By Most Rev. Father Muron Aznikian

by Most Rev. Father Muron Aznikian

THIS PUBLICATION WAS MADE POSSIBLE THROUGH THE GENEROUS DONATION OF

Mr. & Mrs. JIRAYR & AURA KILADJIAN

IN MEMORY OF THEIR PARENTS Mr. & Mrs. KRIKOR & NEVART KILADJIAN

MAY THEIR SOULS REST IN ETERNAL PEACE

3 4 4 ESSAYS

BIBLICAL CONCEPTS

AND

SOCIAL ISSUES

Authored by

Most Rev. Father Muron Aznikian

5 6 6 INTRODUCTION INTRODUCTION

Have we ever compared the Bible to the US Constitution? We revere Have we ever compared the Bible to the US Constitution? We revere each of them, but there is more to it. For the Bible, we have a priest- each of them, but there is more to it. For the Bible, we have a priesthood which studies and interprets stories and commandments, giving us hood which studies and interprets stories and commandments, giving us a set of values. For the US Constitution, we have a Supreme Court a set of values. For the US Constitution, we have a Supreme Court which studies and interprets the words of the American Founders, giv- which studies and interprets the words of the American Founders, giving us a body of laws. ing us a body of laws.

With that in mind, we look to Very Reverend Father Muron Aznikian With that in mind, we look to Very Reverend Father Muron Aznikian as our interpreter in this book. Having studied the Bible in his theologi- as our interpreter in this book. Having studied the Bible in his theological training, Father Aznikian expounds on Biblical history and teach- cal training, Father Aznikian expounds on Biblical history and teachings in the many essays which he has written, in order to give us a set ings in the many essays which he has written, in order to give us a set of Christian values and an understanding in our confusing times. of Christian values and an understanding in our confusing times.

We live in a fast-changing world, and the change seems to have accel- We live in a fast-changing world, and the change seems to have accel- erated in recent years. Our culture and values are changing, brought erated in recent years. Our culture and values are changing, brought about in part by radical advances in technology, in part because of pro- about in part by radical advances in technology, in part because of progress in the health sciences, and in part by the loss or gain in personal gress in the health sciences, and in part by the loss or gain in personal wealth. wealth.

Father Aznikian provides Biblically-based answers in his essays to a Father Aznikian provides Biblically-based answers in his essays to a number of timely topics, one or more of which touch upon the lives of number of timely topics, one or more of which touch upon the lives of all Armenians families throughout California and the world. all Armenians families throughout California and the world.

Each of us uses different criteria to define his / her culture and personal Each of us uses different criteria to define his / her culture and personal values. For those who look to the Bible for answers, Father Aznikian's values. For those who look to the Bible for answers, Father Aznikian's essays are of assistance, as he points to Scripture to elucidate the Bibli- essays are of assistance, as he points to Scripture to elucidate the Bibli- cal perspective on race, social justice, war, peace, cremation, sexual cal perspective on race, social justice, war, peace, cremation, sexual orientation, abortion, and other topics. orientation, abortion, and other topics.

The essays in this book become a handy, readily accessible desk refer- The essays in this book become a handy, readily accessible desk reference for the faithful. ence for the faithful.

As an example, Father Aznikian writes about the position of the Arme- As an example, Father Aznikian writes about the position of the Arme- nian Church regarding cremation, which has become an issue in the Ar- nian Church regarding cremation, which has become an issue in the Ar- menian community, because of changing values and the expense of Ar- menian community, because of changing values and the expense of Ar- menian burials, exacerbated by the custom of making a big expense for menian burials, exacerbated by the custom of making a big expense for the luncheons and dinners following burials. Yet, the Armenian the luncheons and dinners following burials. Yet, the Armenian Church's position is firm: Church's position is firm:

7 7 We do not believe in cremation under any circumstances, and will not We do not believe in cremation under any circumstances, and will not offer any prayer or religious service over cremated remains. All fu- offer any prayer or religious service over cremated remains. All funeral services must be in the presence of the body of the deceased … neral services must be in the presence of the body of the deceased … p. 341 p. 341

In every family, the question has arisen, “Why does God allow evil and In every family, the question has arisen, “Why does God allow evil and suffering?” Father Aznikian provides a valuable essay which talks suffering?” Father Aznikian provides a valuable essay which talks about physical evil, moral evil, and suffering, even answering the ques- about physical evil, moral evil, and suffering, even answering the question, “Is it good to suffer?” tion, “Is it good to suffer?”

The reasons why a loving God would allow so much evil in the world The reasons why a loving God would allow so much evil in the world are a a mystery and a stumbling block to faith for many people. Why are a a mystery and a stumbling block to faith for many people. Why do good people sometimes suffer terribly while evil people live lives of do good people sometimes suffer terribly while evil people live lives of ease? These are very difficult things to understand, but the Bible does ease? These are very difficult things to understand, but the Bible does give some clues. … p. 34 give some clues. … p. 34

It is fascinating to imagine oneself living two to three thousand years in It is fascinating to imagine oneself living two to three thousand years in the past. Father Aznikian has included essays on life in the ancient Ori- the past. Father Aznikian has included essays on life in the ancient Ori- ent, giving an overview of the competing faiths in ancient times. It is ent, giving an overview of the competing faiths in ancient times. It is noteworthy that the faith of the Jews was not dominant among peoples, noteworthy that the faith of the Jews was not dominant among peoples, but with divine intervention and strong, family-oriented values, their but with divine intervention and strong, family-oriented values, their faith has endured to the present day and has been a catalyst for the faith has endured to the present day and has been a catalyst for the founding of Christianity and Islam. founding of Christianity and Islam.

As among the tradition-directed nomadic tribes of the Middle East to- As among the tradition-directed nomadic tribes of the Middle East today, in biblical times too, the education and socialization of children day, in biblical times too, the education and socialization of children was a task left entirely to the parents of the children. … In fact, the He- was a task left entirely to the parents of the children. … In fact, the He- brew father was commanded emphatically and repeatedly to teach his brew father was commanded emphatically and repeatedly to teach his son. Only in wealthy houses was the education and rearing of children son. Only in wealthy houses was the education and rearing of children given over to male or female nurses … pp. 50, 51 given over to male or female nurses … pp. 50, 51

Enjoy reading the essays and learning about the Christian faith. Enjoy reading the essays and learning about the Christian faith.

Van Ajemian Van Ajemian Montebello, California Montebello, California September, 2018 September, 2018

8 8 A COMPARISON OF THE CREATION ACCOUNTS IN GENESIS 1 and 2

THE BIBLICAL MESSAGE OF THE CREATION Outline of two accounts The creation myths are usually etiological, explaining how the world came to be. Ancient myths are neither consistent nor systematic. They exhibit marvelous perspectives and details about ancient civilization and social order. The genesis of the natural and social order is usually expressed as the result of the activity of an individual deity who presides over and coordinates the collective efforts of other gods and goddesses. The origins of this deity are sometimes expressed in a supernatural narrative describing how a series of divine generations led to the birth of this creator-god. The concept of Yahweh as a monotheistic belief and view consisted essentially in the following elements: belief in the existence of only one God, who is the Creator of the world, and the giver of all life; the belief that God is holy and just, without sexuality or mythology; the belief that God is not visible to man except under special conditions; the belief that God is equally at home in heaven, in the desert, or in Palestine; the belief that God is so far superior to all created beings (whether they be heavenly bodies, angelic messengers, demons, or false gods) that He remains absolutely unique. Creation, according to the first chapter of Genesis, begins with the sentence, “In the beginning God created heaven and earth.” With these simple words, the writer of the Priestly account states a tremendous fact: God made everything that exists, the entire universe. According to Genesis 1:2, the earth at the beginning was in a chaotic condition. It lacked organization and life. It

9 was covered by primeval water about which was a dense darkness. Through the creation and will of God, there followed in six days a transformation of primeval matter: on the first day God made light; on the second day He fashioned the firmament, which differentiated the upper and lower waters; on the third day He ordered the water to re- cede from the land and caused the plants to sprout; on the fourth He placed the sun, moon and stars in their positions; on the fifth He made the creatures living in the waters and in the air; and on the sixth, animals and man. According to the Genesis account, God created the world without effort. God called the universe into existence through the power of His word. God pre-existed the world and matter. The Yahwist account of creation (Gen.2:4b-25) begins by describing a dry desert, without plants, into which life is brought through water. Then Yahweh forms a man from the dust of the earth and breathes the breath of life into his nostrils, bringing him to life. Then God plants a garden with all sorts of good trees for the man in Eden, and places the man in the garden “to till it and keep it.” Only then does Yahweh create the animals and the birds, likewise from the dust of the earth. He brings them to man, who gives them names and puts them to work for him. Finally, Yahweh takes a rib from the body of the sleeping man and makes it into a woman who receives the name Eve. God in this account is more human and has a human nature and character. He is much involved in his creation; there is dirt under his nails, we hear his voice talking to Adam and hear His footsteps in the Garden of Eden. Yahweh is described here in human terms as a potter (Gen.2:7, 19), gardener (v. 8), a surgeon (v. 21), and peaceful landowner (3:8). This narrative does not present a complete account of creation. We hear nothing of the origin of the heavens and the earth. The focal point of the story is the creation of man. But it is noteworthy that this narrative presupposes at the

10 outset the existence of a dry desert land out of which living outset the existence of a dry desert land out of which living creatures gradually come into being: man, plants, animals, creatures gradually come into being: man, plants, animals, and woman. This indicates that the story came into being in and woman. This indicates that the story came into being in a region where drought appears as the enemy of life. It a region where drought appears as the enemy of life. It should be emphasized also that this account is only slightly should be emphasized also that this account is only slightly systemized, and leaves the impression of recounting an- systemized, and leaves the impression of recounting ancient popular conceptions. cient popular conceptions. The Priestly account in Genesis 1:1-2:4, which is The Priestly account in Genesis 1:1-2:4, which is relatively late, is completely different. Here, everything is relatively late, is completely different. Here, everything is well ordered and reduced to a logical system. At the outset well ordered and reduced to a logical system. At the outset we have a primordial sea lying in darkness, while the wind we have a primordial sea lying in darkness, while the wind (spirit) of God blows over it. All is chaos. But God is there. (spirit) of God blows over it. All is chaos. But God is there. He exists before the creation; unlike Hebrew’s neighbors He exists before the creation; unlike Hebrew’s neighbors whose creation accounts start with the origin of the gods whose creation accounts start with the origin of the gods and goddesses. and goddesses. In the Priestly account of the creation, God says: “Let In the Priestly account of the creation, God says: “Let there be light;” and it happens according to His word. Thus, there be light;” and it happens according to His word. Thus, day and night are distinguished for the first time and the rest day and night are distinguished for the first time and the rest of creation takes place within the next five days. On the sec- of creation takes place within the next five days. On the second day, the firmament of heaven is created through God’s ond day, the firmament of heaven is created through God’s creative word to separate the heavenly from the earthly wa- creative word to separate the heavenly from the earthly waters (ancient Near Eastern conception of the world is clearly ters (ancient Near Eastern conception of the world is clearly visible: the rain comes from the heavenly ocean). The third visible: the rain comes from the heavenly ocean). The third day brings the separation between land and sea, and the day brings the separation between land and sea, and the creation of plants. On the fourth day He performs the crea- creation of plants. On the fourth day He performs the creation of the heavenly bodies: the sun, the moon, and the tion of the heavenly bodies: the sun, the moon, and the stars. On the fifth day, the creation of the birds and all that stars. On the fifth day, the creation of the birds and all that live in the sea come into existence. On the sixth day, God live in the sea come into existence. On the sixth day, God creates the land animals and man, creating them as male creates the land animals and man, creating them as male and female “in the image of God,” to rule over all creation. and female “in the image of God,” to rule over all creation. Then on the seventh day, God “rests.” Here, in this creation Then on the seventh day, God “rests.” Here, in this creation account, the creative word of God plays a crucial role: “For account, the creative word of God plays a crucial role: “For He spoke, and it came to be; He commanded, and it stood He spoke, and it came to be; He commanded, and it stood forth” (Ps.33: 9). forth” (Ps.33: 9).

11 11 The author of Genesis 1 has utilized and transformed ancient mythological material. The Hebrew word for the primordial sea is tehom. It is etymologically identical with the Babylonian tiamat. Now tiamat is familiar as the primordial ocean of the Babylonian creation epic, which describes creation as the outcome of Marduk’s-Baal’s victory over tiamat (Ps.104:9; 148:6). In the biblical story, however, God’s mighty word alone fights the battle. Several Old Testament passages contain clear traces to mythological ideas connected with creation. In them we hear of a terrible battle fought by Yahweh against a dragon, which is called Rahab (Tannin) in Ps.74:13 and Job 26:12. In addition, the story of Yahweh’s battle against Tannin in its present form may contain a polemic against the snake worship of the Baal religion. The idea that the serpent is the devil is a later interpretation. The power of the divine word is a common theme in ancient Oriental hymns and prayers as it is in the Old Testa- ment Near Eastern religions. Specifically, Israel connected the divine word not only with creation and nature but with historical events as well. Israel did not derive its knowledge of God first and foremost from nature, as the ancient Orien- tal peoples did, but from the acts of God in the history of the people.

CANAANITE AND BABYLONIAN CREATION ACOUNTS Canaanites were a Semitic people who during the Bronze Age occupied most of what is today Syria, Lebanon, Israel and Jordan. The languages of the area were Ugaritic, Phoenician, Moabite, Ammonite and Hebrew. Canaanites and Phoenicians were one people, having a common language and cultural traditions. Canaanites were never organized into a single political unit. The Phoenicians called themselves “Canaanites” down to the end of Phoenicians’ cultural life in Syria, while their colonists, the Punic Cartha-

12 ians, as we are told by St. Augustine, still called themselves by the same name in the fifth century A.D. There are three main sources for Canaanite creation stories: 1) the Ugaritic texts of the late Bronze Age, 2) the divine epithet “Creator of heaven and Earth,” which occurs in Phoenician and Aramaic, and 3) Punic inscriptions from the eighth century B.C. to the second century A.D. by Philo of Byblos. The Canaanites had a polytheistic religion. The head of the Pantheon was El, “the King and the Father of gods, the creator of all.” His dwelling place was a mountain from whose base spring two rivers that are the source of all fresh water in the world. There, El lives in a tent with his “divine family” or “Assembly of gods” over which he presides. In Ugaritic art El is depicted as a bearded patriarchal figure. It is noteworthy that no temple of El has yet been discovered at Ugarit. Nevertheless, in the surviving Canaanite stories, El is an important ruler. It is he, and no other god, who can cure Kirta; it is he to whom Baal, his son, turns for help. Baal is the Ugaritic fertility god and the patron of the city as his title, “Lord of Ugarit” shows. Baal is depicted with a club in one hand and a lightning bolt in the other; the god of storm clouds, wind and rain. In the pantheon, three female deities take part in the divine family: Anat, Asherah and Astar/Astarte. But none of them have major roles in the myths, for Ugaritic theology, like Ugaritic society, was patriarchal. Asherah is El’s consort, and the mother of the gods. The only goddess with a vivid character is Anat. She is Baal’s wife and sister, source of fertility and a successful champion of the forces of chaos. Like Baal, she lives on a mountain. Her fierce temper is directed against gods and mortals alike. She has human heads around her neck, and a belt of human hands. Baal’s adversary, Death, is the god of sterility and drought. He lives in the deserts. His underworld home is a damp, watery

13 place called “the Swamp.” These gods control human destiny. They are personifications of realities beyond human understanding and control: the storms on which prosperity and survival depend, the powerful drives of sex and violence, and the final mystery of death. They are also individuals belonging to a society that mirrors them on earth and gives hope for the future.

UGARIT AND ISRAEL The Bible contains many direct references to Ca- naanite religious practices and ideology. The best way to illuminate this relationship between Israel and Ugarit is to examine the Canaanite divinities and compare them with biblical analogues. The head of the Pantheon, El, also appears in the Bible. His name is Elohim, the variant of El: “Elohim has taken his place in the Assembly of El, in the midst of the gods he holds judgment”(Ps.82). “How you are fallen from heaven, Stars of El” (Isa.14: 13). “The Most High…fixed the bounds of the people according to the number of the Sons of El”(Deut.32:8). “Elohim spoke to Moses, and he said to him: ‘I am Yahweh’ (Ex.6: 2-3). “God-El, the eternal one”(Gen.21: 33); “The Mighty one of Jacob”(Gen. 49:24). El was the only god with the right to issue decrees and his decrees had to be obeyed. He was in charge of the entire universe, and it was his responsibility to ensure equi- librium among all the competing and conflicting powers. El was also concerned with human society. Just as he watched over order in the universe, so he watched over order, society-justice, and fair dealing. He was called “the kindly, the compassionate” – a designation strangely remi- niscent of “Allah the Merciful, the Compassionate” introduced later in Islam. Transgressions in the community, ritual or ethical, could provoke him, and then he would prompt neighboring powers to invade and conquer. To avert such

14 calamities, the reigning king had to perform rites of expiation and offer sacrifices. Like Baal, Yahweh was a victorious warrior who had shown his mastery over the sea; like Baal, Yahweh revealed himself on a mountain in the midst of a storm: like Baal, Yahweh had a temple built of cedar. We find also traces of Anat, Asherah and Astarte in the Bible. It is significant that the revelation of the name of Yahweh was later introduced during the period of the Exo- dus and conquest, when Israel made the transition from nomadic to a sedentary and urban way of life. The three goddesses, Astarte (Ashtaroth), Anath and The three goddesses, Astarte (Ashtaroth), Anath and Asherah, present the most complex pattern of relations. The Asherah, present the most complex pattern of relations. The same Babylonian ideogram is employed in the Amarna same Babylonian ideogram is employed in the Amarna Tablets to write the names of both Astarte and Asherah; Tablets to write the names of both Astarte and Asherah; Anath and Astarte are even fused into one deity “Antart” or Anath and Astarte are even fused into one deity “Antart” or “Atargatis.” Astarte was goddess of the evening star, a fe- “Atargatis.” Astarte was goddess of the evening star, a female figure. The original character of Anath is still obscure. male figure. The original character of Anath is still obscure. In Ugaritic myths, Anath is called “the Virgin Anath.” In Ugaritic myths, Anath is called “the Virgin Anath.” Asherah was primarily goddess of the sea. All three god- Asherah was primarily goddess of the sea. All three goddesses were concerned with sex and war. These are “Great desses were concerned with sex and war. These are “Great goddesses who conceive but do not bear.” In biblical He- goddesses who conceive but do not bear.” In biblical He- brew, the plural of the name “Ashtart is used repeatedly in brew, the plural of the name “Ashtart is used repeatedly in Deuteronomy as in the sense of (sheep) breeding.” Phoeni- Deuteronomy as in the sense of (sheep) breeding.” Phoeni- cians attributed to Astarte two sons, named “Sexual De- cians attributed to Astarte two sons, named “Sexual De- sire”(Phothos) and “Sexual Love” (Eros).In the Baal epic, sire”(Phothos) and “Sexual Love” (Eros).In the Baal epic, Anath is described as bloodthirsty. Anath is described as bloodthirsty. One of the most interesting Canaanite gods was Kau- thar, Koshar or Kushor, the wise craftsman and the inventor of tools and weapons as well as arts. In the Bible, women singers are called after him, Kosharoth (Ps.68: 7/6). The most common name by which the God of Israel is identified is Yahweh. But he is also referred to as Elohim and El. The name El is sometimes used as a title, meaning “the god.” It most often occurs in the Bible as a proper

15 name. Yahweh is used primarily by the source J=Yahwist. E=Elohim and P=Priestly sources declare that the name Yahweh was revealed first to Moses and therefore had been unknown to the ancestors (Ex.6: 2-3). “I am Yahweh; I appeared to Abraham, Isaac and Jacob as EL Shadday, but by my name Yahweh I did not make myself known to them.” El Shadday is translated “God Almighty.” This passage pre- serves a tradition that the ancestors worshiped God under the name El. The significant value of this tradition is that while the name Yahweh relates virtually to Israel, the god El was well known across the Near East and in the Canaanite myths from Ugarit as the king of the gods. Although his son Baal and Anat are the primary subjects of the mythological tablets, it is El that is the creator of the universe, the creator of creatures, the father of humanity, the father of gods, and years. He lives on a mountain from the foot of which comes the source of fresh water of the world. He lives in a tent. Abraham calls him Yahweh El Olam, the Eternal One. Variations of creation myths were well known throughout the ancient world describing, and exposing different views and beliefs regarding the creation and the beginning of life. In Egypt, man’s life was dominated by the daily rising of the sun from darkness and by the annual overflowing of the Nile. His dependence upon these powers of nature was reflected in the identification of the Nile with the waters of chaos and the view that each day the sun initiated a new creation by defeating the powers of darkness and chaos. And in Canaan, the immediate setting of Israel’s life, the same kind of mythical thinking evolved alongside. Nature and environment as well as cross cultures, world- views, and lifestyle had an important meaning and place in religious thinking. Mythological texts from Ras Shamra (ancient Ugarit on the coast of Syria), dating from 1400 B.C., portray the dramatic conflict between Baal, the storm god and his rival

16 Yam, the Sea-god. The rebellious Sea-god Yam, who was bent on seizing kingship over the gods, sends a bold message to the supreme god El and the divine assembly, demanding the surrender of Baal. As in the Babylonian myth, the gods are helpless and despair. They wait with their heads dropped toward their knees. Baal, however, after rebuking the assembled gods, comes to the rescue and goes forth to challenge the Sea god to mortal combat: “Baal as an eagle soars, It smites the head of Prince Sea, Between the eyes of River the Ruler.

Sea collapses and falls to the ground: His strength is impaired: His dexterity fails.

Baal drags Sea away and disperses him. He annihilates River the Ruler.”

In consequence of Baal’s victory over the hostile waters, the cry is raised in the divine assembly, “Let Baal reign!” “Behold your enemies, O Baal. Behold your enemies, you shall smite, Behold you shall take your eternal kingdom, Your sovereignty everlasting.”

Then they build a temple for Baal in which the gods hold a great banquet to celebrate his winning the kingship. Although Baal’s victory over Sea and River is not explicitly connected with creation, his victory “rescues, pre- serves” the world from destruction. In Canaanite mythology,

17 Baal’s responsibility was the maintaining of the regularities of the earth and its seasons. Canaanites were concerned of the threatening powers of chaos during the cycle of the seasons. Baal’s annual victory over the waters was seen as a life saving act which established his dominion as “Lord of the earth”(agricultural reasons). It was apparently the basis of a New Year enthronement festival held in autumn. J. Gray, in his book “The Legacy of Canaan” p.20, projects that during celebration and New Year festivities, the cele- brants would recite the creation myth. They believed that the combat, the victory, and the creation took place at that very moment. Israel, of course, knew her dependence upon the rhythms of nature: “seedtime and harvest, cold and heat, summer and winter, day and night”(Gen.8:22). Under the influence of the Canaanites, her life came to be ordered by the great agricultural festivals celebrated at the sanctuary three times a year: at the time of the harvest, the first fruits of wheat harvest, and the vintage at the year’s end (Ex.34:22-23). But Israel broke with paganism and its mythical views: nature is not the realm of the divine. The God whom Israel worships is the Lord of nature, but he is not the soul of nature. Israel’s sense of God’s transcendence resulted in “the emancipation of thought from myth.” Yet the story concerns the preconditions for life, fertility, and human society. The extant myth does not portray cosmogony. Baal is not shown creating the cosmos, and his dominion is not absolute; in the beginning he is in the power of Death, and at the end El’s power (invoked by Shapshu), not his own, rids him of Mot. The puzzle is the relationship between El and Baal. El hands Baal over to Mot (Yam) yet rejoices when Baal revives and upholds his reign. Baal appears to rule as El’s viceroy, but even El is overruled by fate. El and Asherah create the world and then assign rule to Baal to govern in an imperfect world. The Bible borrows

18 language belonging both to the storm god Baal and El, for its portrait of Yahweh.

PHOENICIAN AND PUNIC INSCRIPTIONS In a Phoenician inscription from Karatepe in Cilicia, Azitiwada / a vassal king/ threatens and curses: “May Baal Shamen and El, Creator of the Earth and Eternal Sun and all the assembly of the sons of gods, efface that kingdom and that king and that man.” In Azitiwada’s curse, El is named after Baal Shamen and before the Eternal Sun and the assembly of the gods. Azitiwada invokes Baal at the beginning of the inscription and that priority apparently carries over into the curse at the end. El was the high god of the pre-1200 B.C. Ugaritic pantheon, and as it shows, remained so generally in Phoenician religion. The inscription thus supports the conclusions based on the Ugaritic texts, in which El creates and Baal is patron of kings and lord of the fertility-bestowing storm.

THE COSMOGONIES OF PHILO OF BYBLOS In his apologetic work “Praeparatio Evangelica,” the church father Eusebius of Caesarea (260-340 A.D.) re- printed excerpts from the Phoenician History of Philo of Byblos (50-150 A.D.). The first excerpt, a cosmogony has the world coming into being without a creator god. “The beginning of everything was as dark and windy air, or a blast of dark air, and turbid, dark chaos.” These were limitless and for a long time without boundaries. When the wind lusted after its own beginnings and a mixing took place, that entwining was called desire. And that was the beginning of all things. But the wind did not know its creation, and from the same entwining of the wind Mot came into being. Some say this is mud, others the putrefaction of the watery mixture. And from this came every seed of creation and origin of all things.

19 “And as the air became luminous, because of the “And as the air became luminous, because of the heating of the sea and the land; there arose winds and heating of the sea and the land; there arose winds and clouds. From the celestial waters came great downpours clouds. From the celestial waters came great downpours and floods. And when (the waters) were separated from and floods. And when (the waters) were separated from each other and were removed from their proper place by the each other and were removed from their proper place by the heating of the sun, and everything kept bumping into each heating of the sun, and everything kept bumping into each other in the air and ran into each other, there were thunders other in the air and ran into each other, there were thunders and lightning. At the crash of thunder the intelligent crea- and lightning. At the crash of thunder the intelligent creatures already mentioned woke up, startled by the noise, and tures already mentioned woke up, startled by the noise, and began to move on land and sea, male and female.” began to move on land and sea, male and female.”

BABYLONIAN ACCOUNTS OF CREATION BABYLONIAN ACCOUNTS OF CREATION Babylon possessed various creation accounts. For a Babylon possessed various creation accounts. For a comparison with Genesis 1, the most similar is the Enuma comparison with Genesis 1, the most similar is the Enuma Elish’s myth, which begins with the words, “When above….” Elish’s myth, which begins with the words, “When above….” It was written upon seven clay tablets. In this story there ex- It was written upon seven clay tablets. In this story there existed in the beginning sweet water, which was personified isted in the beginning sweet water, which was personified by Apsu, and salt water, which was personified by Tiamat. by Apsu, and salt water, which was personified by Tiamat. Alongside these appears Mummu, Apsu’s vizier. According Alongside these appears Mummu, Apsu’s vizier. According to Babylonian mythology, the gods, including the gods of to Babylonian mythology, the gods, including the gods of light, came into being in the course of time. The concept of light, came into being in the course of time. The concept of chaos therefore includes that darkness. In successive gen- chaos therefore includes that darkness. In successive generations, the gods came forth from the primeval waters. erations, the gods came forth from the primeval waters. Against these newcomers, the gods of chaos became furi- Against these newcomers, the gods of chaos became furi- ous. Marduk, to whom was promised the government of the ous. Marduk, to whom was promised the government of the world in case of victory, fought with Tiamat and slew her. He world in case of victory, fought with Tiamat and slew her. He cut her body in two and with one half made the vault of cut her body in two and with one half made the vault of heavens with which he barred up the waters, and from the heavens with which he barred up the waters, and from the other half he made the earth. Then he fashioned the heav- other half he made the earth. Then he fashioned the heavenly bodies, plants, animals, and finally men; men having enly bodies, plants, animals, and finally men; men having the task of serving the gods. Another document accredits the task of serving the gods. Another document accredits Anu with making the heavens. Ea the ocean. Gods arose; Anu with making the heavens. Ea the ocean. Gods arose; the earth was made; and men were created to serve the the earth was made; and men were created to serve the gods. Darkness and water existed in the beginning (chaos). gods. Darkness and water existed in the beginning (chaos). Then Baal (Marduk) clove Tiamat (darkness and water) in Then Baal (Marduk) clove Tiamat (darkness and water) in

20 20 half and from one part made the earth and from the other half and from one part made the earth and from the other the sky. Then he fashioned mankind, animals and stars. the sky. Then he fashioned mankind, animals and stars. The Genesis 1 creation account and the Enuma Elish The Genesis 1 creation account and the Enuma Elish mythology narrative have similarities. In both accounts the mythology narrative have similarities. In both accounts the universe takes shape through a process of division; God universe takes shape through a process of division; God separates the lower from the upper waters. Baal (Marduk) separates the lower from the upper waters. Baal (Marduk) divides Tiamat and fashions from her upper half the firma- divides Tiamat and fashions from her upper half the firmament. The gods “nature forces” or heavenly bodies are part ment. The gods “nature forces” or heavenly bodies are part of nature and therefore can react upon one another during of nature and therefore can react upon one another during or after the process of creation. or after the process of creation. In the Old Testament account there is but one God. In the Old Testament account there is but one God. He exists prior to the world, causing unformed matter to He exists prior to the world, causing unformed matter to come into existence, and made the world from it. In Babylo- come into existence, and made the world from it. In Babylo- nian or Canaanite narratives, the creation was viewed as a nian or Canaanite narratives, the creation was viewed as a difficult and dangerous conflict between gods and the pow- difficult and dangerous conflict between gods and the powers of chaos. God in Genesis 1 exercises His creative activ- ers of chaos. God in Genesis 1 exercises His creative activity by a mere word. In Babylonian mythology, men are cre- ity by a mere word. In Babylonian mythology, men are created to serve the gods. Genesis 1 and 2 stress how all ated to serve the gods. Genesis 1 and 2 stress how all things were made for the service of man who was created things were made for the service of man who was created FREE in the LIKENESS of God. In the Babylonian narrative, FREE in the LIKENESS of God. In the Babylonian narrative, Ea created Adapa, “the leader of mankind,” but did not em- Ea created Adapa, “the leader of mankind,” but did not empower him with immortality. Through Anu’s favor, he was power him with immortality. Through Anu’s favor, he was offered “the food of life and the water of life,” but because offered “the food of life and the water of life,” but because Ea had warned him against death-causing food and water, Ea had warned him against death-causing food and water, he refused to eat and drink; and so he remained mortal. In he refused to eat and drink; and so he remained mortal. In the Gilgamish epic Utnapishtim gave the hero “an herb of the Gilgamish epic Utnapishtim gave the hero “an herb of life.” If he ate it, he would not die. But a serpent stole the life.” If he ate it, he would not die. But a serpent stole the herb from him. There are no references in Babylonian- herb from him. There are no references in Babylonian- Canaanite literature to a tree of knowledge, or a fall into sin Canaanite literature to a tree of knowledge, or a fall into sin by the first man and woman, nor has the notion of paradise by the first man and woman, nor has the notion of paradise been found, although the word “eden” and “gun,” garden been found, although the word “eden” and “gun,” garden would point in that direction. would point in that direction. For the Babylonians, when the world was created, it For the Babylonians, when the world was created, it had a center. This center was the earthly palace of Marduk, had a center. This center was the earthly palace of Marduk, which was parallel to the palace of the king of Babylon. In which was parallel to the palace of the king of Babylon. In

21 21 the ancient world, the god was the king projected into the sky. As in the Ugaritic myth of Baal, the state was legiti- mated by the temple, which was the palace of the king. The story of the creation of human beings that took place from Marduk’s earthly palace reflected the origin of human beings from the perspective of the king’s palace. The story is not the story of the creation of the world; it is the story of the creation of the Babylonian state. The universe that arises in Genesis 1 is a system in which the elements are arranged hierarchically and assigned value. All ancient cosmogonies and creation accounts were articulated by describing the pre-creation period as the negative mirror image of the created world, “a holy house…had not been made; a reed had not come forth, a tree had not been created.” But more often, it was implied by the actual sequence of divine actions, i.e., the gods make a plan, tame the sea or channel the cosmic waters. They create the marshes to supply mud bricks and reeds for the temple; from the human race come slaves and from animals come sacrifices. In comparison with Mesopotamian systems, the universe of Genesis 1 stands out in its complexity and coher- ence. The seven-day sequence of creation activity shows some of the interconnections: days 1-3 correspond to days 4-6, and the climatic day 7, God’s rest, lies outside the series. Further, the human race has dominion over sea, heaven and earth. Only the human race, by virtue of its climatic sixth-day position and its freedom, has to respond to the divine word and directly encounters God. In the Genesis account, the human race is the center of a harmonious universe, spanning and uniting it and bringing it before God. Because God is not needy like the gods of comparable cosmogonies, the Genesis system is designed less immediately to provide essential services for the divine world. In the course of the week, the world is made

22 increasingly fit for human habitation by God’s control over darkness and the waters and God’s arrangement of the universe. Although Mesopotamian-Babylonian and Biblical accounts of creation have similarities; order of events, light, firmament, earth, luminaries, man and God or gods at rest; but they are in contrast to the exalted monotheism of Gene- sis. The Mesopotamian-Babylonian accounts present gods which are embodiments of natural forces. They know no moral principle. They lie, steal, fornicate, and kill. Moreover, humans do not have any dignity in these narratives. They are lowly servants of the gods, being made to provide them with food, offerings and sacrifice. Hence we note the demy- thologizing of the cosmos, the deification of which had led to polytheism. This is unlike the Biblical account that presents the true, holy, and Omnipotent God, the Lord and the ruler of the Cosmos. He is the First cause, the Originator and Fashioner of all things, who creates man “in his image,” and his relationship to humankind is personal and immediate. This raises humans above the rest of creation and places them alongside God. They become God’s representative on earth. Having natural right to explore, subdue, and partake of the creation as the words convey, “and let them have dominion over…” In the Genesis account the distinctive nature of the Creator shines through the narrative out of nothing he creates everything, and were good. He is Good.

23 BIBLIOGRAPHY

Albright, W.F. (1942). Archaeology and the religion of Israel. Baltimore: Johns Hopkins. 110-120. Andersen, Bernard W. (1967). Creation versus chaos. New York: Associated Press. 15-30. Binger, Tilde. (1997). Asherah goddesses in Ugarit, Israel and the Old Testament. Sheffield Academic Press. 20-24. Brandon. 1963). Creation legends of the ancient Near East. Lon- don: Hodder and Stoughton. 66-125. Clifford, Richard J. (1994). Creation accounts in the ancient Near East and in the Bible. The Catholic Biblical Association of America, Washington, DC. 126-129, 143-144. Cohn, Norman. (1993). Cosmos, Chaos and The World to Come. New Haven and London. Yale University Press. 119-128. Coogan, Michael D. (1998).The Oxford history of the Biblical world. New York. Oxford University. 26-30, 64-75. Dever, William G. (1974). Archaeology and Biblical studies. Evanston, Illinois. Seabury-Western Theological Semi- nary. 32-38. Heinisch, Paul. History of The Old Testament. Collegeville, Min- nesota. St. John’s Abbey. 10-17. La Sor, William Sanford. (1996). Survey of The Old Testament. Grand Rapids, Michigan. W.B. Eerdmans Publishing Company. 22-24. Leslie, Elmer A. (1936). Old Testament religion. New York, Cin- cinnati, Chicago.The Abington Press. 17-31. Pooler, L.A. (1904). Studies in the religion of Israel. London: Hodder and Stoughton, Paternoster Row. 5-9, 44-52. Ringgren, Helmer. (1996). Israelite religion. Philadelphia. For- tress Press. 104-111. Smith, Marks S (1817). The early history of God. New York. Harper & Row, Publishers. 25, 40-50, 145-146, 154. Unger, Merrill F. (1967). Unger’s Bible handbook. Chicago. Moody Press. 40.

