. clearly about a privately collected book, which was imprinted with a seal bearing the owner’s oficial titleμ When the Jurchen conquered the capital of the σorthern book seals of the Palace 元和姓纂，富鄭家子歲，洛陽大水，第ش Song in 11βι, they captured γκ Treasury (府圖印)’.70 Apart from the Emperor’s seals 無慮萬卷，率漂沒失，市人得而鬻之，鎮節度印 and those used in the capital, there are also extant seal 猶是尚軼數卷，鄭物之[…]卷首鎮 imprints of regional government institutions. The legend of 軍節度使 印，富韓家舊也75 one of these reads as follows: The Register of the Great Families from the Yuanhe Era 嘉府府學，依條不許借出，系知府何寺任 (κ0θḲκβ0) was a book from the home of Fu, Duke of Zheng ，嘉定戌七 日記71 (i.e. Fu Bi). In the year jiazi (10β4 or 10κ4) there was a ood in δuoyang and around ten thousand juan fromض big

68 Shushi γ1BḲγβA. τn the different imperial libraries of the Song, see Win- 72 εcDermott β00θ, 1γ0. kelman 1λι4. 73 δee 1λλη, 1λγ, β14. The oldest seal imprints recorded in the Tianlu linlang 69 Hucker 1λκκ, ιλιλ. shumu Ḳ the catalogue of Emperor Qianlong’s private book collection, which is the irst catalogue to include detailed records on book collectors’ 70 Jinshi 金史 γ1μιθ4. For extant imprints of oficial seals of the Song, see seals Ḳ are also from Song collectors (δai Fushun 1λλ1, 144Ḳ14η, βγβ). δin Shenqing 1λλι, βθ1Ḳβθγ and Sun Beixin and δi Zhizhong 1λλκ. 74 Brokaw β00ι, βη4. 71 Fan Jingzhong β001, 14γḲ144. See also Zhang δijuan and Cheng Youqing β00β, λγ. There is a similar seal imprint belonging to the same institution dated 75 Dongguan yulun 東觀餘論 by Huang Bosi 思 (10ιλḲ111κ), cited to 1βθθ. from Cangshu jishi shi 紀詩, 1μ1ι.

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his oficial residence were quickly washed away and lost. of the time, was Zhao εengfu 趙孟頫 (1βη4Ḳ1γββ). He A merchant found and sold [parts of] it. The Seal of the had at least βθ different seals. A signiicant number of εilitary Commissioner of Zhenhai was still to be found [on them have identical legends, only cut in different stylesμ εr Zhao Zi’ang (趙氏子ش it]. There are still some scattered juan of this book kept as there are ive different seals with Zhao (趙)’ and threeش objects belonging to the Duke of Zheng. […] At the front 昂)’, four with merely the character Zhao εengfu’s seal (趙孟頫印)’.80 He probably didش there is the Seal of the εilitary Commissioner of Zhenhai Ḳ with an old copy from the home of Fu, Duke of Han [i.e. Fu Bi].76 not use all of the seals on books. However, whether there were seals reserved to be used on books and others just on A seal that undoubtedly belonged to a private collector is paintings or calligraphies remains an open question and mentioned in this εing-period description of a precious can only be answered by studying all his paintings and edition of the Grand Scribe’s Records (Shiji 史記)μ books in detail. It has been rightly pointed out that many of the seals found 人小楷史記，松雪翁物計十帙，紙高四寸， on books could also be applied to other objects as their legends 類半黍不惟筆精墨妙，中絕無偽謬帙舊學史 do not necessarily mark them as being exclusively intended 氏碧印，通直郎史之用77 for books.81 Furthermore, many book collectors were also collectors of art or even artists themselves, as in the case of The Grand Scribe’s Records in small, regular script by a Song Zhao εengfu.82 An explicit comment on the clear distinction man belonged to the old man Pine Snow (i.e. Zhao εengfu). between seals used for books and those used for objects of It amounts to ten volumes, the paper [of each one] is four art is only to be found in the Decalogue of Book Collecting inches in size and the characters are the size of half a grain (Cangshu shiyue 十), a manual for book collectors that of millet. σot only is the calligraphy excellent, but there are was written by Ye Dehui 葉德輝 (1κθ4Ḳ1λβι) and published Y]ou should have separate seals for your collection]ش absolutely no mistakes in it. Each volume has the two seals in 1λ11μ τld δearning of the Shi Family and Green Islet, which of bronzes and stone inscriptions, calligraphic masterpieces were used by Shi Shouzhi (11θθḲ1ββ4), Court Gentleman for and paintings, Han dynasty tiles and bricks, ancient coins, etc. Comprehensive Duty of the Song.78 (金石畫漢瓦漢磚古泉之類，當為一印).’83

The mentions and anecdotes involving book collectors’ 周密 seals are too numerous to all be cited here.79 The number of εi (1βγβḲ1βλκ)μ δin Shenqing 1λλι, βν Wang He 1λλ1, βιη. Yu Yan 琰 (1βηκḲ1γ14/1γβι) and his grandson Yu Zhenmu 木: Cangshu seals owned by a single collector also increased. One of the jishi shi, 1μη4Ḳηην δin Shenqing 1λλι, γν Wang He 1λλ1, γ1β. Yuan Yi 袁 易 (1βθβḲ1γ0θ)μ δin Shenqing 1λλι, 4ν Wang He 1λλ1, γγθ. Yang Weizhen most famous book collectors of the Yuan dynasty (1βι1Ḳ 楊維楨 (1βλθḲ1γι0)μ δin Shenqing 1λλι, 4Ḳην Wang He 1λλ1, 1ηγ. Zhang 1γθκ), who was also a renowned painter and calligrapher Wen 張雯 (1βλγḲ1γηθ)μ Cangshu jishi shi, βμθ1ν Wang He 1λλ1, βγι. δu You 陸 (Yuan)μ Cangshu jishi shi, βμθβḲθγν Wang He 1λλ1, ββη. Further collectors not mentioned by Ye Changchi in his Cangshu jishi shi have been identiied by δai Fushun 1λλ1, 1ιηḲ1ιθ, β0γḲβ04, βγβḲβγγ. 76 Fu Bi was bestowed both the honorary title Duke of Zheng and Duke of Han (Chang Bide 1λι4, βικηḲβικθ). Regarding the translation of the title, 80 Zi’ang is Zhao εengfu’s style name (zi)μ Wang He 1λλ1, γ04Ḳγ0η. Zhao see Hucker 1λκκ, ιιβ. is famous for his paintings of landscapes and horsesμ Sullivan β00κ, β1θ. For a recent study on the artist, see εcCausland β011. Zhao did not cut 77 Qinghe shuhuafang 清河畫 by Zhang Chou 張丑 (εing), cited from the seals himself (Sha εenghai 1λκι, λ4Ḳλθ). Zhongguo lidai jiancangjia Cangshu jishi shi, 1μ4ι. yinjian shujuku β011 lists a total of βθ seals, Contag, Wang 1λθθ, ηβ4Ḳ ηβθ has 14 seals and Zhong Yinlan β00κ, ι0βḲι0γ mentions 1η of them. 78 Both seal legends go back to imperial presents. Emperor Xiaozong 孝 Cangshu jishi shi, βμηλḲθ0 mentions four seals, Jiang Fucong 1λγι, β has (11θβḲ11κλ) gave Shi Shouzhi’s grandfather, Shi Hao 史浩 (110θḲ11λ4), a 1γ seals, δai Fushun 1λλ1, βγγ counts 14 seals and δin Shenqing 1λλι, βḲγ Classical δearning’, and Shi Shouzhi mentions ive seals. It is safe to say that the seals mentioned by the latterش calligraphy with the two characters Green Islet’ written by Emperor σingzong four authors were used on books since their publications focus on bookش received the two characters (11λ4Ḳ1ββ4) (Pan εeiyue 1λλη). For more on Shi Shouzhi and his seals, see collectors. Whether they were exclusively afixed to books is yet another Cangshu jishi shi, 1μ4ιḲ4κ. τn Zhao εengfu, see δin Shenqing 1λλι, βν Wang question, though. He 1λλ1, γ04Ḳγ0η. τn the translation of the title, see Hucker 1λκκ, ι4ιγ. 81 δai Fushun 1λλ1, 1γλḲ140. 78 τther collectors of the Song and Yuan periods known to have had book 82 collectors’ seals include δiu Xizhong 劉羲仲 (c. 10ηλḲ11β0)μ Cangshu δai Fushun 1λλ1, 14λ, 1θβḲ1θγ, 1κγḲ1κ4. jishi shi, 1μ1λḲβ0ν Wang He 1λλ1, 11ηḲ11θ. δou Yao 楼鑰 (11γιḲ1β1γ)μ Cangshu jishi shi, 1μ44ν Wang He 1λλ1, 4β4. Jia Sidao (1β1γḲ1βιη)μ 83 Cangshu shiyue, 14 (translation, modiiedμ Fang 1λη0, 1ηι). For more on Cangshu jishi shi, 1μη4ν δin Shenqing 1λλι, 1ν Wang He 1λλ1, γγγ. Zhou Ye Dehui, see Zheng Weizhang 1λλλ, 1γ0ιḲ1γ14.

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ourished in 跋) to their books during the Qing period, in particular.87ض The culture of private book collectors’ seals the late εing period (in the sixteenth to early seventeenth The imprints of collectors’ seals are frequently mentioned century). The vast majority of the aforementioned 1,100 in both catalogues and colophons. The eighth point in Ye private collectors lived during this time and the ensuing Qing Dehui’s Decalogue of Book Collecting is on colophonsν dynasty (1θ44Ḳ1λ11).84 The reasons for this increase are as here he mentions the catalogue of the Qianlong emperor’s follows. Firstly, the introduction of relatively soft stones private collection (r. 1ιγηḲ1ιλθ) as the preferred model for used as material for seals made it possible for the literati to recording seal inscriptions: cut their own seals, which made private seals increasingly popular.85 Secondly, although there had been relatively large [...]收前人之姓印記，並仿欽定祿琳 private collections in previous periods, these were few in 之例 number. It was only by the late εing that various private collections came into existence that were much larger. [...] and in recording the names and seals of its former σumerous factors such as a drop in the price of block-cuttingpossessors, you should follow the model of the Gems of and paper, a wider audience for books and an increase Heavenly in Favour [library catalogue] compiled by order of the number of potential authors led to the proliferation of the Emperor.88 commercial publishing. The wider availability of books made it possible for more people to build up their own This catalogue Ḳ actually there are two, the irst compiled collections. It is believed that the number of imprints inin 1ιιη and the second in 1ιιλ after the original collections large book collections surpassed those of manuscripts for had been lost in a ire89 Ḳ contains very detailed entries on the very irst time in this period.86 This transition in China’s every book in the collection, including their colophons, the book culture needs to be seen against the backdrop of the names of former owners and elaborate descriptions of their general social and economic changes of the late εing seal imprints. It is, in fact, the irst book catalogue with era. Increasing wealth due to the commercialisation of the detailed and systematic information on seal imprints.90 In the .recording of their [i.eش economy and rapid urbanisation allowed more people to take introduction it is explained that the an interest in books. Book collecting, once a hobby pursued the former owners’] seal imprints then follows the example of by scholars and the imperial family, also became possible The Clear Water Pleasure Boat of Painting and Calligraphy , for wealthy merchants and landowners now. These collectors inserting transcriptions of all [imprints by] using regular and bibliophiles produced annotated catalogues of their own script to serve as a means of scholarly evidence ( 錄印 collections and appended colophons or postscripts (tiba 題 記則仿清河畫之例，用真摹入考 據)’.91 The detailed transcription of the imprints consists of

84 Wang Jing 1λιλ, ηλ. This is also evident in the special albums of book 87 collectors’ seal imprintsμ δin Shenqing 1λκλ, β000a. Unlike his other two Brokaw β00ι, βη4, βηθ. τbviously there had been catalogues of private publications, δin Shenqing 1λλι is not restricted to εing and Qing seals, but collections before, but they are far fewer in number and many of them are nonetheless, the majority are imprints from that period. See also Shanben only known by title today. For a list of catalogues of private collections from cangshu yinzhang xuancui 1λκκν Zhang Jianlun β004ν Chen Xianxing and the Tang (θ1κḲλ0ι) to the Qing period (1θ44Ḳ1λ11), see Yuan Qingshu Shi Fei β00λ, 10βḲβλβ. The largest collection of book collectors’ seals to β00γ, ββηḲβ4κ. date, which has been catalogued by the σational δibrary of China in Beijing, 88 contains close to θ,000 seal imprints that are all from εing and Qing times. Cangshu shiyue, 1β (translation, modiiedμ Fang 1λη0, 1ηγ). σot only the imprints are reproduced here, but the whole page on which the imprint was made. The seal imprints are transcribed, but their owners 89 Yang Guolin β00θ, 1βγḲ1β4. Qinding Tianlu linlang shumu 欽定祿琳 are not identiiedμ Sun Xuelei et al. β004. τther useful works, although 瑯目 and Qinding Tianlu linlang shumu xubian 欽定祿琳瑯目續編. not exclusively assembling book collectors’ seals, are Zhong Yinlan β00κ and Zhongguo lidai jiancangjia yinjian shujuku β011, which is a database 90 δai Fushun 1λλ1, 1ικ. δai Fushun 1λλ1 is a very detailed study of the hosted at Zhejiang δibrary assembling data on many of the albums listed seal imprints recorded in the catalogue, including numerous indices on all here as well as other works. the seal legends (4Ḳ1γθ), their owners (1βκḲβηγ), the owners’ place of origin (1ηηḲ1θ0) and whose seals are to be found in which entry of the two ation of δai’s earlierضCao Zhi 1λλβ, 4λ1Ḳ4λβ further states a rising interest in epigraphy catalogues (1θβḲ1ι0, 1κηḲ1λ4). This study is the con 85 (jinshixue 金石學), especially in the Qing, as another factor shaping a publicationsμ δai Fushun 1λκιν 1λκλν 1λλ0. generally growing interest in seals. 91 Qinding Tianlu linlang shumu, Fanliμ βA/B. The Clear Water Pleasure Boat 86 Brokaw β00ηa, 1ηβḲ1η4ν β00ηb, β4Ḳβιν εcDermott β00η, ιθḲλ0ν β00θ, of Painting and Calligraphy (Qinghe shuhuafang) is a catalogue of paintings 4γḲκ1. compiled by Zhang Chou 張丑 (1ηιιḲ1θ4γ) (Brown and Hutton β011, γ0λ).

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the seal legend in regular script, but no exact copy of the seal.95 Sun Congtian 孫從 (1θλβḲ1ιθι), the compiler of another, earlier manual for book collecting, recommended only recording seal imprints in the catalogue reserved for rare Song and Yuan editions, which were considered the most precious ones of all.96 He is explicit about adding seal imprints, but does not go into any The seal which you may stamp in oneش detailμ corner of your books should be small (小用角 圖)’.97 Ye Dehui, who names Sun Congtian’s work as his model,98 devotes the entire inal paragraph of his manual to the matter of seals and leaves no doubt about the necessity to afix Books in your collection must haveش sealsμ seals on them (必印記)’.99 Collectors’ and bibliophiles’ obsession with obtaining rare books, especially, albeit not Fig. 7: Qinding Tianlu linlan shumu 欽定祿琳瑯目, 6:31B/32A. exclusively, Song and Yuan editions, for which they were willing to pay high prices, made the reproduction of the seal’s shape by drawing the outline forgeries of these a very proitable business. Besides dying adding boastful notes inش into which the characters Ḳ following the original order of the paper, rebinding the book and the legend Ḳ are copied in regular script (see ig. ι). This is imitation calligraphy of famous scholars and collectors about supplemented with further information on their style (intaglio the value and rarity’ of a particular book, adding forged seal or relief), where they have been afixed in the book and what imprints was an important way of fabricating a rare and colour they are (which is only mentioned if it is not red).92 precious book.100 According to a study by Wu Qinfang 吳 And the compilers furthermore endeavoured to identify the 芹芳, fabricated rare books and therefore also forged seals respective owners of the seal imprints.93 εany catalogues started to be produced in large quantity from the Jiajing 嘉 of private collections equally include descriptions of seal 靖 era (1ηβ1Ḳ1ηθι) onwards. Apart from forged seals, which imprints94 generally consisting of the following features: were mostly cut in wood, regardless of whether they were their location, shape, style of legend and a transcription oficialof seals or those of famous collectors and scholars, he also draws attention to the possibility for book dealers to add

92 Both catalogues follow the same style in their entries. According to δai Fushun, the transcriptions of the seal imprints were executed by hand in 95 Van Gulik 1ληκ, 4γλḲ440 writes about catalogues of paintings, but this other versions than the printed edition from 1κκ4. In the case of an extant also holds true for catalogues of books. In fact, as has been mentioned manuscript edition of the earlier catalogue, seals with the transcribed legends above, the former were the model for the Tianlu linlang shumu. written in standard script were cut to be impressed (δai Fushun 1λλ1, β0λ).

96 Cangshu jiyao, 44 (translationμ Fang 1λη1, β44). τn the rather incomplete 93 Qinding Tianlu linlang shumu records λ0β different seal imprints (with a biography of Sun Congtian, see Fang 1λη1, β1ηḲβ1κ. total of 1,βικ records), only a third of the owners of which were identiied by the compilers. The second catalogue records 1,01λ different seal imprints 97 (with a total of 1,β00 records), not even β0% of which were identiied. See Cangshu jiyao, 4η (translationμ Fang 1λη1, β4β). δai Fushun 1λλ1, 1ιλ, β0η, β11. δai Fushun has now identiied most of the 98 owners of the 1,λββ different seals. See the author’s preface in Cangshu shiyue, γ (translationμ Fang 1λη0, 1γγ).

99 94 There are simply too many private catalogues to form a deinitive Cangshu shiyue, 1γ (translation, modiiedμ Fang 1λη0, 1ηθ). He himself, stamped seals on most of the books in myش judgement as to whether all of them include information on seal imprints. though, admits to not having Yuan Qingshu β00γ, ββκḲβ4κ lists 10η for the εing and γ1η for the Qing collection (余之多鈐印)’, Cangshu shiyue, 1γ (translationμ Fang period, but this list is probably not even complete. Quite a number of 1λη0, 1ηθ). catalogues are actually said to have used the Qinding Tianlu linlang shumu 100 as a model (δai Fushun 1λλ1, β). Edgren β00θ, 1λλ.

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imprints with the original seal of a famous collector, because in question was once in the possession of that particular these were sometimes sold by his descendants.101 The case of collector.105 the seals belonging to Li Shengduo 盛鐸 (1κηλḲ1λγι) is a The compilers of the above-mentioned catalogue of Qian- good example illustrating this. δi was a well-known private long’s collection already identiied and described forged collector of genuine Dunhuang manuscripts. εost of these seal im prints. In one case, they clearly state that the alleged were sold to Japan in 1λγη. After δi’s death the remains imprint of the Song emperor Huizong 徽 (reigned 1100Ḳ bookseller’s forgery (偽)’.106 While Sunش of his rare book collection were sold to Beijing University 11βθ) is a y,107ضδibrary. The δibrary did not buy his seals, however. Those Congtian only mentions the problem of forged seals brie subsequently came into the hands of booksellers who afixed Ye Dehui inds much more drastic wordsμ he decries δi’s original seals to old books with the aim of increasing booksellers for adding forged seal imprints and puts this their value as it was long known that δi’s collection included practice in the same light as the in famous biblioclasm of the a large number of rare and unique works. τther dealers irst Chinese emperor in the second century BCE: copiedش who were not in the possession of the original seals several of them (maybe three or four) and used them to stamp 曾見元舊，為偽造各家印記希善價者， The disappearance 學究市強解，惡印鈐滿通卷者豈ش both original and forged manuscripts’. 102 of the original seals [thus] created an ideal condition for 璧之微瑕，為秦火之餘厄 forgers who could afix the genuine seal onto a forged scroll, or make a fake seal and afix it onto an authentic but less I have seen some with forged seals of collectors that valuable manuscript, using the reputation of the δi collection booksellers have afixed to ancient Song and Yuan prints to increase its value.’ 103 with an eye to making them fetch high prices, some of them Wu Qinfang furthermore describes cases where seal stamped all over with badly cut seals containing idle, pseudo- imprints were cut out from one book and pasted onto elegant phrases picked up by pedantic schoolmasters and another, or cases of copying imprints using a brush.104 Finally vulgar tradesmen with a pretense to knowledge and taste. aw on an immaculateض ingضhe elaborates on the delicate task of identifying forged This assuredly is more than a tri imprints. The methods he describes range from (a) careful jade ringν nay, it is nothing less than a continuation of the Qin examination of the whole book in order to see whether the burning of books.108 age of the imprint conforms to other features of the book, (b) comparison of the imprint with other attested imprints How widespread forged seals were among booksellers well of the same seal, (c) close inspection of the legend’s style into the twentieth century can be seen from an anecdote cited and colour of the ink as well as the position of the imprint by Wu Qinfang, according to which the σational εuseum on the book, to (d) the inal option of consulting catalogues, of Chinese History (Zhongguo lishi bowuguan 中國史 if available, to check whether the book with the imprint 博物館) purchased over 1,000 forged seals from δiulichang

101 Wu Qinfang β01γ, 114Ḳ11κ. 105 Wu Qinfang β01γ, 11κḲ1β0. δai Fushun 1λλ1, 14ηḲ14θ also discusses how to identify forged seals. δiu Xiangchun β01γ, 44Ḳ4η emphasises the 102 Rong β00β, θθḲθι (Engl. version of Rong Xinjiang 1λλι). τn δi’s seals, importance of identifying the seal owners in order to tell whether a seal see also Chen Tao β010. δi Shengduo is said to have used more than twenty imprint is genuine or not. At the same time, he points to the problem of different seals. For more on 1β of these, see δin Shenqing 1λλι, βγ0Ḳβγ1ν identical legends used by many different collectors. How dificult it is to Zhong Yinlan β00κ, 41ην see also Zhongguo lidai jiancangjia yinjian identify the owners can be seen in ig. 1μ six of the nine imprints have still shujuku β011. Chen Hongyan and δin Shitian β00ιa and β00ιb provide not been assigned to their owners yet. an overview of seal imprints of private collectors found on Dunhuang manuscripts in Chinese and Japanese collections. 106 Qinding Tianlu linlang shumu, θμ1ιB. For further cases, see κμ1βA, κμγγA. See also Wu Qinfang β01γ, 11ηḲ11θν δai Fushun 1λλ1, 1ικḲ1ιλ. 103 Rong β01γ, η1θ (transl. of Rong Xinjiang β001, γθ4). For cases in the Qinding Tianlu linlang shumu xubian , see δai Fushun 1λλ1, β04Ḳβ0η. 104 Wu Qinfang β01γ, 114Ḳ11κ. See also Chen Xianxing and Shi Fei β00λ, 107 θιḲι1, whose focus is on forged seals found on manuscripts, for which they Cangshu jiyao, γκ (translationμ Fang 1λη1, ββλ). describe a number of examples. Chen Xianxing β00γ, βθκ presents original and forged imprints belonging to Chen Zhan 陳鳣 (1ιηγḲ1κ1ι) side by 108 Cangshu shiyue, 14 (translation, modiiedμ Fang 1λη0, 1ηι). The use side. δai Fushun 1λλ1, 140 mentions the practice among collectors of using of forged seals in fabricating early editions is also mentioned in Shulin ancient seals of the Qin and Han period. qinghua, 10μβθ4.

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sent to the court for the monumental Complete Library of the Four Treasuries (Siku quanshu 四庫) Ḳ the largest of all collections in the history of imperial China, for which books from all over the country were sent to the capital as of Hanlin Academy’sش 1ιιγ114 Ḳ were imprinted with the words Seal (翰林院印)’ on their irst page upon their arrival. This is a rectangular seal in relief with a bilingual legend in εanchu and Chinese (see ig. κ).115 τf course, the Qianlong emperor, who is known to have plastered paintings and calligraphies in his collection with scores of seal imprints and notes,116 likewise had the books in his personal collection imprinted with seals. The catalogue states that each volume ce( 冊) of a book should be imprinted with two different imperial seals at the front and back.117 In the same manner, modern libraries, which came into existence in China at the beginning of the twentieth century, continued the practice of afixing seal Fig. 8: Manuscript with imprint of ‘Hanlin Academy’s Seal’ (Hanlin yuan yin imprints to the works in their possession. Take the regulations 翰林院印). for the Second Public δibrary of Zhili Province ( 直隸省), All booksش for example, which include the following clauseμ 琉璃廠 in 1ληβν this is the quarter in Beijing where bookstalls provided by the δibrary have to be afixed with its seal to and antique dealers are traditionally found.109 Not only prevent any loss ( 館中列圖，均蓋館圖記，防 forged seals, but seal imprints in general are an important遺失 )’.118 In the largest work on book collectors’ seal imprints means of authenticating rare Chinese books, of course.110 published so far, which was issued by the σational δibrary However, seal imprints are only secondary evidence since, of China (Zhongguo guojia tushuguan 中國國家圖館), unlike paper, ink and calligraphy, they always constitute a the seal imprint of the σational δibrary is frequently found.119 later addition to a manuscript or printed book.111 As such, one should not forget that a forged seal imprint does not (vol. 1μ λ, λ0, 100, 101, 111, 1γ0, 1λγ, 1λλ), but also an example of the Directorate of Education’s Seal (國子監印)’ (vol. 1μ γκ), the Directorateش necessarily imply that the manuscript itself has been fakedν a forged seal might be found on a genuine manuscript, and aof Education being the predecessor of the εinistry of Education founded in 1λ0η (Qingshi gao, β4μληγ). The library of the εinistry of Education was 112 genuine seal might be afixed to a forged manuscript. established in 1λ10 (Qingshi gao, βημλιη). τficial book collectors’ seals continued to be used by 114 See Guy 1λκι. different administrative institutions throughout the Yuan (1βι1Ḳ1γθκ), εing (1γθκḲ1θ44) and Qing (1θ44Ḳ1λ11) 115 δiu Qiang β00θ. See also Wu Qinfang β01γ, 114Ḳ11η. periods. These seals are often considerably larger than those 116 Bronson and Ho β004, ββ1. of private collectors and had to be afixed in a speciic position 117 Treasureش more on this below).113 To name but one example, all books Qinding Tianlu linlang shumu, Fanliμ βB. The two seals are) Gems ofش Personally Viewed by Emperor Qianlong (乾隆御覽之寶)’ and Heavenly Favour (祿琳)’. See δin Shenqing 1λλι, βθκ. However, 109 there is evidence of more than these two sealsν see σational Palace εuseum Wu Qinfang β01γ, 11κ. β00ι and δai Fushun 1λλ1, β1βḲβ1γ.