24 BAAL’S SURVIVAL

Omri’s reign ushered in a new era of Israelite power. He was an industrious, capable, energetic politician. The Moabite Stone from Dibon show that it was Omri who conquered Moab. Omri’s brilliant capital Samaria has been ex- cavated and the foundations of his palace and other evi- dences confirm that he was the founder of the city. Omri’s fame in the world of his day is attested by the Assyrians’ reference to him on the Black Obelisk of Shalmaneser III over a century later in connection with King Jehu of Israel, “royal successor of Omri.” After Omri, Israel, in Assyrian cuneiform texts is styled Bit-Humri “House, dynasty of Omri”(Ahab, Ahaziah and Joram). Omri, for political reasons, married his son Ahab to Jezebel, daughter of the prosperous Phoenician king of Si- don. This alliance gave Omri a ready market for Israel’s agricultural products and enough military strength to keep the Arameans of Damascus from invading his territory in Transjordan. This alliance eventually brought to power Ahab and Jezebel, who used their royal position and resources to promote Baal worship in Israel. The book of Judges and the prophet Hosea, as well as other books and biblical writers, constantly condemn Baalism (Judges 6:25; Hos.2:16). Canaanite religious literature from Ras Shamra reveals the worship of the immoral gods El and Baal. Cult objects, figurines and literature com- bine to show how sex-centered was Canaanite religion. The Baalim were images of the great northwest Semitic fertility deity Baal, and Ashtaroth were replicas of Ashtaroth, the goddess of sexual love and fertility. Baal, son of El, was considered the Lord of Heaven and Earth, the god of the rain and the storm, whose voice thundered in the tempest. Snake worship, both male and female prostitution, child murder and sacrifice, and every conceivable vice were

25 associated with Canaanite religion. Priests and prophets of Baal were official murderers of little children. Israelites were seduced to the worship of Baal-Peor. The Canaanite fertility god Baal offered them tangible and exciting ways of worship. Baal’s festive celebrations were occasions to feed their passions for wine and immorality. Baal worshippers believed that sexual intercourse, both male and female, promoted fertility in the land as well as in their lives. In Ugarit texts, Baal was considered a universal god and “lord of the underworld;” hence his authority was universal and “not limited to any geographical area.” That is why Baalism was regarded a national threat to the Israel- ites, an imminent danger to their Yahwist religion and menacing to their very existence and mission as Yahweh’s chosen people. This is why Elijah and later prophets Elisha, Amos, Isaiah, Micah and Jeremiah were intolerant fanatics and ferocious warriors against any foreign gods or religious influences. For a long time Baal, in contrast to Milkom and Chemosh, was not considered a foreign god; it had been worshipped by Israelites for centuries beside Yahweh. That is why, especially in the times of the kings, the worship of Baal spread greatly. The worship of Yahweh with the Baal rituals led to confusion, because Israel under Canaanite religious influence identified their worship of Yahweh with Bealiah-Baal=Yahweh; “Yahweh is Baal” “Yahweh is master,” and “husband” to “Israel”. Therefore they called him “Baal” or “Lord.” Temples were erected to Baal, his images next to the Tabernacle or on high places were set up, and his altars were numerous (Num.22:41; Judges 2:13; 6:28- 32). Hosea, seeking to make a distinction between Yahweh and Baal proposed the name “husband,” another title for Yahweh and the name “Shame” for Baal. “You will call me, ‘My husband,’ and no longer will you call me, ‘My Baal’” (Hosea 2:16).

26 Politically much stronger and socially more organized, Canaanites imposed themselves and their orders on Israel- ites. Being dominant in the region, it seemed that their gods were more powerful and dominant over Yahweh whose ca- pabilities seemed limited. For Baal was associated with the storms that annually brought revival of vegetation and fertility, who offered them tangible and exciting ways of worship too. Baal was the champion of divine order over earthly chaos and deadly drought. Israelites socially and economi- cally were much in need of such a deity to interfere in their lives and meet their needs. Elijah opposed Ahab and his policy. The clashes between Elijah and Ahab (I Kings 17-22) describe the conflict and the coming divine judgment on those responsible. The idols of the Canaanite fertility god offered to Israelites something tangible to worship, and Baal’s festive occasions fed Israelite passions for wine and immorality. Baal worshippers believed that sexual intercourse in worship with cultic prostitutes promoted fertility. Furthermore, though worshipped in local forms, Baal had become for the Canaanites a universal god. Jezebel’s god was Baal Melqart, (Milqart), the form of Baal revered in her home city, Tyre. The denying of Yah- weh’s exclusive sovereignty was a dreadful threat to the very existence of Israel. Opposition to Baalism was led by Israel’s prophets. Israelite prophets attacked Baalism, since their own Yahwist religion, and Yahweh himself (even within the Israelites), was considered less attractive, less powerful and influential, and was not so much deeply rooted in nature as in the events of their history. Hence the fertility rites associated with Baal worship corrupted the faith in Yahweh, who was the Lord of the deserts and not controlling heavens and the rain. Elijah, with his confrontation, intended to show that his God, the Lord the God of Israel, was the one who really controlled the rain. This is why God’s zealot prophet Elijah,

27 in his “Battle of the gods,” challenged Baal, its deities and their prophets to prove Yahweh’s all dominant universal power and to protect God’s Laws, Covenant, religious beliefs, customs, rites, national traditions and aspirations. The prophets and biblical writers endeavored to show Yahweh as a transcendent universal God, who provides rains and fertility, yet who “was not a nature god.” For Ca- naanites and Israelites, agriculture was so vital and so pre- cariously dependent on the weather, it became important to show that Yahweh, not Baal, was the One who rode the clouds and controlled the storms. For Yahweh is creator of nature and the whole universe. To convince, make them realize and believe who was the real Almighty God, Lord and Creator of the universe, Elijah challenged his opponents as well as his people. Boldly Elijah called Israel to worship either Yahweh or Baal, depending on which god would send fire on the prepared sacrifice (I Kings 18:21-22). The prophet dramatically met Ahab and called for the contest on Mt. Carmel (I Kings 18:20-40). The Baals were the local representatives of the great Sky-god. Asherah, Baal’s consort, had 400 prophets and Baal 450. Elijah was alone against them, but his God Yahweh proved to be stronger. Elijah called Israel to worship either Yahweh or Baal. “How long will you go limping with two different opinions? If the Lord is God, follow him; but if Baal, then follow him (I Kgs.18:21).” Then the contest began. The Baal worshippers tested their god first. When a full morning of shouting and ritual dancing “limped about the altar” produced nothing from Baal, Elijah excited and needled his opponents with hilarious sarcasm: “Shout louder! Surely he is a god! Per- haps he is deep in thought, or busy, or traveling. Maybe he is sleeping and must be awakened. Or may be there is no Baal!” They cried louder and louder, cut themselves with swords and lances…but there was no voice, nothing

28 happened (I Kgs.18:26-29). happened (I Kgs.18:26-29). When Elijah’s turn came, he moved with a striking When Elijah’s turn came, he moved with a striking simplicity. His prayer was short, and direct: “Answer me, O simplicity. His prayer was short, and direct: “Answer me, O Lord, answer me, so that this people will know that you, O Lord, answer me, so that this people will know that you, O Lord, are God…” Immediately fire fell from heaven, consum- Lord, are God…” Immediately fire fell from heaven, consum- ing his sacrifice and the alter itself. This incident demon- ing his sacrifice and the alter itself. This incident demonstrated that Yahweh, not Baal controlled both fertility and life strated that Yahweh, not Baal controlled both fertility and life because Yahweh answered with fire and rain. Yahweh con- because Yahweh answered with fire and rain. Yahweh con- firmed that he alone was God. Elijah had the prophets exe- firmed that he alone was God. Elijah had the prophets exe- cuted. The painful drought was over. But the claim for Yah- cuted. The painful drought was over. But the claim for Yah- weh’s victory over Baalism was not as final as it is de- weh’s victory over Baalism was not as final as it is described and proclaimed. Kings chapter 19 shows that Baal’s scribed and proclaimed. Kings chapter 19 shows that Baal’s forces fought on. Elijah flees for his life into the desert south forces fought on. Elijah flees for his life into the desert south of Beersheba, 130 miles south of Jezreel, into the territory of Beersheba, 130 miles south of Jezreel, into the territory of Judah out of Jezebel’s jurisdiction. From there, the de- of Judah out of Jezebel’s jurisdiction. From there, the de- pressed prophet goes 200 miles farther south to Mt. Horeb, pressed prophet goes 200 miles farther south to Mt. Horeb, also called Sinai, where the Law had been revealed to also called Sinai, where the Law had been revealed to Moses. There God spoke to Elijah in “a sound of sheer si- Moses. There God spoke to Elijah in “a sound of sheer silence.” The theophany scene echoes Yahweh’s appearance lence.” The theophany scene echoes Yahweh’s appearance to Moses on Mt. Horeb and portrays Elijah as a kind of Sec- to Moses on Mt. Horeb and portrays Elijah as a kind of Sec- ond Moses (Ex.33:17-23). ond Moses (Ex.33:17-23). What a contrast! Elijah, the hero of faith on Carmel, What a contrast! Elijah, the hero of faith on Carmel, victorious over Baalism! Elijah the coward of unbelief at victorious over Baalism! Elijah the coward of unbelief at Horeb, self-occupied, utterly discouraged, wishing to die (I Horeb, self-occupied, utterly discouraged, wishing to die (I Kgs. 19:15-18). This partial victory and completion of Kgs. 19:15-18). This partial victory and completion of Elijah’s mission signals that the bitter contest with Baal, Elijah’s mission signals that the bitter contest with Baal, which was considered and hailed as Yahweh’s final victory, which was considered and hailed as Yahweh’s final victory, in reality was not, but just a decisive beginning of a scene in reality was not, but just a decisive beginning of a scene which would last a longtime in bloody struggles. It was the which would last a longtime in bloody struggles. It was the clash of two traditions; a clash of two religions. clash of two traditions; a clash of two religions. The rest of I Kings details the gravity of Ahab’s sin, The rest of I Kings details the gravity of Ahab’s sin, pronounces his sentence, and reports his execution. Ahab’s pronounces his sentence, and reports his execution. Ahab’s two heroic victories over Ben-hadad of Syria surprisingly two heroic victories over Ben-hadad of Syria surprisingly turn sour when an unnamed prophet announces the king’s turn sour when an unnamed prophet announces the king’s death for the first time (I Kgs. 20:34-43). The reason given death for the first time (I Kgs. 20:34-43). The reason given

29 29 is that Yahweh wanted Ben-hadad killed but Ahab set him free. The cold-blooded scheme by Jezebel and Ahab to murder Naboth to get his vineyard further confirms Ahab’s guilt. Elijah expounds upon the death sentences of the wicked king and his queen in the strongest terms (I Kgs. 21:20-24). Finally, Ahab dies in battle, struck, ironically, by an arrow shot at random (Ch. 22). The editors of Kings regarded his death as the well-deserved punishment predicted by the prophets. Though Ahab was dead, 2 Kgs.1 shows that Canaanite religion was very much alive. In Judah, through the influence of Jezebel’s daughter, Athalia, wife of Jehoram, the worship of Baal received new impulse (2Chron.17:3; 21:6; 22:2). On her overthrow, the temple of Baal at Jerusalem was pulled down, the altars and images were destroyed, and Mattan, the chief priest, slain before the altar (2 Kgs.11:18). But the worship of Baal, even centuries later survived, despite all the measures to uproot and eliminate its influence as well as its rituals in both Israel (Hos.2:8; 4:13; 2Chron.28:2) and Judah. When Ahab’s successor, Ahaziah, suffered an injury, he sent messengers to priests and prophets of Baal-zebub, god of the Philistine city of Ekron, to find out if he would heal. The mission implied that Baal, not Yahweh, was Lord of Israel and shaper of its future. Baal’s staunch opponent, Elijah intercepted Ahaziah’s emissaries, held off three military attempts to capture him, and announced that Ahaziah would not recover. The prophecy came true, and Ahaziah’s brother Jehoram ruled Israel until about 841. Ahaziah’s death and succession by a brother, not a son, hinted that Ahab’s dynasty was on its end, just as Elijah had prophesied. This illustrates also that godly leaders, not mighty ar- mies, gave Israel strength. Their prophets were their true defense. This is why in the book of the Kings, Judges as well as in other books, prophets and biblical writers repeatedly condemn and attack Baalism or any other foreign

30 religious, social, cultural influences, rites, traditions which one way or another were related to a polytheistic-pagan world view. Such views, beliefs and tendencies were considered a national threat to their Yahwist worship and monotheistic religion as well as a grave danger to their very existence and their mission as Yahweh’s chosen people to the world. Israelites nomads were in close contact with Canaan- ite city culture for a long time before and after their settle- ment. For centuries Israelites lived side by side with Ca- naanites whom they had overrun but only partially conquered. Canaanite cities were still holding their own traditions in various parts of the country. Consequently Israel borrowed social, organizational, cultural as well as religious elements, and in their turn native peoples, tribes and gro ups were influenced by Israelites as well. The constant confrontation and intense animosity between two or more religions, cultures, traditions, ideologies and Hebrew’s concept of “God” walked side by side throughout their history. Later, the international liaisons, treaties, intermarriages, and cultural openness, which began with the formation of the Israelite state, led to the establishment of Sanctuaries for the neighboring gods; shrines to Astarte, Milkom, Chemosh, El-Bethel, and temples to Baal in Samaria and Carmel were erected. Although this religious tolerance and openness was politically derived and were somehow wise decisions, on the other hand they were regarded a threat to Israel’s religious unity and a betrayal of the Covenant. This is why in general, the prophets and biblical writers, and in this particular event Elijah, thought that he succeeded with a daring zeal to uproot once and for all, all the remains of the perverted cultic religion of Baalism. He failed and was wrong. For Baalism survived after that fatal “Battle of the gods” on Mt. Carmel. It was not until the reforms of Josiah 640-609 B.C. who in his great reformation

31 end to this cult (2 Kgs.23:4-5). But it was only in later centuries, during the times of Ezra and Nehemiah 458-445 B.C., that the great national reformers, who after returning from Babylonian exile, once and for all put an end to the foreign traditions and religious cultural influences; and after religious-national revival, they led people to seal a covenant to worship Yahweh (Neh. 9:10,29-39). In the post exile period we do not hear of Baal. After long and bloody centuries, Israel gradually but surely developed its view of God and ascended from polytheism to monotheism.

32 BIBLIOGRAPHY BIBLIOGRAPHY

Albertz, Rainer. (1994). A history of Israelite religion in the Albertz, Rainer. (1994). A history of Israelite religion in the Old Testament period. London: SCM Press. Vol., 1. Old Testament period. London: SCM Press. Vol., 1. Fohrer, George. (1973). History of Israelite religion. London: Fohrer, George. (1973). History of Israelite religion. London: SPCK Press. 133-134. SPCK Press. 133-134. Grant, Michael. (1984). The history of ancient Israel. New Grant, Michael. (1984). The history of ancient Israel. New York: Charles Scribner Sons. 22-25. York: Charles Scribner Sons. 22-25. Gunnar, Ostborn. (1956). Yahweh and baal. Lund and Gunnar, Ostborn. (1956). Yahweh and baal. Lund and Stockholm: Hakan Ohlssons Boktryckeri. 15-31. Stockholm: Hakan Ohlssons Boktryckeri. 15-31. Harper Collins. (1996). Bible dictionary. San Francisco: Harper Collins. (1996). Bible dictionary. San Francisco: Paul J. Achtemeier ed. USA, Harper Collins Publish- Paul J. Achtemeier ed. USA, Harper Collins Publish- ing House. 94. ing House. 94. La Sor, Hubbard and Bush. (1996). Old Testament survey. La Sor, Hubbard and Bush. (1996). Old Testament survey. Cambridge, UK: Eerdmans Publishing Comp. 202- Cambridge, UK: Eerdmans Publishing Comp. 202- 203. 203. Madeline S. Miller and J. Cane Miller edts. (1973). Harper’s Madeline S. Miller and J. Cane Miller edts. (1973). Harper’s Bible dictionary. 54. Bible dictionary. 54. The New Oxford annotated Bible with the Apocrypha. The New Oxford annotated Bible with the Apocrypha. (1977). Herbert G. May and Bruce M. Metzger ed., (1977). Herbert G. May and Bruce M. Metzger ed., New York, USA: Oxford University Press. 1542. New York, USA: Oxford University Press. 1542. Wiseman, ed. Peoples of Old Testament Times. (1973). Ox- Wiseman, ed. Peoples of Old Testament Times. (1973). Ox- ford: Clarendon Press, 44-48. ford: Clarendon Press, 44-48.

33 33 WHY DOES GOD ALLOW EVIL AND SUFFERING? Frequently Asked Questions

 Why does God make people suffer?  My child is suffering. Is it because I have sinned?  If God is a God of love, why is there so much evil and suffering in the world?  Does Satan have authority over the world?  Why does God allow abuse and torture of innocent children?  Why do bad things happen to good people?  Did God create evil, or does He just allow it?  Are natural disasters caused by God or Satan?

The reasons why a loving God would allow so much evil in the world are a mystery and a stumbling block to faith for many people. Why do good people sometimes suffer terribly while evil people live lives of ease? These are very difficult things to understand, but the Bible does give some clues.

I. Physical Evil 1.- Illness, pain, earthquakes, floods, and other natural disasters are examples of physical evils. God may use physical evil to chastise individuals or nations and lead them to repent (Isaiah 45:7, Genesis 6:13, Acts 13:9-11). Some physical evil may be the result of the original sin of Adam and Eve (Genesis 3:6). “Therefore, just as sin entered the world through one man, and death through sin, and in this way death came to all people, because all sinned. To be sure, sin was in the world before the law was given, but sin is not charged against anyone’s account where there is no law. Nevertheless, death reigned from the time of Adam to the time of Moses, even over those who did not sin by breaking a command, as did Adam, who is a pattern of the one to come” (Romans 5:12-14).

34 2.- God may use physical evil for a higher purpose: to test us and prepare us for glory. “Who through faith are shielded by God’s power until the coming of the salvation that is ready to be revealed in the last time. In all this you greatly rejoice, though now for a little while you may have had to suffer grief in all kinds of trials. These have come so that the proven genuine- ness of your faith—of greater worth than gold, which perishes even though refined by fire—may result in praise, glory and honor when Jesus Christ is revealed. Though you have not seen him, you love him; and even though you do not see him now, you believe in him and are filled with an inexpressible and glorious joy, for you are receiving the end result of your faith, the salvation of your souls. Concerning this salvation, the prophets, who spoke of the grace that was to come to you, searched intently and with the greatest care, trying to find out the time and circumstances to which the Spirit of Christ in them was pointing when he predicted the sufferings of the Messiah and the glories that would follow”(1 Peter 1:5-11). “Therefore, in order to keep me from becoming conceited, I was given a thorn in my flesh, a messenger of Satan, to torment me. Three times I pleaded with the Lord to take it away from me. But he said to me, “My grace is sufficient for you, for my power is made perfect in weakness.” Therefore I will boast all the more gladly about my weaknesses, so that Christ’s power may rest on me” (2 Corinthians 12:7-9). 3.- or to make us more compassionate. “Praise be to the God and Father of our Lord Jesus Christ, the Father of compassion and the God of all comfort, who comforts us in all our troubles, so that we can comfort those in any trouble with the comfort we ourselves receive from God. 5 For just as we share abundantly in the sufferings of Christ, so also our comfort abounds through Christ. 6 If we are distressed, it is for your comfort and salvation; if we are comforted, it is for your comfort, which produces in you patient endurance of the same sufferings we suffer”(2 Corinthians 1:3-6).

35 4.- The suffering we endure now will be more than compensated by the glory of eternal life. “Therefore we do not lose heart. Though outwardly we are wasting away, yet inwardly we are being renewed day by day. For our light and momentary troubles are achieving for us an eternal glory that far outweighs them all. So we fix our eyes not on what is seen, but on what is unseen, since what is seen is temporary, but what is unseen is eternal”(2 Corinthians 4:16-18). 5.- Physical evil is one means God uses to accomplish His work on earth. “As he went along, he saw a man blind from birth. His disciples asked him, “Rabbi, who sinned, this man or his parents, that he was born blind?” “Neither this man nor his parents sinned,” said Jesus, “but this happened so that the works of God might be displayed in him (John 9:1-3). It is very difficult to see any value in pain, suffering, loss of a loved one, disability, etc. However, these temporary evils are insignificant on the time scale of eternity, and they may just be a testing and preparation for better things to come. Despite all this, the reason for most physical evil is simply unknown to us. Sometimes, we just have to put our trust in God and accept the fact that we can't understand why we have to suffer. “Even though I walk through the darkest valley, I will fear no evil, for you are with me; your rod and your staff, they comfort me”. “I will be glad and rejoice in your love, for you saw my affliction and knew the anguish of my soul” (Psalms 23:4, 31:7). “For no one is cast off by the Lord forever. Though he brings grief, he will show compassion, so great is his unfailing love. For he does not willingly bring affliction or grief to anyone”(Lamentations 3:31-33). "For My thoughts are not your thoughts, Nor are your ways My ways," declares the LORD. "For as the heavens are higher than the earth, So are My ways higher than your ways And My thoughts than your thoughts" (Isaiah 55:8-9).

36 II. Moral Evil 1.- Murder, aggression, terrorism, violence, theft, greed, bribery, hatred, racism, discrimination, revenge, lying, deceit, slander, gossip, adultery, rape and other sexual immorality are examples of moral evils (Exodus 20:12-17, Deuteronomy 16:19, 1 Chronicles 22:8, Isaiah 2:4, Mark 7:21-22, Romans 12:17-19). Moral evil is caused by our sinfulness and rebellion against God. It is the result of ignoring the Ten Command- ments (Exodus 20:1-17) and Jesus' command to "Love your neighbor as yourself" (Matthew 22:35-40, Romans 13:9, James 2:8). 2.- God gives all of us the free will to choose between good or evil, and many choose to follow the ways of evil. “When tempted, no one should say, “God is tempting me.” For God cannot be tempted by evil, nor does he tempt anyone; but each person is tempted when they are dragged away by their own evil desire and enticed. Then, after desire has conceived, it gives birth to sin; and sin, when it is full-grown, gives birth to death”(James 1:13-15). Unfortunately, when some people choose the path of evil, others may suffer as a result. How- ever, in eternity, the righteous will be rewarded and the evil- doers will be punished. “For the wages of sin is death, but the gift of God is eternal life in Christ Jesus our Lord”(Romans 6:23). 3.- At all costs we should avoid participating in moral evil. “Jesus said to his disciples: “Things that cause people to stumble are bound to come, but woe to anyone through whom they come. It would be better for them to be thrown into the sea with a millstone tied around their neck than to cause one of these little ones to stumble”(Luke 17:1-2). “If your hand causes you to stumble, cut it off. It is better for you to enter life maimed than with two hands to go into hell, where the fire never goes out. And if your foot causes you to stumble, cut it off. It is better for you to enter life crippled than to have two feet and be thrown into hell. And if your eye causes you to stumble, pluck it out. It is better for

37 you to enter the kingdom of God with one eye than to have two eyes and be thrown into hell” (Mark 9:43-47). 4.- We must also avoid the temptation to retaliate or take revenge. “You have heard that it was said, ‘Love your neighbor and hate your enemy.’ But I tell you, love your enemies and pray for those who persecute you, that you may be children of your Father in heaven. He causes his sun to rise on the evil and the good, and sends rain on the righteous and the unrighteous. If you love those who love you, what reward will you get? Are not even the tax collectors doing that? And if you greet only your own people, what are you doing more than others? Do not even pagans do that? Be perfect, therefore, as your heavenly Father is perfect” (Matthew 5:43-48, Leviticus 19:18, 1 Peter 4:12-19, James 1:19-20). 5.- We may also cause suffering to ourselves as the natural consequence of sinfulness and unwise actions. “We know that the law is spiritual; but I am unspiritual, sold as a slave to sin. I do not understand what I do. For what I want to do I do not do, but what I hate I do. And if I do what I do not want to do, I agree that the law is good. As it is, it is no longer I myself who do it, but it is sin living in me. For I know that good itself does not dwell in me, that is, in my sinful nature. For I have the desire to do what is good, but I cannot carry it out. For I do not do the good I want to do, but the evil I do not want to do—this I keep on doing. Now if I do what I do not want to do, it is no longer I who do it, but it is sin living in me that does it. So I find this law at work: Although I want to do good, evil is right there with me. For in my inner being I delight in God’s law; but I see another law at work in me, waging war against the law of my mind and making me a prisoner of the law of sin at work within me”(Romans 7:14-23, Proverbs 1:29-32, 6:9-11, 10:8-9, 11:27-30, 17:9, 23:21, 29:3, Galatians 6:7-9).

III. Evil Cannot Be Completely Eliminated 1.- Jesus said He did not come to eliminate evil from

38 the world, but so that the kingdom of God can grow amid the evil of the world until the time when all evil is destroyed. “Jesus told them another parable: “The kingdom of heaven is like a man who sowed good seed in his field. But while everyone was sleeping, his enemy came and sowed weeds among the wheat, and went away. When the wheat sprouted and formed heads, then the weeds also appeared. “The owner’s servants came to him and said, ‘Sir, didn’t you sow good seed in your field? Where then did the weeds come from?’ “‘An enemy did this,’ he replied.“The servants asked him, ‘Do you want us to go and pull them up?’ “‘No,’ he answered, ‘because while you are pulling the weeds, you may uproot the wheat with them. Let both grow together until the harvest. At that time I will tell the harvesters: First collect the weeds and tie them in bundles to be burned; then gather the wheat and bring it into my barn.’” Then he left the crowd and went into the house. His disciples came to him and said, “Explain to us the parable of the weeds in the field.” He answered, “The one who sowed the good seed is the Son of Man. The field is the world, and the good seed stands for the people of the kingdom. The weeds are the people of the evil one, and the enemy who sows them is the devil. The harvest is the end of the age, and the harvesters are angels. “As the weeds are pulled up and burned in the fire, so it will be at the end of the age. The Son of Man will send out his angels, and they will weed out of his kingdom everything that causes sin and all who do evil. They will throw them into the blazing furnace, where there will be weeping and gnashing of teeth. Then the righteous will shine like the sun in the kingdom of their Father. Whoever has ears, let them hear (Matthew 13:24-30, 36-43). 2.- We cannot eliminate all evil in the world, but we can and should do our best to minimize the suffering it causes. “Blessed are the merciful, for they will be shown mercy” (Matthew 5:7).

39 “In everything I did, I showed you that by this kind of hard work we must help the weak, remembering the words the Lord Jesus himself said: ‘It is more blessed to give than to receive.’ ”(Acts 20:35). “Love is patient, love is kind. It does not envy, it does not boast, it is not proud. It does not dishonor others, it is not self- seeking, it is not easily angered, it keeps no record of wrongs. Love does not delight in evil but rejoices with the truth. It always protects, always trusts, always hopes, always perseveres” (1 Corinthians 13:4-7). “Be kind and compassionate to one another, forgiving each other, just as in Christ God forgave you” (Ephesians 4:32). “If anyone has material possessions and sees a brother or sister in need but has no pity on them, how can the love of God be in that person? Dear children, let us not love with words or speech but with actions and in truth” (1 John 3:17-18).

Questions IV. Does Satan Cause Evil? Satan is an evil being opposed to God and mankind. Satan is also called "the devil" (Matthew 4:1),"the ruler of this world" (John 14:30), "the god of this world” (2 Corinth. 4:4), "Beelzebub" (Matthew 12:24), and "the ruler of the power of the air" (Ephesians 2:2). 1 John 5:19 says, "the whole world lies under the power of the evil one." 1.- Satan's primary methods are temptation (creating a desire to do what is wrong) and deception (persuasion that wrong is actually right). “The tempter came to him and said, “If you are the Son of God, tell these stones to become bread.”(Matthew 4:3). “You belong to your father, the devil, and you want to carry out your father’s (devil’s) desires. He was a murderer from the beginning, not holding to the truth, for there is no truth in him. When he lies, he speaks his native language, for he is a liar and the father of lies”(John 8:44).

40 “The coming of the lawless one will be in accordance with how Satan works. He will use all sorts of displays of power through signs and wonders that serve the lie, and all the ways that wickedness deceives those who are perishing. They perish because they refused to love the truth and so be saved. For this reason God sends them a powerful delusion so that they will believe the lie and so that all will be condemned who have not believed the truth but have delighted in wickedness”(2 Thessalonians 2:9- 12). “This is how you can recognize the Spirit of God: Every spirit that acknowledges that Jesus Christ has come in the flesh is from God, but every spirit that does not acknowledge Jesus is not from God. This is the spirit of the antichrist, which you have heard is coming and even now is already in the world” (1 John 4: 2-3). But Satan's power is limited by God. With faith, prayer and determination we can resist temptation (Matthew 6:13, 1 Corinthians 10:13, Ephesians 4:25-27, 6:11-12, 1 Peter 5:8-10). 2.- Satan, with his powers of temptation and deception, may be indirectly responsible for moral evils. But that does not excuse those people who allow themselves to fall under Satan's influence “Watch and pray so that you will not fall into temptation. The spirit is willing, but the flesh is weak”(Matthew 26:41). “Jesus said to his disciples: “Things that cause people to stumble are bound to come, but woe to anyone through whom they come. It would be better for them to be thrown into the sea with a millstone tied around their neck than to cause one of these little ones to stumble. So watch yourselves”(Luke 17:1-3, Mark 9:42-48). 3.- Satan may also cause some physical evils. “Then the LORD said to Satan, “Have you considered my servant Job? There is no one on earth like him; he is blameless and upright, a man who fears God and shuns evil. And he still maintains his

41 integrity, though you incited me against him to ruin him without any reason.”“Skin for skin!” Satan replied. “A man will give all he has for his own life. But now stretch out your hand and strike his flesh and bones, and he will surely curse you to your face.”The LORD said to Satan, “Very well, then, he is in your hands; but you must spare his life.”So Satan went out from the presence of the LORD and afflicted Job with painful sores from the soles of his feet to the crown of his head”(Job 2:3-7).

V. Is Suffering God's Punishment for Sin? It is wrong to assume that someone who suffers is being punished for his or her sins or those of an ancestor. “In the land of Uz there lived a man whose name was Job. This man was blameless and upright; he feared God and shunned evil. ...One day when Job’s sons and daughters were feasting and drinking wine at the oldest brother’s house, a messenger came to Job and said, “The oxen were plowing and the donkeys were graz- ing nearby, and the Sabeans attacked and made off with them. They put the servants to the sword, and I am the only one who has escaped to tell you!”While he was still speaking, another messenger came and said, “The fire of God fell from the heavens and burned up the sheep and the servants, and I am the only one who has escaped to tell you!”While he was still speaking, another messenger came and said, “The Chaldeans formed three raiding parties and swept down on your camels and made off with them. They put the servants to the sword, and I am the only one who has escaped to tell you!”While he was still speaking, yet another messenger came and said, “Your sons and daughters were feasting and drinking wine at the oldest brother’s house, when suddenly a mighty wind swept in from the desert and struck the four corners of the house. It collapsed on them and they are dead, and I am the only one who has escaped to tell you!”At this, Job got up and tore his robe and shaved his head. Then he fell to the ground in worship and said: “Naked I came from my mother’s womb, and naked I will depart. The LORD gave and the LORD has taken away; may

42 the name of the LORD be praised.” In all this, Job did not sin by the name of the LORD be praised.” In all this, Job did not sin by charging God with wrongdoing” (Job 1:1, 1:13-22). charging God with wrongdoing” (Job 1:1, 1:13-22). Same ideas and teachings on sufferings as a punish- Same ideas and teachings on sufferings as a punishment for his or her sins or those of an ancestor are empha- ment for his or her sins or those of an ancestor are emphasized by our Lord Jesus Christ. “As he went along, he saw a sized by our Lord Jesus Christ. “As he went along, he saw a man blind from birth. His disciples asked him, “Rabbi, who man blind from birth. His disciples asked him, “Rabbi, who sinned, this man or his parents, that he was born blind?” “Neither sinned, this man or his parents, that he was born blind?” “Neither this man nor his parents sinned,” said Jesus, “but this happened so this man nor his parents sinned,” said Jesus, “but this happened so that the works of God might be displayed in him”(John 9:1-3). that the works of God might be displayed in him”(John 9:1-3).

In Biblical times, many people believed that someone In Biblical times, many people believed that someone who was poor or suffering was being punished by God for who was poor or suffering was being punished by God for sins. Conversely, wealth was believed to be a sign of God's sins. Conversely, wealth was believed to be a sign of God's favor. But Jesus' Parable of the Rich Man and Lazarus favor. But Jesus' Parable of the Rich Man and Lazarus (Luke 16:19-31) emphatically shows those beliefs to be (Luke 16:19-31) emphatically shows those beliefs to be wrong: The selfish rich man ended up in hell, but the poor wrong: The selfish rich man ended up in hell, but the poor beggar Lazarus ended up in heaven. beggar Lazarus ended up in heaven.