110 δi Zhizhong 1λλ0, β0ιḲβ11ν δai Fushun 1λλ1, 14κ. 118 δi Xibi and Zhang Jiaohua 1λλθ, βκγ cited from Zhejiang gongli tushuguan nianbao 浙江立圖館報 ιμββ (1λββ), 1ιλ. The regulations 111 Wang Jing 1λιλ, ηλ. for the Zhejiang Public δibrary from 1λ1ι and a decree by the εinistry of Eduction for the library in Beijing from 1λ1η both include the use of seals. 112 Rong β01γ, η1θḲη1ι (transl. of Rong Xinjiang β001, γθ4). δi Xibi and Zhang Jiaohua 1λλθ, γβγ, β11. τn the establishment of modern libraries in China, see Pélissier 1λι1 and δi Xuemei 1λλλ. 113 Reproductions of some seal imprints from these three dynasties are found in Sun Beixin and δi Zhizhong 1λλκ and δin Shenqing 1λλι,119 Besides the seal of the σational δibrary of China (e.g. Sun Xuelei et βθ4Ḳβι0. Taking the example of just the irst volume of Sun Xuelei et al.al. β004, vol. 1μ κθ and many more), there also are those of other libraries β004, one frequently inds the bilingual (εanchu and Chinese) imprint ofsuch as the Beijing δibrary or the Capital δibrary, the predecessor of the Seal of the Books from the εinistry of Education學部圖之印 ( )’ σational δibrary (Sun Xuelei et al. β004, passim). τne also inds modernش the

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Private collectors continued the tradition of afixing collectors’ (尋隙處)’ for one’s seal imprint.125 Collectors’ seals should not seals to their books well into the middle of the twentieth be put on paintings above the artist’s name, and they should be century. The tradition of imprinting book collectors’ seals impressed in books below the name of the author if possible.126 waned with the establishment of the People’s Republic in The places in books where imprints are regularly found are 1λ4λ, as the acquisition of private property was discouraged as followsμ (1) they are commonly situated in a blank space and private book collections were gradually transferred to in the lower right-hand corner of the irst page or (β) on the state institutions.120 However, like many other traditional upper margin (tiantou 頭) of the same pageν (γ) with the practices, book collecting and book collectors’ seals have preface (xu 序)ν (4) on the last page of each volume (ce 冊) or recently witnessed a revival. There is a popular auction chapter (juan 卷) in the lower part of the last lineν (η) in other market for old books, in fact. In β01β, a set of 1ιλ rare books blank spaces such as after colophons or postscripts (tiba 題跋) ,(yleaf (huye 護頁ض ,(from an old family collection was sold for a spectacular β1θ or on the frontispiece (fengmian 封面 million RεB.121 A modern manual on collecting books was etc.127 Seal imprints need not be restricted to just one of these also published recently, in which the author not only outlines places, of course. It is not unusual to ind imprints at various the history of book collectors’ seals, but also gives detailed spots throughout a book.128 The monastic seals encountered on instructions on how to impress one’s own seal on a page.122 Dunhuang manuscripts are normally found at the beginning Wei Li 韋力 (born in 1λθ4), who has recently been named and end of a scroll.129 δater collectors added their seals above the largest private collector of rare books shanben ( 善) those of previous owners. If there was no more space for a seal in China and who is also the editor of the journalThe Book above the imprints made by previous collectors, then it would Collector (Cangshujia 家), imprints his books among be impressed to the left of the irst imprint. Ideally, the imprints τnce in Wei δi’s home are thus found in chronological order from bottom to top andش others with the following sealμ (曾在韋力家)’.123 from right to left. This can also be helpful in identifying forged imprints or ones added later as these often do not appear in 3. Where a seal is placed chronological order.130 The decision about where to put a seal on a painting or piece εost collectors not only had one seal, but a number of of calligraphy is largely based on aesthetic considerations. them, and some did not just use one seal, but two of them to harmonize with the spacing of the picture’. By theḲ or even more. For instance, the use of two seal imprintsش It has εing period, certain rules had been made as to where to afixḲ an intaglio seal given the style name (zi ) on top and seals.124 Similar considerations were also valid for books. Yea relief seal with the family and personal name (xingming ’look for some empty space 姓 ) below Ḳ is a common convention found in collectorsش Dehui emphasises the need to seals used on paintings and calligraphies and may also be observed in book collectors’ seals.131 There were no clearly library stamps sporadically (e.g. Sun Xuelei et al. β004, vol. βμ β, β14, β4β). It should be noted that the imprints of all modern libraries, regardless of whether they are traditionally styled seal imprints or modern library stamps, 125 are never transcribed by the compilers of the publication. For more on seals Cangshu shiyue, 14 (translationμ Fang 1λη0, 1ηιḲ1ηκ). and stamps of modern libraries, see Dai δongji β00γ as well. 126 Van Gulik 1ληκ, 4βη. 120 Edgren 1λλι, θ4. 127 Bai Shuchun β011, θ4. Ye Dehui mentions the upper margin, inal page .(yleaf. Cangshu shiyue, 11, 14 (translationμ Fang 1λη0, 1ηβ, 1ηκض εei Jia and Wang Kaihao β01β. Qian Jun 1λλκ, 1ηιḲ1θγ provides an and 121 overview of prices obtained at auctions of old books, which range from η,η00 to 41κ,000 RεB. 128 E.g. Sun Xuelei et al. β004, vol. 1μ β4Ḳβθ, γ0Ḳγβ, θ0Ḳθβ, κ4Ḳκκ, βγλḲ β4β, β4θḲβη0 and many more. 122 Qian Jun 1λλκ, ικḲκι. 129 Shen δeping β01γ, 101ν Drège 1λκ4, ηη. 123 Wei δi β00λν Zhou Xiaodong β00ι. Cangshujia was irst published in 1λλλ and ceased to be published in β004 after only ten issues. Another six 130 Wu Qinfang β01γ, 1β0. issues were published from β00θ until β00λ, and publication was resumed again just recently in β01γ. httpμ//www.guoxue.com/ςp=1η01ι (accessed on 131 Van Gulik 1ληκ, 4γι. Chen Zhan 陳鳣 (1ιηγḲ1κ1ι) frequently used a ι εay β014). Wei δi has also published a manual for collecting ancient relief seal with his portrait and his style name (Zhongyu 仲魚) together I endured a great deal of hardshipش books, which includes a chapter on collectors’ seals and a presentation of with an intaglio seal bearing the legend his own seals (Wei δi β004, 10λ-1ββ). to obtain this bookν may later generations appreciate my effort (得費 辛後之人)’. δiu Xiangchun β01γ, 4κ. τn the seal imprints, see 124 Van Gulik 1ληκ, citation 4βην on the rules, see 4γιḲ4γκ. δin Shenqing 1λλι, 1γ4 and Chen Xianxing β00γ, βθκ. For an example, see

mc NO 8 manuscript cultures 40 FÖLSTER | INTRODUCTION TO CHINESE BOOK COLLECTORS‘ SEALS

deined rules, of course, but rather cultural conventions that of being able to afix their seals in very prominent places.137 left room for individual preferences. Zhou Shutao 周叔弢 In general, books in the imperial collections of the εing (1κλ1Ḳ1λκ4), an entrepreneur and book collector, described and Qing period would be impressed with a seal on the irst his principles in the following way in 1λβθμ and last page of each volume, after the imperial preface yleaves at theض yuzhi xuwen 御製序文), if present, and the) 余得善鈐曾在周叔弢處子朱文印，蓋收 front and back of the book.138 εany book catalogues not 只遮眼，無之心，非好為曠之語欺人 only give transcriptions of the seals’ legends, but also add 今印刓敝，不堪復用，遂改鈐周暹文小 information on their position within the book. The most 印，[...]132 detailed work in this respect is the catalogue of Qianlong’s private book collection. The transcription of each imprint is τn each of the rare books I obtained, I afixed the six- followed by information on where it is found in the book: character relief seal once in Zhou Shutao’s place, since I along with the preface (xu) or table of contents (mulu 目 [started] gathering books just as an alibi and originally had 錄), in exactly which chapter (juan) or volume (ce) it no intention of collecting them my whole life and I don’t like appears, at the end or beginning of a chapter (juan zhong to bother people with broad-minded sayings. σow this seal 卷終 or juan shou 卷首),139 in each chapter (ge juan 各 yleaf (fuye 副葉), afterض is worn out and I can’t bear to use it any longer, so I have 卷) or volume (ge ce 各冊), on a switched to afixing the small two-character intaglio seal a colophon or postscript (ba mo 跋) and so on. If the Zhou Xian instead (i.e. Zhou Shutao’s personal name), [...]. seal imprint is found in multiple places, they are all listed in detail.140 This also means that it is possible to reconstruct the Ye Dehui, however, is not only concerned about locating chronological sequence of Zhous acquisition of books theby correct place to imprint one’s seal, but equally with the the use of his seals.133 In fact, collectors might use certain composition of the different imprints: seals just to mark their most precious pieces. Some even had seals cut just to be afixed to one speciic book.134 流傳久者，印多朱紫縱橫，幾無隙 In his collectors’ guide, Ye Dehui unambiguously writesμ 紙是宜移眉卷尾，免齟齬亦或視各印之大小 wherever there is text, relief and intaglio seals are out of 朱，用之小印朱文迭，尚無不文ش place (處，朱文文俱不相宜)’.135 However, 大印聚一行，則閱者生厭矣 that does not hold true for oficial seal imprintsν these had to be impressed in the upper centre of the irst page above The longer a book has been transmitted, the more will be the the text (see ig. κ).136 σaturally, emperors had the privilege seals of its possessors. Red and purple will run crisscross to such an extent that you may have hardly any blank space.

Therefore the best thing to do would be to have seals stamped ig. β, irst and third seal imprint. δi Shengduo (1κηλḲ1λγι) imprinted most on the upper margin and at the very end of each volume, of his Dunhuang manuscripts with three different seals, some of them with four or ive and one with as many as nine (three times three different seals). so that disharmony may be avoided. Also you must make Chen Tao β010, ιθḲικ. allowance for the different sizes of the seals as well as the

132 Cited from δiu Xiangchun β01γ, 4κ. τn Zhou Shutao, see Zheng Weizhang 1λλλ, 1θ1κḲ1θββ. of the εinistry of Education (學部圖之印)’ (i.e. Sun Xuelei et al. β004, 133 δiu Xiangchun β01γ, 4κ. Zhou Shutao actually had more than just these vol. 1μ λ, λ0, 100, 101, 111, 1γ0, 1λγ, 1λλ). two sealsν see δin Shenqing 1λλι, βηκ. There are at least two different seals with Zhou Xian as a legendν see Zhong Yinlan β00κ, ηηλ. Chen Tao 137 As in the case of paintings and calligraphies (van Gulik 1ληκ, 4βη, 4γκ). β010, ικḲκ1 has done a chronological reconstruction for the seals used in δi Shengduo’s collection of Dunhuang manuscripts. 138 Ren Jiyu β001, βιβ.

134 also has the very speciic meaning of caption title (the title asش δiu Xiangchun β01γ, 4λḲη0. 139 This it appears in the irst column of the irst page of text) or the caption area 135 Cangshu shiyue, 14 (translationμ Fang 1λη0, 1ηκ). (including the irst few columns of the irst page of text, often containing authorship and/or publishing information)’ (Edgren 1λλγ, 1γθ). 136 This was the case for the Hanlin Academy Seal (翰林院印) (Wu Qinfang Book Seal 140 Qinding tianlu linlang shumu, passim. However, Qianlong’s own sealش β01γ, 114ν δiu Qiang β00θ, θ0). It is also very obvious for the imprints are never recorded.