VI. Is it Good to Suffer? VI. Is it Good to Suffer? Did God Create Evil, or Does He Just Allow It? Did God Create Evil, or Does He Just Allow It? Although God may sometimes use physical evils to Although God may sometimes use physical evils to accomplish His purposes, the Bible says that God does not accomplish His purposes, the Bible says that God does not cause sin or moral evils. “When tempted, no one should say, cause sin or moral evils. “When tempted, no one should say, “God is tempting me.” For God cannot be tempted by evil, nor “God is tempting me.” For God cannot be tempted by evil, nor does he tempt anyone; but each person is tempted when they are does he tempt anyone; but each person is tempted when they are dragged away by their own evil desire and enticed. Then, after de- dragged away by their own evil desire and enticed. Then, after desire has conceived, it gives birth to sin; and sin, when it is full- sire has conceived, it gives birth to sin; and sin, when it is full- grown, gives birth to death” (James 1:13-15). grown, gives birth to death” (James 1:13-15). “Dear friends, now we are children of God, and what we “Dear friends, now we are children of God, and what we will be has not yet been made known. But we know that when will be has not yet been made known. But we know that when Christ appears, we shall be like him, for we shall see him as he is. Christ appears, we shall be like him, for we shall see him as he is. All who have this hope in him purify themselves, just as he is All who have this hope in him purify themselves, just as he is pure. Everyone who sins breaks the law; in fact, sin is lawlessness. pure. Everyone who sins breaks the law; in fact, sin is lawlessness. But you know that he appeared so that he might take away our But you know that he appeared so that he might take away our sins. And in him is no sin. No one who lives in him keeps on sins. And in him is no sin. No one who lives in him keeps on

43 43 sinning. No one who continues to sin has either seen him or sinning. No one who continues to sin has either seen him or known him’(1 John 3:2-6). known him’(1 John 3:2-6). “But the Lord is faithful, and he will strengthen you and “But the Lord is faithful, and he will strengthen you and protect you from the evil one” (2 Thessalonians 3:3). protect you from the evil one” (2 Thessalonians 3:3). Jesus said the cause of sin is within the human mind: Jesus said the cause of sin is within the human mind: ... “It is what comes from inside that defiles you. For from within, ... “It is what comes from inside that defiles you. For from within, out of a person’s heart, come evil thoughts, sexual immorality, out of a person’s heart, come evil thoughts, sexual immorality, theft, murder, adultery, greed, wickedness, deceit, lustful desires, theft, murder, adultery, greed, wickedness, deceit, lustful desires, envy, slander, pride, and foolishness. All these vile things come envy, slander, pride, and foolishness. All these vile things come from within; they are what defile you.” (Mark 7:20-23). from within; they are what defile you.” (Mark 7:20-23). 1.- We should expect some suffering in this life. “I 1.- We should expect some suffering in this life. “I have told you these things, so that in me you may have peace. In have told you these things, so that in me you may have peace. In this world you will have trouble. But take heart! I have overcome this world you will have trouble. But take heart! I have overcome the world” (John 16:33). “In fact, everyone who wants to live a the world” (John 16:33). “In fact, everyone who wants to live a godly life in Christ Jesus will be persecuted” (2 Timothy 3:12). godly life in Christ Jesus will be persecuted” (2 Timothy 3:12). 2.- Willingness to suffer for doing what is right is a 2.- Willingness to suffer for doing what is right is a demonstration of our faith. “But how is it to your credit if you demonstration of our faith. “But how is it to your credit if you receive a beating for doing wrong and endure it? But if you suffer receive a beating for doing wrong and endure it? But if you suffer for doing good and you endure it, this is commendable before for doing good and you endure it, this is commendable before God. To this you were called, because Christ suffered for you, God. To this you were called, because Christ suffered for you, leaving you an example, that you should follow in his leaving you an example, that you should follow in his steps” (1 Peter 2:20-21). steps” (1 Peter 2:20-21). 3.- Through suffering, we learn many valuable les- 3.- Through suffering, we learn many valuable les- sons such as humility and dependence on God. “Teach me sons such as humility and dependence on God. “Teach me knowledge and good judgment for I trust your commands. Before knowledge and good judgment for I trust your commands. Before I was afflicted I went astray, but now I obey your word. You are I was afflicted I went astray, but now I obey your word. You are good, and what you do is good; teach me your decrees. Though good, and what you do is good; teach me your decrees. Though the arrogant have smeared me with lies, I keep your precepts with the arrogant have smeared me with lies, I keep your precepts with all my heart. Their hearts are callous and unfeeling, but I delight all my heart. Their hearts are callous and unfeeling, but I delight in your law. It was good for me to be afflicted so that I might learn in your law. It was good for me to be afflicted so that I might learn your decrees” (Psalms 119:66-71). “or because of these surpass- your decrees” (Psalms 119:66-71). “or because of these surpass- ingly great revelations. Therefore, in order to keep me from be- ingly great revelations. Therefore, in order to keep me from becoming conceited, I was given a thorn in my flesh, a messenger of coming conceited, I was given a thorn in my flesh, a messenger of Satan, to torment me. Three times I pleaded with the Lord to take Satan, to torment me. Three times I pleaded with the Lord to take it away from me. But he said to me, “My grace is sufficient for it away from me. But he said to me, “My grace is sufficient for

44 44 you, for my power is made perfect in weakness.” Therefore I will boast all the more gladly about my weaknesses, so that Christ’s power may rest on me”(2 Corinthians 12:7-9). 4.- Empathy and concern for others who are suffering. “Praise be to the God and Father of our Lord Jesus Christ, the Father of compassion and the God of all comfort, who comforts us in all our troubles, so that we can comfort those in any trouble with the comfort we ourselves receive from God. For just as we share abundantly in the sufferings of Christ, so also our comfort abounds through Christ (2 Corinthians 1:3-5). 5.- Endurance and good character. “Not only so, but we also glory in our sufferings, because we know that suffering produces perseverance; perseverance, character; and character, hope. And hope does not put us to shame, because God’s love has been poured out into our hearts through the Holy Spirit, who has been given to us” (Romans 5:3-5). “Consider it pure joy, my brothers and sisters, whenever you face trials of many kinds, because you know that the testing of your faith produces perseverance. Let perseverance finish its work so that you may be mature and complete, not lacking anything” (James 1:2-4), and righteousness “The Lord disciplines the one he loves, and chastens everyone he accepts as his son. Endure hardship as discipline; God is treating you as his children. No discipline seems pleasant at the time, but painful. Later on, however, it produces a harvest of righteousness and peace for those who have been trained by it”(Hebrews 12: 6-11). However, there is no value in suffering for its own sake. Although we should patiently endure suffering when it comes, nothing in the Bible says we should seek suffering or martyrdom (Psalms 16:11, Romans 15:13).

Living with Evil and Suffering Although we cannot eliminate all evil and suffering, people who develop great faith in God often find an inner peace that simply overshadows the evils of the world and

45 the suffering we endure (Psalms 4:8, 119:165, John 14:27, Mat- thew 5:4, 11:28-29, 2 Corinthians 4:16-18, 1 Peter 5:6-11):

Yea, though I walk through the valley of the shadow of death, I will fear no evil; For You are with me; Your rod and Your staff, they comfort me. (Psalms 23:4). I consider that the sufferings of this present time are not worth comparing with the glory about to be revealed to us. (Romans 8:18). We know that all things work together for good for those who love God, who are called according to his purpose. (Romans 8:28).

46 CONSULTED SOURCES

“The Faith of The Armenian Church’’, Hagop Nersoyan: pp.72-81. Printed in USA. The Delphic Press, 1960. New York, N.Y. “The New International Dictionary of The Christian Church’’, p. 295, Editor: J.D. Douglas. ISBN, 1974, Zondervan Corporation, Grand Rapid, Michigan, 1974. W.W.W.christianbiblereference.org “A Dictionary of The Bible” John D. Davis, Second Edition Revised, p.p. 169, 213, Philadelphia, The Westmin- ster Press,1907.

47 EDUCATION IN ANCIENT ISRAEL AND BIBLICAL EDUCATION IN ANCIENT ISRAEL AND BIBLICAL TIMES TIMES

To the pious Jew, the knowledge of God was every- To the pious Jew, the knowledge of God was everything; and to prepare for or impart that knowledge was the thing; and to prepare for or impart that knowledge was the sum total, the sole object of his education. This was the life sum total, the sole object of his education. This was the life of his soul –the only true life, to which all else as well as the of his soul –the only true life, to which all else as well as the life of the body were merely subordinate, as means towards life of the body were merely subordinate, as means towards an end. His religion consisted of two things: knowledge of an end. His religion consisted of two things: knowledge of God, and service, with proper observance of all that was God, and service, with proper observance of all that was prescribed by God and works of charity. prescribed by God and works of charity. As among the tradition-directed nomadic tribes of the As among the tradition-directed nomadic tribes of the Middle East today, in biblical times too, the education and Middle East today, in biblical times too, the education and socialization of children was a task left entirely to the par- socialization of children was a task left entirely to the parents of the children. The tenderness of the bond which ents of the children. The tenderness of the bond which united Jewish parents to their children appears in the ex- united Jewish parents to their children appears in the expressions by which the various stages of child life are desig- pressions by which the various stages of child life are designated in the Hebrew. Besides “ben” and “bath” –son and nated in the Hebrew. Besides “ben” and “bath” –son and daughter, we find no fewer than nine different terms, each daughter, we find no fewer than nine different terms, each depicting a fresh stage of life. The first of these designates depicting a fresh stage of life. The first of these designates the babe as the newly born, the “jelled” (Ex.2:3-8; Isa.29:23; the babe as the newly born, the “jelled” (Ex.2:3-8; Isa.29:23; Jer.31:20; Eccl.4:13; I kings 12:8; 2 Kings 2:24). The next Jer.31:20; Eccl.4:13; I kings 12:8; 2 Kings 2:24). The next stage in point of time is “joneck,” which means a suckling stage in point of time is “joneck,” which means a suckling (Isa.11:8; Ps.2). A fourth designation represents the child as (Isa.11:8; Ps.2). A fourth designation represents the child as the “gamul,” or weaned one (Ps.131:2; Isa.28:9). The period the “gamul,” or weaned one (Ps.131:2; Isa.28:9). The period of weaning among the Hebrews was generally at the end of of weaning among the Hebrews was generally at the end of two years, and was celebrated by a feast. The fifth stage is two years, and was celebrated by a feast. The fifth stage is when the child starts clinging “taph” to the mother (Esther when the child starts clinging “taph” to the mother (Esther 3:13; Jer.11:7; Ezek.9:6). The sixth period is marked by the 3:13; Jer.11:7; Ezek.9:6). The sixth period is marked by the word “elm,” which denotes becoming firm and strong word “elm,” which denotes becoming firm and strong (Isa.7:14). The next stage was “naar” or youth, literally ‘he (Isa.7:14). The next stage was “naar” or youth, literally ‘he who shakes himself free.’” Lastly, we find the child desig- who shakes himself free.’” Lastly, we find the child designated as “bachur” or “the ripened one,” a young warrior nated as “bachur” or “the ripened one,” a young warrior (Isa.31:8; Jer.15:8; 18:21). (Isa.31:8; Jer.15:8; 18:21).

48 48 In the first few years of his life, the child was exclusively in the hands of his mother who nursed him and took care of all his needs. As long as the child was suckled, he was in frequent and close bodily contact with his mother, and it was in this period that the close emotional attachment between the two developed. “Can a woman forget her suckling child, that she should have no compassion on the son of her womb?” asks Isaiah in an impassioned prophetic parable (Isa.49:15). Also, Hosea points and emphasizes the same image: “When Israel was a child, then I loved him… and I taught Ephraim to walk, taking them by their arms… I drew them with cords of a man, with bands of love” (Hos. 11:1-4). The little Israelites spent most of their time playing in the streets or squares with boys and girls of their own age (Jer.6:11;9:20; Zach.8:5; Matt.11:6). They sang and danced or played with little clay models; little girls seemed to have always played with dolls. It was the mother who gave her children the first rudimentary principles of education, especially of their moral formation (Pr.1:8; 6:20). She might continue to advise her children even in adolescence, but as the boys grew up to manhood, they were usually entrusted to their father. To some extent, neither the boy nor the girl will ever stop being a baby to the mother. She still bombards with her constant admonitions: “Be careful. Don’t run too fast –you’ll fall down. Don’t climb a tree, you might break a leg.” Or, “Keep out of the draft, you might catch cold.” She will never stop feeding, worrying about health, warmth, and safety. In certain areas each sex remains always “a child” to the other sex. The man is always “a child” with regard to physical needs and domestic arrangements, dependent on mother, sister, or wife. From the time he starts to study, however, he is an adult with regard to matters of the intellect, religious rituals and community affairs. In these matters

49 the woman is always subordinate to the man. There is no effort to shield children from personal quarrels or family problems. Everything is discussed before them except “sex,” and that is not discussed before anyone. Children do not enter into adult deliberations. A child who tried to speak up in an adult discussion would be told to listen and learn so that understanding might come later. Unlike the baby, who is smothered in kisses and caresses, a child or the small person is seldom kissed except on a few special holidays. A child at the age of five takes part in the life of the house. He is somehow considered as an adult person and is not shown any affection. But that, of course, does not prevent the unique love of Jewish parents for their children. One of the duties of the mother, and occasionally of the father, was to carry around the child too young to walk. The nursing father used to carry around the suckling child in his bosom (Num.11:12). Another method was to carry the child sitting on the shoulder (Isa.49:22) or on the side of the parent’s body (Isa.60:4; 66:12). The first words the Hebrew child was able to pro- nounce were “abi” –my father and “immi” –my mother. In the villages and towns of Biblical Palestine, it was an everyday sight to find small children, boys and girls, playing in the dust of the streets (Jer.6:11) and of the “broad places” (Zech.8:5). The same can be observed to this day in Middle Eastern villages and towns everywhere. Among the games played by children in the markets and other open places, special favorites were imitative games in which they mimicked the behavior and activities of adults, such as marriages or burials. Children were eager to participate in religious feasts to enjoy their excitement, and to raise their voices in unre- strained outcries (Matt.21:15-16; Ps.8:3). As soon as the child had any knowledge, the private and the united prayers of the family and the domestic rites, whether of the weekly Sabbath or of festive seasons, would

50 indelibly impress themselves upon his mind. In fact, the He- brew father was commanded emphatically and repeatedly to teach his son. Only in wealthy houses was the education and rearing of children given over to male or female nurses. Jona- than, the son of king Saul, had a lame son who was taken care of by a nurse (2Sam.4:41). Ruth’s son Obed was nursed by her mother-in-law, Naomi (Ruth 4:16; Isa.49:23). Of secular teaching there is scarcely a trace. All the ordinances relating to education deal with it in its larger aspects as a preparation for the moral and religious life, as a means of developing character. For the child in the Old Testament was a conspicuous figure. No systematic provision for his education and general training is mentioned, but the importance of his personality and the need of safeguarding his higher welfare and of the community by wisely planned discipline is fully recognized. At home, father was the teacher. In the exceptional care of a child being dedicated from birth to the Divine service, he was entrusted at an early age to the care of the chief priest, and lived with him or close by the Sanctuary. Princes of the royal house, likewise, had their guardians who possibly were their tutors. There were also “schools of the prophets” in which youths were trained for the prophetical office by religious teaching and by instruction in music. The moral and religious training of his children became one of the weightiest of the father’s obligations though no system is prescribed for the discharge of this duty. The father is exhorted to teach the Divine commands diligently to his children, and to speak of them at all times: when he sits in his house, when he walks by the way, when he lies down, and when he rises. Great events, moreover, in the national life, and their anniversaries, are to be used as opportunities for impressing the great truths, and the realities of religion upon the child’s mind.

51 The Passover is found to be what is probably the earliest example of ancient Hebrew religious educational methods. A religious ceremony is being performed in the home in the presence of the children: a lamb is sacrificed, and its blood is smeared on the lintel and the two side posts of the door with a branch of hyssop. The children of the family, it is anticipated, observing the unusual ritual, will ask, “What is meant by this practice?” Once their curiosity is aroused, they will listen attentively to the explanation, which at one and the same time taught them a central doctrine of Hebrew religion and a central event in Hebrew history. “And you shall say, ‘It is the sacrifice of the Lord’s Passover, for that He passed over the houses of the children of Israel in Egypt when He smote the Egyptians, and delivered our houses’” (Ex.12:21-27). The same pedagogical method was used in connection with another feature of the Passover ritual: the eating of unleavened bread for seven days. Here, too, the father is commanded to explain to his son in answer to the son’s inquisitive inquiry, “It is because of that which the Lord did for me when I came forth out of Egypt” (Ex.13:8). The first person singular emphasizes for the child the direct personal nature of the experience, and thereby makes it more immediate and relevant for him as well. The same method is recommended in Deuteronomy. “When your son asks you in time to come, ‘What is the meaning of the testimonies and the statutes and the ordinances which the Lord our God has commanded you?’ then you shall say to your son, ‘We were Pharaoh’s slaves in Egypt; and the Lord brought us out of Egypt with a mighty hand; and the Lord showed signs and wonders, great and grievous, against Egypt and against Pharaoh and all his household, before our eyes; and he brought us out from there that he might bring us in and give us the land which he swore to give to our fathers. And the Lord commanded

52 us to do all these statutes, to fear the Lord our God, for our good always, that he might preserve us alive, as at this day” (Deut.6:20-25). The father thus figures as the source of all instruction and information for the child with respect to the history of his people, and all other matters that were supposed to govern his behavior: “Ask your father and he will tell you” (Deut.32:7). One of the basic purposes of the law, in the eyes of the ancient Hebrews, was to “make them known to your children and children’s children” (Deut.4:9-10). The confession of faith, which throughout the ages has formed the basic prayer in Judaism, consists of five verses following the pronouncement of the Oneness of God, “Hear, O Israel, the Lord our God, the Lord is One.” The five verses contain, in essence, the minimal observances required of the children of Israel. They are: to love God; to remember His commandments at all times; and to teach them diligently to the children all the time -at home, on the way, in the evening and in the morning (Deut.6:4-9; 11:19). The patriarch, the head of the family was supposed to use his great authority to impress his children with the need to “keep the way of the Lord, to do righteousness and justice” (Gen.18:19; Ps.78:5-6). The entire history of Israel seems to have been utilized as a basis for religious teaching. The father would recount the “wondrous works” of God that the generations to come might know them, even the children which should be born, who should arise and tell them to their children, that they might set their hope in God and keep His commandments. On the other hand, sacred moments were another source of instruction for the children. The monument of twelve boulders standing in Gilgal and set up by Joshua after the tribes crossed over the River Jordan, was such a landmark (Josh.4:6-7; 21-22). Apart from the education received at home, the young Israelite had ample opportunity for learning: in the

53 caravans and by the wells, at the village gates, or when accompanied by his parents to the sanctuaries or to the temple of Jerusalem, where he would hear the chanting of the Psalms and the recounting of those historical episodes which were connected with each great festival. Another educational aim among the ancient Hebrews was to make the children obedient and loyal members of the family. The Fifth Commandment made it a duty for a child to honor his father and mother, and as a reward for obedience he was promised a long and prosperous life (Ex.20:12; Deut.5:16). In another version, the children of Is- rael were commanded not merely to honor, but to fear mother and father (Lev.19:3). Even God’s dealings with His people were regarded as the basis and model of the paren- tal relationship. In the book of Proverbs we read: “Train up a child in the way he should go, and when he is old he will not depart from it” (Prov.22:6). A child should listen to the instruction of his father and forsake not the teaching of his mother (Prov.1:8; 13:1; 15:5). It is especially so when the parents grow old. It is important that the son should not forget that he owes them honor and respect (Prov.23:22). Children apparently become more accustomed to verbal and physical discipline than to the “look” occasionally administered by an outraged father. The whip and the rod played their part as a proper means of rearing children! “If you don’t punish your son, you don’t love him. If you do love him, you will correct him” (Prov.13:24). “Children just naturally do silly, careless things, but a good spanking will teach them how to behave” (Prov.22:15; 29:15-17; 19:18; 3:12; 23:13-14; 30:1). In administering bodily punishment to his son, the father merely does what God is believed to do to His children. “Know then in your heart that, as a man disciplines his son, the Lord your God disciplines you” (Deut.8:5). Children also are punished either by curses or by corporal punishments: beating, striking, whipping and

54 slapping. Writing was in common use at an early date. Besides the professional scribes, like those employed at the court for administration and private secretaries like Baruch (2 Sam.8:17; 20:25; 1 Kgs.4:3; Jer.36:4), members of the ruling class could write, judging by the stories of Jezebel (1 Kgs.21:8; Isa.8:1). But these were not the only ones: a young man of Succoth was able to give Gideon, in writing, the names of all the chiefs of his clan. “Gideon, the son of Joash, returned from the battle by the ascent of Heres. He caught a young man of Succoth, and questioned him; and he wrote down for him the officials and elders of Succoth, seventy-seven men” (Jgs. 8:14). The commandment of Deut. 6:9; 11:20 presumed that every head of a family could write. Most teaching, however, was done by word of mouth. The teacher told his story, gave explanations and asked questions; the pupil repeated the story and asked or answered questions (Ex.13:8; Deut.6:7; Ps.78:3-4). The content of the instruction was very general. The father handed on to his son the religious and national traditions and the Divine commands given to their forefathers. Chil- dren were also taught literary passages, such as David’s lament over Saul and Jonathan 2 Sam.1:18). On the other hand, the maxims of the Wisdom Litera- ture were examples of more formal teaching. Wisdom was declared to be the “principal thing”; therefore, the sage is exhorted to “get wisdom.” Wisdom was moral science, the knowledge of right methods of living, when it was rooted in religion too. “The beginning of wisdom is the fear of the Lord” (Prov.9:10). The liturgical reading of the Torah was accompanied by exposition and instruction. At age 5 a child is to begin studying the Torah; at age 10 the Mishnah, and at age 15 the Gemara. The Talmudic period saw the formulation of educational standards that remained in place until

55 the onset of the modern period. A father is required to teach the onset of the modern period. A father is required to teach his son the Torah as well as a trade. Talmud Torah was re- his son the Torah as well as a trade. Talmud Torah was restricted to boys, and the rabbis were critical of formal edu- stricted to boys, and the rabbis were critical of formal education for girls. Women were expected to learn only those cation for girls. Women were expected to learn only those laws relevant to them, and this within the confines of the laws relevant to them, and this within the confines of the home. This educational role of the father explains why the home. This educational role of the father explains why the priests, whose mission was to teach, are called “father” priests, whose mission was to teach, are called “father” Jdgs.17:10; 18:19). Similarly, the relationship between Jdgs.17:10; 18:19). Similarly, the relationship between teacher and pupil was expressed by the words “father” and teacher and pupil was expressed by the words “father” and “son” (2 Kgs.2:12). “son” (2 Kgs.2:12).

MOSES: THE FATHER OF JEWISH LEARNING MOSES: THE FATHER OF JEWISH LEARNING Tradition has it that Moses was the father of adult Tradition has it that Moses was the father of adult education, for we read in the Bible: “Moses assembled all education, for we read in the Bible: “Moses assembled all the congregation of the children of Israel, and said to them, the congregation of the children of Israel, and said to them, ‘These are the things which the Lord has commanded you ‘These are the things which the Lord has commanded you to do…”(Ex.35:1). He commanded them, saying: “At the end to do…”(Ex.35:1). He commanded them, saying: “At the end of every seven years, in the Feast of Tabernacles, when all of every seven years, in the Feast of Tabernacles, when all Israel is come to appear before the Lord your God in the Israel is come to appear before the Lord your God in the place which He shall choose, you shall read this law before place which He shall choose, you shall read this law before all Israel in their hearing. Assemble the people, men, all Israel in their hearing. Assemble the people, men, women, and little ones, and the sojourner within your towns, women, and little ones, and the sojourner within your towns, that they may hear and learn to fear the Lord your God, and that they may hear and learn to fear the Lord your God, and be careful to do all the words of his law, and that their chil- be careful to do all the words of his law, and that their children, who have not known it, may hear and learn to fear the dren, who have not known it, may hear and learn to fear the Lord your God as long as you live in the land which you are Lord your God as long as you live in the land which you are going over the Jordan to possess” (Deut.31:9-13). With this going over the Jordan to possess” (Deut.31:9-13). With this command “to assemble the people,” Moses established an command “to assemble the people,” Moses established an educational institution that endured more than three thou- educational institution that endured more than three thousand years. sand years.

PRIESTS, LEVITES AND PROPHETS AS TEACHERS OF PRIESTS, LEVITES AND PROPHETS AS TEACHERS OF THE PEOPLE THE PEOPLE Who were the teachers of men and women in the Who were the teachers of men and women in the days of Moses? Who were the pioneer educational agents days of Moses? Who were the pioneer educational agents

56 56 that gave instruction to the mature minds of the nation? They were the priests, the Levites and the elders of Israel. “They, the priests, shall teach Jacob Thine ordinances and Israel Thy law” (Deut.33:10; 2 Chron.15:3; Jer.2:8; 18:18; Mal.2:7). The priests most likely instructed the people in the parts of the Torah that dealt with religious ritual. It was the task of the Levites to expound the Torah in its more general aspects. Thus, the Bible chronicles the appointment by the king Jehoshaphat of an education commission consisting of princes and Levites who “taught in Judah, having the book of the law of the Lord with them. And they went about throughout all the cities of Judah and taught among the people” (2 Chron.17:7-9; 35:3). This was true in the time of the First Temple. But the role of the Levites as teachers grew to even greater proportions in the period of the Sec- ond Temple. In the days of Ezra and Nehemiah, the Levites are described as being the ones who “caused the people to understand the law” (Neh.8:1-8). Along with the priests, prophets and Levites “wise men”, taught how to live a good life. Their influence increased after the exile, when wise men and scribes became identical terms, and moral education was combined with study of the law. Their teaching was handed down in the gatherings of the elders (Sir.6:34), in the conversation at festive meals (Sir.9:16), at the city gates, in the streets and at the crossroads (Prov.1:20; 8:2; 10:1; 22:17; 25:1). In the development of Judaism, the figure of the prophet was destined to tower above both priest and Levite as the religious teacher of adults. Prophets by their public preaching spread religious knowledge and quickened religious life. Those who desired instruction in religion and training for religious work gathered in some community about a prophet and were taught by him (2 Kgs.4:1;6:1;2). They were called sons of the prophets. The prophet’s life

57 was sacrificially dedicated to the high task of spreading and deepening the Divine education of the people. Moses as teacher and prophet in his farewell addresses his people, before his death: “Behold, I have taught you statutes and ordinances even as the Lord my God commanded me” (Deut.4:5)

OBSERVATION: Moses is regarded as a fountainhead of prophecy and the prototype of the true prophet (Deut.18: 15). Dreams were regarded as a medium of divine communication to a prophet (Num.12:6; 22:20; 1 Sam.3:15; 28:6; Jer.23:25). This makes it clear that a sign or wonder is not in itself proof that God has spoken, for God may give false prophets power to perform wonders in order to test the people’s faith. A miracle is not significant unless it prompts faith in the God whom Israel has known in her historical experience. Words are given to the prophet by God; the words are sent by his Spirit to the prophets, are given to be taught to the people, and have been accredited in the past by their fulfillment (Zech.1:6; 7:12). Prophecy included the prediction of future events. But more important the prophet had to deal with the present and the past, and to instruct men in God’s ways (Isa.5:11-13; 38:5; 6; 39:6; 7; Jer.20:6; 25:11; 28:16; Amos1:5; 7:9; 17; Mic.4:10; Isa.41:26; 42:9; 46:9).

Prophets “nabi”, were men or women believed to be recipients through audition, vision or dream of divine messages that they passed on to others by means of speech or symbolic action. The persons they addressed might be individuals, particular groups of Israelites, the whole nation, or foreign nations. The prophets then, were divine messengers, speakers of the divine word. These messages were unsolicited and were delivered under divine compulsion. Oral utterance was the essence of prophecy that precipi- tated the written prophecy.

58 In later periods of history, divinely inspired teachers In later periods of history, divinely inspired teachers addressed their words to the grown men and women of their addressed their words to the grown men and women of their respective generations. Priests and Levites taught, for the respective generations. Priests and Levites taught, for the most part, in the Temple in Jerusalem; the prophets taught most part, in the Temple in Jerusalem; the prophets taught in private assemblies, in public forums and even in their in private assemblies, in public forums and even in their own humble homes. Each of those places of instruction was own humble homes. Each of those places of instruction was primarily a place of assembly for adults. It is especially sig- primarily a place of assembly for adults. It is especially significant that the exiles of the Babylonian captivity regularly nificant that the exiles of the Babylonian captivity regularly gathered in the homes of the prophets to be instructed and gathered in the homes of the prophets to be instructed and inspired. In all likelihood, the institution of the synagogue inspired. In all likelihood, the institution of the synagogue emerged from these antecedents. emerged from these antecedents. The prophets and teachers of wisdom gathered pupils The prophets and teachers of wisdom gathered pupils around them to whom they gave a more continuous training around them to whom they gave a more continuous training (Prov.8:32; Isa.8:16; 50:4). It is probable too, that schools (Prov.8:32; Isa.8:16; 50:4). It is probable too, that schools for scribes existed at an early date in Jerusalem and for scribes existed at an early date in Jerusalem and Samaria. Similar training schools existed in Mesopotamia Samaria. Similar training schools existed in Mesopotamia and in Egypt. The word “school” (beth-midrash) is men- and in Egypt. The word “school” (beth-midrash) is mentioned the first time in the Hebrew text of Sir.51:23. It was tioned the first time in the Hebrew text of Sir.51:23. It was only in A.D. 63 that the high priest Joshua ben Gimla de- only in A.D. 63 that the high priest Joshua ben Gimla decreed that every town and village should have a school creed that every town and village should have a school which all children would have to attend from the age of six which all children would have to attend from the age of six or seven. or seven.

THE ROLE OF THE SCRIBES IN ISRAEL THE ROLE OF THE SCRIBES IN ISRAEL Scribe (sopherim, sophar) means to write, to set in Scribe (sopherim, sophar) means to write, to set in order and to count. Scribes were distinguished throughout order and to count. Scribes were distinguished throughout the ancient world. They were called “scribes” because they the ancient world. They were called “scribes” because they could read and write; they were not only copyists. In Israel, could read and write; they were not only copyists. In Israel, some were officials who had authority to draw up legal some were officials who had authority to draw up legal documents (Jer.32:12-15; 36:26). Some held special posi- documents (Jer.32:12-15; 36:26). Some held special positions in the royal palace (2 Kgs.18:18; Jer.36:12) and functions in the royal palace (2 Kgs.18:18; Jer.36:12) and func- tioned as ministers of finance or secretaries of state (2 tioned as ministers of finance or secretaries of state (2 Kgs.22:3; 12:10; Ezra 4:8; Isa.36:3). Levites were employed Kgs.22:3; 12:10; Ezra 4:8; Isa.36:3). Levites were employed as scribes for the business of repairing the temple (2 as scribes for the business of repairing the temple (2 Chro.34:13) as copiers of the law and other parts of the Chro.34:13) as copiers of the law and other parts of the

59 59 Scriptures (Jer.8:8). Some were academic advisors to the Scriptures (Jer.8:8). Some were academic advisors to the king. The most noted of these earlier scribes was the priest king. The most noted of these earlier scribes was the priest Ezra, “who was skilled in the law of Moses …had set his Ezra, “who was skilled in the law of Moses …had set his heart to study the law of the Lord, and to do it, and to teach heart to study the law of the Lord, and to do it, and to teach his statutes and ordinances in Israel” (Ezra 7:6;10). During his statutes and ordinances in Israel” (Ezra 7:6;10). During the Diaspora in Babylon, scribes became responsible for the Diaspora in Babylon, scribes became responsible for preserving, interpreting and teaching scriptures. Later, preserving, interpreting and teaching scriptures. Later, scribes were also called “the wise” and described as those scribes were also called “the wise” and described as those with special knowledge of the law (Dan.11:33;35; 12:3; Ezra with special knowledge of the law (Dan.11:33;35; 12:3; Ezra 7:6;10), men whose work was to transcribe old records, or 7:6;10), men whose work was to transcribe old records, or to put in writing what had been handed down orally to put in writing what had been handed down orally (Prov.25:1). (Prov.25:1). Education and life, the special training for a scribe’s Education and life, the special training for a scribe’s office, began about the age of thirteen. The boy who was office, began about the age of thirteen. The boy who was destined by his parents to the calling of a scribe, went to Je- destined by his parents to the calling of a scribe, went to Je- rusalem and applied for admission in the school of some fa- rusalem and applied for admission in the school of some famous rabbi. If he was poor, it was the duty of the syna- mous rabbi. If he was poor, it was the duty of the synagogue of his town or village to provide for the payment of gogue of his town or village to provide for the payment of his fees, and in part also for his maintenance. The master his fees, and in part also for his maintenance. The master and his scholars met, the former sitting on a high chair, the and his scholars met, the former sitting on a high chair, the elder pupils on a lower bench, the younger on the ground, elder pupils on a lower bench, the younger on the ground, “at his feet.” Parables entered largely into the method of in- “at his feet.” Parables entered largely into the method of instruction. The education was chiefly catechetical, the pupil struction. The education was chiefly catechetical, the pupil submitting cases and asking questions. At the age of thirty submitting cases and asking questions. At the age of thirty he was solemnly admitted to his office. There was a choice he was solemnly admitted to his office. There was a choice of a variety of functions plus the chances of failure and suc- of a variety of functions plus the chances of failure and success. He might rise to high places, become a doctor of the cess. He might rise to high places, become a doctor of the law, an arbitrator in family disputes, the head of a school, or law, an arbitrator in family disputes, the head of a school, or a member of the Sanhedrin. He might have to content him- a member of the Sanhedrin. He might have to content himself with the humbler work of a transcriber, copying the law self with the humbler work of a transcriber, copying the law and the prophets for the use of synagogues, or a notary. and the prophets for the use of synagogues, or a notary. In the New Testament, scribes are called gram- In the New Testament, scribes are called gram- mateis or nomikoi, and described functioning as lawyers mateis or nomikoi, and described functioning as lawyers (Luke 5:17; 7:30), judges (Matt.23:2), or nomodidaskaloi, (Luke 5:17; 7:30), judges (Matt.23:2), or nomodidaskaloi, teachers of the law. They devoted themselves: teachers of the law. They devoted themselves: 1. to the study and interpretation of the law, civil and 1. to the study and interpretation of the law, civil and

60 60 religious; and to determining its application to the details of daily life. The decisions of the great scribes became the oral law or tradition. 2. to the study and teaching of the Scriptures generally in regard to historical and doctrinal matters. The profession of scribe received a great impulse after the return of the Jews from exile, when prophecy had ceased and it only remained to study the completed Scriptures and make them the basis of the national life. The scribes were becoming numerous in the Macca- baean period (1 Mac.7:12), and at the time of Christ had attained paramount influence among the people. Scribes are shown arguing with Jesus over legal matters (Matt.9:3; Luke 5:21) traditions of the elders (Matt.15:1), dietary laws (Mark 2:16; 3:22; Luke 5:30; 15:2), purity laws (Mark 7:1-2), interpretation of scripture (Matt.17:10; Mark 9:11; 12:28; 35; Luke 20:39; John 8:2) and Sabbath observance (Luke 6:7). Well-trained scribes were acquainted with all kinds of law, both ancient and contemporary. When Jesus was distinguished from the scribes as one who had authority (Matt.7:29), the implication was that as the Messiah, He had the authority to make law just as David and other kings did. This gave Him authority over the Sabbath and all other national laws. He also had authority to pardon (Matt.9:6) as other kings did. Although there were no schools for children in ancient Israel, but instruction, mainly religious education was given through parents, especially the father. The older people had opportunity for obtaining further knowledge from the priests and Levites, who could be found at the sanctuary and in the towns assigned to them throughout the land. The great festivals too, kept alive the knowledge of those events which gave rise the formation of a nation as “God’s chosen people” who under Jehovah’s protection and leadership, obli- gated the Israelites to learn more about the statutes of His law, and serve their redeemer and bountiful benefactor.

61 BIBLIOGRAPHY

Ederheim, Alfred, D.D., Ph.D. (1950). Sketches of Jewish social life in the days of Christ. 86-138. Bertholet, Alfred. (1926). A history of Hebrew civilization. 148-193. Goldman, Israel M., D.H.L., D.D. (1975). Lifelong learning among Jews: adult education in Judaism from Biblical times to the 20th Century. 1-9. Matthews, Victor H., Don C. Benjamin (1993). Social world of ancient Israel,1257-587 B.C. 7-36, 142-154, 237- 252. Miller, J. Maxwell, John H. Hayes. (1986). A history of ancient Israel and Judah. 52. Matthews, Victor H. (1988). Manners and customs in the Bible. 67-68, 72-73, 77, 228-232. Zborowski, Mark, Elizabeth Herzog. (1952). Life is with people. 308-360. Hastings, James, M.A., D.D. (1920). Encyclopedia of religion and ethics. Vol. 5. DeVaux, Roland, O.P. Ancient Israel, its life and institutions. 48-50. Patai, Raphael. (1959). Sex and family in the Bible and the Middle East. 206-215. Werner, Haren O. (1984). “The Bible and The Family: Bibli- cal and Psychological Foundations” Journal of Psy- chology and Judaism. Vol. 8, #2. Cahill, Lisa Soule, Dietmar Mieth, ed. (1994/5). The family. Deen, Edith. The family living in the Bible. Metzger, Bruce M. Michael D. Coogan, ed. (1993). The Ox- ford companion to the Bible. 684-685. Smith, William, LLD., ed. (1872). A dictionary of the Bible, comprising its antiquities, biography, geography with numerous illustrations and map.

62 THE MYSTERY OF BETHLEHEM THE MYSTERY OF BETHLEHEM

…”To bring good …”To bring good tidings to the afflicted, he tidings to the afflicted, he has sent me to bind up has sent me to bind up the brokenhearted, to pro- the brokenhearted, to proclaim liberty to the cap- claim liberty to the captives…” (Isa.61:1) tives…” (Isa.61:1)

The confused and chaotic years which followed the The confused and chaotic years which followed the return of Israelites from the Babylonian captivity, brought return of Israelites from the Babylonian captivity, brought poverty, moral disintegration, hopelessness and frustration poverty, moral disintegration, hopelessness and frustration of souls. They were very much in need for a heavenly help of souls. They were very much in need for a heavenly help and intercession to rebuild their houses, cities and the and intercession to rebuild their houses, cities and the Sanctuary in Jerusalem; and once again after long and suf- Sanctuary in Jerusalem; and once again after long and suffering years in exile, rise and reshape their national life and fering years in exile, rise and reshape their national life and traditions. Here comes the prophet Isaiah, who was long ex- traditions. Here comes the prophet Isaiah, who was long experiencing his peoples’ daily sufferings and desolations both periencing his peoples’ daily sufferings and desolations both in captivity and after Cyrus’ edict which gave permission to in captivity and after Cyrus’ edict which gave permission to Israelites to return back to their homeland, now commis- Israelites to return back to their homeland, now commissioned by God to prophesy his nation’s future blessings: sioned by God to prophesy his nation’s future blessings: “The Spirit of the Lord is upon me, because the Lord has “The Spirit of the Lord is upon me, because the Lord has anointed me to bring good tidings to the afflicted; he has anointed me to bring good tidings to the afflicted; he has sent me to bind up the brokenhearted, to proclaim liberty to sent me to bind up the brokenhearted, to proclaim liberty to the captives.” the captives.” Isaiah filled and empowered with God’s Spirit, fore- Isaiah filled and empowered with God’s Spirit, fore- sees the future of Israel. “The Spirit of God is upon me”: the sees the future of Israel. “The Spirit of God is upon me”: the same Spirit who anointed kings, prophets and priests same Spirit who anointed kings, prophets and priests moved God’s heralds and chosen people to proclaim God’s moved God’s heralds and chosen people to proclaim God’s name among nations, and call them for repentance. Like all name among nations, and call them for repentance. Like all other prophets, Isaiah is God’s anointed Messenger; the other prophets, Isaiah is God’s anointed Messenger; the mouth of Yahweh, who speaks out the truth, warns those mouth of Yahweh, who speaks out the truth, warns those who walk against God’s commandments, and calls them for who walk against God’s commandments, and calls them for repentance and obedience to Yahweh’s Covenant. repentance and obedience to Yahweh’s Covenant.

63 63 The prophets had the Spirit of God, moving them at times and instructing them what to say and what to teach. The prophets had the Spirit of courage to lead people of Is- rael in truth and righteousness. Now, with that same God- filled spirit Isaiah prophesies hope and restoration to Israel. “The good tidings,” the “good news”; that Israel’s sufferings and humiliations will be exalted, come to end; her weakness will give way to strength; her poverty to wealth; her hopelessness and darkness into safety and light; her sin and desperateness into righteousness and salvation. It is a time of national redemption and reconciliation for Israel, who has suffered much, been persecuted, has had her sanctuaries destroyed, and has been led into captivity in a foreign country. In renewing their Covenant with God, Israel will enjoy restoration and live in peace and prosperity. Hence, Israel lately afflicted, will be enriched and comforted; lately enslaved and scattered, will be divinely gathered and guided. Isaiah’s prophecy foreshadows the coming of the Messiah, who will restore the new Israel. He will preach with God-filled spirit and authority the Good News to the poor and to the most deserted, neglected, deprived and the marginal of society. He was to be a healer: He was sent to bind up the broken-hearted, to give them ease, comfort and heal their physical as well as spiritual wounds. He was to be a deliverer for those who are in sin, alienated from God, cap- tive to Satan and are under death and condemnation. He will be sent to comfort all who mourn. Christ will turn our tears and sorrows into joy and everlasting happiness. Our Lord and Savior, Jesus Christ indeed, according to the O.T. prophecies when the times were fulfilled, was born in Bethlehem to save His people and bring peace and happiness to the entire world. The day of His birth an angel appeared to the shepherds who were keeping watch over their flocks at night and gave them the “Good News” saying:

64 “Do not be afraid. Today in the town of David a Savior has been born. He is Christ the Lord …”Then suddenly a great army of heavenly angels appeared praising God and saying: “Glory to God in the highest, and on earth peace, good will toward men” (Luke 2:10-14). Years later at the beginning of His Ministry, when Je- Years later at the beginning of His Ministry, when Je- sus came to His city-town Nazareth, and went into the Syna- sus came to His city-town Nazareth, and went into the Syna- gogue on the Sabbath day, He was handed the book of the gogue on the Sabbath day, He was handed the book of the prophet Isaiah to read; when He opened the book, He found prophet Isaiah to read; when He opened the book, He found the place where it was written: “The Spirit of the Lord is upon the place where it was written: “The Spirit of the Lord is upon me,” the same passage once Isaiah had prophesied. After me,” the same passage once Isaiah had prophesied. After reading, Jesus closed the book and gave it back to the reading, Jesus closed the book and gave it back to the attendant, sat down and said to them, “Today this scripture attendant, sat down and said to them, “Today this scripture is fulfilled in your ears” (Luke 4:16-21). is fulfilled in your ears” (Luke 4:16-21). At this Holy Season, when the Christian world is celebrating the Birth of our Lord and Savior Jesus Christ, the prophet Isaiah, centuries before, foreshadowed the coming of the Messiah in His days to restore and deliver His people who indeed in the person of Jesus, the incarnated God, at a proper time was born in Bethlehem, with the same task and mission: to preach the life-giving Word of the Kingdom of God, to heal and set free all those who are captives, prom- ising them everlasting life and salvation. With Christ’s advent, the hope was born to all those With Christ’s advent, the hope was born to all those who were afflicted and torn apart in despair. Jesus came to who were afflicted and torn apart in despair. Jesus came to seek and to save. He was the incarnation of love, hope and seek and to save. He was the incarnation of love, hope and peace to the world. The mystery of Bethlehem is God’s in- peace to the world. The mystery of Bethlehem is God’s incarnation and manifestation of love in baby Jesus, the im- carnation and manifestation of love in baby Jesus, the image of the true and invisible God, who took the form of an age of the true and invisible God, who took the form of an obedient servant and humbled Himself. The infinite became obedient servant and humbled Himself. The infinite became man in our likeness to make us heirs and citizens of His ev- man in our likeness to make us heirs and citizens of His everlasting Kingdom. He proclaimed and promised a spiritual erlasting Kingdom. He proclaimed and promised a spiritual Kingdom without boundaries to all those who in all means Kingdom without boundaries to all those who in all means are captives, oppressed and persecuted for righteousness. are captives, oppressed and persecuted for righteousness. His birth and revelation gave and will give them hope, His birth and revelation gave and will give them hope,

65 reconciliation, deliverance, and establish peace on earth and good will among men.

Was not He, that for our sake and salvation became poor and humble to exalt and make us spiritually rich? Was not He, that with His divine power the blind received their sight, the lame walked, lepers were cleansed, the deaf heard, the dead were raised up, and the poor had good news preached to them? (Luke 7:22) Was not He, that on the Cross took upon his shoulders and crucified the Sin of the world and gave us the hope of everlasting life?

Today, as we celebrate His Theophany, we cannot deny our afflictions and our sins, ignore or reject that we are not captives of our worldly desires; prejudices, enmities, jealousies, hatred and other weaknesses. We cannot deny that although we are well fed and overflowed with multitude of Christmas cards and gifts that spiritually we still are hun- gry and unsatisfied in spite of all of our achievements and best accommodations of the modern life. There is still hunger, poverty, suffering, broken relationships and denials all around us, even within ourselves and in our lives. Today, once again, the voice of the prophet Isaiah transpierces the time and space boundaries and vigorously sounds in our ears with the joining voices of the angels of Bethlehem: “The Spirit of the Lord is upon me… he has anointed me to bring good tidings to the afflicted; he has sent me to bind up the brokenhearted, to proclaim liberty to the captives…(and) proclaim the acceptable year of the Lord” (Isa. 61:1-2).

O, incarnated Word of the Father, come and dwell within our hearts and transform our lives and the life of the world.

66 Our churches are little Bethlehems and our hearts are warm mangers, a symbolic reflection of Your divine im- mense Love. We dedicate ourselves to You and let You work miracles and transform the whole world for good and much better. O, baby Jesus, on Your birth-day, You did not find a place… may, on Your second Advent, we and the entire world be ready and watchful to accept Your glorious appearance. May the King and the Sun of righteous warm and enrich your lives and direct your paths in His everlasting King- dom.

May we sing with the multitude of heavenly hosts: “Glory to God in the highest, and on earth Peace, goodwill toward men”.

- CHRIST IS BORN AND REVEALED = BLESSED BE HIS REVELATION

67 LUCAN PARABLES

Comments on: Kenneth E. Bailey’s book on Poet and Peasant through Peasant Eyes

In his volume of Poet and Peasant and Through Peasant Eyes, Kenneth E. Bailey as scholar, educator and author combines his rich personal experience and intensive studies of the parables in the Gospel of Luke, with historical, cultural, and literal Middle Eastern understandings in and around the Holy Land. He begins by surveying the various traditions and the development of allegorical, historical- eschatological and existential methods of interpretation. Carefully examining the poetic structure of the parables, Bailey for better exposure and understanding the “mind” of Jesus, explores the oral tradition and cultural perspective of the contemporary Middle Eastern world. His close examination of the cultural milieu and the literary structure within and through the works of past and recent scholars and the insights that he gets through discussion with contemporary peasants lead him into a cluster of theological motives. Having this in our mind, then a parable becomes not an illustration but a mode of theological speech used to evoke a response. Moreover, the details in the parable simply help to make the story realistic and so serve the central thrust. The listener is challenged to respond. Having this in mind, Bailey exposes major interpretive methods followed by the church and intellects, specially depicting three major contemporary approaches to the Lucan parables: 1) The Historical-Eschatological: C.H. Dodd and Joachim Jeremiah. Dodd in his book The Parables of the Kingdom (1935 rev. 1961) saw the context of

68 parables to be Jesus’ preaching of the kingdom that was being realized in and through His ministry “realized eschatology.” Dodd set out to discover the original setting of the parables in the ministry of Jesus. The eternal was uniquely manifested in time, a situation that is both historical and contemporary. Jeremias, in his famous volume “The Parables of Jesus” (1958 rev. 1963) attempted to distinguish between the situation in the life of the early church and the situation in the life of Jesus. Jeremias, more than any modern scholar, uses all of the responsibly gathered information regarding the Pal- estinian background and the original intent of the parables. With this work, Jeremias has given us the 20th century’s most influential work on the parables.

2) G.V. Jones: Parables as Art. Much of Jones’s book The Art and Truth of the Parables (1964), is a review of previous work on the parables. His main point is that the parables are fashioned out of the raw material of human life and should be creative imagination. “The parable sets forth the truth about God and Man, regard- less of the passage of time or a changing environment”. On the other hand, he sees some of the parables as works of art having an independent timeless significance. The artistic nature of these parables allows for an application beyond the historical situation.

3) Eta Linnemann and Dan O. Via: The Existential Perspective. In her book Jesus of the Parables (1966) Linne- mann sets forth her basic principles of interpretation. She begins by distinguishing between similitude parable, illustration, and allegory. She affirms that the parables of Jesus are parables of conflict meant to win agreement from his opposition. She affirms the necessity of the historical approach and combines it with

69 Fuchsian-Bultmannian concept of parable as “language event” in which we can participate through preaching.

A second author in this school is Dan O. Via. In his The Parables (1967), Via is concerned with the existential-aesthetic. In his first chapter, he discusses parable and allegory. He rejects the “one point” approach as “artificially restrictive.” Yet, according to Via, parables can have allegorical elements in them without becoming allegories. In his second chapter Via is concerned with the problem of theological language. Via’s third chapter is on parables, aesthet- ics, and literary criticism. He argues that the parables are genuine works of art and that failure to deal with this fact has lead to the one-point theory of interpretation. A parable has meaning within itself and beyond itself. His main interest seems to be “literary-existential analysis”.

Having concentrated on five major voices, we can summarize their emphasis as follows:

Dodd, Jeremias Historical Jones Historical Aesthetic Linnemann Historical Existential Via Historical Existential Aesthetic

Bailey then turns to discuss the literary and cultural problems of the parables and tries to solve them in three possible methods: 1) discussing the cultural aspects of the parables with the Middle Easterners. 2) Examining pertinent ancient literature and 3), consulting the oriental versions of the Gospels. Once arrived to this point and made his conclusions, he attempts to show that each parable has a “cluster” of theological motives that together press the listener to make a single response.

70 In his reviewing and presenting four types of literary structures in the New Testament, he briefly states these four structures: a) Longer or shorter sections of prose that use the in- version principle for an outline. b) Poetic sections that use variety of parallelistic de- vises in a variety of forms. c) Sections that have a tight parallelism in the center but are encased with one or more sets of matching sections of prose. d) The parables in Luke usually follow a Parabolic Ballad form that is distinct from the above.

Then he concludes by pointing out some crucial literary structures which may lead into difficult avenues for interpretation for several reasons. The structure may; 1) identify the climatic center; 2) show how the author is relating the center to the outside; 3) make clear the turning point of the passage and alert the reader to look for a significant shift of emphasis in the second half; 4) provide a crucial key to understanding by enabling the reader to see what words, phrases or sentences are matched with what other words, phrases, or sentences in the structure; 5) demonstrate where newer material has been fitted into an older piece of literature; 6) mark off the literary unit itself with clarity (the beginning and the end are usually distinct and thus the unit is identified); 7) provide crucial evidence for textual problems; 8) the parabolic ballad literary type opens new doors for understanding the parables, and a range of New Testa- ment problems related to them.

71 Now we are going to examine Bailey’s perspectives and analysis on his exegesis of four parables and two poems of Luke 11:5-13 and 15:4-32 and make some comments in this regard.

The Friend of Midnight (Luke 11:5-8). To understand this parable and its features more To understand this parable and its features more clearly, Bailey, closely examines, compares and contrasts clearly, Bailey, closely examines, compares and contrasts the literary structure, the cultural elements and key words of the literary structure, the cultural elements and key words of the parable. The cultural element of the parable falls into the parable. The cultural element of the parable falls into place once the key word (importunity, boldness, not place once the key word (importunity, boldness, not ashamed to keep on asking, avoidance of shame) is prop- ashamed to keep on asking, avoidance of shame) is properly understood. Among many solutions and alternatives he erly understood. Among many solutions and alternatives he suggests that this parable should be read and understood in suggests that this parable should be read and understood in this possible manner: Can you imagine having a guest and this possible manner: Can you imagine having a guest and going to a neighbor to borrow bread and the neighbor offers going to a neighbor to borrow bread and the neighbor offers ridiculous excuses about a locked door and sleeping chil- ridiculous excuses about a locked door and sleeping children? The Middle Eastern listener responds, “No I cannot dren? The Middle Eastern listener responds, “No I cannot imagine such a thing.” The Oriental listener/reader knows imagine such a thing.” The Oriental listener/reader knows the communal responsibility, for the guest is guest of the the communal responsibility, for the guest is guest of the community not just of the individual. The guest must leave community not just of the individual. The guest must leave the village with a good feeling about the hospitality of the the village with a good feeling about the hospitality of the village as a community. The parable climaxes around the village as a community. The parable climaxes around the question of the “sense of honor” or avoidance of shame, of question of the “sense of honor” or avoidance of shame, of the man asleep, which leads him in the night to fulfill the the man asleep, which leads him in the night to fulfill the host’s request. The theological cluster of this parable in- host’s request. The theological cluster of this parable includes two major items. The first deals with the nature of cludes two major items. The first deals with the nature of God. Second, assurance for man. The parable said to the God. Second, assurance for man. The parable said to the original listener, when you go to your neighbor at night, eve- original listener, when you go to your neighbor at night, everything is against you. It is night. He is asleep in bed, the rything is against you. It is night. He is asleep in bed, the door is locked and his children are asleep. He does not like door is locked and his children are asleep. He does not like you and yet you will receive even more than you ask. This is you and yet you will receive even more than you ask. This is because your neighbor is a man of integrity and he will not because your neighbor is a man of integrity and he will not violate that quality. The God to whom you pray also has an violate that quality. The God to whom you pray also has an integrity that He will not violate; and beyond this, He loves integrity that He will not violate; and beyond this, He loves

72 you. Thus, the parable tells of sleeping neighbor who will indeed preserve his honor and grant the host’s request. Even so, man before God has much more reason to rest assured that his request would be granted.

The Parable/poem on A Father’s Gifts (Luke 11:9-13). Bailey demonstrates that Luke 11:9-13 is a mixed Bailey demonstrates that Luke 11:9-13 is a mixed parable poem and its internal as well as external evidence parable poem and its internal as well as external evidence point to a Pharisaic audience on a Father’s Gifts. To whom point to a Pharisaic audience on a Father’s Gifts. To whom was this material originally addressed? The texts them- was this material originally addressed? The texts themselves indicate that this was addressed to the Gospel’s op- selves indicate that this was addressed to the Gospel’s opponents: (Matt.12:11; Luke 14:5; Matt.7:7-11). Texts that ponents: (Matt.12:11; Luke 14:5; Matt.7:7-11). Texts that are clearly addressed to the disciples: (Luke 17:7; Matt. are clearly addressed to the disciples: (Luke 17:7; Matt. 6:27; Luke 12:25). This parable/poem follows the parable of 6:27; Luke 12:25). This parable/poem follows the parable of the friend at midnight and it is divided into three stanzas the friend at midnight and it is divided into three stanzas with each stanza containing three double lines. The parable/ with each stanza containing three double lines. The parable/ poem states that a gracious Father always grants good gifts poem states that a gracious Father always grants good gifts (Holy Spirit) to all who seek Him. After reasoning he con- (Holy Spirit) to all who seek Him. After reasoning he concludes that this parable/poem is separate and is not origi- cludes that this parable/poem is separate and is not originally a part of the parable of the friend at midnight (Luke nally a part of the parable of the friend at midnight (Luke 11:5-8). In the parable, a neighbor deals with a neighbor; 11:5-8). In the parable, a neighbor deals with a neighbor; here in the poem a father deals with his son. In the parable, here in the poem a father deals with his son. In the parable, there is no reference to persistence. In the poem continuous there is no reference to persistence. In the poem continuous action; asking, seeking, knocking are introduced. This par- action; asking, seeking, knocking are introduced. This parable/poem is most probably addressed to the opponents of able/poem is most probably addressed to the opponents of the Gospel, and affirms that a Heavenly Father gives good the Gospel, and affirms that a Heavenly Father gives good gifts to all His children. To everyone, it can be understood as gifts to all His children. To everyone, it can be understood as an appeal to the outcasts; they will receive if they ask. “You an appeal to the outcasts; they will receive if they ask. “You being evil” phrase, indicates that it is addressed to oppo- being evil” phrase, indicates that it is addressed to opponents. nents.

The Father and The Two Lost Sons (Luke 15:11-32). The double parable in structure is a parabolic ballad and has authentic cultural elements which contains the themes of sin, repentance, grace, joy and sonship.

73 Bailey, as an expert in his field, eloquently examines the two similar but of distinct halves, the literary structure of this double parable; then for an adequate interpretation he attentively and carefully exposes the cultural aspects and the elements as they appear in the text, some of which will illuminate other parallelisms and lead into authentic conclusions. Thus, in this first scene, we come to know that the prodigal son requests and receives possession and disposition of his portion of the inheritance. Both requests are un- heard of in Eastern life and thought. Each means the son is in a hurry for his father to die. The father is expected to refuse and punish the prodigal. Instead, in an unprecedented act of love, the request is granted. The older son is expected to refuse his share and to fulfill the role of reconciler. He fails on both counts. These failures indicate that his relationships to both his brother and his father are broken. Both sons fail even to try to live together in unity. The Gesasah ceremony –breaking of the jar in the street as a sign of the breaking relationship with the family and the entire community- illustrates group attitudes. The prodigal sells, leaves, and loses all. He sees his sin as primarily the loss of the money and in ensuing inability to care for his father. He is reduced to herding pigs (a base and humiliating job for an Israelite) for a gentile and eating bitter wild carob beans. He comes to his senses, and decides to come back to his village but not to his home. Planning to work as a servant and live in the village, he intends to save himself. For Palestin- ian listeners, initially the father would naturally be a symbol of God. Then, as the story progresses, the father comes down out of the house and in a dramatic act, demonstrates unexpected love publicly in humiliation. (An Oriental Noble- man with flowing robes never runs anywhere, to do so is humiliating.) The literary structure and the cultural surroundings of the story identify this dramatic act as the turning

74 point of the first half of the parable. Surely, Jesus intended point of the first half of the parable. Surely, Jesus intended His listeners to see in this act a dramatic representation of His listeners to see in this act a dramatic representation of His welcome of sinners when the father leaves the house to His welcome of sinners when the father leaves the house to come out to his son in love and humility. God loves sinners come out to his son in love and humility. God loves sinners while they are still sinners, and He waits and expects their while they are still sinners, and He waits and expects their return. The prodigal son is shattered by the offer of grace, return. The prodigal son is shattered by the offer of grace, confesses unworthiness, and accepts restoration to sonship confesses unworthiness, and accepts restoration to sonship and genuine humility. Sin is now a broken relationship, and genuine humility. Sin is now a broken relationship, which he cannot restore. Repentance is now understood as which he cannot restore. Repentance is now understood as acceptance of grace and confession of unworthiness. The acceptance of grace and confession of unworthiness. The community rejoices together. The visible demonstration of community rejoices together. The visible demonstration of love in humiliation is seen to have clear overtones of the love in humiliation is seen to have clear overtones of the atoning work of Christ. atoning work of Christ. The older son then insults his father publicly and demonstrates himself to be as “lost” as his brother was in the far country. The father extends the same love and humiliation, but no confession and repentance results. The parable closes with a final appeal for reconciliation. The listening Pharisee is pressed to see himself in the older son and to respond by accepting reconciliation/sonship. Bailey does that reconciliation by adding a happy ending: And he came and entered the house, and joined in the music and dancing, and began to make merry. And the two sons were reconciled to their father.

The Lost Sheep and The Lost Coin (Luke 15:4-10). Luke 15:1-3 is seen as an authentic setting for the parables that follow. The issue is Jesus’ welcome of sinners to table fellowship either as fellow guests or as host. The parables of 15:4-32 is a defense of Jesus’ action. The parables of Jesus are known for their naturalness and life-like qualities. The shepherd is a member of the extended family and naturally feels responsible before the entire family clan; any loss is a loss to all of them. This understanding of the culture clarifies the joy in the community reflected at the

75 center of the parable. The parable/poem reinforced by its center of the parable. The parable/poem reinforced by its structure tells the listener/reader that the shepherd rejoices structure tells the listener/reader that the shepherd rejoices twice: once when he finds the lost sheep and a second time twice: once when he finds the lost sheep and a second time in community, back in the village. Jesus makes a decision to in community, back in the village. Jesus makes a decision to oppose pharisaic attitudes toward proscribed professions oppose pharisaic attitudes toward proscribed professions when He addresses them as shepherds. The dynamic when He addresses them as shepherds. The dynamic theme is the invitation to share in joy over the conversion of theme is the invitation to share in joy over the conversion of sinners. Thus the joy is expressed in and shared with a sinners. Thus the joy is expressed in and shared with a community. In this parable, Jesus is defending, searching, community. In this parable, Jesus is defending, searching, looking after and welcoming the sinners. This welcome in- looking after and welcoming the sinners. This welcome involves restoration to a community. The wandering sheep volves restoration to a community. The wandering sheep lost is brought back to the fold now gathered in the village. lost is brought back to the fold now gathered in the village. The search has its price and so does the act of restoration. The search has its price and so does the act of restoration. Without the shouldering of this burden there is no restora- Without the shouldering of this burden there is no restoration, a gracious love that seeks the sinner. The cultural fea- tion, a gracious love that seeks the sinner. The cultural features are authentic and identify it as earlier than the Mat- tures are authentic and identify it as earlier than the Mat- hean version. hean version. In the case of the parable of The Lost Coin, there is no burden of restoration. Once the coin is found, it is auto- matically restored. Yet, the theme of joy does appear in the center and the end. In regards to the entire parable, Luke 15:4-10 has a poetic outline. This parable also has a genuine cultural element, which cannot be ignored: coin has been observed as a part of Middle Eastern women’s jewelry or dowry. This woman clearly knew that the coin was in the house; she had not been out. Her diligence was prompted by the knowledge that it could be found if she would keep sweeping and searching. A pharisaic attitude toward shepherds and inferior women in society is criticized within the imagery of the parable. In conclusion, Kenneth Bailey as a genuine scholar, with this work succeeded to illustrate, expound and present faithfully the text in their original exposure, in terms of sources and methods, phrases, approaches for that given material all of which is intended for a better understanding

76 of the literary aspects, cultural exposures and psychological conditions, attitudes of the Middle Eastern traditions and surroundings. His concern for the vitality and faithfulness to the original text, urged and impelled him to take seriously his task in terms of both form and content, the Middle East- ern world and its cultural perspectives. Hence, his analyses discovered and displayed valid insights with regard to the methods and every evidence, matched with contemporary Christian life and message along with timeless theological content and eschatological truths.

The Parable of the Good Samaritan (Luke 10:25-37) The circumstances in which this wonderful apologue is set introduces the conditions it describe. The apologue finds place in the annals of all sorts and situations of men. As a narrative it will never become stale, never superseded, never grow old. This is simply because it is composed of the elements of eternal truth. The mode of pictorial representation is not of symbolic clothing, but of exhibiting a concrete example. Luke’s main point in re-telling the parable must have been what it means to be a neighbor. The parable of the Good Samaritan occurs only in Luke, and illustrates Jesus’ teaching of who our neighbor is: anyone in immediate need, even a supposed enemy. The extent of the Samaritan’s love to an unknown person goes far beyond good human actions. This is indeed an example of divine grace. Jesus began His ministry with these words, “The kingdom of God is at hand” (Mk.1:15), and went on to show and to teach what that kingdom meant, and what was the dominant force of this kingdom? Richard Coleman, interpreting this parable says, “It is a story not so much about doing a good deed… as about the breaking of the kingdom that re- verses our expectations about who can be good.”

77 This parable is unique and differs from all other parables in the Synoptic tradition. It is generally regarded as pure fiction and not an invention of Jesus. Luke, or his source, must have provided the narrative framework, because according to Walter, this parable originally was independent and separate from its present narrative and dialogue framework. The lesson is in the story itself, a short story with a plot. Like other of Jesus’ parables, this one is not told to the end and the reader never learns if the victim recovered, or if the Samaritan kept his promise to return. Luke’s main point in retelling the parable must have been what it means to be a neighbor. Jesus and Luke sought to illustrate that the love of one’s neighbor must transcend all natural or human boundaries such as race, nationality, religion, and economic or educational status. This narrative is indeed considered one of our Lord’s greatest and most typi- cal parables, profound and powerful. Our Lord’s conversation with the lawyer, which gave rise to the parable, must not be confused with His contact with another lawyer (Mt. 19:16; 22:35-40; Mk. 12:28-34; Luke 18:18). In the seemingly parallel occasion in Mark 12:28; 34; our Lord joined two famous Old Testament passages together in His answer to the lawyer’s question (Deut.6:4; Levit.19:18). But the lawyer in this parable asked more pointed questions than his fellow scribe. The introduction (9:51-10:37) to the first section of the journey narrative,(9:51-13:21),ends with a dialogue between Jesus and a lawyer who wished to put Him to the test (10:25-37). Structurally and functionally, the unit is parallel to 9:57-62. The latter had focused on Jesus’ challenge to those among whom He traveled with His disciples. The present unit dwells on those who responded to the mission of the seventy. As in 9:57-62, Luke invokes Jesus’ authoritative word to resolve a difficult question in the gospel mission.

78 The dialogue is developed in two stages (10:25-28; The dialogue is developed in two stages (10:25-28; 29-37), of which the second includes Jesus’ parable con- 29-37), of which the second includes Jesus’ parable concerning a Samaritan who was a true neighbor (10:30-37). cerning a Samaritan who was a true neighbor (10:30-37). Following the assertion that the so-called wise lack true un- Following the assertion that the so-called wise lack true understanding, the Pharisees, Sadducees, and Scribes derstanding, the Pharisees, Sadducees, and Scribes (10:21), Luke gives an illustration of just such a lack of un- (10:21), Luke gives an illustration of just such a lack of understanding. One of the wise, an expert in the law, came to derstanding. One of the wise, an expert in the law, came to Jesus to ask the most basic of all religious questions, “What Jesus to ask the most basic of all religious questions, “What must I do to inherit eternal life?” Both Luke and Matthew, must I do to inherit eternal life?” Both Luke and Matthew, Mt.22:35 saw this question as a hostile one, and agreed Mt.22:35 saw this question as a hostile one, and agreed against Mark in calling the person an expert in the law against Mark in calling the person an expert in the law rather than a teacher of the law (Mk.12:28). By profession a rather than a teacher of the law (Mk.12:28). By profession a “lawyer” was one occupied with Mosaic Law. It was his offi- “lawyer” was one occupied with Mosaic Law. It was his official business to interpret the Law and guide people on how cial business to interpret the Law and guide people on how to relate their life to it. If a Jew had a difficulty, he would to relate their life to it. If a Jew had a difficulty, he would consult a lawyer or scribe to find out what the Law said on consult a lawyer or scribe to find out what the Law said on the matter of behavior troubling him. Confronting Jesus, he the matter of behavior troubling him. Confronting Jesus, he wanted Him, the Great Teacher, to give him instruction on wanted Him, the Great Teacher, to give him instruction on how to obtain life in fullness. For “eternal life” (Luke 18:18; how to obtain life in fullness. For “eternal life” (Luke 18:18; 30; Acts.13:46; 48), is a synonym for being “saved” or enter- 30; Acts.13:46; 48), is a synonym for being “saved” or entering God’s kingdom. Although the question was not sincere, ing God’s kingdom. Although the question was not sincere, it nevertheless revealed ignorance. How skilful was the re- it nevertheless revealed ignorance. How skilful was the reply of Jesus! Recognizing the test, Jesus responds with a ply of Jesus! Recognizing the test, Jesus responds with a further question concerning what is written in the law and further question concerning what is written in the law and the lawyer’s reading of it (10:26). Employing a technical the lawyer’s reading of it (10:26). Employing a technical term, constantly used by the scribes or lawyers who when term, constantly used by the scribes or lawyers who when they consulted one another about some matter of the law they consulted one another about some matter of the law would say “How do you read it?” Jesus said, “What is writ- would say “How do you read it?” Jesus said, “What is written in the law, how do you read it?” The man thrown back ten in the law, how do you read it?” The man thrown back upon himself, and upon what he already knew of the law’s upon himself, and upon what he already knew of the law’s requirements, gave the only right and complete answer he requirements, gave the only right and complete answer he could, namely the necessity of loving God and also his could, namely the necessity of loving God and also his neighbor (10:27). Jesus thus leads the lawyer to furnish his neighbor (10:27). Jesus thus leads the lawyer to furnish his own answer in terms which were familiar and acceptable, own answer in terms which were familiar and acceptable, especially for one who specialized in legal matters. The especially for one who specialized in legal matters. The

79 expert’s answer consisted of two Old Testament passages: the first Deuteronomy 6:5, and the second, Leviticus 19:18. Jesus considers the response adequate. “The way to eternal life is the same in both the Old Testament and New Tes- tament. It is by grace through faith that works in love.” The answer given in Luke 10:27 involves a faith consisting of love for God and one’s neighbor; for it is inconceivable to love God apart from faith. Furthermore, a faith that does not produce love of one’s neighbor is dead. If the lawyer does indeed love the Lord and his neighbor, he will live (10:27- 28). In this first stage, Luke provided and prepared the context for his central thought which leads us to the heart of Jesus’ teaching. What had begun as a lawyer’s test of Je- sus now becomes Jesus’ test of the lawyer. Placed on the defensive, the latter returns to the charge with a further question. In an effort to justify his personal behavior in the matter of loving his neighbor, the lawyer inquires concerning his neighbor’s identity, “And who is my neighbor?” Who is “this neighbor” whom he must love as himself? He needs some definitions, perhaps a list. If the list is not too long, he may be able to fulfill its demands. He simply hopes yet to do something and gain eternal life. The text of Leviticus identifies “the neighbor as being one’s brother and the sons of your own people” (Lev.19:17-18). The rabbi understood this to include all Jews. For most Jews, a neighbor was another Jew and not a Samaritan or a Gentile. The Pharisees and the Essenes did not even include all Jews. As a lawyer, what troubled him was the identity of the neighbor he must love, for he belonged to a class of teachers declaring that no Gentile was a neighbor. For him, as a Jew, neighborliness belonged within the Covenant people. Earlier Jesus had responded to the lawyer’s questions of his own. He now answers with a story in which three

80 men came upon someone who had been robbed, beaten and abandoned half dead along the road from Jerusalem to Jericho (Lk.10:30-35). The scene of this story enfolds and the picture grows before us. The road from Jerusalem to Jericho was a notori- ously dangerous road. Jerusalem is 2,300 feet above sea- level; the Dead Sea near which Jericho stood is 1,300 feet below sea-level. One always goes down from Jerusalem no matter which direction one takes. Jericho was seventeen miles east of Jerusalem. It was a road of narrow, rocky defiles, and of sudden turnings which made it the “happy hunt- ing ground of brigands.” Josephus spoke of this road in the first century “as desolate and rocky.” Jerome declared in the late fourth century that it was still infested with Bedouin robbers. People seldom attempted the Jerusalem to Jericho road alone if they were carrying goods or valuables. Seek- ing safety in numbers, they always traveled in convoys or caravans. It was along this “thief-infested road” that “a certain man” was traveling down from Jerusalem to Jericho. Who he was we are not told. Probably he was a Jewish merchant. The story intentionally leaves the man unidenti- fied (Lk.10:30). He falls into the hands of robbers. They inflicted heavy blows upon him, stripped and left him exhausted and half-dead to perish in the lonely wilderness. Those brutal robbers never expected another traveler to pass that spot on the dangerous, unfrequented road in time to save the “half dead” victim. The wounded traveler’s condition was not a curious incidental. He was unconscious and stripped (Lk.10:30). These details are skillfully constructed to create the tension that was at the heart of the drama. The Middle Eastern world was and is made up of various ethnic-religious communities. The traveler is able to identify strangers in two ways. He can talk to the unknown man on the road and identify him from his speech, or even before that he can

81 identify him by his manner of dress. But what if he was unconscious beside the road? In such a case one would need to take a quick glance at the stranger’s clothes. But what if the man beside the road was stripped? He was thereby reduced to a mere human being in need. He belonged to no man’s ethnic or religious community. It was such a person that the robbers had left wounded beside the road. Who will turn aside to render aid? It is here that the Master story-teller introduces a de- lightful touch: By chance, by coincidence “there came down a certain priest that way” (Lk.10:31). A priest happened to be going down the same road, and most certainly riding. In the Middle East no one with any status in the community takes seventeen-mile hikes through the desert. The poor walk. Everyone else in general, and the upper classes in particular, always ride. If the priest had been walking, what could he have done besides offer first aid and sit, hoping that someone might come by with a riding animal who could help him? The parable turns on the presupposition that what the Samaritan did, at least the priest could have done. This comfortable priest was a servant of the Law which enjoined mercy even to a beast (Ex.23:4-5). Here was a man, pro- fessedly consecrated to God, and even now on his way home after his turn of office in the Temple. Surely after his prayers and oblations, he will show mercy to the man who sorely needed it. But this spiritual leader, maybe living in Jericho at that time, had evidently left God back in the Tem- ple and had neither time nor compassion for this unfortunate fellow. Perhaps, he was in too much of a hurry to get home and to other affairs. Or as a “descendent of Aaron,” he was involved in the sacrifices, as well as in various purifi- cation rites. He could not defile himself by contact with the dead, except in the case of a close relative. The priest, when confronted with a mute, stripped body became as though paralyzed. With speech impossible and distinctive