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difference between relief and intaglio engravingsν you must There are some books with countless imprints, especially discriminate when using them. It is permissible to have small very rare and old editions that were considered extremely seals or relief-script seals stamped one after another, but the precious and had been in the possession of many different reader of your book will be disgusted to see intaglio-script collectors. Take, for example, the Song print of theCollected seals or larger seals crowding the same column.141 Poems of the Tang Maiden Yu Xuanji (Tang nülang Yu Xuanji shji 唐女郎魚玄機詩集), which has over 100 seal imprints The aesthetic devaluation caused by too many seals being on it and once belonged to such well-known collectors as Zhu used was lamented very clearly by Jiang Shaoshu 姜紹 Chengjue 朱 (14κ0Ḳ1ηβι), the above-mentioned Xiang (died c. 1θκ0) in his criticism of the collector Xiang Yuanbian Yuanbian, Huang Pilie 烈 (1ιθγḲ1κβη), Yuan Kewen 元汴 (1ηβηḲ1ηλ0)142: 袁克文 (1κλ0Ḳ1λγ1) and numerous others.146 Another impressive example is the fragmentary print from 1β1γ of 墨林生嘉隆之，力雄贍出緒餘購求法 the Annotated Poems of Mr Dongpo (Zhu Dongpo xiansheng 畫，吳珍秘，之如流得跡，印鈐之， shi 註東坡生詩), which contains at least γ0 imprints.147 滿幅譬如石衛明珠精鏐聘得麗人，而他 σonetheless, judging from the largest publications on 適，則黥面記之抑黥體無膚，較蒙不潔之西 collectors’ seals imprints to date, which have been produced 子，更為酷烈矣143 by the σational δibrary of China and cover seal imprints found in over 1,κ00 books from εing and Qing times (both εolin (i.e. Xiang Yuanbian) lived in the peaceful time of printed works and manuscripts), the vast majority of books the Jia[jing] (1ηββḲ1θθθ) and δong[qing] (1ηθιḲ1ηιβ) only have two or three imprints on them.148 emperors. He disposed of strong inancial means and took his surplus to buy model calligraphies and famous paintings. 4. Legends Precious and rare works from the Three Wu144 came to him A bewildering variety of legends are to be found on book like an [endless] stream. Every time he obtained a work of a collectors’ seals. εost research undertaken by Chinese famous hand, he would afix his seal to it, again and again all scholars actually concentrates on categorising the different over it. This is like the Chamberlain for the Palace Garrison types of legends based on their content. Although all scholars named Shi, who got possession of pretty girls using brilliant pearls and pure gold. Afraid they might desert him, he marked their faces with a tattoo. He even had their whole bodies

eck of skin untouched. Compared to (Hanyu dacidian, vol. κμ ι44Ḳι4η). I have used parts of Achilles Fang’sض tattooed, leaving not a the deilement of Xizi this was even more cruel.145 translation here (Fang 1λη0, 1ι1).

146 Zhang δijuan and Cheng Youqing β00β, ληḲλι. Zhang Xiuyu β01β provides a detailed description of all the owners. Tang nülang Yu Xuanji shi 141 Cangshu shiyue, 14 (translation, modiiedμ Fang 1λη0, 1ηκ). β00γ is a reproduction of the original kept at the σational δibrary of China in Beijing. The work merely consists of βη folios, only 1β of which bear the 142 τn Xiang Yuanbian, see Wang He 1λλ1, γ0κ. δin Shenqing 1λλι, γθḲγκ actual textν the rest of them are the title page, forewords and colophons by reproduces as many as 41 seal imprints made by this collector. His seals are various collectors. The main text alone bears θθ seal imprints on the irst also very prominent in the Tianlu linlang shumu with βθ different imprints and last folios. (δai Fushun 1λλ1, β40Ḳβ41). See also van Gulik 1ληκ, 4γκ. There are over ten of his seal imprints on a Song print of the 唐 147 Tang nülang Yu Xuanji shiji Guojia tushuguan tecangzu β011, 1γθ. Today, this print is kept by the 女郎魚玄機詩集 (Zhang Xiuyu β01β, βθ). For more on this book, see below. σational Central δibrary in Taipei. Another fragment of the same work, currently kept at the σational δibrary of China in Beijing, probably 143 Yunshizhai bitan 韻石筆談 cited from Cangshu jishi shi, γμβ4ι. belongs to the same book since some of the fragmentary seal imprints are complementary to each other (Zhang δijuan and Cheng Youqing β00β, 144 This is a loose term without a clear deinition and points to different cities λθḲλκ. See also Edgren 1λλι, ηκḲθ0). Fan Jingzhong β001, 14β mentions in the lower Yangzi region (Zhongguo lishi diming dacidian 1λλη, 1λḲβ0). another book with over ι0 imprints. δi Xuemei 1λλλ, ββ0Ḳββ1 mentions further examples of Song editions with many seal imprints. 145 I was unable to identify the source of the story of the tattooed women. However, Ye Dehui uses a similar allusionμCangshu shiyue, 14 (translationμ 148 In my analysis of the two irst volumes, which span a total of ηγθ pages, Fang 1λη0, 1ηθḲ1ηι). It might be related to the story of Shi Chong石 each reproducing one original page with seal imprints on it, I found that 崇 (β4λḲγ00) and his concubine, Green Pearl 珠綠, who committed θθ% of the pages contain two or three imprints, 1η% have only one, 11% suicide when Shi had to give her up for a more powerful manJinshu ( 晉 have four and the rest contain anything between ive and ten imprints. , γγμ100κ). In a different anecdote, Green Pearl refers to Shi Chong as However, the 110 or so cases where more than one page of a book has been Chamberlain for the Palace Garrison (Taiping guangji, 4κλμ40β0). Xizi, reproduced (mostly two pages, in fact) were not taken into consideration better known as Xishi 西, was a legendary beauty of Chinese antiquity here. Sun Xuelei et al. β004, vol. 1 and β.

mc NO 8 manuscript cultures 42 FÖLSTER | INTRODUCTION TO CHINESE BOOK COLLECTORS‘ SEALS

seem to have devised their own typology,149 they all agree Another quite common type of legend is one that contains that the majority of the legends bear names, as is the case exhortations to later generations to safeguard the owner’s with Chinese seals in general.150 These might be names of book. This practice goes back to a famous dictum of Du loaning or sellingش individual people in all their variations Ḳ ranging from the Xian’s 杜暹 (died in ι40), who declaredμ family name (xing 姓) and personal name (ming ) to the off [a book] is an unilial act (鬻借人為不孝)’.152 Here εay [my] childrenش style name (zi ) or literary name (hao ) Ḳ or the name are a few typical legends of this kindμ εayش ,’(of a collector’s studio (zhai ), study (shi ), two-storey and grandchildren protect it [this book] (子孫之 building (lou 樓), pavilion (ge 閣) or hall (tang 堂) where [my] children and grandchildren protect [this book] forever Buyingش his collection was stored. These are by far the most common (子孫永)’153 and the rather more elaborate options. Furthermore, the name on a legend might also be a this book was not easy. I bequeath it to my children and place name (often that of the collector’s home), an oficial grand chil dren Ḳ don’t discard it lightly (購甚不易， rank (guanzhi 職), an academic qualiication obtained 遺子孫輕棄)’.154 τne also inds more sophisticated Grandfather’s and father’s books are for theش by passing civil-service examinations, or in case of oficial examplesμ seals, the name of a government agency or imperial library. education of children and grandchildren. Selling and seal’ (yin 印), loaning them to others is a highly unilial act. Receivedش In many cases, instead of the character for ) ，collecting’ family rule of the Chu family from Yunjian籍ش the name is followed by a character standing for (cang ). δike the meaning of ex libris, it must be understood 子孫是教鬻借人，大為不孝雲褚氏，家垂 from the collection of …’. τther than 訓)’.155 τther collectors even threaten their descendantsش collected by …’ orش as expulsion from the ancestralش ,’execution by the godsش names, one inds dates (including a collector’s date of birth or with the date a particular book was acquired, for example), poems, hall’ or a whipping.156 maxims, idioms and the like. Seal legends which many scholars It is generally assumed that legends became more complex subsume under the category of connoisseurship (jianshang over time. This has already been remarked by δi Kang 康, 賞) are not uncommon. These might bear information on a Qing-time authorμ who has evaluated (jianbie ), collated (jiaodu 校讀) or simply enjoyed looking at the book (guanshang 觀賞 or 古印只姓，唐稍著，元時尚闌入 guoyan 眼).151 σeedless to say, all kinds of combinations 語，明則某科進士某職，無不羼入157 are common, especially those involving different types of names. In antiquity, seals only bore the family, personal or style name. In Tang (θ1κḲλ0ι) and Song (λθ0Ḳ1βιλ) times, there were some using the name of their studios or study-rooms. 149 It seems that only δiu Shangheng and δai Fushun have taken any notice of previous typologies. δiu discusses those of Wang Jing 1λιλ, δai Fushun 1λλ1 and δin Shenqing 1λλι by contrasting their different categories in a table before introducing his own (δiu Shangheng β000, 4κḲ4λ). δai Fushun 152 Fan Jingzhong β001, 14γ. The translation is taken from εcDermott 1λλ1, 1γκ summarises typologies of two Japanese scholars. β00θ, 1γλ. The brackets are my addition. 150 Wang Jing 1λιλ, θ0Ḳθκν Qu εianliang 1λκκν Wang Heting 1λλ0ν δai 153 δin Shenqing 1λλι, γκ, θη, λ0, 1ηβ, 1λγ. This formula clearly resembles Fushun 1λλ1, 1γκḲ144ν Cao Zhi 1λλβ, 4λ4Ḳ4λθν Xu Dongsheng 1λλ4ν the inal dedications commonly found in ancient bronze inscriptions δin Shenqing 1λλι, βḲην Zhou Shaochuan 1λλλ, βηβḲβηλν δiu Shangheng (Shaughnessy 1λλι, ι0, ιγḲι4, ιθ, κγ). β000, 4λḲηβν Ren Jiyu β001, βθ1Ḳβι1ν Wang Aixi β00βν Sang δiangzhi β00β, γβλḲγ4θν Xiong Yan β00γ, θ1Ḳθγν Sun Xuelei et al. β004, vol. Iμ 154 λḲ11ν Huo εanli β004, ββḲβγν Bai Shuchun β011, θγḲθ4ν Shi Wei β01β, This seal belonged to Shen Tingfang 沈廷芳 (1θλβ-1ιθβ) (Ren Jiyu 100Ḳ104ν δiu Xiangchun β01γ. Some typologies are based on seal legends β001, βθι). The legend actually imitates an earlier modelν see Fan Jingzhong from a certain region or collectionμ Fei Yuqing β00ι, 1β4Ḳ1βην δiu σing β001, 1ηγ. et al. β00ι, ιιḲικν Yang Yanyan β011, ηιḲηλ. Jiang Fucong 1λγι offers 155 no typology Ḳ it is just a collection of seal legends of collectors from a Fan Jingzhong β001, 144. speciic area. τthers categorise the legends of particular collectorsμ Peng Wenjing β00β, ιιḲιλ, β00γ, 1γḲ1η. Van Gulik 1ληκ, 4η1Ḳ4ηι offers a 156 εcDermott β00θ, 1γλ. Fan Jingzhong β001 has collected many more very detailed typology of seal legends in English, albeit not speciically examples. Fan Jingzhong β00β seems to be a slightly extended version of for book collectors’ seals. his earlier publication. See also Cao Zhi and Cao Xinzhe β01β.

151 This is not restricted to the collector and owner of the bookν the person 157 Qianchen mengying lu 前塵夢影錄 cited from Cheng Qianfan and Xu in question might be someone other than the actual owner (Peng Wenjing Youfu 1λλκ, γθι. Traditionally, Wen Peng (14λκḲ1ηιγ) is credited as the irst β00β, ιλ). δai Fushun objects to calling these book collectors’ seals in a to have engraved longer legends, sayings or poems on seals (Wagner 1λλ4, narrow sense for this reason (δai Fushun 1λλ1, 1γι). βι1).

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In Yuan times (1βιλḲ1γθκ), sayings were not included yet, while in the εing dynasty (1γθκḲ1θ44), all kinds of academic degrees and oficial ranks were invariably added as well.

A similar observation is shared by Ye Dehui, who at the same time condemns the trend of using ever-longer legendsμ

今人收印，多姓堂一切器數十 者，亦何異自小傳哉！余見元人收籍碑 帖畫，多鈐用姓或， 法也明季山人墨始用，淫士大，相習 而不知俗，最目之

Today’s men, however, are prone to afix to their books seals consisting of the names of their studios and halls as well as of all the archaeological objects in their collections, altogether amounting to tens of characters. Is this practice any different Fig. 9: Seal of Yang Jizhen 楊繼振 (1832–1893). from writing a short autobiographyς εost of the books,

rubbings of steles, calligraphic masterpieces and paintings τn the other hand, there are seal legends that contain whole which were once in the collections of the Song and Yuan, pieces of prose. The most extreme example of this is probably I have noticed, bear no more than a seal consisting of the that of Yang Jizhen 楊繼振 (1κγβḲ1κλγ) and his rectangular given name and family names, two-character literary names relief seal with a legend consisting of βηβ characters written or a three-character name of a studio. This is the proper in standard script Ḳ the imprint ills almost a whole page (see usage. It was at the end of the εing dynasty that scholars ig. λ) in which he admonishes his descendants to protect his without oficial employment and men of letters began to use (or rather, their) collection, including a quotation of Zhao seals inscribed with idle words. This practice then gradually εengfu’s well-known directive on how to handle booksμ 160 spread among the literati, who became so accustomed to it as

to be unaware of its being bad taste. It is a most disgusting 聚，良非易善觀者，澄神端慮，凈焚 158 practice. 香勿卷腦，勿折角，勿爪侵，勿唾揭幅，勿 枕，勿夾161 look for some empty space’, Yeش Apart from the need to Dehui’s second guiding principle in the use of seals is Assembling and collecting books is really not an easy task. remove idle words (去文)’. He advocates theش actually to To enjoy books properly, clear your mind and let go of your use of short legends bearing only names: worries, clean your desk and burn incense. Do not roll them up, do not make them dog-eared, do not approach the writing 姓表樓閣堂，是印，一印四五足矣 with [sharp] ingernails, do not use saliva to turn the pages, do not use them as a pillow and do not put bookmarks in them. You may cut two or three seals containing your given and family names, your style name, the name of your two-storey building, pavilion, hall, or studio, each of the seals containing 159 no more than four or ive characters. 160 Cangshu jishi shi, θμγι4ν Fan Jingzhong β001, 14λḲ1η0ν Ren Jiyu β001, βι0Ḳβι1ν εcDermott β00θ, κκ. δai Fushun (1λλ1, 141, footnote λ, 10) lists two further examples of legends with over 100 characters. See also Qu εianliang 1λκκ, ληḲλι. 158 Cangshu shiyue, 14 (translation, modiiedμ Fang 1λη0, 1ηι). Ye Dehui also devotes one chapter to the legends of book collectors’ seals in his 161 Fan Jingzhong β001, 1η0. The original includes two further pointsμ do not handle [them] with dirty hands and do not exhibit them on theش .Shulin qinghua 10μ βκκḲβλ0 dining table (勿把穢手，勿展食案補’. There are numerous adaptations 159 Cangshu shiyue, 14 (translation, modiiedμ Fang 1λη0, 1ηι). of these rules in seal legends (Fan Jingzhong β001, 14θḲ14ι).