82 dress missing, there was the possibility that the wounded man was a non-Jew, but also he might be dead; if so, contact with him would defile him (Num.19:11). It could be also that he feared stopping because he might then himself be attacked by robbers. But, like the lawyer to whom Jesus ut- tered this parable, this priest knew the Law with its enact- ment about loving God and his neighbor – surely it was the helpless, half-naked, bleeding man at his feet. Heartlessly he passed by on the other side! He was a man who set the claims of ceremonial above those of charity. The Temple and its liturgy meant more to him than the pain of man. “Likewise also a Levite came to the place” (Lk.10:32). This was another traveler, and with the tread of his footsteps, the hopes of the half-dead man would rise again. He looked at him and passed the other side. The Levite was of the same tribe as the Pharisee, but of one of the inferior branches. He was a servant of the Temple. As a minister of religious worship and interpreter of the Law, he should have been eager to assist the distressed soul he looked on, yet left unaided, walking on by to the other side. The Levite was a descendant of Levi who “assisted the priests in various sacrificial duties and policing the Temple but could not perform the sacrificial acts.” He came to the place, saw and passed by. Priest and Levite, teachers of the Law, were zealous in ritual services, while neglecting “the weightier matters of the law, justice, mercy and faith.” The Samaritan: “And a certain Samaritan, traveling, The Samaritan: “And a certain Samaritan, traveling, came to him, and when he saw him, he had compassion on came to him, and when he saw him, he had compassion on him” (Lk.10:33). Samaritans were half-caste, a mixture of a him” (Lk.10:33). Samaritans were half-caste, a mixture of a Jew and Gentile, therefore hated by the full-blooded Jew. Jew and Gentile, therefore hated by the full-blooded Jew. Ben Sirach describes Samaritans as the “foolish people” Ben Sirach describes Samaritans as the “foolish people” whom his “soul detests” (Sir.50:25-26). Jesus would have whom his “soul detests” (Sir.50:25-26). Jesus would have no dealings with the Samaritans, treating them as outcasts. no dealings with the Samaritans, treating them as outcasts. Jesus deliberately chose “an outsider, and a hated one for Jesus deliberately chose “an outsider, and a hated one for His hero in order to indicate that being a neighbor is not a His hero in order to indicate that being a neighbor is not a

83 matter of nationality or race.” Therefore, the lawyer must matter of nationality or race.” Therefore, the lawyer must have been amazed when Jesus introduced a Samaritan as have been amazed when Jesus introduced a Samaritan as the only one on that lonely dangerous Jericho road willing to the only one on that lonely dangerous Jericho road willing to befriend a “neighbor,” a helpless man. The Samaritan from befriend a “neighbor,” a helpless man. The Samaritan from whom no needy Jew could expect the least relief, was the whom no needy Jew could expect the least relief, was the one who gave it. The text has a clear progression as we one who gave it. The text has a clear progression as we move through the scenes. The priest only goes down the move through the scenes. The priest only goes down the road. The Levite comes to the place. The Samaritan comes road. The Levite comes to the place. The Samaritan comes to the man. “He went to him, and bound up his wounds, to the man. “He went to him, and bound up his wounds, pouring on oil and wine” (Lk.10:34). It must be clearly un- pouring on oil and wine” (Lk.10:34). It must be clearly understood that by his description of the heartlessness of the derstood that by his description of the heartlessness of the Priest and the Levite, and the opposite treatment of the Sa- Priest and the Levite, and the opposite treatment of the Sa- maritan, that all religious representatives were cruel; they maritan, that all religious representatives were cruel; they trusted in themselves that they were righteous, and de- trusted in themselves that they were righteous, and despised others. Without any doubt there were many benevo- spised others. Without any doubt there were many benevolent priests and Levites and contrariwise many unkind Sa- lent priests and Levites and contrariwise many unkind Sa- maritans. There were Samaritans who would not permit Je- maritans. There were Samaritans who would not permit Je- sus and His disciples, when they were weary and in need of sus and His disciples, when they were weary and in need of rest and refreshment, to pass the night in their village rest and refreshment, to pass the night in their village (Lk.9:53). It is a Levite, Barnabas, who was named Son of (Lk.9:53). It is a Levite, Barnabas, who was named Son of Consolation, who sold all that he had for the relief of poorer Consolation, who sold all that he had for the relief of poorer brethren (Acts.4:36). Priest and Levite passed by the half- brethren (Acts.4:36). Priest and Levite passed by the half- dead man, but the Samaritan came to him, and seeing his dead man, but the Samaritan came to him, and seeing his battered, blood-spattered body, had compassion on him battered, blood-spattered body, had compassion on him and rendered quick and effectual help; “He went to him and and rendered quick and effectual help; “He went to him and bandaged his wounds, pouring on oil and wine” (Lk.10:34). bandaged his wounds, pouring on oil and wine” (Lk.10:34). Oil was widely used by the ancients as an external remedy to assuage the pain of open wounds (Isa.1:6). The use of wine was also an external remedy for wounds and bruises. Having cleansed the wounds and staunched the blood, “then he put him on his riding animal and led him to the inn, and took care of him” (Lk.10:34). The courage of the Samaritan was demonstrated at first when he stopped in the desert. But his real bravery was seen in this final act of

84 compassion. The point was not his courage but rather the price he was willing to pay to complete his act of mercy. He gave and saved expecting nothing in return. He used wisely his worldly possessions. His oil, wine, money and mount were all used wisely (Lk.6:32-36). The outcast, a cursed Sa- maritan, satisfied the requirement of the law. The priest and the Levite demonstrated that they loved neither God nor their neighbor. The deep principle of human conduct, or philosophy of life, which this parable contains for us is the same question of the lawyer, “Who is my neighbor?” How are we to distinguish our neighbor? Earlier Jesus had responded to the lawyer’s questions with questions of his own. He now answered with a story in which three men came upon someone who had been robbed, beaten and left alone half dead along the road from Jerusalem to Jericho. Of these three, a priest and a Levite both saw the man, but they crossed over to the other side of the road and continued on their way. Both of these men represented respected and religiously honorable positions, and the lawyer no doubt would have been eager to include them among his neighbor. The third, however, was a Samaritan. As such, he was mistrusted and despised by the Jews. However, the Samaritan was the one who cared for the stricken Jew, and he did so in a manner that far surpassed ordinary obligation and sense of fraternal decency. This Samaritan, whom the lawyer would probably have excluded from his neighborhood, is thus presented as one who was fully worthy of being considered such and to whom the law of love consequently extended. And when he left him next morning, he left money with the landlord, and passed his word for what he should spend more. All of this was done by a stranger and foreigner. Having told the parable, Jesus again calls on the lawyer to answer his own questions (Lk.10:36; 10:26). In so doing, however, he also transformed the question. For

85 Jesus, the real question is not “who is my neighbor,” but “how does one prove oneself a true neighbor to others.” It is not a place but love that makes a neighborhood. The lawyer’s question allowed for a distinction between those who are neighbors to us and those who are not placing all responsibility for this distinction on others. Jesus’ question places the responsibility for being a neighbor on the inquirer who must then be neighbor to all without distinction. The lawyer is then told to act like the Samaritan in showing mercy even to one who was a foreigner to his community (Lk.10:37). This parable is applicable to another purpose than that for which it was intended; and does excellently set forth the kindness and love of God, our Savior towards sinful miserable man. Did not God make humanity His neighbor? Seeing a world of sinners robbed of their true nature, stripped of divine ideals, wounded by sins, unable to rise. Here the priest, as the law of Moses, passes by on the other side. The prophets-teachers walked away, as having neither pity nor power to save us for eternal life. But then God came down in the Incarnation to where the sinner was and gave the world a corresponding example in the act of the merciful Samaritan. The priests, and Levites represent the various legal and ineffectual methods by which human wisdom endeavors to cure sin. By contrast, the Samaritan shadows the Redeemer in his advent, in his coming down from heaven to bind up the wounds of the sinner, to save him from death. The whole work of the Son of God is love and pity. It is the law of love, sufferings and death for sinners. For there is no entrance into life, or inheritance in heaven for an unloving spirit. The priest or Levite as well as the ruling religious leaders of the Jewish nation, their laws, priesthood, sacrifices and their rituals, the Covenant and regulations were not sufficient for salvation. They were shadows

86 of Christ; the old was passed, and with Jesus the doors of heaven were opened, to lead us into God’s kingdom. “Now as I passed by I looked upon you, and saw you polluted in your own blood” (Ezek.16:6;8). Christ, through His death and resurrection covers our nakedness, binds up our wounds and heals them with a balm extracted from His own broken heart. Not only so, but He puts us in a place of safety, provides for our needs, and has promised to return and take us to Himself.

Conclusion. Seeing the parable in its dialogue setting, the first questions and answers ended with a command to do something: show love to all humanity. Who can meet this standard? Who then can be saved? The only conclusion is, “These things are beyond me. I cannot justify myself, but all things are possible with God” (Lk.18:27). Now, the lawyer is pressed to understand: he must become a neighbor to anyone in need. To fulfill the law means reaching out in perhaps a costly and compassionate way to all people, even to enemies. The sun shines upon good and evil (Matt.5:43-45), therefore the followers of Je- sus should love not only “their neighbor,”, “the good;” but also “the evil,” “the sinners,” their enemies. It was a direct call to be perfect and merciful “like your Father in heaven” (Matt.5:48; Lk.6:36). Jesus has not come to abolish the law and the prophets, but to fulfill them (Matt.5:17), to give new and eschatological meaning. Hence we become aware of a highly illustrated theological motif clothed in be- havioral narration. The parable makes clear that any attempt at self-justification is doomed to failure. Yet the parable holds up an ethical standard to strive after, even though it cannot be fully achieved. The Samari- tan, “ceremonially unclean, socially an outcast and a hated outsider, and religiously a heretic, demonstrates compassion and unconditional love. Thus, the parable is a sharp

87 attack on communal and racial prejudices. The parable gives us a dynamic concept of the neighbor. The question, “Who is my neighbor?” is reshaped into “To whom must I become a neighbor?” The answer then is –everyone in need, even an enemy! God’s sovereignty is not bound by the official leadership of the community of the faithful. When that leadership fails, God is still free to choose new agents.

The passage makes a statement about salvation. Sal- vation comes to the wounded man in the form of a costly demonstration of unexpected love. “When no eye pitied us to do any of these things to us” (Ezek.16:5), then Christ took compassion on us. His infinite mercy, compassion and goodness are equal with that goodness and compassion of God. Jesus, the rejected outsider, has cast Himself in the role of the Good Samaritan, who appears dramatically on the scene to bind up the wounds of the suffering as the unique agent of God’s costly demonstration of unexpected love.

88 BIBLIOGRAPHY

Gray Andrew. (1814). Delineation of the parables. Keach, Benjamin. (1856). Exposition of the parables. Richard Coleman. (1982). Gospel telling: the art and theology of Christ’s sermons. Oxen, Drummond. (1872). Parabolic teaching of Christ. Buttrick, George A. Ed. The interpreter’s Bible. 1952, vol. 8. Mays, James, Ed. Harper’s Bible commentary. 1988. Locker Herbert. All the parables of the Bible. Nicoll, Robertson Ed. The expositor’s Bible. vol. 5. Lachs, Samuel Tobias. A rabbinic commentary. 1988. Bundy, Walter E. Jesus and the first three Gospels. 1955.

89 JESUS HEALS THE HEMORRHAGING WOMAN AND RAISES JAIRUS’S DAUGHTER (Luke 8:40-56)

Jairus was a ruler of the Synagogue whose functions were not priestly but administrative, including supervision of the building, the Sanctuary and the services. As a ruler o f the Synagogue, he undoubtedly had heard about Jesus through His reputation as a miraculous healer. As a ruler of the Synagogue, he must also have known of Jesus’ claims to be the Messiah. What his reaction was, we do not know. His only daughter was at the point of death, and as a loving father he was at the point of despair. As a ruler of the Syna- gogue, he undoubtedly knew about the healing of the royal official’s child (John 4:46-54) and of the centurion’s servant (Luke 7:1-10). Although to him and to many others alike, Je- sus, was disturbing the community’s peace and was considered a menace; threatening the authorities now was his only hope. Jesus had healed others. Perhaps He could help his daughter. On the other hand, how he reacted was socially unacceptable for a man of his position: he came and fell at the Lord’s feet and begged Him to come to his house and lay His hands on his daughter. It took courage and humility for one who occupied such an important position in the Syna- gogue to prostrate himself before One who many considered to be undesired but popular. The situation was desperate, but he took the chance. Unlike Jairus, this woman was an ordinary housewife, not a public figure or anyone of importance. She had had her problem for as many years as Jairus’s daughter had been alive, twelve years. Her hopeless condition, similar to Jairus’s but even more serious, had a religious consequence as well. The constant hemorrhaging caused her to be ceremonially unclean, keeping her from enjoying worship

90 at the Temple and family life (Lev.15:19-30). Due to her illness; being unclean, socially she was undesirable and kept away. She was desperate and her situation was hopeless. But having a strong faith in Jesus, the doctor-healer, though knowing full well about her shameful-sinful sickness, in secret she came up behind Jesus and dared to touch the edge of His garment. Of course it was not the garment that healed but Jesus. Neither was it the touch but her faith. Je- sus knew everything. He asked who touched Him. His disciples failed to perceive that He was inquiring not about an ordinary touch but about a touch in faith because He had released power. The woman’s incurable disease now was healed. She went in peace. Of course, the Lord had not forgotten Jairus’s need, for while He apparently delayed, the Lord was working not only in the woman’s life but also in Jairus’s. The delay served to test further Jairus’s faith and also to demonstrate the greater power of the Lord who would eventually not merely heal the child but bring her back to life. Jairus, like us, probably could not understand the reason for the delay or see the greater purpose behind it. But he had to trust the Lord for he had no other option. And when we cannot see or understand, we can and must trust the One who has promised never to leave or forsake us. Jairus receives the shocking news that his daughter was now dead. The messengers advice him to quit troubling Je- sus about the matter, for no one could do anything to help her now. Luke’s narration of these two miracles different in nature presented here, surely is important to demonstrate the distinctive nature of Jesus’ mission seen through His teachings and performing miracles. Having arrived, they found the crowd of mourners. Some were professional mourners, including musicians (Matt.9:23) and wailing women (Jer.9:17). Even the poorest family would hire at least two minstrels to play and one

91 woman to cry. Jairus was a ruler of the Synagogue who doubtless had many more. Jesus encouraged Jairus by as- suring him that his daughter’s death would shortly end in restoration, just as sleep ends in awakening. Only six people: Peter, James, John and the parents were allowed in the room where the body lay. Then Christ took the dead hand, spoke to the body and instantly the child rose and began to walk about. It is always the voice of Christ that raises the dead. So it was when He was on earth, and so it will be in His second coming.

As unlike His miracle performing on the woman in public, now privately Jesus raises Jairus’s daughter;, hence showing, proving and proclaiming His Messianic nature of His teachings. It was not only a touching experience to His disciples but also an important way to strengthen Jairus’s doubtful, shaking faith.

92 JESUS’ TEACHING ON PRAYER (Luke 11:1-13)

Jesus was praying in a certain place. We do not know Jesus was praying in a certain place. We do not know the exact location and the reason or the precedent event. the exact location and the reason or the precedent event. Usually Jesus prays during or after a major event. Here it is Usually Jesus prays during or after a major event. Here it is obvious that Jesus in praying was teaching His disciples and obvious that Jesus in praying was teaching His disciples and showing the importance of prayer. It was a regular custom showing the importance of prayer. It was a regular custom for a teacher to teach his disciples a simple prayer. John had for a teacher to teach his disciples a simple prayer. John had done that for his disciples, and now Jesus’ disciples came to done that for his disciples, and now Jesus’ disciples came to Him asking Him to do the same for them. Him asking Him to do the same for them. Luke’s version of the Lord’s Prayer is shorter than Matthew’s (6:9-13). The importance of prayer for the believer is stressed with an opening invocation; there are three petitions concerning God’s glory, followed by those concerning our needs. The terms “prayer” and “pray” are found thirteen times in Mark and seventeen times in Acts. Jesus was praying at His baptism when He received the Holy Spirit (Lk.3:21). Jesus prayed before He called His disciples (Lk.6:12). While He was praying, Jesus transfigured before His disciples (Lk.9:28-29). Luke’s account in regard to prayer is that it occurs at key times and places. In the context of Jesus praying and teaching how to pray, believers, and at first hand disciples, enabling to persist and not lose faith and keep from falling into temptation. Upon a request from one of His disciples, Jesus prays and teaches how to pray. Praying shouldn’t be long as pagans do or Pharisees whose prayers were generally adorations and praises filled with petitions and requests as it is mentioned in Matthew (Matt.6:5-6) but short and to the point because they would find all their requests in these few words. The key words of the text are You-God-Father, and we-us. JesusThe key using words the word of the Father text arebrings You-God-F new understand-ather, and ingwe to-us. God, Jesus a using closer the relationship word Father between brings new God understan and His handmading to God,es: Abba-Father, a closer relationship caring betweenand forgiving, God and living H

93 among us though He is Spirit and in heaven, who delights to among us though He is Spirit and in heaven, who delights to supply His children’s needs. In Hebrew the name means the supply His children’s needs. In Hebrew the name means the whole person known to us. Psalm 9:10 says, “They that whole person known to us. Psalm 9:10 says, “They that know Your name will put their trust in You…” Before any- know Your name will put their trust in You…” Before anything is asked for us, God and His glory come first. Only thing is asked for us, God and His glory come first. Only when we give God His place will all other things take their when we give God His place will all other things take their proper place. proper place. There are some differences between the Lord’s Prayer in Matthew and in Luke. In Matthew we pray, “Forgive us our debts as we forgive”: here, in Luke, “Forgive us our sins”. We know that every sin is a burden, therefore a debt. Jesus knows our sinful nature. We sin when we are weak. Jesus said to His disciples: “Pray that you will not fall into temptation” (Lk.22:40). Satan, the devil surrounds, attacks and tempts us when he sees and discovers our weaknesses. -Let us not into temptation- As believers, in our daily life we are inclined and tempted to sin as Christ himself encountered and was tempted by Satan. On several occasions in the Old Testament, God put His people to a test, especially when they were in the desert. What Luke meant by the term “temptation” is future trials, testing situations. We cannot escape it, but we can meet it with God. In prayer we must seek first the Kingdom of God. Luke within this short passage acknowledges the present reality of God’s Kingdom. The believer prays fervently for God’s name to be hallowed and His Kingdom to come. Although Christ announces that God’s Kingdom already is here within us, He also refers to His eschatological Second Coming.

Our Lord adds to the parable “The Friend of Mid- Our Lord adds to the parable “The Friend of Mid- night.” This is His assurance of the power of persistent night.” This is his assurance of the power of persistent prayer, and He confirms it by an analogy which sets the par- prayer, and He confirms it by an analogy which sets the parable in its right meaning and conclusion: “Ask,” “Seek,” and able in its right meaning and conclusion: “Ask,” “Seek,” and “Knock”(Lk.11:5-13). Through these parables His listeners “Knock”(Lk.11:5-13). Through these parables His listeners were aware and well conceived the nature and the meaning were aware and well conceived the nature and the meaning

94 because they were familiar to such social and cultural situations. Palestinian and Middle Eastern hospitality is a sacred duty. Therefore God will listen and grant us what we ask from Him when we are in need. Through these parables as in the Old Testament, prophets used parabolic language (2 Sam.12:1-6). Jesus teaches God’s just and compassiona te nature toward us. His love and concern is well presented. In turn we should love Him with all our heart, soul, strength and mind. If neighbors and unjust judges will eventually grant the requests, how much more will our heavenly Father hear and answer for He is loving, caring, gracious, forgiving and compassionate. We, as His sons and daughters, His children and handmades, are encouraged to be persistent in prayer, knowing that He, our Father in heaven is gracious in His character.

95 CONDITIONS OF DISCIPLESHIP (Luke 14:25-35)

After the parable of the Great Banquet (Luke 14:15- 24), which emphasizes the presence of God’s Kingdom and the need to respond to its coming, Luke related a number of Jesus’ teachings that describe the conditions for membership. The conditions of discipleship that follow were not addressed to His disciples but to the crowds. In his treatment of discipleship in the journey of salvation, Luke now turns his attention to the multitudes and the requirements for ultimate perseverance. Thematically the passage is an extension of Luke 14:1-24. In order to broaden the scope of the first hand listeners and to include them, he sets conditions for salvation and challenges for discipleship. In this passage Luke gave Jesus’ answer to the question, “What must I do to be saved?” (Acts.16:30). Salvation means: being a disciple (Lk.14:26), entering God’s kingdom (Lk.18:24), having eternal life (Lk.18:18), being acknowledged before God’s angels (Lk.12:8), and following Jesus (Lk.14:26). All of these are different ways Luke expressed the same reality. Discipleship and following Jesus involves “hating” one’s Discipleship and following Jesus involves “hating” one’s family and even one’s life. The conditions for discipleship family and even one’s life. The conditions for discipleship are radical. To love one person more than another is are radical. To love one person more than another is described in the Old Testament language as “loving one and described in the Old Testament language as “loving one and hating another” (Gen.29:30-31). This hyperbole (Matt. hating another” (Gen.29:30-31). This hyperbole (Matt. 10:37), which further specifies the call issued at the begin- 10:37), which further specifies the call issued at the beginning of the journey narrative: “As they went on their way, a ning of the journey narrative: “As they went on their way, a man said to Jesus, ‘I will follow You wherever You man said to Jesus, ‘I will follow You wherever You go…’” (Lk.9:57-62), is then symbolically reinterpreted as the go…’” (Lk.9:57-62), is then symbolically reinterpreted as the bearing of one’s cross in the following of Jesus (Lk.14:27). bearing of one’s cross in the following of Jesus (Lk.14:27). Jesus’ followers must love, obey, commit themselves to Him Jesus’ followers must love, obey, commit themselves to Him more than anyone else, even their own families. One must more than anyone else, even their own families. One must recall (Matthew 8:19-21 and Luke18:29). Jesus’ true recall (Matthew 8:19-21 and Luke18:29). Jesus’ true

96 relatives are described as those who hear the word of God and keep it (Matt.12:46-50). Being Jesus’ disciple entails primary allegiance to Him. No one and nothing can usurp His supreme position. This demand is further described by the illustration of a commitment, “bear his own cross” (Lk.14:27), and renounc- ing possessions (Lk.14:33) are repeated throughout Luke- Acts in different images and terms. Luke makes clear that the decision to follow Jesus must be made consciously, with full awareness. To enforce His demand, Christ narrates two forceful parables of a Building and a Battle. To follow Jesus means to deny ourselves and our family. Everything should come secondary to relationships in comparison with Jesus. He must come first and above all. In order to follow Him and be saved, we must carry His cross, be His witness with unconditional devotion and zeal, ready for sacrifices. This decision must be made consciously, with full awareness and readiness, similar to the man who decides to build a tower or to a king who prepares himself to go to war against another king. If Christ is the center of our life, if building a strong tower is our goal, or winning a battle, we should concentrate and put all our efforts toward that designated purpose. The Christian believer has duties, responsibilities but also expectations. A half-hearted discipleship is unacceptable and useless. To enforce this statement, Luke narrates the parable of a tower builder and the parable of a king who plans to go to war. God’s true followers, unconditional disciples, are the salt of this world and have an important mission to accomplish: that is to transform, change and give meaning to the entire world. Apart from this attitude, the Christian mission dooms, fails and becomes like salt that has lost its taste, which is no longer able to flavor those in need of it.

97 Degenerate Christians are like salt that has lost its savor. Christ may have used this saying while He was traveling around the salty Dead Sea. Although salt was used in sacrifices (Lev.2:13), here the focus is on salt’s function as a seasoning.

Good Christians are the salt of the earth (Matt.5:13). In the Christian mission as in the Christian meal-life, the followers must consequently share Jesus’ attitude of total self- giving, placing the life of others ahead of their own from every point of view. Christians who have come to Jesus but have failed to assume the radical challenge of discipleship and the way of the cross have failed in their mission. They will not enjoy the Christian meal’s fulfillment in the Kingdom. Our Savior concludes with a call to all to take notice of this, and to take warning: He who has ears to hear, let him hear.

98 THE PARABLE OF THE DISHONEST MANAGER (Luke 16:1-18)

The material in Luke (16:1-18) centers around the theme of the proper use of possessions and wealth. The simple word “also”(Lk.16:1) indicates that the parable was addressed particularly to Christ’s disciples. In its original context, this parable must consequently have been intended as a call to the multitudes; to resolute action in a time of cri- sis. In its present context, it is addressed to those who In its present context, it is addressed to those who already are disciples (Lk.16:1-9). Jesus’ admonishment indi- already are disciples (Lk.16:1-9). Jesus’ admonishment indicates that the Christians, His listeners-followers, are failing cates that the Christians, His listeners-followers, are failing in a manner somehow associated with the steward’s behav- in a manner somehow associated with the steward’s behavior. Contextually, this contrast provides a literary transition. It ior. Contextually, this contrast provides a literary transition. It begins with the parable of the Unjust Steward (Lk.16:1-8) to begins with the parable of the Unjust Steward (Lk.16:1-8) to which two sets of sayings concerning money (LK.16:9- which two sets of sayings concerning money (LK.16:9- 13) and the Pharisaic love of money (Lk.16:14-15) have been added. In this passage we find sayings concerning the Law (Lk.16:16-17) and divorce (Lk.16:18), which appear to be unrelated to the main theme. We find significant parallels between (Lk.16:13-Matt.6:24; 16:16-17;11:12-13; 5:18) and (16:18; Mark 10:11-12). Luke may have brought this material together because it deals with the common theme of possessions. The written form of the material starts with a parable then to sayings. The chapter can be divided into two parts according to the two audiences (Lk.16:1-13): disciples (16:14-31) and Pharisees. First, Jesus asks that the disciples make friends by means of unrighteous mammon; that when it fails, these friends may receive them into eternal habitations (Lk.16:9). Questions raised by this parable include: Where does the parable end? Who is the master? Why was the manager called dishonest? The strongest argument in favor of the manager’s actions is the master’s commendation in (Lk.16:8).

99 The steward lowered the bills by removing his commission. Thus, he won approval and favor from the debtors, and as a result of making his master look good, he received his favor too. The master’s praise was not directed to the manager’s being moral but to his being “shrewd” because he prepared himself for his being fired from his managerial position. He is commended for acting and preparing himself for the judgment awaiting him. Money, the unrighteous mammon, which will one day be useless (Lk.16:9), is of little importance in comparison with true riches. That the parable stung the conscience of the money-loving Pharisees is evident from their reaction to it (Lk.16:14). The word “covetous,” used here and by Paul (2 Tim. 3:2) literally means “lovers of money.” The figure of a steward, previously used by Jesus (Lk.12:42) is used to describe the office of the Apostles, and of all who are called to minister the Word of God. All such are “Stewards of the mysteries of God” and must be found faithful (1 Cor.4:1-2). “Make to yourselves friends of the mammon of righteousness” (Lk.16:9). In the Syriac version, the word “mammon” means “money,” “riches,” and is used to contrast the service or worship of money with that which is due to God (Matt.6:24). Mammon, the symbol of wealth, was possessed by the rich man in the parable. Correct use of riches in the course of our lives is consequently a prerequisite for receiving the definite riches of God’s Kingdom, when the “disciples” will be received into eternal habitations (Lk.16:9). Luke then reminds his readers that the wealth is not really their own. Indeed it belongs to the community which they serve (Acts.2:42; 44-45; 4:32; 34-35). Unfaithful in this matter, they would not receive the true riches which awaited them (Lk.16:12). Failing to share their wealth, they would be serving mammon rather than God. In no way could they serve these two mutually exclusive masters (Lk.16:13). If Theophilus, who knew that a day was coming in which he

100 had to render an account to his Lord, was a faithful steward of his possessions, then he also would have been acting prudently-shrewdly and would have received a commendation. Faithfulness is to be the basis of reward in eternity (Rev.2:10). Jesus accuses also the law-abiding Pharisees of self- justification in their refusal to share their wealth. God, however, knows their hearts, and what is exalted as righte ous among men is an abomination before Him (Lk.16:15). To justify themselves theologically, these respected Pharise es appealed to a theology of history which distinguished between the period of the Law and the Prophets and the period of the Gospel. The former had ended with John the Baptist, the latter had begun with Jesus. While Luke accepted the major distinction between the Old Testament mission of John and the New Testament mission of Jesus, he responds that this does not mean that the Law and the Prophets have been abolished, ceased. The Law remains in full force (Lk.16:17). Luke thus reminds his readers that they have not yet entered into the eternal habitations and received the true riches. The Kingdom is a future eschatological reality open to those who use wealth rightly during the period of its emergence in their life. As an example of the Law’s relevance, Luke then cites the case of divorce and remarriage (Lk.16:18). In looking closely to the passage, we encounter and become familiar with the figurative language and the usage of parabolic style in Christ’s teaching of the truths, and the urge of a renewed, rewarded life; a preparation to inherit everlasting blessings. The colorful language and allegorical meaning give new dimension and value to the inner purpose of the narrated parable depicted from ordinary life of Palestinian society. Here in this case, from the story of a wealthy businessman and his dishonest manager, we learn a valuable lesson.

101 The rich man is God himself. We, as His managers in The rich man is God himself. We, as His managers in this world, sooner or later are going to give account of our this world, sooner or later are going to give account of our stewardship. The misuse of the manager’s worldly affairs is stewardship. The misuse of the manager’s worldly affairs is praised and justified, not because they were just or accept- praised and justified, not because they were just or acceptable, but because the manager managed wisely his position able, but because the manager managed wisely his position to gain favor after his dismissal. If the dishonest manager to gain favor after his dismissal. If the dishonest manager used wisely his temporal means, seeking happiness and se- used wisely his temporal means, seeking happiness and security, how much harder should we work and put effort as curity, how much harder should we work and put effort as God’s managers in this world to gain merit and eternal life. God’s managers in this world to gain merit and eternal life. Jesus sometimes uses the negative approach for a higher-spiritual positive purpose.

102 THE LAST SUPPER / PASSION NARRATIVE (Matthew 26:1-5; 14-16)

“When Jesus had finished all these sayings, He said to His disciples, ‘You know that after two days is the Pass- over, and the Son of Man will be delivered up to be crucified.’ Then the chief priests and the elders of the people gathered in the palace of the high priest, who was called Caiaphas, and took counsel together in order to arrest Je- sus by stealth and kill Him” (Matt.26:1-4). The theme of the gospel and the narrative here come to a climax. For the Passion narratives report what in sub- stance happened to the Messiah in His last days in Jerusa- lem. It appears that the first three gospels reports on the Passion are in the same order. This may indicate that they existed in the early Christian traditions, orally kept alive and transmitted. But some of the themes and the Passion narrative are Matthew’s literary work. The end of Judas is described only by Matthew, and he alone reports the double episode of the guard at the tomb and the appearance of Je- sus to the women on Easter morning. On the other hand, Luke alone recounts the appearance of Jesus before Herod, and Jesus’ encounter of the women on the way to Calvary. The Passion narrative, with Johannine Passion parallels which take place six days before the Passover and before Jesus’ entry into Jerusalem, come to confirm the historical character of the Passion episodes. Both Matthew and Mark link the Passion narrative to the developing fatal-line of the gospel as a final confrontation and climax of Jesus’ earthly ministry. Matthew omits mentioning the second festival of Mark’s “The Passover and the feast of Unleavened Bread”(Mk.14:1-2). Jesus predicts and knows what will happen; He always knew His mission and destiny. Although now His enemies are plotting secretly, they are afraid to arrest Jesus

103 during the feast. The plan of “chief priests and elders of the people” was probably to wait till after the departure of the pilgrims, but Judas’ betrayal brought them to drop the idea of postponement. Here, Matthew using the word “then” serves to set this new episode of betrayal in sharp contrast with the preceding passage after an act of love and respect at Bethany, where Mary anoints Jesus’ feet (in Mark and Matthew His head –body too and John only the feet) wasting this way a big sum of money, 300 denari. Now Judas betrays His Master in exchange for “thirty pieces of silver” vs.15, corresponding to the price of a slave, Ex.21:32. Matthew expands his account of the Passion and at- taches it to the idea of “at the appointed time,” which was certainly known by Jesus. Whereas Mark notes, “...he (Judas) sought how he would opportunely betray Him” (vs.16). There was no need to wait for an opportunity since Jesus had been teaching openly in the temple; simply, His time (Kairos) had not yet come, and Satan was not active. Matthew in introducing and casting light on the characters with their contrasting roles, unfolds the divine plan in dramatic sequences which come to their highest moment in the arrest scene. Jesus and Judas are tragically contrasted in their search for the “proper moment” when the handing- over will take place in the garden of Gethsemane. Matthew 26:17-25. This passage comprises two sections. In the first, vs. 17-19, Jesus sends His disciples to prepare the Passover; in the second, 20-25, He sits at table with them. While they are eating, He announces that one of the Twelve “will deliver Him” vs.21. Only in Matthew does Jesus identify His betrayer. De- spite the upcoming betrayal and passion, Jesus is still in control. However, Mark and Luke mention that Jesus sent two of His disciples to prepare the Passover meal. Matthew seems to have changed Mark’s version because he could

104 not say that only “two disciples” were sent. In Mark and Luke Jesus sends two of His disciples, Luke gives their names, Peter and John, and tells “. . . go into the city, and a man carrying a jar of water will meet you; follow him and wherever he enters say to the householder, ‘The teach er says, where is my guest room, where I am to eat the Pass-over with my disciples?’” Although Matthew’s account is more simplified than that of Mark’s, its stress is on the obedience of the disciples, also to concentrate on the words of Jesus. In all three Synoptics, Jesus is called “the Teacher” and in Matthew, not two disciples but all the disciples are sent to prepare the Passover. If two had already gone, he could not say in Mark, “And when it was evening, He came with the twelve”(Mk.14:17). But he could write appropriately: “When it was evening, He sat at table with the twelve disciples”(Mt.26:20). Thus, both Mark and Matthew present the preparation scene in terms of Jesus’ command and the fulfillment of that command by the disciples. The repeated use of the name of Jesus serves a theological purpose. Matthew concentrates in this scene on the person and words of Jesus; after all it is with Him and for Him that the Passover feast will take place.

THE INSTITUTION OF THE EUCHARIST (Matthew 26:26- 29) The betrayed Jesus becomes a sacrifice instead of Paschal lamb, whose blood is poured out “for the many” and the suffering but obedient Servant inaugurates a new Covenant for the new Israel / community. The account of the institution of the Eucharist at the Last Supper is found in the three Synoptic gospels, however, Matthew introduces literary changes to the passage. He adds “Jesus” and “to the disciples” vs. 26, whereas Mark uses the pronoun “them” instead of “disciples” (Mk.14:22).