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examples, both long and short, could be cited here to attest collectors’ love of reading and studying as well as their concern about the future of their books, often combined with the wish for their descendants to preserve them.

5. Function From the examples presented above, it will now have become quite clear that book collectors’ seals not only served as marks of ownership, but were also used by their owners to express their views and attitudes and even to address their descendants. At the same time, the continuous addition of new imprints created a link between the different owners. Lothar Ledderose has put forward a hypothesis on the social function of calligraphy as a means of fostering social coherence among the literati in China, which also touches on the use of seals. According to him, Fig. 10: Seal of Qi Chenghan 祁熯 (1563–1628), relief seal. the consecutive addition of collectors’ seals on a piece ’quasi-physical relationshipش of calligraphy established a do not sell them for money, do among the different collectors and thus helped to stimulateش Yang himself further addsμ not lend them to others and do not bequeath them to unilial a sense of belonging among members of the elite.165 Like 勿鬻錢，勿借人，勿貽不 sons and grandsons ( calligraphy, which was produced, collected and appreciated 肖子孫 )’. Another, less excessive, example is that of Qi by the literati, books and book collecting were also part 162 祁熯 Chenghan (1ηθγḲ1θβκ) (see ig. 10)μ of their particular culture Ḳ not to speak of the dificult distinction between calligraphy and books. And just like 澹生堂中儲經籍主人手校無朝讀之欣 in the realm of painting and calligraphy, seal imprints on 然飲食典衣市恒不給後人但念阿翁 books were considered to have an aesthetic value, adding 癖子孫益之失曠翁銘163 beauty to the object. They became an integral part of a piece of art or a book. This is most obvious in Ye Dehui’s [εany] books are stored in the Dansheng hall. I, their owner, treatment of the topic. As has been shown above, he clearly collated them by hand day and night. When reading them, I focuses on the aesthetic dimension of book collectors’ forgot to eat and drink out of sheer pleasure. Even pawning seals. Aside from the right place for the imprint and its my clothes to buy [more] books didn’t help, as I could never proper legend, he also draws attention to the style of the get enough of themν [I am afraid] my descendants will only seal carving, which should comply to certain standardsμ remember their old man’s craving. εay [my] children and

grandchildren get even more of them and guard them well 故不得仿漢善松雪文何體，不如不印，免 so none of them get lost. Engraved by τld εan Kuang [i.e. 跡污 Qi Chenghan].

Therefore, unless your seals skillfully imitate the Han style or The same high regard for books could also be expressed in closely follow the style of Songxue (i.e. Zhao εengfu), Wen A single canonical work is worth more thanش fewer wordsμ [Peng], or He [Zhen], it is better to have no seals at allν your 164 a chestful of gold (金籯滿不如一經).’ εany more 166 books, priceless as they are, will at least be spared deilement.

162 τn Qi Chenghan, see δin Shenqing β000a, 41Ḳ44ν Wang He 1λλ1, ληḲλθ. 165 δedderose 1λκθ.

163 δin Shenqing β000a, 44. 166 Cangshu shiyue, 14 (translation, modiiedμ Fang 1λη0, 1ηκ). Wen Peng 文彭 (14λκḲ1ηιγ) was the eldest son of the famous painter and calligrapher 164 This is the seal legend used by Xu Qianxue 徐乾學 (1θγ1Ḳ1θλ4)ν δin Wen Zhengming 文徵明 (14ι0Ḳ1ηηλ). He Zhen 何震 (c. 1ηγ0Ḳ1θ04) was Shenqing β000a, κ0Ḳκ4. This is a saying found in Hanshu ιγμγ10ι.

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The many examples of seal legends exhorting the owner’s his son, Wu Yuchi 吳玉墀, declares.171 The use of the ... once collected byش once in … 曾在 ( )’ orش descendants to safeguard books might seem contradictory to phrase ects a collector’s recognition of the fact that hisضquasi-physical relationship’ among the different (曾)’ reش the idea of a ection of how unlikely it book will sooner or later become part of another person’sضcollectors, but this is actually just a re was to preserve a large book collection over many generations. collection.172 Afixing one’s seal to a work was also a way In fact, there are very few prominent examples of families of immortalising oneself, of course. This point is aptly who were able to keep large collections across generations.167 expressed by Huang Pilie (1ιθγḲ1κβη) in one of his many However, there are also examples of seal legends in which the colophons on the books in his collection: owners acknowledge that their book is most likely to end up in the hands of a different collector one day. This was articulated 知不無目，不無圖記題識，俾之讀者 most clearly by Xu Zeng 許增 (1κβ4Ḳ1λ0γ)μ 一覽而知為誰之雖不必仍為，而俱 也173 得之不易失之易，物無盡亦但愿得者如， 即非亦喜168 Evidently, books should not be without a table of contents, and a book should [also] not be without a seal and colophon It was not easy to obtain it, [but] it will be easy to lose itν if it is to allow later readers to know whose book this is at a the inexhaustible treasury [of the Creator] of Things also glance. Even if the book does not belong to me any more, I [follows] this principle.169 I only wish that whoever obtains it will be preserved together with the book [this way]. is like meν even if I do not possess it, that is also gratifying.

This wish may also be expressed more plainly than this, Treasure it, whoeverش as in the words of Sun Congtianμ Hope it will be circulatedش obtained it (得之寶之)’,170 or and passed onν do not deile or destroy it (流傳勿污損)’, as the seal legend of Wu Chao 吳 (1θιθḲ1ιγγ) and

a student of Wen Peng. The emergence of seal cutting as an art of its own is closely related to these men (Wagner 1λλ4, βιηḲβιι).

167 εcDermott β00θ, κηḲκκ. Cao Zhi and Cao Xinzhe β01β, ληḲλκ have found numerous cases of collections that were sold by a collector’s descendants, but only mention a few contrasting examples of collections preserved over many generations.

168 Fan Jingzhong β001, 1η4Ḳ1ηη.

169 This alludes to a passage in the Red Cliff Rhapsody (Chibi fu 赤壁賦) by Su Shi 蘇軾 (10γι-1101), see Su Shi Wenji 1μ1η (transl. εair 1λλ4, 441)μ Ḵεoreover, each thing within heaven and earth has its master. If I did not possess it, then I would not take even a hair of it. However, the pure wind over the river becomes sound when our ears capture it, and the bright moon between the mountains takes on form when our eyes encounter it. There is no prohibition against our acquiring them, and we can use them without ever consuming them. They are from the inexhaustible treasury of 171 the Creator of Things, which you and I can enjoy together.地之 ( Cao Zhi and Cao Xinzhe β01β, λλ. τn Wu Chao and his son, see Wang ，物各主苟非吾之，雖一毫而莫惟江之清風，山 He 1λλ1, 1θ4, 1θκ.. 之明，耳得之而爲聲，目遇之而色之無禁，用之不竭是 造物者之無盡也，而吾子之共適)ḵ. 172 Cao Zhi and Cao Xinzhe β01β, λλ.

170 Fang 1λη1, β1ι, β4θ. Achilles Fang remarks that this stands in opposition 173 From a colophon to a manuscript copy of the Zaiye ji 在集, a selection .may children and grandchildren protect it’ (Fang 1λη1, βθ0). of poems by Yuan Kai 袁凯 (ς1γ1θ Ḳ ς). Cited from Peng Wenjing β00γ, 1ηش to the usual

mc NO 8 manuscript cultures 46 FÖLSTER | INTRODUCTION TO CHINESE BOOK COLLECTORS‘ SEALS

LIST OF FIGURES

Selected Writings by Fig. λμ Seal of Yang Jizhen 楊繼振 (1κγβḲ1κλγ), relief seal inش Fig. 1μ Print (Kangxi, 1θθβḲ1ιββ) of the Tao An’ (Tao An wenji 庵文集) by Huang Chunyao 淳耀 standard script with βηβ characters. (Found in print [Daoguang, Extremelyش 1θ0ηḲ1θ4η), 1μβB. (Held by σational δibrary of China in Beijingμ 1κβ0Ḳ1κη0, Airixuan kanben 日軒刊] of the) / λθ10κ. Image taken from Sun Xuelei et al. β004, vol. θμ 1θβ). εarvellous Words’ (Juemiao haoci 絕妙好詞) edited by Zhou .Subject Kui’s εi 周密 (1βγβḲ1βλκ) auctioned in β00λ (httpμ//pmgs.kongfzش Nine seal imprints: 1: Zhang 張, not identiied. βμ .(Collected in the com/detail/1θ_κ41κλ/, accessed on γ0 τctober β014ش seal’ (Chen Kui yin 臣印), not identiied. γμ Shouhua Studio of the Zhao family from Guiyang’ (Guiyang Zhao shi Shouhua xuan cang 貴陽趙氏壽華軒), not identiied. 4μ Fig. 10μ Seal of Qi Chenghan 祁熯 (1ηθγḲ1θβκ), relief seal. (.Bookmark of εaster Xu from Yushan’ (Yushan Xuzi dushuji (Image taken from δin Shenqing β000a, 44ش Stay idly at home in the easternش 山徐子讀記), not identiied. ημ suburbs of Yushan’ (Jia ju Yushan dongguo 家居山東郭), not REFERENCES identiied. θμ Jin Kui 晉, not identiied. ιμ Quansun 荃孫, by ’Cloud-wheel pavilionش εiao Quansun 繆荃孫 (1κ44Ḳ1λ1λ). κμ Acker, William Reynolds Beal (1λη4), Some T’ang and pre T’ang From the collection ofش Yunlunge 雲閣), by εiao Quansun. λμ) Texts on Chinese Painting (δeidenμ E.J. Brillν Sinica δeidensia κ). the Beijing δibrary’ (Beijing tushuguan cang 京圖館).

Cangshu yinzhang chushi 印ش ,(Bai Shuchun 淑春 (β011 δiterary Treasuresش Fig. βμ εanuscript (Qing, 1θ44Ḳ1λ11) of the 初識’, Tushuguan lilun yu shijian 圖館論踐竟 βμ θ1Ḳθη. of the Hanlin Academy’ (Hanlin zhuyu 翰林珠玉) by Yu Ji 集 (1βιβḲ1γ4κ), 1μ1B. (Held by σational δibrary of China in Bauer, Wolfgang (1ληλ), Der chinesische PersonennameṬ Die Beijingμ / 10βκηι. Image taken from Sun Xuelei et al. β004, vol. Bildungsgesetze und hauptṡchlichsten Bedeutungsinhalte von To obtain thisش θμ ι1). Five seal imprints (from bottom to top)μ 1μ Ming, Tzu und Hsiao­Ming (Wiesbadenμ Harrasssowitz). book I endured much hardship. εay later generations appreciate me’ (得費辛後之人), by Chen Zhan 陳鳣 Tu and Shuμ Illustrated εanuscripts inش ,(Bickford, εaggie (β00θ ’Book collector’s seal belonging to Ji Cangweiش 1ιηγḲ1κ1ι). βμ) the Great Age of Song Printing’, in εing Wilson and Stacey (Ji Cangwei cangshuyin 季滄葦印), by Ji Zhenyi 季振宜 Pierson (eds.), The Art of the Book in China, (δondonμ University Portrait of Zhongyu’ (Zhongyu tuxiang 仲魚圖ش 1θγ0Ḳ1θι4). γμ) of δondon, Percival David Foundation of Chinese Art, School of The Zhuang family of Kunling’ (Kunlingش by Chen Zhan. 4μ ,( τriental and African Studiesν Colloquies on art & archaeology in Zhuang shi昆莊氏), not identiied (possibly Zhuang Zuji 莊 Asia βγ), θ1Ḳκ1. Zheng Zuchen’s seal’ (Zheng Zuchen yin 鄭ش 基 (1κ4γḲ1κλ0). ημ 琛印), by Zheng Zuchen (1ικ4Ḳ1κη1). Publishing, Society andش ,(Brokaw, Cynthia Joanne (β00ηa Culture in Pre-εodern China. The Evolution of Print Culture’, Seal of An Guo’ (An Guo zhi yin 國之印). Personal sealش Fig. γμ International Journal of Asian Studies,β.1μ 1γηḲ1θη. of An Guo (14κ1Ḳ1ηγ4), intaglio seal (image taken from Zhong Yinlan β00κ, 1λι). .τn the History of the Book in China’, in Cynthia Jش ,(ḳḳ (β00ηb Brokaw and Kai-wing Chow (eds.)Printing and Book Culture in s Seal’ (Cha Shenxing yin 查慎行印). PersonalشCha Shenxingش Fig. 4μ Late Imperial China (Berkeleyμ University of California Pressν seal of Cha Shenxing (1θη0Ḳ1ιβι) with a legend in reverse style, Studies on China βι), γḲη4. intaglio seal (image taken from Zhong Yinlan β00κ, θη0).