105 Matthew introduces direct address in the words over cup, “Drink of it, all of you” vs.27, while in Mark this appears as an independent statement: “And He said to them, ‘This is my blood of the New Covenant, which is shed for many.’” Also, we read in Matthew: “. . . for this is my blood of the covenant, which is poured out for many for the forgiveness of sins” (vs.28). Matthew views Jesus’ death as atoning for sins. With the use of “from now on” in vs.29, Matthew emphasizes that a definite separation with the past has already taken place: Jesus’ eschatological future is now on the way. Matthew basically follows the Markan tradition and formu- lates the liturgical traditions of his church/community. Mat- thew follows the Markan account word for word and has simply inserted some material of his own. Mark’s simple narrative of the institution of the Lord’s Supper has inspired the literary activity of Matthew. According to Matthew, the Passion narrative is controlled by God: the Son of God willingly suffers and dies and His humility is an act of obedience which fulfills the will of God. It seems that Matthew used a written source very similar to Mark’s, since the different episodes are in the same order. Matthew chooses a key phrase, “ . . . when Je- sus had finished all these sayings” (MT.26:1), to mark the conclusion of previous discourse, and as an opening, a transition to the Passion narrative. Matthew, by this formula, introduces and clarifies that throughout the gospel teachings and Jesus’ mission, there is no division but continuity. Matthew binds two traditions together: the discourse material and the climatic events of the passion-resurrection in Mark. With this key phrase, “ . . . when Jesus had finished all these sayings”vs.1, as a prelude, Matthew introduces that now the hour has come for Jesus to put in practice what He has preached and to fulfill what He has predicted. Matthew’s order of the events is put in a more dramatic

106 atmosphere. Jesus alone is fully aware and knows the moment of His Passion, and it is His words that set in motion the events that are to follow. Although Matthew borrows elements from Jesus’ previously stated Passion predictions, he now condenses them in a simple statement: “. . . and the Son of Man will be delivered to be crucified” vs.2. This term of predictions: “handing over” and “to be delivered,” appears in Matthew some 24 times, compared with 5 in Mark and 6 in Luke. Using the prophetic present tense is to indicate that it certainly will happen. Jesus’ opponents, besides Pharisees who disappear from the scene, chief Priests and the elders in Jerusalem who always rejected Jesus as the Messiah, Mark and Luke add also Scribes. Now His main enemies will play a fatal role in the plot, arrest, trial and crucifixion. Matthew. does not depend directly and totally on Mark. Matthew’s versi on of the plot is more deliberate and calculated and developed than Mark’s version. Jesus’ solemn prediction of the Passion and the planned plot of the Jews is narrated in a vivid contrast in roles. Matthew, not only weaves a number of characteristic alterations into Judas’ betrayal narrative to make his account more interesting and meaningful but also refers to predictions of the Old Testament prophets (Isa.53:4-8; 10; Ps.41:10). Mark’s word order which placed the name of Judas first, is reversed and simplified in Mat- thew; thus giving more weight to the fact that it was “one of the twelve” who performs the bargaining and the act of betrayal. Matthew changes Mark’s text in form and vocabulary to make it more direct and alive. Mark 14:12-16 provides the fundamental inspiration for Matthew’s interpretation of the passage. Mark, however, uses a different literary pattern. Jesus’ sending two of His disciples for the preparation of the Passover provides a basic theme for His Passion narrative. Mark’s format finds analogies in other examples of “mission instructions,” such as preparations for Jesus’ entry into

107 Jerusalem (Mark 11:2). In Matthew’s account, the words at the Last Supper follow closely those in Mark. The textual variants between Matthew and Mark as well as the study of the liturgies, reveal a very strong tendency toward parallelism, although the Matthean form is more symmetrical and has a “liturgical” account. Matthew’s additional words “. . . for the forgiveness of sins” (Mt.26:28) are absent from Mark., but Mark and Luke retain the words “forgiveness of sins” in relation to John’s baptism. For Matthew, the remission of sins is related to the New Covenant instituted in the death of Christ. Hence, the saying over the cup supplemented with a saying about the forgiveness of sins is transferred from the once- for-all sacrament of baptism to the sacrament of forgiveness of sins committed after baptism. The three Synoptics place the event of the Last Sup- per on the first day of Unleavened Bread. Mark and Luke add that it was the day when the Passover sacrifice was made. Matthew omits this detail for chronological difficulties but approaches the Johannine chronology, which makes the crucifixion coincide with the slaughter of the Passover lambs. The modern scholars think that Matthew could have in front of him the gospel of Mark, plus previous written eye- witness sources. But the best guess is that Matthew himself put together already existing documents, sources in a book called Matthew. The text originally is composed in Greek, despite the views of Papias and Iranaeus who claim that Matthew wrote in Aramaic, or Hebrew. As mentioned earlier, Matthew follows Mark but adds his special materials of various saying traditions and sources. He reshapes and re- groups his themes and narratives. It is most probable that, Matthew’s gospel was composed in the 80s, or the 90s at the latest, perhaps in Syrian Damascus.

108 The passage strikingly agrees with the Lukan narrative except for some minor linguistic and stylistic ways of presenting the account. What was Judas’ motive? Some scholars suggest “a psychological” and “patriotical” interest in his behavior. In his extreme desperateness, when Jesus did not act as political savior and leader, Judas, as a final and audacious act, might have thought that in pushing Je- sus in a difficult life-threatening situation, He would act differently; being cornered, Jesus will perform a miracle and take the lead to liberate Israel. Matthew, according to Sen- ior, takes the basic root “money” from Mark but adopts the plural “thirty pieces of silver”(Mt.26:15), a very small sum of money compared to his treason to commit unforgivable sin. Judas betrays his Master with a kiss. Matthew’s using the identical phrase, “from that time” 4:17; 16:21; 26:16 and once in Luke 16:16, is a kind of introduction to a new and important episode of events, meantime connecting the different climatic moments of his narrative with a continuity; thus proceeding towards the Passion events in Jerusalem. The appearance of this expression in Luke 16:16 suggests that it may have a questionable origin. This might be evidence that Luke has preserved the more original form of the questionable saying than Matthew, who may have reworked the passage in his own style. Matthew emphasizes Christology and makes changes accordingly. Matthew is not interested in the Markan description of the miraculous finding of the room but on christological words of Jesus, because with Him and for Him the Passover will have a new meaning. Matthew borrows themes and allu- sions from the Old Testament prophecies to build up his theological foundations. In his Passion narrative, Matthew follows Mark. All the events of the Markan story reappear in the same order in Matthew. Jesus now announces His death for the last time. The Synoptics associate the death of Jesus with the

109 Passover. His death will bring fulfillment of God’s plan of salvation. With His death and resurrection, everything will be renewed. But He must suffer first and be handed over, delivered up to His enemies by one of His twelve. On one hand, the graceful, unselfish woman at Bethany gives what she has to Jesus; and on the other hand, Judas, His disciple and close associate, bargains and betrays his Master. Two opposite characters play fatal roles in the Passion narrative. The woman’s unselfish and unexpected love and sacrifices were spiritual gifts, an everlasting memorial for the Messiah; to her opposite, Judas’ lowly character served to his destruction. Judas lost his life and his soul forever. Being close to Jesus, he was not His real disciple. Did the Last Supper, which took place in the Paschal season happen on the eve of 14 Nissan, Tuesday evening? The feast of Unleavened Bread was celebrated from Nissan 15 to 21, and Passover on Nissan 14. Matthew’s account of the Last Supper follows closely to Mark’s. There is no mention of a table, this means they “reclined.” At the Passover, this became a requirement by New Testament times to remind participants that the exodus had made them free. That Jesus reclined at this meal is made clear in John 12:23, where the: “beloved disciple” was lying close to the breast of Jesus. According to R.T. France, the Last Supper was a Passover meal “in intention, but without a lamb.” Jesus, knowing that He would be dead or sacrificed as the “Lamb of God” before the regular time of the Passover meal, deliberately held the Supper in secret. Judas, no doubt wishing to hide his true intention, joins the other disciples in asking: “Is it I, Master?”(Mt.26:25). But his very speech betrays him; he addresses Jesus with the title of Rabbi=Master, as Je- sus’ opponents usually addressed Him, while other disciples use the word Lord. Only Matthew records the direct question and answer between Judas and Jesus. Jesus does not identify the betrayer directly, but it is the person who has

110 just dipped his hand into the common bowl with Jesus. Manifesting His foreknowledge of His destiny to fulfill the Scriptures, Jesus shows His readiness and once again reaffirms God’s saving action, now on its way to be prepared in darkness by the hands of one of His inner circle. Judas’ betrayal reminds Matthew’s church that no one is above temptations. According to St. Augustine’s interpretation of Judas’ betrayal, he sees that Judas in contradicting and act ing against the whole teachings of his Master, betrays his human nature as well as his calling of true discipleship and faithfulness; thus acting not only against Jesus but also to the rest of his fellow disciples. Jesus’ death inaugurated a new covenantal relationship between God and man, but still sin and death are man’s enemies. The Last Supper reminds us that “the kingdom of God” is already established, but it will come in the future with all its fullness. Although in the sacrament of Eucharist the Lord Christ is absent; it reminds us that Jesus the just and sinless One was violently removed from our midst. In the sacrament of the Eucharist, He is our absent Lord but spiritually present, who through us still ministers, leads and teaches to make the entire cosmos and us ready and fully aware of His coming kingdom. During His absence we continue to walk and follow His cross. As His disciples, we walk through His path of Gethsemane, through the valley of sorrows and sufferings. In accepting His Cross, we look forward to His Second Coming with the kingdom of His Father, when suffering will be no more (Rev.21:3-4).

St. Chrysostom, in interpreting this passage, adds the words “shamelessness of Judas” for he too was present there and came to partake in the meal. Jesus even washed Judas’ feet. He was physically there, but his mind and soul were captured by the devil for Judas was already absent and dead spiritually. To shame the traitor more and bring

111 him to repentance, Jesus dips His hand with Judas in the dish. Jesus shows compassion against His traitor, who now has no garment of virtue. Now, Jesus, both lawgiver and deliverer, establishes the New Covenant, foreshadowing His sufferings, death and resurrection. He eats and drinks the bread and wine and tells His disciples to do the same now and after in His remembrance. Jesus, even after His resurrection, ate with His disciples to give them full assurance of His resurrection. It was not for want that Jesus both ate and drank wine after the resurrection, but to uproot the wicked heretics who use water in the mysteries; and to show that He used wine, “of the fruit of the vine” for a vine produces wine, not water. Jesus as patriarch of a Jewish family presides over the meal. What has happened to the bread (being broken) will happen to Jesus’ body. The meal associated with the deliverance from Egypt, now links the disciples with the results of Christ’s sacrifice to deliver them and the whole world from the domination of sin, Satan and death. So the wine, the blood of Jesus, as the New Covenant, will deliver men from the power of sin and death. In partaking of the Last Supper, we all join in the eschatological messianic age (fellowship of the messianic banquet in the kingdom of God). The earliest version of the Eucharist words is found in the Marcan text or in the Lucan-Pauline formulations. The Marcan account of the Lord’s Supper is linguistically more original than Luke’s. It appears that Luke combines two accounts, one more concerned with the Jewish meal, the other very similar to Paul’s account of the institution (I Cor. 11:23-25). The first account has an eschatological ending and is related to the coming of the kingdom; Paul on the other hand considers the Eucharist as a non-historical mystery; to proclaim “the Lord’s death until He comes”; it is not an anticipation of the heavenly meal, but it is a life-giving

112 sacrament for the intermediate period. Interpreting this passage and the gospel of Matthew in its entirety, as a first century document, we come to know that Matthew follows Mark in the Passion narrative, developing and building up his Christology. Matthew colors the Christology of the Passion story with the same strong tones found throughout the gospel. The Matthean Jesus foretells the events of the Passion and prepares His disciples for that violent end. Matthew, in particular, emphasizes Jesus’ prophetic knowledge and His dominance over the events of the Passion. Jesus is in command of the situation and is aware of His Messianic mission and His status as Son of God, Son of Man and king as well as His fulfillment of Old Testament prophecy, thus ushering an apocalyptic event. His death is the result of Israel’s total rejection of its Messiah. Jesus’ ex- emplary obedience to His Father in the midst of His sufferings should serve as a moral foundation to His followers. For the Christian Matthean community in the first century, experiencing persecution, Jesus is the paradigm of true righteousness and obedience, whom every disciple must follow. “When Jesus had finished all these sayings” (Mt. 26:1), signals all His instructions, ministry and public discourses, except to accomplish the apocalyptic event of death and resurrection. Jesus, as Son of Man, who was to perform the act of salvation for all mankind, marches to His death. He is in control of the events and knows the different intentions of His surrounding characters. Jesus knows that His death will take place during Passover, while the Jews plan to avoid His arrest and execution on the feast. Jesus’ clear foreknowledge of His death is predicted also during the symbolic act of anointing at Bethany. The generous woman and the traitor move toward the beginning of the Passion narrative “from time on,” “from that moment he (Judas) sought an opportunity to betray Him” (26:16). Events rush towards this eschatological end. In the next

113 Large narrative of the Last Supper, Jesus announces, “His time has come.” Thus Jesus freely pushes near the eschatological prophecies. In the midst of his Passion, Jesus proclaims that He will be elevated to the right hand of God and that the Son of righteousness chooses not to descend from the cross, remaining instead obedient to His Father’s will. For the Matthean community this meant that the Son of God will save others but not by descending from the cross. The story of the Passion, as Luz Ulrich sees it, is significant for understanding the true cost of discipleship and obedience to the will of God. The disciples are unable to do either. They swear loyalty to Jesus yet at the dramatic sei- zure of Jesus, they abandon Him and flee. Peter denies his Lord three times. For Matthew, the disciples’ experiences mirror and reflect the real experience of Christian men and women in their daily lives. Originally, the Last Supper was not designed as a Passover meal; but the Synoptic tradition has made the Last Supper a Passover meal for theological reasons. Jesus knowing that He could be dead before the regular time for the meal, deliberately held it in secret one day early. Luke (22:15-16), indicates Jesus’ strong desire for such a meal with His disciples before His death. It was therefore a Pass- over meal in intention, but without a lamb. Instead Jesus was the lamb of God to be sacrificed. Matthew brings together the chief priests and elders, while Mark. and Luke have the scribes in the plot. According to Matthew and John, Caiaphas was High Priest at the time, but Luke claims that it was Annas. Annas was deposed in 15 A.D. to be replaced by Caiaphas in 18 A.D., who lived till 36 A.D. Although deposed, Annas still had great influence. All four evangelists recount the story of the anointing at Bethany, although Luke places it in a totally different context from the others, and uses it to teach a lesson on forgiveness. John locates the incident just before the entry to

114 Jerusalem and places Mary, the sister of Lazarus, at the center of the story. Matthew follows Mark and puts the event at the beginning of the Passion story. In Matthew, the disciples protest against the waste, in Mark, “some” of the disciples do the same. Matthew’s story of the anointing ties to Jesus’ messianic sufferings to give support to those who emphasized adoration of Christ in worship. The best message of Matthew’s anointing narrative would be that “love and worship of Christ are superior to almsgiving” (Mt.26:10- 11). Mary’s act will not be forgotten but proclaimed to the entire world wherever the gospel is preached, and God at the last judgment will be gracious to her. In contrast with the woman who anoints Jesus, Ju- das, “one of the twelve,” co-operates with Jesus’ enemies and acts treacherously. None of the evangelists explain why Judas betrays Jesus; jealousy, avarice, disappointment, all have been suggested. While Mary unselfishly gives what she has to Jesus, Judas seeks to destroy Him; and whereas her sacrifice is costly, Judas betrays his Master for money. In Matthew, but not in Mark, Judas asks for money, and only Matthew notes the sum, thirty pieces of silver. This was the price of a slave, according to (Ex. 21:32 and Zech.11: 12-13); whereas in Mark and Luke, the authorities only promise to pay after the job is done. In Matthew, they pay him on the spot. The betrayal and the apparent triumph of evil, mysteriously turns into good victory; death into life; shame into real triumph. Various attempts have been made to harmonize the Gospel accounts of the Last Supper. This was not a Pass- over meal that took place during the Paschal season, but it was later interpreted as the Passover meal associated with the Last Supper to the Eucharist. In the story of the preparation for the supper, the disciples show themselves to be true disciples by fulfilling Jesus’ command. Jesus sees His final Passover meal as part of the eschatological drama. Judas

115 addresses Jesus with the word “Rabbi” a title used by Je- sus’ enemies, while the rest of the disciples address Jesus as Lord. Matthew, with a creative literary parallelism unlike Mark’s, has Jesus tell Judas that he is the one who will betray Him. During the supper, Jesus establishes the institution of the Eucharist. Matthew follows Mark closely, but for the Matthean community, the Eucharist must be observed with extreme sanctity and self-examination as they approach the mystery; for the bread identifies the whole person of Jesus, which now distributed among His disciples is a concrete sign as He prepares to give Himself for mankind in death. Likewise the wine as His blood of the New Covenant was shared among the disciples. The blood of Jesus was to be shed not just for His disciples but also for “the many” (vs. 28), for mankind. To emphasize that the Eucharist, the death of Christ, was a redemptive act: “ransom for many,” and sacrifice for the expiation of sins an act of atonement, Matthew and his first century community add to the words over the cup “unto the remission of sins” (vs.28). By His sacrificial death, Jesus overcomes the powers of sin and death. It is certain that Matthew viewed Jesus’ death as atoning for sins (Isa.53:4-8; 10; Heb.10:18-26; Jn.1:29; 3:14), and it is possible that he was influenced in this by the liturgical tradition of his first century community who expressed this in the Eucharist as sacramental words of Je- sus. The use of “from now on” (Mt.26:29), emphasizes in Matthew that a definite separation with the past is now being enacted and established. Jesus will no more eat or drink with His disciples, until the kingdom comes in its fullness, until they will again come together to share the joy of the eternal banquet in the Father’s Kingdom. From now on till that time there will be no Jewish Passover. A renewed fellowship is now established with Jesus-Emmanuel because in Him God has drawn near to His people and is with us.

116 He is with the disciples for all the days of the church’s earthly mission. In the Eucharist, the Son of Man who gave His life as ransom continues to grant forgiveness of sins, fellowship and a pledge of His parousia, second coming. Mark and Luke make Jesus’ Last Supper a Passover meal. John links the bread of the Eucharist with the manna (Jn.6:31-33; 35; 51). (In I Cor.10:1-4), participation in the Lord’s Supper is tied to drinking of Israel from the rock in the desert. And (Heb.9:15-22), uses eucharistic language in retelling the story of Moses’ covenantal sacrifice, who took the blood and threw it upon the people and said: “Behold, the blood of the covenant which the Lord has made with you… and all things are purified with blood.” In early Chris- tian circles it was very convenient to view the Lord’s Supper as a new Exodus and consider Jesus to be like Moses. According to Donald Senior, Matthew’s fulfillment quotations from the Old Testament point to God’s authoritative affirmations as reflected in the Scriptures, the validity of Jesus’ messianic life and ministry. Therefore, Matthew’s distinctive use of the Old Testament passages is an indicator of the evangelist’s “complex and creative literary skill” as well as his concern to relate the gospel to the life of Jewish history. In Matthew’s perspective, Jesus is God’s Son (2 Sam.7:14-29; Ps.2:7; Rom.8:3; Gal.4:4; Heb.4:14), not only because of His mysterious origin but also because of His faithful and loving obedience even in His death. From the beginning to the end, the Matthean Jesus remains the faithful Son of God. Judas’ handing Jesus over or his betrayal, Matthew connects to the fulfillment of the Old Testament prophecy (Zech. 11:12; Ex. 21:32). Luke mentions that Jesus’ betrayal (Luke uses “traitor” for Judas) was the work of Satan. The special interest of Matthew in chapters 26-27 is that Je- sus voluntarily is carrying out the will of his Father. He is the Messiah (Acts.3:20; Lev.4:3; 6:22; 1 Sam.24:10; 2 Sam. 19:21; 23:1; Lamen. 4:20; I Kgs. 19:16; I Chron. 16:22;

117 1 Sam.24:6; 26:9; II Sam.1:14; Isa.45:1; Ps.105:15; 2:2; Dan.9:26; I Sam.2:10; II Sam.7:12; Isa.9:11; 11:4; Zech.9:9- 10; Jer.22:4; Ps.17:4-23; 26-27; Dan.7:13), the anointed king and prophet, but in order to accomplish His Messianic ministry as the Son of David (Jer.23:5; 33:15; Mk.10:47; 12:35-37; Rom.1:3; Lk.4:21; 11:20), He should suffer: (Wisdom 6-9; Psalms 18; 22; 49; 69; 86; 88; 89; 116; 118). Jesus’ betrayal, passion, death and His resurrection is narrated in (Acts 1:16-22; 2:22-36; 4:24-30), where Jesus as the son of David, takes the throne. Also, the shepherd king of Zechariah 9-14 remains a rich chapter alluding or foreshadowing Jesus’ ministry. Matthew uses the Old Testa- ment to link the traitor Judas with Ahithophel, who, like Ju- das, hanged himself (2 Sam. 17:23). The traitor’s kiss resembles Joab’s embrace of Amasa (2 Sam.20:9; I Kgs.2:5- 6). In Psalms 41:9, David foreshadows the traitor who eats with Him. Mark’s version of Jesus’ words including this phrase, is generally agreed to be an allusion to Psalm 41:9; Ex.12:28, which follows Moses’ instructions for preparing Passover. In 27:9-10, Matthew blends and adapts quotations from Zechariah and Jeremiah to fit the story of Judas’ return of the blood money. In describing the broken bread as “my body,” Jesus makes it clear that He is to be violently killed. What has happened to the bread will happen to Jesus’ body, and just as the people of Israel had been associated with the deliverance from Egypt by eating the paschal meal, so does this eating to all who share His table. “Blood of the Covenant” recalls the covenant sacrifice of Ex.24:8. After the animals are slain, Moses takes half of the blood and throws it against the altar, and the other half of the blood he throws upon the people, saying: “Behold the blood of the covenant.” The sprinkling of the dedicated blood means that the people now share in the blessings of the covenant made at Sinai. So the death of Jesus

118 inaugurates a new covenant of God with the whole mankind. The Lucan and Pauline accounts also make a clear reference to Jer.31:31-34 of the “New Covenant.” Matthew does not insert the word “new.” He clarifies the function of “my blood of the covenant” by adding “for the forgiveness of sins”, vs.28. “My blood of the covenant” may also allude to Zech.9:11, where God says: “Because of the blood of my covenant with you, I will set your captives free.” The deliverance by the Messiah’s death will not be like the first exodus; it will deal not with slavery to Pharaoh or any other external enemy but with slavery to sin. As in Rom. 11:26-27; Heb. 10:16-19; and 11:15, they affirm that the New Covenant is associated with the forgiveness of sins. “This is my blood of the covenant which is poured for many”: this alludes and echoes the sacrificial language of the song of the suffering servant in Second Isaiah 53:4; 10; and I Pet.3:18; I Jn.2:2; also in the Epistle to the Hebrews, who “poured out his soul to death” as “an offering for sin.” Jesus in His death is the suffering servant of Isaiah. These words, rich in Old Testament associations, indicate that Jesus’ death will inaugurate the new relationship between God and His people to which the prophets looked forward. Matthew himself thinks of Christ’s death as an atoning sacrifice. In Mt. 1:21, he has the angel predict that Jesus “will save His people from their sins.” Matthew, in Jesus’ violent death, sees the fulfillment of God’s promise of a “New Covenant.” The Passover, which brought about the formation of the nation of Israel under the Sinai covenant, now points to a new redemptive covenant with the true Is- rael. The words “from now on” vs.29 (RSV), suggest that the non-partaking refers to the eschatological prediction, foretelling Jesus’ imminent death as well as resurrection, then celebrating the victorious and joyful messianic banquet in the kingdom “of my Father” (Mk. “of God”). Thus the

119 Lord’s Supper is not just commemorative but prophetic. In Exodus 24:8-11, the establishment of the covenant is followed by eating and drinking and seeing God. In Matthew, the proclamation of the covenant prefaces the promise of the eschatological banquet while Isa.24:23-25:8 takes up the language of Ex.24:8-11, to prophesy the future and the eschatological banquet. The Matthean Jesus affirms His death that the Father will see Him vindicated beyond death and will bring both Him and His disciples to a new table- fellowship of messianic banquet. Jesus, therefore, will not drink “from this time on” that is, from this turning point of the death-resurrection, until He drinks wine anew “with you,” that is, Jesus’ union with the Church and His followers through the Eucharist. Matthew awaits the coming of the Son of Man, the Son of God sacrificed on the Cross, to participate in that Eucharistic meal. Then, Israel which had rejected her Messiah, the broken fellowship will be restored at the new genesis Mt.19:28, when Jesus will come and bring God’s Kingdom in its fullness. The Christology of Matthew is rooted in the Bible. Je- sus, as the fulfillment of the law and the prophets, has a special relationship with God, who legitimizes Him at His baptism to teach, to heal, to preach repentance and to bring to God’s kingdom. His victories over Satan and over His opponents, and His overcoming suffering and death through resurrection and the judgment of evil at the end of the world, are obvious and apparent witness to Jewish apocalyptic hopes of the Messiah. Matthew not only ties Jesus to the hopes of Israel’s history but prepares the reader for what is to come and what it is to be a follower of Jesus (the awaited Messiah, who endured rejection and death from His own people). There is no other way to be a Christian than to learn continually from Jesus, to obey and follow Him and carry on His liberating message of love in humility and bear witness to His resurrection. Jesus’ ministry first restricted to Israel,

120 and then through His death and resurrection extended further to include Gentiles. His mission included those who are most despised and the marginalized of the society: women, tax collectors, sinners and the sick. The gospel of the Good News in its very essence is rooted deep in biblical thought, biblical truths and history. Therefore, the Christian community must distinguish itself from the rest of the world by its life and works for Jesus and His commandments are the standard by which His followers are to be measured. It is beyond doubt for Matthew that Je- sus is the Messiah, Son of God and Son of Man in word and in deed. His authority, wisdom and power come from God. Matthew then seeks to carry on Jesus’ reform of Judaism and convince his fellow Jews that his understanding of Ju- daism is different from that of the Jewish authorities and community leaders; it is God-given and necessary for Israel and for the Gentiles too. On the other hand, the gospel of Matthew reflects the experience of Matthew’s group and its social situation. He seeks to preserve the older Jewish traditions as much as possible and to carry them into newer Christian understandings of Scripture. Therefore, to him, this new mission-evangelism and way of life meant teaching, witnessing, passing on what Jesus did for His disciples and for the world. Matthew reflects that the Jewish and Christian communities are for the most part separate and should be separate. He struggles to promote the future and more perfect Judaism. He envisions his little group of believers in Jesus influencing Jewish society; thus this ideal community ruled by God can gain close kinship relations with God and participate with the risen Lord in his battle against evil, a battle which will be won in the end. We have seen in this passage, Jesus is delivered up to His Passion, yet He goes willingly. He foretells His Pas- sion and approaches it with joy of knowing its fruit; beyond the Cross, He sees the glory that shall follow: the

121 Resurrection. Calvary is God’s redeeming act of grace; the Resurrection. Calvary is God’s redeeming act of grace; the powerful mystery of the cross, where God’s Love meets and powerful mystery of the cross, where God’s Love meets and touches our souls to transform our lives and the life of the touches our souls to transform our lives and the life of the world. world. When there was occasion, Jesus often told His disci- When there was occasion, Jesus often told His disciples that the Son of Man should be betrayed; now He tells ples that the Son of Man should be betrayed; now He tells them that one of them would betray Him. Our Lord, just be- them that one of them would betray Him. Our Lord, just before He instituted the Eucharist, put His disciples on trial fore He instituted the Eucharist, put His disciples on trial and suspicion of themselves, to teach us to examine and and suspicion of themselves, to teach us to examine and judge ourselves, and so to eat of the bread and drink of that judge ourselves, and so to eat of the bread and drink of that cup. cup. Jewish society and its leaders turned against Jesus Jewish society and its leaders turned against Jesus and His teachings; He was a threat to their comfort and na- and His teachings; He was a threat to their comfort and national security. Their understanding and approach to the tional security. Their understanding and approach to the Messiah was totally at a different level and had an opposite Messiah was totally at a different level and had an opposite exhortation. To them, Jesus was not the expected Messiah. exhortation. To them, Jesus was not the expected Messiah. Religious as well as political parties more or less zealous, Religious as well as political parties more or less zealous, misread or misunderstood His real intentions, and after a misread or misunderstood His real intentions, and after a while, they were totally disappointed. Like the spreading out while, they were totally disappointed. Like the spreading out of garments at the entry into Jerusalem, many of the com- of garments at the entry into Jerusalem, many of the common people wished Jesus to take over political control of mon people wished Jesus to take over political control of the nation and reestablish the kingdom of David. Like that the nation and reestablish the kingdom of David. Like that woman at Bethany (Mt.26:6-13), by anointing Jesus, she woman at Bethany (Mt.26:6-13), by anointing Jesus, she may have hoped to force Jesus as the anointed One, to may have hoped to force Jesus as the anointed One, to take over the matters in His hand and as was the case of take over the matters in His hand and as was the case of (Saul I Samuel 10:1; Solomon I Kings 1:38-39; and Jehu II (Saul I Samuel 10:1; Solomon I Kings 1:38-39; and Jehu II Kings 9:4-10), and declare rebellion against the Roman Kings 9:4-10), and declare rebellion against the Roman troops and engage in a liberation war. Was this her real in- troops and engage in a liberation war. Was this her real intention? Jesus, however, after her anointing, says that her tention? Jesus, however, after her anointing, says that her anointing is an anointing for burial, not kingship. Matthew anointing is an anointing for burial, not kingship. Matthew did not understand the story. Mark praises the woman for did not understand the story. Mark praises the woman for her great love and devotion. In Luke7:36-50, the woman be- her great love and devotion. In Luke7:36-50, the woman becomes a great sinner who is thankful for the forgiveness of comes a great sinner who is thankful for the forgiveness of her sins, and in John 12:1-8, she is identified with Mary, the her sins, and in John 12:1-8, she is identified with Mary, the sister of Martha and Lazarus. On the other hand, Jesus sister of Martha and Lazarus. On the other hand, Jesus

122 122 knows that His coronation is not a worldly crown but the knows that His coronation is not a worldly crown but the Cross, which extends to his Father. But whatever she has Cross, which extends to his Father. But whatever she has done, Jesus accepted the deed as highly motivated and done, Jesus accepted the deed as highly motivated and beautiful. The anointing was for a coronation indeed. But beautiful. The anointing was for a coronation indeed. But the crown was a crown of thorns. the crown was a crown of thorns. It might be, that Judas too, wanted Jesus to be the It might be, that Judas too, wanted Jesus to be the king, the political Messiah and deliverer of the Jews from king, the political Messiah and deliverer of the Jews from Roman occupation. Judas became Christ’s disciple believ- Roman occupation. Judas became Christ’s disciple believing in His God-given power and hoping that Jesus would ing in His God-given power and hoping that Jesus would lead the nation into liberation. But in due time, he became lead the nation into liberation. But in due time, he became aware that Jesus’ kingdom is not of this world, therefore, aware that Jesus’ kingdom is not of this world, therefore, knowing well Jesus’ God-given superhuman abilities and knowing well Jesus’ God-given superhuman abilities and powers, it might be his intention and motive not to see Je- powers, it might be his intention and motive not to see Je- sus suffer and die, but only to push Jesus into a difficult sus suffer and die, but only to push Jesus into a difficult situation; thus he might have thought or hoped that in push- situation; thus he might have thought or hoped that in pushing Jesus, he might force Him to illustrate His divine- ing Jesus, he might force Him to illustrate His divine- messianic might and liberate the nation! Matthew is appar- messianic might and liberate the nation! Matthew is apparently not interested in Judas’ motives, but only in the fact ently not interested in Judas’ motives, but only in the fact that prophecy was fulfilled. The explanation of Luke is that that prophecy was fulfilled. The explanation of Luke is that “Satan entered into him” 22:3. In times we may all become “Satan entered into him” 22:3. In times we may all become unpredictable…and do things against our will. Was this the unpredictable…and do things against our will. Was this the case of Judas? We do not know. Certainly, there was greed case of Judas? We do not know. Certainly, there was greed in the dark soul of Judas, jealousy and proud ambition, a in the dark soul of Judas, jealousy and proud ambition, a demonic spirit. In his self-planned execution as a sign of re- demonic spirit. In his self-planned execution as a sign of re- gret and heavy remorse of his unforgivable sin, is consid- gret and heavy remorse of his unforgivable sin, is considered the price that he paid for his betrayal. Still, we wonder ered the price that he paid for his betrayal. Still, we wonder today, are not we sometimes in our deeds and life betrayers today, are not we sometimes in our deeds and life betrayers of God and act like Judas, even though God can serve His of God and act like Judas, even though God can serve His own purposes by the sins of men. own purposes by the sins of men. God is not and will not be taken by surprise in the be- God is not and will not be taken by surprise in the betrayal. Our sin or disobedience does not surprise God, as it trayal. Our sin or disobedience does not surprise God, as it did not surprise God when Adam and Eve or the rest of the did not surprise God when Adam and Eve or the rest of the humans following centuries, millenniums sinned. We still humans following centuries, millenniums sinned. We still sin, disobey, and betray God and His very nature. sin, disobey, and betray God and His very nature.

In instituting the Lord’s Supper, Jesus marked a new In instituting the Lord’s Supper, Jesus marked a new

123 123 beginning of human liberation history; liberation from the beginning of human liberation history; liberation from the servitude to sin and the worldly powers; the end of the old servitude to sin and the worldly powers; the end of the old covenant with blood; the beginning of the new spiritual covenant with blood; the beginning of the new spiritual Covenant of love and grace. Now, Christ is the High Priest, Covenant of love and grace. Now, Christ is the High Priest, the Passover-sacrifice by which atonement is made. He is the Passover-sacrifice by which atonement is made. He is our Passover-liberator. For He is the distributor and Himself our Passover-liberator. For He is the distributor and Himself is distributed in our midst always, without ever being con- is distributed in our midst always, without ever being consumed. He is the bread of life and the wine of spiritual hap- sumed. He is the bread of life and the wine of spiritual happiness. He calls us to come, partake and share His everlast- piness. He calls us to come, partake and share His everlasting life-giving bread; always having in mind that we are in- ing life-giving bread; always having in mind that we are invited now, and will also share His fellowship and table, vited now, and will also share His fellowship and table, when He will come and bring His kingdom in its fullness. when He will come and bring His kingdom in its fullness. With the Eucharist, we celebrate God’s presence With the Eucharist, we celebrate God’s presence among and within us, who transforms our life and makes us among and within us, who transforms our life and makes us heirs of His heavenly kingdom and children of light. In cele- heirs of His heavenly kingdom and children of light. In celebrating the Lord’s Supper, we remember and are mindful of brating the Lord’s Supper, we remember and are mindful of His redemptive sufferings for us; of His life-giving crucifix- His redemptive sufferings for us; of His life-giving crucifixion; His burial, His resurrection; His ascension and His ses- ion; His burial, His resurrection; His ascension and His session at the right hand of the Father; and His glorious Sec- sion at the right hand of the Father; and His glorious Sec- ond coming, this time not to teach but to judge; not in humil- ond coming, this time not to teach but to judge; not in humility but in full power. ity but in full power. Now, this New Covenant is the fulfillment of God’s Now, this New Covenant is the fulfillment of God’s promises, the seal of God on our hearts. The new Paradise promises, the seal of God on our hearts. The new Paradise will be where God talks and walks with us and gives Himself will be where God talks and walks with us and gives Himself as life-pouring spiritual food. The fruit of the First Tree as life-pouring spiritual food. The fruit of the First Tree brought death and separation from God, but in sharing from brought death and separation from God, but in sharing from this Second Tree on Golgotha, its fruit, Jesus, gives ever- this Second Tree on Golgotha, its fruit, Jesus, gives everlasting life and union with God, our Creator. lasting life and union with God, our Creator. The common table of the Eucharist brings together The common table of the Eucharist brings together from four corners of the world, without discrimination, men from four corners of the world, without discrimination, men and women from various walks of life and status, to share and women from various walks of life and status, to share what they have in common: faith in the exalted Lord Jesus what they have in common: faith in the exalted Lord Jesus Christ. The incarnate Son of God, who for us and for our Christ. The incarnate Son of God, who for us and for our salvation was bruised for our iniquities, as bread is bruised salvation was bruised for our iniquities, as bread is bruised (Isa.28:28), and shed His blood for the sins of the whole (Isa.28:28), and shed His blood for the sins of the whole

124 124 world (I John 2:2; Eph.1:7; Heb.9:22), on the Cross for: the world (I John 2:2; Eph.1:7; Heb.9:22), on the Cross for: the Altar of life, brotherhood, unselfish love, hope and everlast- Altar of life, brotherhood, unselfish love, hope and everlasting happiness. ing happiness. The Lord’s Supper in other words is God’s mysterious The Lord’s Supper in other words is God’s mysterious self-denial activity; giving Himself ceaselessly, and continu- self-denial activity; giving Himself ceaselessly, and continuously emptying Himself in a life-generating love process to ously emptying Himself in a life-generating love process to sustain the life of the universe and humankind. Looking at sustain the life of the universe and humankind. Looking at the Passion narrative and the Lord’s Supper from different the Passion narrative and the Lord’s Supper from different perspectives of our daily lives, appears to be God’s inter- perspectives of our daily lives, appears to be God’s intervention in specific times of world history, when hope, peace vention in specific times of world history, when hope, peace and justice seem to be doomed and lost forever. Here and justice seem to be doomed and lost forever. Here comes the Savior: to heal, to redeem, to show the Way and comes the Savior: to heal, to redeem, to show the Way and to open a new horizon as well as give an opportunity for a to open a new horizon as well as give an opportunity for a fresh start through His salvific Grace. fresh start through His salvific Grace. The Eucharist is soul-purifying fire which burns with- The Eucharist is soul-purifying fire which burns without being consumed but transforms our lives and the life of out being consumed but transforms our lives and the life of the universe. It is putting us on a different level to perceive the universe. It is putting us on a different level to perceive what’s beyond life itself, within the realm of our Creator; to what’s beyond life itself, within the realm of our Creator; to consume and be consumed. As Heaven and earth unite in consume and be consumed. As Heaven and earth unite in awe-filled wonder, they become aware of their final des- awe-filled wonder, they become aware of their final destiny… tiny…

125 125 BIBLIOGRAPHY BIBLIOGRAPHY

Augustine. The harmony of the Gospels, in Nicene and Augustine. The harmony of the Gospels, in Nicene and Post-Nicene fathers. Vol. 6. Post-Nicene fathers. Vol. 6. Chrysostom, John. (1888). Homilies on the Gospel of St. Chrysostom, John. (1888). Homilies on the Gospel of St. Matthew, in Nicene and Post-Nicene fFathers. Matthew, in Nicene and Post-Nicene fFathers. Davis, W.D. and Allison, Jr. Dale D. (1997). The Gospel ac- Davis, W.D. and Allison, Jr. Dale D. (1997). The Gospel according to St. Matthew. vol. 3. cording to St. Matthew. vol. 3. France, R.T. (1985). The Gospel according to Matthew. France, R.T. (1985). The Gospel according to Matthew. Theissen, Gord and Merz, Annette. (1996). The historical Theissen, Gord and Merz, Annette. (1996). The historical Jesus. Jesus. Hare, Douglas R.A. (1993). Matthew. Hare, Douglas R.A. (1993). Matthew. Hill David. (1972). The Gospel of Matthew. Hill David. (1972). The Gospel of Matthew. Luz, Ulrich. (1995). The theology of the Gospel of Matthew. Luz, Ulrich. (1995). The theology of the Gospel of Matthew. Meier, John P. (1980). Matthew. Meier, John P. (1980). Matthew. Meier, John P. (1978). The vision of Matthew. Meier, John P. (1978). The vision of Matthew. Nolan, Brian M. (1979). The royal Son of God. Nolan, Brian M. (1979). The royal Son of God. Sabourin, Leopold. (1982). The Gospel according to St. Sabourin, Leopold. (1982). The Gospel according to St. Matthew. Matthew. Saldarini, Anthony J. (1994). Matthew’s Christian-Jewish Saldarini, Anthony J. (1994). Matthew’s Christian-Jewish community. community. Senior, Donald P. (1975). The Passion narrative. Senior, Donald P. (1975). The Passion narrative. Senior, Donald P. (1997). The Gospel of Matthew. Senior, Donald P. (1997). The Gospel of Matthew. Harmon, Nolan B., Ed. (Vol.7 1951). The interpreter’s Bible. Harmon, Nolan B., Ed. (Vol.7 1951). The interpreter’s Bible.

126 126 EXHORTATION OF LOVE EXHORTATION OF LOVE LOVE SUPERIOR TO GIFTS LOVE SUPERIOR TO GIFTS

And I will show you a still more excellent way (RSV). And I will show you a still more excellent way (RSV). This sentence is transitional and points back to chapter 12 This sentence is transitional and points back to chapter 12 and forward to chapter 13. In this sub-argument Paul pre- and forward to chapter 13. In this sub-argument Paul presents love as the highest gift which he urges the Corinthians sents love as the highest gift which he urges the Corinthians to pursue, as it is clear from its full conclusion in chapter to pursue, as it is clear from its full conclusion in chapter 14:1a. In verse 31a Paul speaks of gifts. In verse 31b he 14:1a. In verse 31a Paul speaks of gifts. In verse 31b he does not call love a “gift” but a “way” which leads to all gifts. does not call love a “gift” but a “way” which leads to all gifts. Strive; be zealous for the greater gifts, and I will show you a Strive; be zealous for the greater gifts, and I will show you a way. And yet beyond all this, in addition to all this, I will way. And yet beyond all this, in addition to all this, I will show you a royal way, a way to reach the highest goal, to show you a royal way, a way to reach the highest goal, to achieve the noblest ambition; or strive, even exceedingly for achieve the noblest ambition; or strive, even exceedingly for the greater gifts. I will show you a way. None of the other the greater gifts. I will show you a way. None of the other gifts so greatly desired and treasured can be truly effective gifts so greatly desired and treasured can be truly effective unless and until they are inspired and illumined by the spirit unless and until they are inspired and illumined by the spirit of love/ charity; the excellent way and a preferred gift, noth- of love/ charity; the excellent way and a preferred gift, nothing else can take its place, it is better than tongues, better ing else can take its place, it is better than tongues, better than prophecy or courage, it marks the grace of Christ that than prophecy or courage, it marks the grace of Christ that will achieve unity of mind, heart and spirit and will heal all will achieve unity of mind, heart and spirit and will heal all the divisions in the church. The argument for unity builds the divisions in the church. The argument for unity builds cumulatively through the letter and reaches a rhetorical cli- cumulatively through the letter and reaches a rhetorical climax in chapter 13. max in chapter 13. First Corinthians 12:31 is transitional, yet it is more of First Corinthians 12:31 is transitional, yet it is more of an introduction to the praise of love/charity in chapter 13 an introduction to the praise of love/charity in chapter 13 than a conclusion to the discussion of the variety of gifts in than a conclusion to the discussion of the variety of gifts in chapter 12. His point is not that love should supersede other chapter 12. His point is not that love should supersede other spiritual gifts but that it should govern their use in the spiritual gifts but that it should govern their use in the church, as chapter 14 will clearly demonstrate. Love is not church, as chapter 14 will clearly demonstrate. Love is not higher nor a better gift, rather a “way,” a manner of life higher nor a better gift, rather a “way,” a manner of life within which all the gifts are to find their proper place. After within which all the gifts are to find their proper place. After the promise that he will point out a more surpassing way, the promise that he will point out a more surpassing way, the Apostle of Faith discusses, exhorts and writes one of the Apostle of Faith discusses, exhorts and writes one of the strongest and deepest passages of his ethical the strongest and deepest passages of his ethical

127 127 teachings of the New Testament. This chapter is divine and teachings of the New Testament. This chapter is divine and comes not from the Apostle of Love, but from the Apostle of comes not from the Apostle of Love, but from the Apostle of Faith. He is not prejudiced nor one sided; neither is John, Faith. He is not prejudiced nor one sided; neither is John, for it is John who says, “This is the victory which overcomes for it is John who says, “This is the victory which overcomes the world, even our faith.” So it is St. Paul who declares that the world, even our faith.” So it is St. Paul who declares that greater than all gifts is love. And throughout the chapter, no greater than all gifts is love. And throughout the chapter, no distinction is drawn between love of God and love to man. distinction is drawn between love of God and love to man. For the Christian, love is that something without which eve- For the Christian, love is that something without which everything is nothing. For love is fundamentally formed by the rything is nothing. For love is fundamentally formed by the love of God shown in the death of Jesus Christ (Rom.5:8; love of God shown in the death of Jesus Christ (Rom.5:8; Gal.2:20; I Cor.13:13). Gal.2:20; I Cor.13:13). These celebrated chapters (1-3) are the high point in These celebrated chapters (1-3) are the high point in Paul’s description of the Christian life. Though the passage Paul’s description of the Christian life. Though the passage is often referred to as a hymn or psalm of love, although lyri- is often referred to as a hymn or psalm of love, although lyri- cal it is not written in meter but has a rhythmical irregular cal it is not written in meter but has a rhythmical irregular structure. The genre and composition of I Corinthians 13 structure. The genre and composition of I Corinthians 13 has been the subject of intense study and debate. The has been the subject of intense study and debate. The chapter has been called variously a hymn, a speech, a chapter has been called variously a hymn, a speech, a paraenetic exhortation, an encomium, didactic wisdom paraenetic exhortation, an encomium, didactic wisdom teaching and most recently a religious discourse. teaching and most recently a religious discourse. In this deliberative argument, Paul shifts into the In this deliberative argument, Paul shifts into the praise of a virtue as an illustration of his exhortation. It has praise of a virtue as an illustration of his exhortation. It has an exalted style which in ancient rhetoric was a speech in an exalted style which in ancient rhetoric was a speech in praise of a hero or, in this case, a virtue. praise of a hero or, in this case, a virtue. By describing the qualities of love, Paul is seeking to By describing the qualities of love, Paul is seeking to promote the character formation of the members of the Co- promote the character formation of the members of the Co- rinthian community. Love, with faith and hope endures both rinthian community. Love, with faith and hope endures both in this world and in the next. It is the root and spring of all in this world and in the next. It is the root and spring of all virtues and graces, when we possess, is to be both like God virtues and graces, when we possess, is to be both like God and in God. and in God. The passage falls into three parts. In verses 1-3, love The passage falls into three parts. In verses 1-3, love is contrasted with other religious actions, practices, and atti- is contrasted with other religious actions, practices, and attitudes: “it is love alone that counts.” In verses 4-7, love is de- tudes: “it is love alone that counts.” In verses 4-7, love is described mainly in negative terms: “it is love alone that tri- scribed mainly in negative terms: “it is love alone that triumphs.” In verses 8-13, love is eternal durability. When umphs.” In verses 8-13, love is eternal durability. When

128 128 other things perish, love persists into the eternal world; it is other things perish, love persists into the eternal world; it is love alone that endures. love alone that endures. If I speak in the tongues of men and of angels, but If I speak in the tongues of men and of angels, but have no love, I am a noisy gong or a clanging cymbal have no love, I am a noisy gong or a clanging cymbal (RSV). Speaking with tongues, a true gift of the Spirit, pos- (RSV). Speaking with tongues, a true gift of the Spirit, possessed by Paul (14:18), but without love is not valued as sessed by Paul (14:18), but without love is not valued as highly by Him. Men who accepted God’s love were empow- highly by Him. Men who accepted God’s love were empowered by the Spirit of God (Gal.5:22) to live thankfully and ered by the Spirit of God (Gal.5:22) to live thankfully and obediently in response to God’s love in Jesus Christ. Love obediently in response to God’s love in Jesus Christ. Love is the aim of Christians because they have died and been is the aim of Christians because they have died and been raised with Christ (Gal.5:22; Rom.5:5; 15:30). Then agape/ raised with Christ (Gal.5:22; Rom.5:5; 15:30). Then agape/ love is the most excellent way to follow in the very nature of love is the most excellent way to follow in the very nature of God, grounded in God, because love is God himself among God, grounded in God, because love is God himself among men. men. Speaking in tongues could be the gift of including Speaking in tongues could be the gift of including everyone in a common language. At Corinth it must have everyone in a common language. At Corinth it must have also referred to ecstatic expression. Paul wishes to make a also referred to ecstatic expression. Paul wishes to make a contrast between speaking with the tongues of angels and contrast between speaking with the tongues of angels and speaking with the tongues of men. Perhaps Paul thought of speaking with the tongues of men. Perhaps Paul thought of the heavenly language reflected in Revelation 14:2-3. The the heavenly language reflected in Revelation 14:2-3. The initial phrase, according to Snyder, should be “if I speak not initial phrase, according to Snyder, should be “if I speak not only in human language, but also that of angels.” only in human language, but also that of angels.” Each of the three parts of chapter 13 develops Paul’s Each of the three parts of chapter 13 develops Paul’s argument in a three-fold rhetorical graduation movement; he argument in a three-fold rhetorical graduation movement; he begins with the lesser gift of speaking in tongues, then con- begins with the lesser gift of speaking in tongues, then continues with the greater gift of prophecy; finally speaks of the tinues with the greater gift of prophecy; finally speaks of the ultimate gift of self-sacrifice for the benefit of others. In each ultimate gift of self-sacrifice for the benefit of others. In each his three-part arguments, Paul uses the first person singu- his three-part arguments, Paul uses the first person singular, referring to himself. lar, referring to himself. The structural parallelism of chapters 12-14 with The structural parallelism of chapters 12-14 with chapters 8-10 confirms the autobiographical character of chapters 8-10 confirms the autobiographical character of the first subunit in Paul’s digression vv. 1-3. Along with his the first subunit in Paul’s digression vv. 1-3. Along with his deliberative rhetorical style of gradation, Paul uses meta- deliberative rhetorical style of gradation, Paul uses meta- phor as comparison. phor as comparison.

Love is one of the key words of the Gospel and Love is one of the key words of the Gospel and

129 129 Epistles of John. Doubtless it is true that Paul does empha- Epistles of John. Doubtless it is true that Paul does emphasize faith, and John does emphasize love; but neither em- size faith, and John does emphasize love; but neither emphasizes the one spiritual quality or virtue to the exclusion phasizes the one spiritual quality or virtue to the exclusion of the other. We must keep in mind that the word used by of the other. We must keep in mind that the word used by Paul and translated “love” is agape, which was not the com- Paul and translated “love” is agape, which was not the common name or usual word for love in those days, particularly mon name or usual word for love in those days, particularly so in Corinth. The common word used for love (Eros) was so in Corinth. The common word used for love (Eros) was associated with sensual passion. The Apostle therefore associated with sensual passion. The Apostle therefore uses agape, moral love; it conveys the idea of good will, of uses agape, moral love; it conveys the idea of good will, of brotherliness, of friendship. There is an element of rever- brotherliness, of friendship. There is an element of reverence in it. The love of which the Apostle writes has nothing ence in it. The love of which the Apostle writes has nothing to do with the senses or in the instincts; it is an intellectual, to do with the senses or in the instincts; it is an intellectual, moral and spiritual quality. moral and spiritual quality. The noun eros and the verb eran express a love of The noun eros and the verb eran express a love of deep desire, passion and sensual or physical longing. Nei- deep desire, passion and sensual or physical longing. Nei- ther the noun nor the verb ever appears in the New Testa- ther the noun nor the verb ever appears in the New Testa- ment. The noun philia and the verb philein are used in the ment. The noun philia and the verb philein are used in the New Testament to describe different kinds of love New Testament to describe different kinds of love (Matt.10:37; John 11:3; 36; 21:15-17). Philein is used 33 (Matt.10:37; John 11:3; 36; 21:15-17). Philein is used 33 times and philos 29 times in the New Testament. times and philos 29 times in the New Testament. The words agape, agapon are widely used in the New The words agape, agapon are widely used in the New Testament and in the LXX, in the writings of the Jewish phi- Testament and in the LXX, in the writings of the Jewish philosopher Philo, and in pagan sources. The word agape was losopher Philo, and in pagan sources. The word agape was chosen by the writers of the New Testament to express their chosen by the writers of the New Testament to express their understanding of love. Nevertheless, the meaning of love in understanding of love. Nevertheless, the meaning of love in the New Testament is not a mere continuation of what is the New Testament is not a mere continuation of what is found in the Old Testament but radically redefined in terms found in the Old Testament but radically redefined in terms of Jesus Himself (Mark 1:11; Matt.12:18), a reality of rela- of Jesus Himself (Mark 1:11; Matt.12:18), a reality of relationship found in God through Jesus’ salvific death on the tionship found in God through Jesus’ salvific death on the Cross (John 3:35; 15:9-10; Rom. 5:6-10; I John 4:10). Cross (John 3:35; 15:9-10; Rom. 5:6-10; I John 4:10). Could a man speak all the languages on the earth Could a man speak all the languages on the earth with the greatest propriety, and fluency; could he talk like an with the greatest propriety, and fluency; could he talk like an angel, and yet be without charity; it would be all empty angel, and yet be without charity; it would be all empty noise, more unharmonious and useless sound that would noise, more unharmonious and useless sound that would neither profit nor delight. Talking freely or learnedly of the neither profit nor delight. Talking freely or learnedly of the

130 130 things of God will not help us save ourselves or profit others things of God will not help us save ourselves or profit others if we are destitute of holy love. It is the charitable heart, not if we are destitute of holy love. It is the charitable heart, not the voluble tongue that is acceptable with God. the voluble tongue that is acceptable with God. Eloquence is a great gift, and he who possesses it Eloquence is a great gift, and he who possesses it has great power over the mind and imagination of his fel- has great power over the mind and imagination of his fel- lows. By the skilled use of it, he can move and inspire, can lows. By the skilled use of it, he can move and inspire, can calm or arouse, persuade or convict his hearers. Eloquent calm or arouse, persuade or convict his hearers. Eloquent speech can evoke the noblest and the most depraved pas- speech can evoke the noblest and the most depraved passions of the human spirit. Paul was well aware both of the sions of the human spirit. Paul was well aware both of the danger and of the finer possibilities involved in its posses- danger and of the finer possibilities involved in its possession. sion. “Speak with the tongues of men and of angels” refers “Speak with the tongues of men and of angels” refers also to speaking not only human languages but also by a also to speaking not only human languages but also by a special inspiration of the Holy Spirit, the language spoken special inspiration of the Holy Spirit, the language spoken by heavenly beings. In the Testament of Job it is told that by heavenly beings. In the Testament of Job it is told that the three daughters of Job possessed power of angelic the three daughters of Job possessed power of angelic speech and song, and “they spoke ecstatically in the angelic speech and song, and “they spoke ecstatically in the angelic dialect, sending up hymns to God in accord with the hymnic dialect, sending up hymns to God in accord with the hymnic style of the angels” (T. Job 48:1-3a). And in rabbinical litera- style of the angels” (T. Job 48:1-3a). And in rabbinical literature, Yohanan ben Zakkai is mentioned to have been ture, Yohanan ben Zakkai is mentioned to have been granted the ability to understand the speech of angels (TB granted the ability to understand the speech of angels (TB Baba Batra I 43a; Sukkah 28a). Presumably, this is how Baba Batra I 43a; Sukkah 28a). Presumably, this is how “speaking in tongues” was understood by the Corinthians “speaking in tongues” was understood by the Corinthians and by Paul, too. Tongue speaking, then was revered as a and by Paul, too. Tongue speaking, then was revered as a mode of communication with the superior heavenly world. mode of communication with the superior heavenly world. For the Corinthians, speaking in tongues meant wis- For the Corinthians, speaking in tongues meant wisdom, knowledge; for Paul, it meant to behave as those dom, knowledge; for Paul, it meant to behave as those “sanctified in Christ, called to be His holy people” (1:2) and “sanctified in Christ, called to be His holy people” (1:2) and walk in love. For them “knowledge and spirituality” led to walk in love. For them “knowledge and spirituality” led to pride and the “destruction of a brother for whom Christ pride and the “destruction of a brother for whom Christ died” (8:2; 11). Their “wisdom” led to quarrels and rivalry died” (8:2; 11). Their “wisdom” led to quarrels and rivalry (1:10; 3:4). Their “tongues” were neither edifying the com- (1:10; 3:4). Their “tongues” were neither edifying the community nor allowing pagans to respond to the prophetic munity nor allowing pagans to respond to the prophetic Word (14:1-25). Word (14:1-25).

131 131 The Apostle sets an example of love and humility in The Apostle sets an example of love and humility in taking himself as the illustration of failure. He might have taking himself as the illustration of failure. He might have said, “If you should speak” or “Although you speak.” But he said, “If you should speak” or “Although you speak.” But he remembers his own gift of tongues (14:18), and gives the remembers his own gift of tongues (14:18), and gives the warning to himself all through these three verses: “and warning to himself all through these three verses: “and should not have love” or “while I have not love,” on that as- should not have love” or “while I have not love,” on that assumption, “I am a noisy gong; I am become (Gal.4:16) sumption, “I am a noisy gong; I am become (Gal.4:16) sounding brass; I am like clanging bronze or a clanging sounding brass; I am like clanging bronze or a clanging cymbal.” Cymbals are often mentioned in the Old Testa- cymbal.” Cymbals are often mentioned in the Old Testa- ment but nowhere in the New Testament; and in Paul’s day ment but nowhere in the New Testament; and in Paul’s day they were much used in the worship of Dionysus, Cybele, they were much used in the worship of Dionysus, Cybele, and Corybantes. and Corybantes. It is quite possible that Paul is here comparing unin- It is quite possible that Paul is here comparing unin- telligible tongues in Christian worship with the din of gongs telligible tongues in Christian worship with the din of gongs and cymbals in pagan worship. Or he may be pointing out and cymbals in pagan worship. Or he may be pointing out the worthlessness of extravagant manifestation of emotion, the worthlessness of extravagant manifestation of emotion, which proceeds not from the heart, but from hollowness. To which proceeds not from the heart, but from hollowness. To speak in this way is to make no more intelligible communi- speak in this way is to make no more intelligible communication than inanimate objects, which make a noise when cation than inanimate objects, which make a noise when struck. The noise may have intended to call the gods’ atten- struck. The noise may have intended to call the gods’ attention or to drive away demons; its probable effect was to ex- tion or to drive away demons; its probable effect was to ex- cite the worshipers. Metaphorically, the word was used also cite the worshipers. Metaphorically, the word was used also to describe an empty philosophizing. Thus Paul asserts that to describe an empty philosophizing. Thus Paul asserts that a church speaking with tongues but not practicing love is a a church speaking with tongues but not practicing love is a meaningless phenomenon; it is mere paganism. meaningless phenomenon; it is mere paganism. “I have become sounding brass” is parallel with “I am “I have become sounding brass” is parallel with “I am good for nothing” and “it is not to my advantage” (vv.1-3). In good for nothing” and “it is not to my advantage” (vv.1-3). In verses 1-3, Paul presenting himself as a hypothetical exam- verses 1-3, Paul presenting himself as a hypothetical example, first mockingly exaggerates both the Corinthians’ favor- ple, first mockingly exaggerates both the Corinthians’ favor- ite spiritual gifts and his own central values and commitment ite spiritual gifts and his own central values and commitment and then deflates them. Thus, Paul’s point in verse 1 might and then deflates them. Thus, Paul’s point in verse 1 might be paraphrased as follows: “Even if you can speak with the be paraphrased as follows: “Even if you can speak with the heavenly language of angels, but have no love, your high- heavenly language of angels, but have no love, your high- toned speech has become like the empty echo of an actor’s toned speech has become like the empty echo of an actor’s speech or the noise of frenzied pagan worship.” speech or the noise of frenzied pagan worship.”

132 132 And if I have prophetic powers, and understand all And if I have prophetic powers, and understand all mysteries and all knowledge, and if I have all faith, so as to mysteries and all knowledge, and if I have all faith, so as to remove mountains, but have not love, I am nothing (RSV). remove mountains, but have not love, I am nothing (RSV). Paul taking prophecy and faith together ranks the gift of Paul taking prophecy and faith together ranks the gift of prophecy very high. Prophecy implies insight into spiritual prophecy very high. Prophecy implies insight into spiritual truth; it involves the understanding of divine mysteries and truth; it involves the understanding of divine mysteries and genuine knowledge of the traditions and principles of the genuine knowledge of the traditions and principles of the Christian faith. In verse 2 he makes an even stronger state- Christian faith. In verse 2 he makes an even stronger statement. The gift of prophecy, understanding of mysteries, and ment. The gift of prophecy, understanding of mysteries, and even knowledge itself is nothing without love. The gifts of even knowledge itself is nothing without love. The gifts of prophecy (12:10), knowledge (12:8), and miracle working prophecy (12:10), knowledge (12:8), and miracle working faith (12:9) make very important contributions to the com- faith (12:9) make very important contributions to the community, but without love their beneficiary is nothing; they munity, but without love their beneficiary is nothing; they may end in selfish activities and serve their personal ambi- may end in selfish activities and serve their personal ambi- tions. tions.

“All mysteries and all knowledge” means to under- “All mysteries and all knowledge” means to understand and read the “mind of God,” the veiled realities, truths, stand and read the “mind of God,” the veiled realities, truths, plans and messages of God through revelatory experience plans and messages of God through revelatory experience and philosophical reflection. All count for nothing without and philosophical reflection. All count for nothing without love. “Knowledge” must be taken in its Semitic connotation love. “Knowledge” must be taken in its Semitic connotation where it refers to experiential and practical knowledge. Here where it refers to experiential and practical knowledge. Here the gift of knowledge is something other than the knowledge the gift of knowledge is something other than the knowledge of esoteric mysteries, but the “mystery of God,” an apoca- of esoteric mysteries, but the “mystery of God,” an apocalyptic idea. Prophecy cannot be described as mere noisy lyptic idea. Prophecy cannot be described as mere noisy sound, but understanding mysteries, the secrets, the truths, sound, but understanding mysteries, the secrets, the truths, in the Gospel, and God’s eschatological purposes. To know in the Gospel, and God’s eschatological purposes. To know all mysteries, is to have a perfect understanding of the es- all mysteries, is to have a perfect understanding of the eschatological situation of the church. Paul also describes chatological situation of the church. Paul also describes miracle-working faith, “to remove mountains,” which is a miracle-working faith, “to remove mountains,” which is a proverbial expression and reminds us of the words recorded proverbial expression and reminds us of the words recorded in Mark 11:23; Matt.21:21; and it may be presumed that in Mark 11:23; Matt.21:21; and it may be presumed that Paul was familiar with this saying of Christ’s through oral Paul was familiar with this saying of Christ’s through oral tradition. tradition.

133 133 In Paul’s view, prophecy, knowledge and miracles In Paul’s view, prophecy, knowledge and miracles stand higher than speaking with tongues, but even so, they stand higher than speaking with tongues, but even so, they are not comparable with love. A clear and deep head is of are not comparable with love. A clear and deep head is of no significance without a benevolent and charitable heart. It no significance without a benevolent and charitable heart. It is not great knowledge that God sets a value upon but true is not great knowledge that God sets a value upon but true and hearty devotion and love. Miraculous faith, the faith of and hearty devotion and love. Miraculous faith, the faith of miracles or the faith by which persons were enabled to work miracles or the faith by which persons were enabled to work miracles is itself nothing without charity. Moving mountains miracles is itself nothing without charity. Moving mountains or uprooting trees are great achievements in the account of or uprooting trees are great achievements in the account of men; but one dram of charity is in God’s account of much men; but one dram of charity is in God’s account of much greater worth than all the faith of the world. Saving faith is greater worth than all the faith of the world. Saving faith is ever in conjunction with charity, but the faith of miracles ever in conjunction with charity, but the faith of miracles may be without it. Satan may have, more of intelligence and may be without it. Satan may have, more of intelligence and power than any man ever possessed, and yet he is Satan power than any man ever possessed, and yet he is Satan still. Those, therefore, who seek to exalt men by the mere still. Those, therefore, who seek to exalt men by the mere cultivation of the intellect, are striving to make satans of cultivation of the intellect, are striving to make satans of them. them. If I give away all I have, and if I deliver my body to be If I give away all I have, and if I deliver my body to be burned, but have no love, I gain nothing (RSV). Giving away burned, but have no love, I gain nothing (RSV). Giving away one’s possessions (Luke 14:33) and giving up one’s own one’s possessions (Luke 14:33) and giving up one’s own body do not supersede love. Some ancient Greek manu- body do not supersede love. Some ancient Greek manuscripts read hina kauthesomai= to be burned, while others scripts read hina kauthesomai= to be burned, while others and the writings of Jerome read hina kauchesomai= so that and the writings of Jerome read hina kauchesomai= so that I may boast. One of the objections against “be burned” is I may boast. One of the objections against “be burned” is that Christian martyrdom by fire was not yet known in Paul’s that Christian martyrdom by fire was not yet known in Paul’s time. However, martyrdom by fire was familiar in Judaism time. However, martyrdom by fire was familiar in Judaism as demonstrated by the narratives of the deaths of the Mac- as demonstrated by the narratives of the deaths of the Mac- cabeans (2 Macc.7:1-6; 4 Macc. 6:24-30). Although, cabeans (2 Macc.7:1-6; 4 Macc. 6:24-30). Although, “boasting, to boast” is a common Pauline term, on the other “boasting, to boast” is a common Pauline term, on the other hand, Paul’s choice of “so that I burn,” might have been an hand, Paul’s choice of “so that I burn,” might have been an allusion to the martyrdom of the three young men in Daniel allusion to the martyrdom of the three young men in Daniel 3. Here, Paul affirms the possibility that charitable acts may 3. Here, Paul affirms the possibility that charitable acts may proceed from lower motives, even martyrdom without genu- proceed from lower motives, even martyrdom without genuine love. But C.K. Barret, thinks that “to be burned” in Paul’s ine love. But C.K. Barret, thinks that “to be burned” in Paul’s mind meant “self-immolation,” “self-sacrifice” for some great mind meant “self-immolation,” “self-sacrifice” for some great

134 134 cause. cause. Giving away goods or acts of charity are the loveliest Giving away goods or acts of charity are the loveliest of Christian graces. True giving is Godlike (John 3:16). But of Christian graces. True giving is Godlike (John 3:16). But it is quite possible for charity to be given without any love it is quite possible for charity to be given without any love being involved. It might be done to further his/her own for- being involved. It might be done to further his/her own for- tunes in some branch of public life, or it is done for his/her tunes in some branch of public life, or it is done for his/her own self-glorification. How curious are the motives of certain own self-glorification. How curious are the motives of certain people in the dispensing of their charities! The baser sort of people in the dispensing of their charities! The baser sort of Pharisee was castigated by Jesus because he chose some Pharisee was castigated by Jesus because he chose some prominent place in which to do his alms and say his prayers prominent place in which to do his alms and say his prayers (Matt.6:1-5). Perhaps, to set over against them, Paul had in (Matt.6:1-5). Perhaps, to set over against them, Paul had in mind his friend Barnabas, who because of the love in his mind his friend Barnabas, who because of the love in his heart for his fellow men sold the “field which belonged to heart for his fellow men sold the “field which belonged to him” and made the money available for the needs of his him” and made the money available for the needs of his poorer brethren (Acts. 4:36-37). Love is the motive that poorer brethren (Acts. 4:36-37). Love is the motive that alone commands the gift and confers on it its real value, alone commands the gift and confers on it its real value, whether it is large or small. Did not Jesus say? “Whoever whether it is large or small. Did not Jesus say? “Whoever gives to one of these little ones even a cup of cold water be- gives to one of these little ones even a cup of cold water because he is a disciple, truly I say to you, he shall not lose cause he is a disciple, truly I say to you, he shall not lose his reward” (Matt.10:42). This means that the disciple of his reward” (Matt.10:42). This means that the disciple of Christ is he who shares Christ’s spirit, and the Corinthians Christ is he who shares Christ’s spirit, and the Corinthians neglected this virtue. neglected this virtue. A text from Clement of Alexandria is often quoted in A text from Clement of Alexandria is often quoted in this connection. In his Epistle to the Corinthians (55:2), this connection. In his Epistle to the Corinthians (55:2), Clement says: “We know that many among ourselves have Clement says: “We know that many among ourselves have given themselves to bondage that they might ransom oth- given themselves to bondage that they might ransom others. Many have delivered themselves to slavery and pro- ers. Many have delivered themselves to slavery and provided food for others with the price they received for them- vided food for others with the price they received for themselves.” Clement probably wished to compare the exagger- selves.” Clement probably wished to compare the exagger- ated enthusiasm of some Christians to that of Hindu ascet- ated enthusiasm of some Christians to that of Hindu ascet- ics who burned themselves since in Christianity suicide is ics who burned themselves since in Christianity suicide is unthinkable and is mortal sin. This is why to “hand over,” unthinkable and is mortal sin. This is why to “hand over,” “give away,” or “deliver my body in order that I may be “give away,” or “deliver my body in order that I may be burned” is also translated and understood “Christians who burned” is also translated and understood “Christians who have sold themselves” and referred to the hot iron with have sold themselves” and referred to the hot iron with

135 135 which the bodies of slaves were branded. which the bodies of slaves were branded. As Jesus gave Himself for the salvation of mankind, As Jesus gave Himself for the salvation of mankind, Christians after Him must give up their possessions and Christians after Him must give up their possessions and themselves to help the poor and the needy. To follow Christ themselves to help the poor and the needy. To follow Christ and to be His disciple, one must give up; risk everything, and to be His disciple, one must give up; risk everything, even his life (Mark 10:21). Paul insists that there is nothing even his life (Mark 10:21). Paul insists that there is nothing to be gained by self-sacrifice where love is absent; that to be gained by self-sacrifice where love is absent; that even following Jesus to death does mean nothing without even following Jesus to death does mean nothing without love. All religious pious actions are meaningless unless en- love. All religious pious actions are meaningless unless en- compassed by agape. The charitable disposal of one’s compassed by agape. The charitable disposal of one’s property or the acceptance of martyrdom might indeed property or the acceptance of martyrdom might indeed spring from love, but Paul implies that if such actions spring spring from love, but Paul implies that if such actions spring from any other motive, even that of religious obligation, they from any other motive, even that of religious obligation, they are valueless in God’s sight and bring no gain to those who are valueless in God’s sight and bring no gain to those who perform them. perform them. Love is patient and kind; love is not jealous or boast- Love is patient and kind; love is not jealous or boast- ful; it is not arrogant or rude. Love does not insist on its own ful; it is not arrogant or rude. Love does not insist on its own way; it is not irritable or resentful; it does not rejoice at way; it is not irritable or resentful; it does not rejoice at wrong, but rejoice in the right. Love bears all things, be- wrong, but rejoice in the right. Love bears all things, believes all things, hopes all things, endures all things (RSV). lieves all things, hopes all things, endures all things (RSV). This passage gives specific characteristics of love: it suffers This passage gives specific characteristics of love: it suffers long, is patient (I Thess.5:14). It is kind, gentle, especially long, is patient (I Thess.5:14). It is kind, gentle, especially with those who hurt (Eph.4:32). It does not envy, is not jeal- with those who hurt (Eph.4:32). It does not envy, is not jealous of what others have (Prov.23:17). It does not parade ous of what others have (Prov.23:17). It does not parade itself, put itself on display (John 3:30). It is not puffed up, ar- itself, put itself on display (John 3:30). It is not puffed up, arrogant, proud (Gal.6:3). It does not act rudely, brashly, rogant, proud (Gal.6:3). It does not act rudely, brashly, mean-spiritedly, insulting others (Ecc.5:2). It does not seek mean-spiritedly, insulting others (Ecc.5:2). It does not seek its own way, act pushy (10:24). It is not provoked or an- its own way, act pushy (10:24). It is not provoked or angered (Prov.19:11). It thinks no evil, does not keep score on gered (Prov.19:11). It thinks no evil, does not keep score on others (Heb.10:17). It rejoices not in iniquity, takes no pleas- others (Heb.10:17). It rejoices not in iniquity, takes no pleasure when others fall into sin (Mark 3:5). It rejoices in the ure when others fall into sin (Mark 3:5). It rejoices in the truth, is joyful when righteousness prevails (2John 4). It truth, is joyful when righteousness prevails (2John 4). It bears all things, handles the burdensome (Gal.6:2). It be- bears all things, handles the burdensome (Gal.6:2). It believes all things, truths in God no matter what (Prov.3:5). It lieves all things, truths in God no matter what (Prov.3:5). It hopes all things, keeps looking up, does not despair hopes all things, keeps looking up, does not despair

136 136 (Phil.3:13). It endures all things, “puts up with every- (Phil.3:13). It endures all things, “puts up with everything” (St. John Chrysostom), and does not wear out thing” (St. John Chrysostom), and does not wear out (Gal.6:9). (Gal.6:9). This love is not love in any ordinary sense, but it’s This love is not love in any ordinary sense, but it’s the love which is known within the church, the very love of the love which is known within the church, the very love of God poured out in Christ (Rom.5:5). Paul’s words are char- God poured out in Christ (Rom.5:5). Paul’s words are characterized by comparison and a rehearsal of the attributes of acterized by comparison and a rehearsal of the attributes of love. love. The first three verses of the chapter portray unre- The first three verses of the chapter portray unre- deemed man and without God’s greatest gift, while the next deemed man and without God’s greatest gift, while the next four verses portray redeemed man with it. These four four verses portray redeemed man with it. These four verses portray what Christian love is and what the Corin- verses portray what Christian love is and what the Corin- thians are not. All the references show (vv.4-7) a concern thians are not. All the references show (vv.4-7) a concern for another person. Paul in (v.4a), begins with two positive for another person. Paul in (v.4a), begins with two positive affirmations about love followed by a series of eight clauses affirmations about love followed by a series of eight clauses stating what love does not do (vv.4b-6), and concludes with stating what love does not do (vv.4b-6), and concludes with four affirmations showing how truly remarkable love is (v.7). four affirmations showing how truly remarkable love is (v.7). Much of what he says about love can be applied to God. Much of what he says about love can be applied to God. For Paul, love is the power of God at work. For Paul, love is the power of God at work. Patience is not weakness but strength that emerges Patience is not weakness but strength that emerges under stress. It knows how to bear injustice without anger or under stress. It knows how to bear injustice without anger or despair. Man’s patience has its source in the glory of God despair. Man’s patience has its source in the glory of God (Col.1:11). God himself exercises patience toward all man- (Col.1:11). God himself exercises patience toward all mankind (Rom.2:4).To be patient suggests self-restraint; our kind (Rom.2:4).To be patient suggests self-restraint; our contemporary world calls for the love that is patient and contemporary world calls for the love that is patient and kind. Patience can endure evil, and injury, and provocation kind. Patience can endure evil, and injury, and provocation without being filled with resentment or revenge. It makes the without being filled with resentment or revenge. It makes the mind firm; gives it power over the angry passions. mind firm; gives it power over the angry passions. Love is kind and does good to those who do harm. Love is kind and does good to those who do harm. Love does not play the braggart, ostentatious boasting; love Love does not play the braggart, ostentatious boasting; love is not self-seeking, love knows neither jealousy nor envy. is not self-seeking, love knows neither jealousy nor envy. The verb covers both vices, and perhaps others; “boil with The verb covers both vices, and perhaps others; “boil with hatred or jealousy” is apparently the original meaning. To hatred or jealousy” is apparently the original meaning. To covet good gifts is right; to envy gifted persons is wrong, for covet good gifts is right; to envy gifted persons is wrong, for envy and jealousy lead to division and strife in the commu- envy and jealousy lead to division and strife in the community and in our personal lives. nity and in our personal lives.