Book History in Premodern China. The State of theش ,(ḳḳ (β00ι Seal of Yongxing prefecture’ (Yongxingش Fig. ημ Imprints of the Discipline I’, Book History, 10μ βηγḲβλ0. jun yin 永郡印) on the back of Za’apitanxin lun 雜阿毗心 論 (Held by σational δibrary of China in Beijingμ BD 14ι11) Bronson, Bennet and Ho, Chuimei (β004),Splendors of China’s [Image taken from httpμ//www.nlc.gov.cn/newzqwqhg/dhtz/ Forbidden CityṬ The Glorious Reign of Emperor Qianlong, wjbz/gcdhysjc/nbc/, seen at γ0 εay β014]. published on the occasion of the Exhibition Splendors of China’s Forbidden City, The Glorious Reign of Emperor Qianlong, Seal of Yongxing prefecture’ (Yongxing jun yin 永郡ش Fig. θμ The Field εuseum, Chicago, 1β εarch Ḳ 1β September β004, 印), relief seal (image taken from httpμ//www.mebag.com/paper/ (δondonμ εerrell). paperγ1.htm, accessed on γ0 εay β014).

Brown, Rebecca ε. and Hutton, Deborah S. (β011),A Companion Fig. ιμ Qinding Tianlu linlan shumu 欽定祿琳瑯目, θμγ1B/γβA. to Asian Art and Architecture, Chichester (εaldenμ Wiley- Blackwellν Wiley-Blackwell Companions to Art History γ). ’Hanlin Academy’s Sealش Fig. κμ εanuscript with imprint of Poems by Tang Yushi’ (Tang Yushiش .(Hanlin yuan yin 翰林院印) Cai Jiayuan 蔡家園 (β01β), Shu zhi shu 之 (Beijingμ Jincheng shi 唐士詩) (Held by σational Palace εuseum in Taipeiμ chubanshe 金城出版社補. 圖01γθ0β).

manuscript cultures mc NO 8 FÖLSTER | INTRODUCTION TO CHINESE BOOK COLLECTORS‘ SEALS 47

δiste alphabétique des impressionsش The Heritage of Books, Collecting Ch’en Tso-lung 陳祚龍 (1λθ0)μش ,(Campbell, Duncan ε. (β00λ and δibraries’, China Heritage Quarterly, β0 (httpμ//www. des sceaux sur certains manuscrits retrouvés à Touen-houang chinaheritagequarterly.org/editorial.phpςissue=0β0ν accessed on et dans les régions avoisinantes’, in Mélanges publiés par λ April β014). l’Institut des Hautes Études Chinoises, Tome β (Parisμ Presses universitaires de France), ηḲ14. Cangshu jishi shi 紀詩 [1λ0λ], by Ye Changchi 葉昌熾 (Shanghaiμ Gudian wenxue chubanshe 古典文學出版社, 1ληκ). Cheng Qianfan 程千帆 and Xu Youfu 徐福 (1λλκ), Jiaochou guangyi 校讎廣義. Diancang bian 典編 (Jinanμ Qilu shushe Cangshu jiyao 紀要 [1κ1β], by Sun Congtian 孫從, 魯社). (Shanghaiμ Gudian wenxue chubanshe 古典文學出版社, 1ληι). E cang Dunhuangش ,(Chuguevskii, δeonid I. 丘古耶基 (1λλλ Cangshu shiyue 十 [1λ11], by Ye Dehui 葉德輝, in Qian hanwen xiejuan zhong de guanyin ji siyuan yinzhang 俄敦煌 Gurong 錢谷融 (ed.), Ye Dehui shuhua 葉德輝話 (Hangzhouμ 漢文寫卷中的印寺院印’, translated by Wei Yingchun Zhejiang renmin chubanshe 浙江人民出版社, 1λλκ), γḲ14. 魏迎春, Dunhuang xue jikan 敦煌學輯刊竟 1μ 14βḲ14κ.

Cao Jinyan 錦炎 (β00β), Gudai xiyin 古璽印 (Beijingμ Wenwu Clunas, Craig (1λλι), Pictures and Visuality in Early Modern chubanshe 文物出版社). China, (Princeton, σ. Jμ Princeton University Press).

Cao Zhi 之 (1λλβ), Zhongguo guji banbenxue 中國古籍版學, Contag, Victoria and Wang Jiqian (1λθθ), Seals of Chinese Painters (Wuhanμ Wuhan daxue chubanshe 武漢大學出版社). and Collectors of the Ming and Ch’ing Periods, (Hong Kongμ Hong Kong University Press) (irst published as Sammler­Stempel .(εai shu ren you aus der Ming­ und Ch’ing­Zeit, The Commercial Press, 1λ40ش ,(Cao Zhi 之 and Cao Xinzhe 哲 (β01β mai shu sun 買人孫, Zisun yong bao cangshuyin jiexi 子孫永寶印解析’, in Shandong tushuguan xuekan 山 Dai δongji 戴龍基 (ed.) (β00γ), Qunyu liuhen 群玉留痕. Jinian 東圖館學刊竟 βμ ληḲλλ, 10κ. Beijing daxue tushuguan yibai zhounian cangshupiao 紀念京 大學圖館一周票 (Beijingμ Wenwu chubanshe 文物 .(Shuo shu 說’, in Cheng 出版社ش ,(Cha Qisen 查啟森 (1λλ4 Huanwen 程煥文 (ed.), Zhongguo tushu lunji 中國圖論集, Éléments méthodologiques pourش ,(Beijingμ Shangwu yinshuguan 商印館), βιḲγ4. Drège, Jean-Pierre (1λκ4) l’étude des documents de Dunhuang’, in Les peintures murales et Chang Bide 昌彼得 (ed.) (1λι4), Songren zhuanji ziliao suoyin les manuscrits de Dunhuang, Colloque franco-chinois organisé 人傳記料索引 (Taipeiμ Dingwen shuju 鼎文局). par la Fondation Singer-Polignac à Paris, les β1, ββ et βγ février 1λκγ (Parisμ Editions de la Fondation Singer-Polignac), ηγḲηλ. Chavannes, Édouard (1λ1γ), Les documents chinois découverts par Aurel Stein dans les sables du oriental (τxfordμ Imprimerie de ḳḳ (1λλ1), Les bibliothèques en Chine au temps des manuscritsṬ l’Université). Jusqu’au Xe siècle (Parisμ Ecole française d’Extrême-τrient ν Publications de l’Ecole française d’Extrême-τrient 1θ1). Dunhuangش ,(Chen Hongyan 陳彥 and Lin Shitian 林田 (β00ιa Some Thoughts on Traditionalش ,(yishu jinxiandai jiancang yinzhang jishu (shang) 敦煌遺近現 Edgren, James Sέren (1λλγ 印輯述 ()’, Wenxian 文獻, βμ γγḲηβ. Chinese Bibliograpic Terminology’, East Asian Library Journal 101, 1γηḲ1γκ. Dunhuang yishu jinxiandai jiancang yinzhang jishuش ,(ḳḳ (β00ιb Cangshuμ The Tradition of Collecting Books inش ,(xia) 敦煌遺近現印輯述 ()’, Wenxian 文獻, γμ ḳḳ (1λλι) 1βλḲ14β. China’, in Gunilla Jonsson (ed.), Biblis 1995ṭ1996Ṭ The Georg Svensson Lectures 1993, 1994 & 1995 (Stockholmμ Fέreningen .(Riben Kyoū shōku cang Dunhuang miji fέr bokhantverkش ,(Chen Tao 陳濤 (β010 zhong δi Shengduo cangshuyin guanjian 日雨屋敦 The Authentication and Dating ofش ,(煌秘笈中盛鐸印管見’, Beijing shifan daxue xuebao Edgren, James Sέren (β00θ 京師范大學學報, 4μ ι4Ḳκ1. Chinese Rare Books’, in εing Wilson and Stacey Pierson (eds.), The Chen Xianxing 陳行 (β00γ)μ Dakai jinkui shishi zhi menṬ Guji Art of the Book in China (δondonμ University of δondon, Percival shanben 打開金匱石之門. 古籍善 (Shanghaiμ Shanghai David Foundation of Chinese Art, School of τriental and African wenyi chubanshe 文藝出版社). Studiesν Colloquies on art & archaeology in Asia, βγ), 1λγḲβ0η.

Chen Xianxing 陳行 and Shi Fei 石菲 (β00λ), Ming Qing gao Fan Fengshu 范鳳 (β00λ), Zhongguo sijia cangshu shi 中國家 chao jiao ben jianding明清稿抄校定 , (Shanghaiμ Shanghai 史, (Zhengzhouμ Daxiang chubanshe 大象出版社). guji chubanshe古籍出版社). mc NO 8 manuscript cultures 48 FÖLSTER | INTRODUCTION TO CHINESE BOOK COLLECTORS‘ SEALS

Cangshuyin de neirong ji jiazhi 印ش ,(Cangshu mingyin 銘印記ji ’, Huo εanli 霍曼麗 (β004ش ,(Fan Jingzhong 范景中 (β001 in Cangshujia 家, γμ 14βḲ1ηι. 的容價值’, Tushu yu qingbao 圖情報, βμ ββḲβ4.

Cong chutu wenwu guankui Tangdaiش ,(Cangshu mingyin ji 銘印記’, Jia Zhigang 剛 (β011ش ,(Fan Jingzhong 范景中 (β00β (Beijingμ Zhongguo meishu xueyuan chubanshe 中國美術學院 sijia cangshuyin 從出土文物管窺唐家印’, Jianghan 出版社). kaogu 江漢考古, βμ κγḲκλ.

δiangzhe cangshujia yinzhang kaoش ,(Bookman’s Decalogue (Ts’ang-shu shih- Jiang Fucong 蔣復璁 (1λγιش ,(Fang, Achilles (1λη0 yüeh 十)’, translated by Achilles Fang, Harvard Journal 浙家印考’, Wenlan xuebao 文瀾學報, γ.1μ 1Ḳβη. of Asiatic Studies, 1γμ 1/β, 1γβḲ1ιγ. Jinshu 晉 (Beijingμ Zhonghua shuju 中華局, 1λι4). Bookman’s εanual (Ts’ang-Shu Chi-Yao 紀ش ,(ḳḳ (1λη1 要)’, by Sun Ts’ung-t’ien 孫從, translated by Achilles Fang, Jinshi 金史 (Beijingμ Zhonghua shuju 中華局, 1λιη). Harvard Journal of Asiatic Studies, 14μ 1/β, β1ηḲβθ0. Jones, Russell (1λλι), Chinese NamesṬ The Traditions Surrounding Suzhou cangshujia de cangshuyin 蘇 the Use of Chinese Surnames and Personal Names, (Petalingش ,(Fei Yuqing 費慶 (β00ι 家的印’, Tushuguan lilun yu shijian 圖館論 Jaya, Selangor Darul Ehsan, εalaysiaμ Pelanduk Publications). 踐, 1μ 1β4Ḳ1βθ. Kokuritsu kokkai toshokan 國立國會図館 (ed.) (β00β), Hito to τwnership Statement and Seals in Arabic zōsho to zōshoin 人と蔵と蔵印, kokuritsu kokkai toshokanش ,(Gacek, Adam (1λκι εanuscripts’, in Manuscripts of the Middle East, βμ κκḲλη. shozōhon kara 國立國會図館蔵から, (Tokyoμ Yūshodō 雄松堂). Galambos, Imre (β00θ), Orthography of Early Chinese WritingṬ Evidence from Newly Excavated Manuscripts (Budapestμ Kornicki, Peter Francis (1λλκ), The Book in JapanṬ A Cultural Department of East Asian Studies, Eέtvέs δoránd Universityν History from the Beginnings to the Nineteenth Century (δeidenμ Budapest εonographs in East Asian Studies, 1). Brillν Handbuch der τrientalistik, section ημ Japan, vol. ι).

Qingdai Tianlu linlang shumuش ,(Guojia tushuguan cang Dunhuang yishu 國家圖館敦煌遺 Lai Fushun 賴福 (1λκι (β010), 14θ volumes (Beijingμ Beijing tushuguan chubanshe cangshuyin kao 清祿琳瑯目印考’, Shixue huikan 京圖館出版社). 史學彙刊, 1ημ ηγḲ1β0.

Qingdai Tianlu linlang shumu xubian cangshuyin kaoش ,(Guojia tushuguan tecangzu 國家圖館特組 (ed.) (β011), Guoli ḳḳ (1λκλ zhongyang tushugan tecang xuanlu 國立中央圖館特選錄 清祿琳目續編印考’, Huagang wenke xuebao華 (Taipeiμ Guojia tushuguan 國家圖館). 岡文科學報, 1ιμ βθγḲγηη.

Qingdai Tianlu linlang shumu cangshuyin zhi yanjiuش ,(Guy, R. Kent (1λκι), The Emperor’s Four TreasuriesṬ Scholars ḳḳ (1λλ0 and the State in the Late Ch’ien­lung Era (Cambridge, εass.μ 清祿琳瑯目印之研究’, Shixue huikan 史學彙刊, Harvard University Press). 1θμ 1θ1Ḳβ04.

Hanshu 漢 (Beijingμ Zhonghua shuju 中華局, 1λκγ). ḳḳ (1λλ1), Qingdai tianlu linlang cangshuyin yanjiu清祿 琳印記研究 (Taipeiμ Zhongguo wenhua daxue chubanbu Hanyu dacidian 漢語大詞典 (1λλ1), 1β volumes, (Shanghaiμ 中國文大學出版部). Hanyu dacidian chubanshe 漢語大詞典出版社). Chinese Seals’, in Jane Turner (ed.),The Dictionaryش ,(δauer, Uta (1λλθ Houshan tancong 後山談叢 [10λ0], by Chen Shidao 陳師, of Art, vol. 1γ (δondonμ εacmillan Publishers), 1βκḲ1γ1. (Beijingμ Zhonghua shuju 中華局, β00ι). δedderose, δothar (1λι0), Die Siegelschrift (Chuan­shu) in der Cangshuzhang jiujing shiyu heshi Ch’ing­ZeitṬ Ein Beitrag zur Geschichte der chinesischenش ,(Hua Jifen 華濟芬 (β004 究始何時ς ’, Jiangsu tushuguan xuebao 江蘇圖館學 Schriftkunst, (Wiesbadenμ Steinerν Studien zur ostasiatischen 報, γ4μ 4, 10η. Schriftkunst 1).

Chinese Calligraphy. Its Aestheticش ,(Tan cangshuyin yu cangshupiao δedderose, δothar (1λκθش ,(Huang Zhiguang (β011 談印票’, Dongwu zhongwen xianshang xueshu Dimension and Social Function’,Orientations , τct., γηḲη0. lunwen 東吳中文缐學論文竟 1ημ 1γλḲ1θβ. .Books and Bookworms in Song Chinaش ,(δee, Thomas H. C. (1λλη Hucker, Charles (1λκκ), A Dictionary of Oficial Titles in Imperial Book Collection and the Appreciation of Books’,Journal of China, Reprint, (Taipeiμ Southern εaterials Center). Sung­Yuan Studies, βημ 1λγḲβ1κ.

manuscript cultures mc NO 8 FÖLSTER | INTRODUCTION TO CHINESE BOOK COLLECTORS‘ SEALS 49

δi Xibi 希泌 and Zhang Jiaohua 張椒華 (eds.) (1λλθ), Zhongguo Liu Zhong 劉鐘, Xia Rongmin 夏榮敏 and Dong Caifeng 董彩鳳 Cangshupiao yu cangshuyin 票印’, Hebeiش ,(gudai cangshu yu jindai tushuguan shiliao 中國古近 (β001 圖館史料 (Beijingμ Zhonghua shuju 中華局). nongye daxue xuebao (nonglin jiaoyu ban) 河農業大學學報 (農林教育版), 4μ ι1,ιι. δi Xuemei 雪梅 (1λλλ), Zhongguo jindai cangshu wenhua 中國 近文 (Beijingμ Xiandai chubanshe 現出版社). Luo Fuyi 羅福頤 (1λκ1), Gu xiyin gailun 古璽印概論 (Beijingμ Wenwu chubanshe 文物出版社). δi Yunjing 允經 (β000), Zhongguo cangshupiao shihua 中國 票史話, Changshaμ Hunan meishu chubanshe 湖南美出版社. εair, Victor (ed.) (1λλ4), Columbia Anthology of Traditional Chinese Literature (σew Yorkμ Columbia University Pressν .(Dunhuang xiejing yongxing jun foyin kao敦 Translations from Asian Classicsش ,(Li Zhitan 之檀 (β010 煌寫經永郡印考’, Dunhuang yanjiu 敦煌研究, γμ 10κḲ110. εcCausland, Shane (β011), Zhao MengfuṬ Calligraphy and Painting δi Zhizhong 忠 (1λλ0), Gushu banbenxue gailun 古版 for Khubilai’s China (Hong Kongμ Hong Kong University Press). 學概論 (Beijingμ Shumu wenxian chubanshe 目文獻出版社). The Ascendance of the Imprint inش ,(εcDermott, Joseph (β00η Liangxi manzhi 梁谿漫 [11λβ], by Fei Gun 费衮 (Shanghaiμ China’, in Cynthia J. Brokaw / Kai-wing Chow (eds.)μ Printing Shanghai guji chubanshe 古籍出版社ν Song Yuan biji and Book Culture in Late Imperial China, (Berkeleyμ University congkan 元筆記叢刊 1λκη). of California Pressν Studies on China βι), ηηḲ104.

Lidai minghua ji 畫記 [κ4ι], by Zhang Yanyuan 張彥遠. ḳḳ (β00θ), A Social History of the Chinese BookṬ Books and (Beijingμ Renmin meishu chubanshe 人民美出版社, β00η). Literati Culture in Late Imperial China (Hong Kongμ Hong Kong University Press). δese- und Besitzvermerke in der δeipzigerش ,(δiebrenz, Boris (β011 Rifaiya-Bibliothek’, in Andreas Gέrke, Konrad Hirschler (eds.), εcεullen, David (1λκκ), State and Scholars in T’ang China, Manuscript Notes as Documentary Sources (Würzburgμ Ergon (Cambridgeμ Cambridge University Press). Verlagν Beiruter Texte und Studien 1βλ), 141Ḳ1θβ. .By the Book’, China Daily, κ Jan. β01βμ 1κش ,(εei Jia, Wang Kaihao (β01β δin, Shenqing 林清 (1λκλ), Ming Qing cangshujia yinjian 明清 家印 (Shanghaiμ Shanghai shudian 店). Mengxi bitan 夢溪筆談 [10κκ], by Shen Kuo 沈括, Hu Daojing jiaozheng 胡靜校證 (Shanghaiμ Shanghai guji chubanshe ḳḳ (1λλι), Zhongguo cangshujia yinjian 中國家印 古籍出版社, 1λθβ). (Shanghaiμ Shanghai shudian 店). Nan Qi shu 南 (Beijingμ Zhonghua shuju 中華局, 1λιβ). ḳḳ (β000a), Ming Qing zhuming cangshujia cangshuyin 明清著 .The T’ien-lu δin-lang δibraryش ,(家印 (Beijingμ Beijing tushuguan chubanshe 京 σational Palace εuseum (β00ι 圖館出版社). εarks of Connoisseurship by Collectors’, httpμ//www.npm.gov.tw/ exhλθ/treasurebook/index4_en.html, (accessed on βι Jan. β014). ḳḳ (β000b), Riben cangshuyin jian 日印鋻, Beijingμ (Beijing tushuguan chubanshe 京圖館出版社). Ono Noriaki 小則秋 (1λ4γ), Nihon zōshoinkō 日印考 (Tokyoμ Bunyūdō shoten 文堂店). Liu Ning 劉, Geng Bo 耿波 and Qin Yurong秦玉蓉 (β00ι), Gudai cangshuyin chuyi 古印芻’, Tushuguan zazhi ḳḳ (1λη4), Nihon no zōshoin 日の印, (Tokyoμ Geibunshaش 圖館雜, 11μ ιιḲικ. 藝文社).

Hanlinyuan yin yu siku jinchengbenPan Jixing 潘吉星 (1λιλ), Zhongguo zaozhi jishushi gao 中國造紙ش ,(Liu Qiang 劉薔 (β00θ zhenwei zhi panding翰林院印四庫進呈真偽之定 ’ , 史稿 (Beijingμ Wenwu chubanshe文物出版社). Tushuguan gongzuo yu yanjiu 圖館研究, 1μ θ0Ḳθβ. Bizhi 碧’, Tushuguanxue yu zixunش ,(Pan εeiyue 潘美 (1λλη .Gudai sijia cangshu yinjian de kexue da cidian 圖館學訊科學大辭典, httpμ//terms.naerش ,(Liu Shangheng 劉尚恆 (β000 zhonglei he hanyi古家印的種類和含義 ’, Jiangsu edu.tw/detail/1θκ0γθλ/ (accessed on βλ εay β014). tushuguan xuebao 江蘇圖館學報, γμ 4κḲηβ. Pearson, David (1λλ4), Provenance Research in Book HistoryṬ A Xue ni hong zhao, shuji zhong de Handbook (δondonμ British δibraryν The British δibrary Studiesش ,(δiu Xiangchun 柳向春 (β01γ yinji 雪泥鸿爪, 书籍中的印记’, Shoucangjia 收家, 1μ 4γḲη0. in the History of the Book).

mc NO 8 manuscript cultures 50 FÖLSTER | INTRODUCTION TO CHINESE BOOK COLLECTORS‘ SEALS

Pélissier, Roger (1λι1), Les Bibliothèques en Chine pendant la Shanben cangshu yinzhang xuancui 善印選粹 (1λκκ) première moitié du 20e siècle (Parisμ εoutonν δe monde d’outre- (Taipeiμ Guoli zhongyang tushuguan 國立中央圖館). mer passé et présent, Série 4, Bibliographies λ). Shaoshi wenjian houlu 邵氏聞見後錄, by Shao Bo 邵博 (ςḲ11ηκ). Jianlun Ye Dehui de cangshuyin yu (Beijingμ Zhonghua shuju 中華局, 1λκγν Tang Song shiliaoش ,(Peng Wenjing 彭文靜 (β00β yongyin sixiang 簡論葉德輝的印用印思想’, Changde biji congkan 唐史料筆記叢刊). shifan xueyuan xuebao常德師范學院學報 , βμ ιιḲιλ. Western Zhou Bronzeش ,(Shaughnessy, Edward δ. (1λλι Huang Pilie cangshuyin kaolun烈印考 Inscriptions’, in idem (ed.) New Sources of Early Chinese HistoryṬش ,(ḳḳ (β00γ 論’, Gaoxiao tushuguan gongzuo高校圖館 , 1μ 1γ-1η, β4. An Introduction to the Reading of Inscriptions and Manuscripts Qian Jun 錢軍 (1λλκ), Cangshu , (Shenyangμ δiaoning jiaoyu (Berkeleyμ Society for the Study of Early China and the Institute chubanshe 遼教育出版社). of East Asian Studies, University of Californiaν Early China Special εonograph Series γ), ηιḲκ4. Qinding Tianlu linlang shumu 欽定祿琳瑯目, Changsha Wangshi Dunhuang yishu yinjian congkaoش ,(kanben 長王氏刊, Guangxu shi nian 緒十 [1κκ4]. Shen Leping 沈樂 (β01β (shang) 敦煌遺印叢考 ()’, Shufa 法, 1βμ λθḲλλ. Qinding Tianlu linlang shumu xubian 欽定祿琳瑯目續編, Dunhuang yishu yinjian congkao (xia) 敦煌遺印ش ,(Changsha Wangshi kanben 長王氏刊, Guangxu shi nian ḳḳ (β01γ 緒十 [1κκ4]. 叢考 ()’, Shufa 法, 1μ 100Ḳ10η.

,’Guji cangshuyin jianxi 古籍印析ش ,(Qingshi gao 清史稿 (Taipeiμ Dingwen 鼎文, 1λκ1). Shi Wei 薇 (β01β Guojia tushuguan xuekan 國家圖館學刊, 4μ 100Ḳ10η. Qiu Xigui (β000), Chinese Writing, translated by Gilbert δ. εattos and Jerry σorman, Berkeleyμ Society for the Study of Early China Shulin qinghua 林清話 [1λ11], by Ye Dehui 葉德輝. (Beijingμ and the Institute of East Asian Studies (University of Californiaν Zhonghua shuju 中華局, 1λλλ). Early China special monograph series 4). Shushi 史, by εi Fu 米芾 (10η1Ḳ110ι), in Baichuan xuehai Fengfu duocai de cangshu zhuanyin 學 θ, Baibu congshu jicheng 部叢集 β, Banqiaoش ,(Qu εianliang 瞿冕良 (1λκκ 丰富多釆的印’, Tushuguanxue yanjiu 圖館學研究, γμ (Taipeiμ Yiwen yinshuguan 藝文印館, 1λθη). λ0-λι, η0. Su Shi wenji biannian jianzhu 蘇軾文集編箋注 (Chengduμ Ren Jiyu 任繼 (ed.) (β001), Zhongguo cangshulou 中國樓, γ Bashu shushe 巴蜀社, β011). vols. (Shenyangμ δiaoning renmin chubanshe 遼人民出版社). Sullivan, εichael (β00κ), The Arts of China, ηth ed. (Berkeleyμ .(δi Shengduo cangjuan de zhen yu University of California Pressش ,(Rong Xinjiang 榮江 (1λλι wei 盛鐸卷的真偽’, Dunhuang xue jikan 敦煌學輯刊, βμ 1Ḳ1κ. Sun Beixin 孫蓓欣 and δi Zhizhong 忠 (eds.) (1λλκ), Beijing tushuguan cangshupiao 京圖館票. Zhongguo lidai ḳḳ (β001), Dunhuang xue shiba jiang 敦煌學十講 (Beijingμ huangjia cangshu yinjian 中國家印 (Beijingμ Beijing daxue chubanshe 京大學出版社). Beijing tushuguan chubanshe 京圖館出版社).

The δi Shengduo Collectionμ τriginal or Forged Sun Weizu 孫慰 (β00β), Fengni 封泥Ṭ Faxian yu yanjiu 現ش ,(ḳḳ (β00β εanuscriptsς’, in Susan Whitield (ed.), Dunhuang Manuscript 研究 (Shanghaiμ Shanghai shudian 店). Forgeries (δondonμ British δibrary (The British δibrary Studies in Conservation Science γ), θβḲκγ. ḳḳ (β010), Zhongguo yinzhang 中國印. Lishi yu yishu 史 藝 (Beijingμ Waiwen chubanshe 文出版社). Rong Xinjiang 榮江 (β01γ), Eighteen Lectures on Dunhuang, translated by Imre Galambos (Bostonμ Brillν Brill’s Humanities Sun Weizu 孫慰 (β010), The History and Art of Chinese Seals in China δibrary η). (Beijingμ Foreign δanguages Press).

Sang δiangzhi 桑良 (β00β), Zhongguo cangshu wenhua 中國 Sun Xuelei 孫學雷 and Dong Guanghe 董和 (eds.) (β004), 文 (Beijingμ Zhongguo caizheng jingji chubanshe 中國財 Zhongguo guojia tushuguan guji cangshuyin xuanbian 中國國 經濟出版社). 家圖館古籍印選編, 10 volumes (Beijingμ Xianzhuang shuju 線局). Sha εenghai 孟 (1λκι), Yinxue shi 印學史 (Hangzhouμ Xiling yinshe 西泠印社). Taiping guangji 廣記 (Beijingμ Zhonghua shuju 中華局, 1λθ1).

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Tang huiyao 唐會要 (Beijingμ Zhonghua shuju 中華局, 1ληη). Watanabe εorikuni 渡邊邦 and Gotō Kenji 後藤憲 (eds.) (β001), Shimpen zōshoin fu 編蔵印譜 (Tokyoμ Seishōdō shoten 青裳 Tang nülang Yu Xuanji shi 唐女郎魚玄機詩. Ju zhongguo guojia 堂店ν σihon shoshigaku taikei 日誌學大系 ιλ). tushuguan cang Song Lin’anfu Chen zhai shujipu ke ben yingyin Wei Li 韋力 (β004), Gushu shoucang古收 (Shenyangμ 據中國國家圖館臨府陳宅籍鋪影印 (β00γ), Wanjuan chuban gongsi萬卷出版司 ). (Beijingμ Beijing tushuguan chubanshe 京圖館出版社; δingering Traces. In Search of China’s τldش ,(Zhonghua zaizao shanben, Tang Song bianμ jibu 中華再造善 ḳḳ, (β00λ ，唐編：集部). δibraries, Introduced and translated by Duncan Campbell’,China Heritage Quarterly 1κ, httpμ//www.chinaheritagequarterly.org/ Tsien, Tsuen-hsuin [錢訓] (1λκη), Science and Civilisation in scholarship.phpςsearchterm=01κ_oldlibraries.inc&issue=01κ China, VolṬ 5Ś Chemistry and Chemical Technology, PtṬ 1Ś Paper (accessed on βκ Jan. β014). and Printing (Cambridgeμ Cambridge University Press). Wilkinson, Endymion Porter (β01β), Chinese HistoryṬ A New ḳḳ (β004), Written on Bamboo & SilkṬ The Beginnings of Chinese Manual (Cambridge, εAμ Harvard University Asia Centerν Books & Inscriptions, βnd ed. (Chicagoμ University of Chicago Harvard-Yenching Institue monograph series κ4). Press). The Imperial δibrary in Southern Sungش ,(Winkelman, John H. (1λι4 Tuhua jianwen zhi 圖畫見聞誌, by Guo Ruoxu 郭虛 (c. China, 11βιḲ1βιλ. A Study of the τrganization and τperation of 10θ0Ḳ1110), Sibu congkan xubian, zibu 四部叢刊續編, 子部, the Scholarly Agencies of the Central Government’, Transactions (Shanghaiμ Shangwu yinshuguan 商印館, 1λγη). of the American Philosophical Society, NṬ SṬ, κμ 1Ḳθ1.

Van Gulik, Robert Hans (1ληκ), Chinese Pictorial Art as Viewed by Wolf, Sylvia (1λλγ), Exlibris, 1000 Beispiele aus fünf Jahrhunderten the ConnoisseurṬ Notes on the Means and Methods of Traditional = 1000 Examples from Five Centuries, βnd ed. (εunichμ Chinese Connoisseurship of Pictorial Art, Based upon a Study of Bruckmann [σovum Press]). the Art of Mounting Scrolls in China and Japan (Romaμ Istituto Cangshuyin zuowei de leixingش ,(Italiano per il εedio ed Estremo τrienteν Serie orientale Roma 1λ). Wu Qinfang 吳芹芳 (β01γ yu bianbie fangfa 印偽的類型辨方法’, Daxue Veit, Willibald (1λκη), Siegel und Siegelschrift der Chou­, Chʼin­ tushuguan xuebao大學圖館學報 , γμ 11γḲ1β1. und Han­Dynastie (Stuttgartμ F. Steiner Verlag Wiesbadenν Studien zur ostasiatischen Schriftkunst 4). ḳḳ and Xie Quan謝泉 (β01η), Zhongguo gudai de cangshuyin 中國古的印 (Wuhanμ Wuhan daxue chubanshe武漢大 Wagner, δothar (1λλ4), Die ganze Welt in einem ZollṬ Ein Beitrag 學出版社). zur chinesischen Siegelkunde (Ann Arbour, εichiganμ UεI). Xianchou ji 獻醜集, by Xu Fei 許棐 (ςḲ1β4λ), in Zuoshi baichuan Chinese Seals’, in Dominique Collon (ed.), 7000 Years xuehai 氏學 1λ, yiji xia 已集 (Beijingμ Zhongguoش ,(ḳḳ (1λλι of Seals (δondonμ British εuseum Press) β0ηḲβββ. shudian 中國店, 1λβι).

Cangshuyin de yuanliu leixing ji gongnengش ,(Zhongguo chuantong sijia cangshuyin 中國 Xiong Yan 熊 (β00γش ,(Wang Aixi 王喜 (β00β 傳統家印’, Dang’an yu jianshe 檔案建設, 4μ 4κḲ4λ. 印的源流類型功能’, Shoucangjia 收家, λμ θ0Ḳθ4.

Cangshuyin zhongzhong 印ش ,(Cangshuyin yu cangshupiao Xu Dongsheng 徐東生 (1λλ4ش ,(Wang Dongming 王東明 (1λκι shihua 印票史話’, Tushu qingbao gongzuo 圖情 種種’, Jiangxi tushuguan xuekan 江西圖館學刊, γμ κκḲλ0. 報, γμ 44Ḳ4η. Cong cangshuyin kan εing Qing cangshujiaش ,(Xu Xi 徐昕 (1λλη Wang He 王河 (ed.) (1λλ1), Zhongguo lidai cangshujia cidian 中 de cangshuguan 從印看明清家的觀’, Shandong 國家辭典 (Shanghaiμ Tongji daxue chubanshe 濟大 tushuguan jikan 山東圖館季刊, 4μ ηκḲθ1. 學出版社). Qing Qianlong shiqi Tianlu linlangش ,(Cangshuyin yinwen de biaoshu Yang Guolin 楊果霖 (β00θش ,(Wang Heting 王鶴廷 (1λλ0 tezheng ji zuoyong 印印文的表述特徵用’, Henan cangshu de tedian jiqi xianxiang清乾隆時期祿琳 tushuguan xuekan 河南圖館學刊, 1μ ηκḲθ0. 的特點現象’, Guojia tushuguan guankan國家圖館館 刊, λη. βμ 1βιḲ144. Cangshuyin yu banben jianding gaishuoش ,(Wang Jing 王競 (1λιλ Guji cangshu yinzhang de neirong ji jiazhiش ,(印版定概說’, Tushuguan jianshe 圖館建設, 1μ ηλḲι0. Yang Yanyan 楊艷燕 (β011 古籍印的容價值’, Jintu xuekan 晉圖學刊, γμ ηιḲθ0. Wang Yuelin 王玥琳 (β014), Zhongguo gudai cangshuyin xiaoshi中 國古印小史 (Beijingμ Chang’an chubanshe 長出版社). Yijing zhengyi 易經義, in Shisanjing zhushu 十經註疏 (Beijingμ Beijing daxue chubanshe 京大學出版社, β000).

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Yindian 印典 [1ιββ], by Zhu Xiangxian 朱象, in Siku quanshu 四 Zheng Weizhang 鄭偉 (1λλλ), Wenxianjia tongkao (Qing ­ 庫 κγλ, zibu 子部 14η (Shanghaiμ Shanghai guji chubanshe, xiandai) 文獻家通考 (清-現), γ vols. (Beijingμ Zhonghua 1λκη) κηγḲλικ. shuju 中華局).

Yuan Qingshu 袁慶述 (β00γ), Banben muluxue yanjiu 版目錄 Zhong Yinlan 鐘銀蘭 (ed.) (β00κ), Zhongguo jiancangjia yinjian 學研究 (Changshaμ Hunan shifan daxue chubanshe 湖南師范大 daquan 中國家印大, β vols. (σanchangμ Jiangxi 學出版社). meishu chubanshe 江西美出版社).

Yongxing jun yin kaobian 永郡印考辨’, Zhongguo lidai jiancangjia yinjian shujuku 中國家印ش ,(Yuan Shi 元石 (1λλ4 Zhongguo shufa 中國法, βμ ηλḲθ0. 數據庫 (β011), httpμ//diglweb.zjlib.cnμκ0κ1/zjtsg/zgjcj/index1. htm (accessed on 4 τct. β01γ). Yuding Quan Tang shi 御定唐詩, in Siku quanshu 四庫 14βγ-14γ1, jibu 集部 (Shanghaiμ Shanghai guji chubanshe Zhongguo lishi diming dacidian 中國史地大辭典 (1λλη), 古籍出版社, 1λκη) γθβḲβι0. (Guangzhouμ Guangdong jiaoyu chubanshe 廣東教育出版社).

Zhang Jianlun 張建崙 (ed.) (β004), Haining cangshujia yinjian Zhou Shaochuan 周少 (1λλλ), Cangshu yu wenhua 文 家印 (Hangzhouμ Xiling yinshe chubanshe西泠印社出 , Gudai sijia cangshu wenhua yanjiu古家文研究 版社). (Beijingμ Beijing shifan daxue chubanshe 京師範大學出版社).

Wei δiμ εinjian shoucang gujiش ,(Zhang δijuan 張麗娟 and Cheng Youqing 程慶 (β00β), Song Zhou Xiaodong 周曉東 (β00ι ben (σanjingμ Jiangsu guji chubanshe 江蘇古籍出版社ν shanben zui duo de ren 韋力：民收古籍善最多的人’, Zhongguo banben wenhua congshu 中國版文叢). httpμ//news.xinhuanet.com/book/β00ι-0ι/0β/content_θγ1ιληι. htm (accessed on 1ι εar. β014). σan Song shupeng ben Tang nülangش ,(Zhang Xiuyu 張玉 (β01β Yu Xuanji shi liuchuan kaoshu 南棚唐女郎魚玄機 Zhuang Yan 莊嚴 et al. (ed.) (1λθ4), Signatures and Seals on 詩流傳考述’, Tushuguan jie 圖館界, γμ βθḲβλ. Painting and CalligraphyṬ The Signatures and Seals of Artists, Connoisseurs, and Collectors on Painting and Calligraphy since Yongxing jun yin de niandai yiji Tsin Dynasty, compiled by the Joint Board of Directors of theش ,(Zhang Xiying 張錫瑛 (β000 xiangguan wenti 永郡印的相關問題’, in Wang σational Palace εuseum and the σational Central εuseum, Rencong 王人聰 and You Xuehua 游學華 (eds.), Zhongguo gu Taichung, Taiwan, The Republic of China, θ vols. (Hong Kongμ xiyin xue guoji yantaohui lunwenji 中國古璽印學國際研討會 Cafa Co.). 論文集, International Symposium on Chinese Archaic Seals, (Hong Kongμ Xianggang zhongwen daxue wenwuguan 香港中 文大學文物館) 1ηγḲ1ηλ.

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