137 137 Love does not behave unmannerly; love is tactful and Love does not behave unmannerly; love is tactful and does nothing that would raise a blush; it does not behave does nothing that would raise a blush; it does not behave improperly, nor does it seek its own interest. Paul may have improperly, nor does it seek its own interest. Paul may have had in mind behavior that did not correspond to the stan- had in mind behavior that did not correspond to the standards of the Christian community. The term here probably dards of the Christian community. The term here probably may also reflect the sexual misconduct that he has con- may also reflect the sexual misconduct that he has condemned in 5:1-2 and 6:12-20, as well as the “shameful” be- demned in 5:1-2 and 6:12-20, as well as the “shameful” behavior of women prophesying with heads uncovered (11:2- havior of women prophesying with heads uncovered (11:2- 16) and the humiliation of the poor at the Lord’s Supper 16) and the humiliation of the poor at the Lord’s Supper (11:20-22). (11:20-22). Love does not insist on its own way. Love lives to Love does not insist on its own way. Love lives to give and not to get. Jesus Christ has revealed this quality of give and not to get. Jesus Christ has revealed this quality of God’s nature in His own life by giving Himself constantly for God’s nature in His own life by giving Himself constantly for every man in seeking to win man to Himself. This kind of every man in seeking to win man to Himself. This kind of love illustrates unselfish love, and the Cross is the supreme love illustrates unselfish love, and the Cross is the supreme example of it. For His love sought not His own glory but full- example of it. For His love sought not His own glory but fullness of life for every man. ness of life for every man. Love does not get carried away in anger nor does it Love does not get carried away in anger nor does it calculate evil. Some suggest that Paul may have in mind a calculate evil. Some suggest that Paul may have in mind a kind of anger that leads to murmuring against God (Num. kind of anger that leads to murmuring against God (Num. 14:11; 16:30; 20:24; Deut.9:7; 8; 31:20; Ps.9:25). Love does 14:11; 16:30; 20:24; Deut.9:7; 8; 31:20; Ps.9:25). Love does not behave in an unseemly way; never treats anyone un- not behave in an unseemly way; never treats anyone un- fairly. It does not seek its own ends, but is prepared to give fairly. It does not seek its own ends, but is prepared to give up for the sake of others even what it is entitled to. Love up for the sake of others even what it is entitled to. Love plots evil against no one. Thinks no evil. Just as God in plots evil against no one. Thinks no evil. Just as God in Christ does not “reckon our sins against us” (2 Cor.5:19), so Christ does not “reckon our sins against us” (2 Cor.5:19), so the one who loves does not take notice of the evil done the one who loves does not take notice of the evil done against him/her, but waits for God, for vengeance belongs against him/her, but waits for God, for vengeance belongs to the Lord alone (Rom.12:19; Deut.32:35; I Thess.4:6; to the Lord alone (Rom.12:19; Deut.32:35; I Thess.4:6; Ps.94:1). Here Paul may reflect the tradition of Jesus’ words Ps.94:1). Here Paul may reflect the tradition of Jesus’ words on the Cross (Luke 23:34) where the Savior extends for- on the Cross (Luke 23:34) where the Savior extends forgiveness to those crucified with Him. Love cannot be irrita- giveness to those crucified with Him. Love cannot be irritable but can be angered. There are several pictures in the ble but can be angered. There are several pictures in the Gospels of a fierce, angry Christ. And there is a wrath Gospels of a fierce, angry Christ. And there is a wrath of God which is directed against sin and all of God which is directed against sin and all

138 138 unrighteousness. Love is capable of anger but never of re- unrighteousness. Love is capable of anger but never of resentment or to sin. sentment or to sin. Love does not rejoice at unrighteousness but rejoices Love does not rejoice at unrighteousness but rejoices with the truth. Paul closes the list of negative attributes and with the truth. Paul closes the list of negative attributes and offers a positive contrast. Thus, for Paul, to rejoice in the offers a positive contrast. Thus, for Paul, to rejoice in the truth has a moral sense and means to embrace God’s way truth has a moral sense and means to embrace God’s way of righteous living; because love cannot share the glee of of righteous living; because love cannot share the glee of the successful transgressor, but finds joy in loyalty to the the successful transgressor, but finds joy in loyalty to the truth and bears its witness in the triumph of truth. It rejoices truth and bears its witness in the triumph of truth. It rejoices with others at what is morally right and rejects every form of with others at what is morally right and rejects every form of rejoicing over evil, failures, or gossiping about the misdeeds rejoicing over evil, failures, or gossiping about the misdeeds of others. It is not gladdened when someone else falls. It is of others. It is not gladdened when someone else falls. It is the very height of malice to take pleasure in the misery of a the very height of malice to take pleasure in the misery of a fellow creature. True love sympathizes with all that is really fellow creature. True love sympathizes with all that is really good in others. It stands on the side of the gospel and looks good in others. It stands on the side of the gospel and looks for mercy and justice for all. It gives love much satisfaction for mercy and justice for all. It gives love much satisfaction to see truth and justice prevail among men, innocence to see truth and justice prevail among men, innocence cleared, and mutual faith and trust established, and to see cleared, and mutual faith and trust established, and to see piety and true religion flourish. piety and true religion flourish. Love bears all things, believes all things, hopes all Love bears all things, believes all things, hopes all things, and endures all things. There is nothing love cannot things, and endures all things. There is nothing love cannot face; it always perseveres. As John Chrysostom in his face; it always perseveres. As John Chrysostom in his Homilies describing the nature of love writes: “Love is di- Homilies describing the nature of love writes: “Love is divine; it elicits virtue and expels vice, not permitting it to vine; it elicits virtue and expels vice, not permitting it to spring up at all; we must adhere and adorn love not only for spring up at all; we must adhere and adorn love not only for what it is but for what it is not.” Paul, now, shows to the Co- what it is but for what it is not.” Paul, now, shows to the Co- rinthians an excellent way not only through his word-picture rinthians an excellent way not only through his word-picture of love but also through his example, which he wants them of love but also through his example, which he wants them to imitate. This suggests that Corinthians now are con- to imitate. This suggests that Corinthians now are confronted with an eschatological end of times, when Christ will fronted with an eschatological end of times, when Christ will appear. Till that time they should await in hope, bear and appear. Till that time they should await in hope, bear and endure all things, and not lose their faith. Love bears, en- endure all things, and not lose their faith. Love bears, endures all things: this shows an active readiness to put up dures all things: this shows an active readiness to put up with difficulties and even evil for the sake of the gospel. For with difficulties and even evil for the sake of the gospel. For love is supportive of others, and is trusting of others. It love is supportive of others, and is trusting of others. It

139 139 expresses hope for them and covers, endures failures. Love expresses hope for them and covers, endures failures. Love is like a veil, casting over the weakness, failings and wrongs is like a veil, casting over the weakness, failings and wrongs of others. Love believes all things. Love never loses faith. of others. Love believes all things. Love never loses faith. Faith, hope and love are sometimes seen together (Gal.5:6; Faith, hope and love are sometimes seen together (Gal.5:6; I Thess.3:6: 5:8; I Thess.1:3; 5:8). Faith is always cited in I Thess.3:6: 5:8; I Thess.1:3; 5:8). Faith is always cited in the first place, since faith is the ground of love, and real love the first place, since faith is the ground of love, and real love implies total faith. Having faith for Paul is not only faith in implies total faith. Having faith for Paul is not only faith in creed or in the power of God, revealed in the Cross of creed or in the power of God, revealed in the Cross of Christ and a total surrender, submissive to that faith saves Christ and a total surrender, submissive to that faith saves us. Love believes for the best and hopes for the best; and us. Love believes for the best and hopes for the best; and when all hopes are repeatedly disappointed, it still waits. when all hopes are repeatedly disappointed, it still waits. For a Christian community such as the Corinthians, it was a For a Christian community such as the Corinthians, it was a pertinent argument to convince them to forsake present, pertinent argument to convince them to forsake present, temporary pleasures, values, for the sake of the greater es- temporary pleasures, values, for the sake of the greater eschatological good. chatological good. Love hopes all things. Love hopes against hope, and Love hopes all things. Love hopes against hope, and is always ready to give an offender a second chance; for is always ready to give an offender a second chance; for love goes hoping for the best even if for the time it can find love goes hoping for the best even if for the time it can find no adequate ground for such hope. In hoping, there is al- no adequate ground for such hope. In hoping, there is always an authentic possibility ahead. For Christian love goes ways an authentic possibility ahead. For Christian love goes on hoping against hope. Genuine love endures all things. on hoping against hope. Genuine love endures all things. The steadfast endurance which Paul stresses over and over The steadfast endurance which Paul stresses over and over again (Rom.5:3; 8:25; 2 Cor.12:12; I Thess.1:3) is ex- again (Rom.5:3; 8:25; 2 Cor.12:12; I Thess.1:3) is expressed by facing tribulations with courage, which is indeed pressed by facing tribulations with courage, which is indeed a tested love. For love, where there is no obvious ground for a tested love. For love, where there is no obvious ground for faith, it continues to hope; where there is no apparent faith, it continues to hope; where there is no apparent ground for hope it continues to endure and wait. For “he ground for hope it continues to endure and wait. For “he who endures to the end will be saved” (Matt.10:22). who endures to the end will be saved” (Matt.10:22). Love never ends; as for prophecies, they will pass Love never ends; as for prophecies, they will pass away; as for tongues, they will cease; as for knowledge, it away; as for tongues, they will cease; as for knowledge, it will pass away (RSV). Love never falls, never fails; it does will pass away (RSV). Love never falls, never fails; it does not belong to this age only, but reigns in the eternal order. not belong to this age only, but reigns in the eternal order. All love that depends on a material factor passes away with All love that depends on a material factor passes away with the passing of that factor; love that has no such depend- the passing of that factor; love that has no such dependence never passes away. The gifts of the Spirit: prop- ence never passes away. The gifts of the Spirit: prop-

140 140 hecies… tongues…knowledge… will pass away for they are hecies… tongues…knowledge… will pass away for they are but temporary manifestations but the fruit of the spirit abides but temporary manifestations but the fruit of the spirit abides forever. The knowledge which will pass away, surely is a forever. The knowledge which will pass away, surely is a special kind of knowledge designed for the present require- special kind of knowledge designed for the present requirements of the church life; and which will be useless both in ments of the church life; and which will be useless both in isolation from love (13:2) and in the coming age; for the isolation from love (13:2) and in the coming age; for the highest knowledge of God in Christ then would attain tran- highest knowledge of God in Christ then would attain transcendent perfection in the age to come (13:2). At that time, scendent perfection in the age to come (13:2). At that time, when the perfect One comes, at the Parousia of Christ, the when the perfect One comes, at the Parousia of Christ, the imperfect all temporary relative values will pass away, and imperfect all temporary relative values will pass away, and we shall see Him face to face (Deut.34:10; Num.12:8); like we shall see Him face to face (Deut.34:10; Num.12:8); like Moses, whom the Lord knew and talked to face to face. As Moses, whom the Lord knew and talked to face to face. As Chrysostom puts it rightly when he says: “It is not that our Chrysostom puts it rightly when he says: “It is not that our knowledge will disappear altogether, but that its imperfec- knowledge will disappear altogether, but that its imperfec- tions will be seen as very limited. We shall know everything tions will be seen as very limited. We shall know everything we know now imperfectly, but so much more as well.” Paul, we know now imperfectly, but so much more as well.” Paul, specifically emphasizes the enduring reality, the perma- specifically emphasizes the enduring reality, the perma- nence of love; he contrasts love with the temporary and im- nence of love; he contrasts love with the temporary and imperfect character of spiritual gifts. The temporal transcen- perfect character of spiritual gifts. The temporal transcendence of love contrasts with the temporality of the gifts of dence of love contrasts with the temporality of the gifts of prophecy, tongues, and knowledge. Charisms and powers prophecy, tongues, and knowledge. Charisms and powers enjoyed by Paul are but little worth if love is not present. enjoyed by Paul are but little worth if love is not present. Even the charism of prophecy, a gift superior to the gift of Even the charism of prophecy, a gift superior to the gift of speaking in tongues and one worth striving for (14:1), will speaking in tongues and one worth striving for (14:1), will pass away, vanish away. pass away, vanish away. For Paul love is not so much a virtue as it is eschato- For Paul love is not so much a virtue as it is eschatological power, the gift of God poured out into the very logical power, the gift of God poured out into the very depths of one’s being. The love of which Paul writes in I Co- depths of one’s being. The love of which Paul writes in I Co- rinthians 13, is a gift beyond compare because it is the rinthians 13, is a gift beyond compare because it is the Spirit of God at work, and this indicates that the primary lo- Spirit of God at work, and this indicates that the primary locus of love is the common life of the church. It is love that cus of love is the common life of the church. It is love that makes the life of the church possible. And in the time of ful- makes the life of the church possible. And in the time of fulfillment, all will vanish except love in the presence of God, fillment, all will vanish except love in the presence of God, because God is Love. because God is Love.

Prophecies, tongues, and knowledge are all at best Prophecies, tongues, and knowledge are all at best

141 141 partial revelations of God who is love (I John 4:8; 16). For partial revelations of God who is love (I John 4:8; 16). For now we know in part and we prophesy in part. But then, the now we know in part and we prophesy in part. But then, the imperfect forms of relationship between man and God will imperfect forms of relationship between man and God will end, and our partial and obscure knowledge of God will give end, and our partial and obscure knowledge of God will give place to a vision “face to face.” place to a vision “face to face.” For our knowledge is imperfect and our prophecy is For our knowledge is imperfect and our prophecy is imperfect; but when the perfect comes, the imperfect will imperfect; but when the perfect comes, the imperfect will pass away. When I was a child, I spoke like a child, I pass away. When I was a child, I spoke like a child, I thought like a child, I reasoned like a child; when I became thought like a child, I reasoned like a child; when I became a man, I gave up childish ways. For now we see in mirror a man, I gave up childish ways. For now we see in mirror dimly, but then face to face. Now I know in part; then I shall dimly, but then face to face. Now I know in part; then I shall understand fully, even as I have been fully understood. So understand fully, even as I have been fully understood. So faith, hope, love abide, these three; but the greatest of faith, hope, love abide, these three; but the greatest of these is love (RSV). these is love (RSV). For we know in part and we prophesy in part. For now For we know in part and we prophesy in part. For now we see by means of a mirror with a dim picture; then we will we see by means of a mirror with a dim picture; then we will see face to face. No one fully possesses any of the charac- see face to face. No one fully possesses any of the characteristic gifts, for we know a part, a fragment only, and not teristic gifts, for we know a part, a fragment only, and not the whole from the whole. Our knowledge of divine things in the whole from the whole. Our knowledge of divine things in this life cannot be direct; it is mere imperfect, dim reflection. this life cannot be direct; it is mere imperfect, dim reflection. It all comes through the distorting medium of human It all comes through the distorting medium of human thought, and human language, types, symbols. Even the thought, and human language, types, symbols. Even the Gospel is a riddle, shadow, partial knowledge and revelation Gospel is a riddle, shadow, partial knowledge and revelation compared with the full light of the life to come. This partial compared with the full light of the life to come. This partial knowledge is contrasted with the knowledge of the eschato- knowledge is contrasted with the knowledge of the eschatological future. Reflecting on this passage, St. Ambrose logical future. Reflecting on this passage, St. Ambrose writes: “For now we know in part and understand in part. writes: “For now we know in part and understand in part. But then we shall be able to comprehend what is perfect, But then we shall be able to comprehend what is perfect, when not the shadow but the reality of the majesty and eter- when not the shadow but the reality of the majesty and eternity of God shall begin to shine and to reveal itself unveiled nity of God shall begin to shine and to reveal itself unveiled before our eyes. before our eyes. Paul emphasizes the limitations and incompleteness Paul emphasizes the limitations and incompleteness of our knowledge; for man cannot comprehend God fully of our knowledge; for man cannot comprehend God fully now, but God fully comprehends man (Gal.4:9) because He now, but God fully comprehends man (Gal.4:9) because He created us and He loved us first. As St. John Chrysostom created us and He loved us first. As St. John Chrysostom

142 142 puts rightly by saying, “I know Him not but He made Himself puts rightly by saying, “I know Him not but He made Himself known to me, and He Himself first has tended towards me. known to me, and He Himself first has tended towards me. …For someone sitting in the darkness at night will not run …For someone sitting in the darkness at night will not run after the light of the sun as long as he cannot see it. But after the light of the sun as long as he cannot see it. But when the dawn comes and the sun’s brightness begins to when the dawn comes and the sun’s brightness begins to shine on him, he will eventually follow after its light.” shine on him, he will eventually follow after its light.”

The Apostle wants his audience to infer from this pas- The Apostle wants his audience to infer from this passage that love belongs to an order of reality that does not sage that love belongs to an order of reality that does not end, and thus manifests the perfection, the enduring reality end, and thus manifests the perfection, the enduring reality of what is to come. His subject is no longer the special gift of what is to come. His subject is no longer the special gift of knowledge granted by the Spirit to some and not to oth- of knowledge granted by the Spirit to some and not to others, but the knowledge that is constitutive of one’s relation- ers, but the knowledge that is constitutive of one’s relationship to God. For this meaning and end he uses the meta- ship to God. For this meaning and end he uses the meta- phor of mirror: “For now we see in a mirror, indirectly, but phor of mirror: “For now we see in a mirror, indirectly, but then face to face” 12a. The “now” and “then” are analogous then face to face” 12a. The “now” and “then” are analogous to verse 11 between childhood and adulthood; between this to verse 11 between childhood and adulthood; between this present age (indirect, imperfect knowledge), and then in the present age (indirect, imperfect knowledge), and then in the age to come when we shall see “face to face” (direct and age to come when we shall see “face to face” (direct and perfect knowledge). perfect knowledge).

With this exposure, Paul does not condemn or under- With this exposure, Paul does not condemn or under- estimate the spiritual gifts but he urges that Corinthians may estimate the spiritual gifts but he urges that Corinthians may use wisely and properly their spiritual gifts. Pursue love, he use wisely and properly their spiritual gifts. Pursue love, he says, because that alone is forever. At the same time you says, because that alone is forever. At the same time you should eagerly put at work, pursue and activate the different should eagerly put at work, pursue and activate the different manifestations of the spirit that build up the community life. manifestations of the spirit that build up the community life. For, now, our knowledge is “temporary” or “relative”; it is For, now, our knowledge is “temporary” or “relative”; it is “partial”; it belongs only to this age which is but the begin- “partial”; it belongs only to this age which is but the beginning of the End, not the Eschaton, the completion, when ning of the End, not the Eschaton, the completion, when Christ will come. But meantime, now, the object of our Christ will come. But meantime, now, the object of our “knowledge” is the demands of the Christian life. And we, as “knowledge” is the demands of the Christian life. And we, as God’s new people live between the two times, between God’s new people live between the two times, between now, and then, the final consummation when God will be “all now, and then, the final consummation when God will be “all in all.” in all.”

143 143 The mirror is knowledge while the dimness is the dark The mirror is knowledge while the dimness is the dark form of God by which He is known partially. The faithful form of God by which He is known partially. The faithful know God though their knowledge is imperfect, partial and know God though their knowledge is imperfect, partial and incomplete, but the wicked know Him not. They are in dark- incomplete, but the wicked know Him not. They are in darkness, uncertainty and in a hopeless, obscure world; they ness, uncertainty and in a hopeless, obscure world; they have nobody to fear or to trust in. For this reason, we have nobody to fear or to trust in. For this reason, we should forsake the present, temporary pleasures for the should forsake the present, temporary pleasures for the sake of the greater eschatological good. To that end Paul in sake of the greater eschatological good. To that end Paul in 13:11, calls upon his personal example once again urging 13:11, calls upon his personal example once again urging the Corinthians to put aside, as he has, the things of child- the Corinthians to put aside, as he has, the things of childhood. Then, Paul ends his argument with the call to action, hood. Then, Paul ends his argument with the call to action, insisting that the love in the community is real and has en- insisting that the love in the community is real and has enduring quality and the relationship should continue into the during quality and the relationship should continue into the new age with faith, hope and love: a living faith in the resur- new age with faith, hope and love: a living faith in the resurrection and inauguration of Christ; with hope that enables rection and inauguration of Christ; with hope that enables the faithful to endure the sufferings of the still continuing old the faithful to endure the sufferings of the still continuing old age; and with love that the faithful have and must have for age; and with love that the faithful have and must have for one another, which holds the community together in antici- one another, which holds the community together in anticipation of the Parousia. But the greatest is love, for it in- pation of the Parousia. But the greatest is love, for it includes all, even the enemy, for it endures in the solidarity of cludes all, even the enemy, for it endures in the solidarity of the community in this and in the coming age. the community in this and in the coming age. The most enlightened and inspired seers of the pre- The most enlightened and inspired seers of the present revelation could boast of momentary glimpses and par- sent revelation could boast of momentary glimpses and partial illumination; but then “the earth shall be filled with the tial illumination; but then “the earth shall be filled with the knowledge of the glory of the Lord as the waters cover the knowledge of the glory of the Lord as the waters cover the sea” (Habakkuk 2:14). Then, no preaching and prophesying sea” (Habakkuk 2:14). Then, no preaching and prophesying will be necessary, for every eye shall see Him and every will be necessary, for every eye shall see Him and every tongue shall confess His name (Phil.2:9-11; Rev.22:3-5). tongue shall confess His name (Phil.2:9-11; Rev.22:3-5). But love will still remain, for in the realm of God, love is His But love will still remain, for in the realm of God, love is His nature and His name. Love will find a mode of expression nature and His name. Love will find a mode of expression which will be used and understood by all. Tongues will which will be used and understood by all. Tongues will cease but love will remain. cease but love will remain.

One can be a good Christian without tongues or One can be a good Christian without tongues or prophesying but one cannot be a good Christian without prophesying but one cannot be a good Christian without Faith, Hope and Love. Faith, Hope and Love.

144 144 Love is the flower of faith and the ground of hope. Love is the flower of faith and the ground of hope. Love is the root of the faith and hope; love believes all Love is the root of the faith and hope; love believes all things, hopes all things because Love is divine and God is things, hopes all things because Love is divine and God is love (John 4:1-9). love (John 4:1-9). In the fullness of God’s perfect time, faith will be In the fullness of God’s perfect time, faith will be translated into sight, and personal communion; all imperfec- translated into sight, and personal communion; all imperfec- tion both knowledge and prophecy will end and Love will tion both knowledge and prophecy will end and Love will embrace all. embrace all.

CONCLUSION: CONCLUSION: I Corinthians chapter 13, is truly significant and I Corinthians chapter 13, is truly significant and meaningful in its context, for it gives specific characteristics meaningful in its context, for it gives specific characteristics of love and it is the greatest gift of the Spirit, greater than of love and it is the greatest gift of the Spirit, greater than tongues and prophecy. This love is not an ordinary love but tongues and prophecy. This love is not an ordinary love but the love of God poured out in Christ. Only with this love can the love of God poured out in Christ. Only with this love can we encounter God and the whole congregation in a power- we encounter God and the whole congregation in a powerful way. ful way. Diversity of gifts should not create schism, division Diversity of gifts should not create schism, division and acting against each other, but unity in spirit for we need and acting against each other, but unity in spirit for we need one another to build up and edify the Church, which is one another to build up and edify the Church, which is bought and delivered by the blood of Christ. bought and delivered by the blood of Christ.

That is why the apostle Paul urges the Corinthians to That is why the apostle Paul urges the Corinthians to be zealous and eager for this love, which is the greatest of be zealous and eager for this love, which is the greatest of all gifts, because it is God’s love poured into our hearts; all gifts, because it is God’s love poured into our hearts; faith and hope are our response to what God has first done faith and hope are our response to what God has first done but they are not sufficient, for if we follow Jesus’ teaching but they are not sufficient, for if we follow Jesus’ teaching but we do not have love, we are nothing; even if we give all but we do not have love, we are nothing; even if we give all our goods to feed the poor, or sacrifice ourselves for a good our goods to feed the poor, or sacrifice ourselves for a good cause, we profit nothing; Noble deeds are worthless without cause, we profit nothing; Noble deeds are worthless without love/charity. This love is self-transforming and self-edifying; love/charity. This love is self-transforming and self-edifying; at the same time it transforms the community of faith and at the same time it transforms the community of faith and the entire world because it has, simultaneously, vertical and the entire world because it has, simultaneously, vertical and horizontal dimensions. horizontal dimensions.

145 145 In this passage, I Corinthians chapter 13, Paul deals In this passage, I Corinthians chapter 13, Paul deals with specific problems of Corinthians. He persuades and with specific problems of Corinthians. He persuades and urges the Corinthians to embrace God’s way of living. Paul urges the Corinthians to embrace God’s way of living. Paul knows well that some of the wise and the powerful are knows well that some of the wise and the powerful are “puffed up,” arrogant, proud (Gal.6:3) and rude. On the “puffed up,” arrogant, proud (Gal.6:3) and rude. On the other hand, he presents himself as one of the weak, rather other hand, he presents himself as one of the weak, rather than one of the rich and powerful, although he had all the than one of the rich and powerful, although he had all the right to boast as the rightful apostle sent to the gentiles with right to boast as the rightful apostle sent to the gentiles with the gifts of the Spirit, of tongues and prophecy. the gifts of the Spirit, of tongues and prophecy.

Hence, as Christians, our ultimate goal should be, as Hence, as Christians, our ultimate goal should be, as it was for Paul, to pursue love, the highest virtue in this life it was for Paul, to pursue love, the highest virtue in this life and in the life to come, for without love Christianity and the and in the life to come, for without love Christianity and the gospel mean nothing. Only in a loving heart God our Crea- gospel mean nothing. Only in a loving heart God our Crea- tor dwells and works miracles. Only in a loving heart God tor dwells and works miracles. Only in a loving heart God reaches out to redeem the entire universe, giving, dividing reaches out to redeem the entire universe, giving, dividing and expanding Himself and His kingdom unceasingly and and expanding Himself and His kingdom unceasingly and without being consumed, because God is Love. without being consumed, because God is Love.

146 146 BIBLIOGRAPHY BIBLIOGRAPHY

Barret, C.K. (1968). A Commentary on The first Epistle to Barret, C.K. (1968). A Commentary on The first Epistle to the Corinthians. the Corinthians. Bray, Gerald, ed. (1999). Ancient Christian commentary on Bray, Gerald, ed. (1999). Ancient Christian commentary on Scriptures, 1-2 Corinthians. Scriptures, 1-2 Corinthians. Bruce, F. F., ed. (1971). 1 and 2 Corinthians. Bruce, F. F., ed. (1971). 1 and 2 Corinthians. Cliffton, J. Allen, ed. (1970). The Broadman Bible commen- Cliffton, J. Allen, ed. (1970). The Broadman Bible commentary. tary. Chrysostom, Schaff, Philip, ed. (Vol.12. Homily 34 1969). Chrysostom, Schaff, Philip, ed. (Vol.12. Homily 34 1969). Homilies on the Epistles of Paul to the Corinthians. Homilies on the Epistles of Paul to the Corinthians. Collins, Raymond F. and Harrington, Daniel J. ed. (Vol.7. Collins, Raymond F. and Harrington, Daniel J. ed. (Vol.7. 1999). First Corinthians, Sacra Pagina series. 1999). First Corinthians, Sacra Pagina series. Fee, Gordon D. (1987). The first Epistle to the Corinthians. Fee, Gordon D. (1987). The first Epistle to the Corinthians. Furnish, Victor Paul. (1999). The theology of the first letter Furnish, Victor Paul. (1999). The theology of the first letter to the Corinthians. to the Corinthians. Hays, Richard. (1977). First Corinthians. Hays, Richard. (1977). First Corinthians. Hering, Jean. (1962).The first Epistle of St. Paul to the Co- Hering, Jean. (1962).The first Epistle of St. Paul to the Co- rinthians. rinthians. Horshley, Richard A. (1998). I Corinthians. Horshley, Richard A. (1998). I Corinthians. Melanchthon, Philip. (1995). Annotations on First Corin- Melanchthon, Philip. (1995). Annotations on First Corin- thians. thians. Mitchel, Margaret M. (1993). Paul and the rhetoric of recon- Mitchel, Margaret M. (1993). Paul and the rhetoric of reconciliation. ciliation. Murphy-O’Connor, Jerome. (1979). I Corinthians. Murphy-O’Connor, Jerome. (1979). I Corinthians. Robertson and Plummer. (1961).The international critical Robertson and Plummer. (1961).The international critical commentary, First Epistle of St. Paul to the Corin- commentary, First Epistle of St. Paul to the Corin- thians. thians. Snyder, Gradon F. (1992). First Corinthians, a faith commu- Snyder, Gradon F. (1992). First Corinthians, a faith community commentary. nity commentary.

147 147 CHRISTIAN RELIGIOUS EDUCATION CHRISTIAN RELIGIOUS EDUCATION

Education aims constantly to move, to lead us out, to Education aims constantly to move, to lead us out, to shape us beyond our present limits toward realization of our shape us beyond our present limits toward realization of our full possibilities, to reach for the transcendent. True educa- full possibilities, to reach for the transcendent. True education can never settle for sameness. We as educators are tion can never settle for sameness. We as educators are motivated to educate, cultivate what is there in potential so motivated to educate, cultivate what is there in potential so that out of the past heritage we may build a present and fu- that out of the past heritage we may build a present and future for our students and ourselves. Because the nature of ture for our students and ourselves. Because the nature of educational activity has been and is political activity that de- educational activity has been and is political activity that deliberately and intentionally attends to peoples present, past liberately and intentionally attends to peoples present, past and future, it holds for the total person the possibility of and future, it holds for the total person the possibility of dealing creatively with social realities, and the community at dealing creatively with social realities, and the community at large. Hence, religious education is a conscious relationship large. Hence, religious education is a conscious relationship which focuses attention on empowering people in their which focuses attention on empowering people in their search for a transcendent being. search for a transcendent being. Any religious education done within a Christian com- Any religious education done within a Christian community is “Christian religious education.” Christian religious munity is “Christian religious education.” Christian religious education, like all education, is a complex enterprise, for it education, like all education, is a complex enterprise, for it proposes a spirituality which is Christian and political. That proposes a spirituality which is Christian and political. That is, it intervenes in people’s lives to influence them on how is, it intervenes in people’s lives to influence them on how they live out their temporality in social relationships. they live out their temporality in social relationships. The common grounds and common purpose of Chris- The common grounds and common purpose of Chris- tian religious education is to enable people to live as Chris- tian religious education is to enable people to live as Chris- tians in faith for the kingdom of God. As educators, our gen- tians in faith for the kingdom of God. As educators, our general and corporate goal is to “lead people out to the King- eral and corporate goal is to “lead people out to the King- dom of God in Jesus Christ.” In the Old Testament, the vi- dom of God in Jesus Christ.” In the Old Testament, the vision of God’s Kingdom embraces as God’s intention for all sion of God’s Kingdom embraces as God’s intention for all people and creation. In the New Testament Jesus’ procla- people and creation. In the New Testament Jesus’ proclamation and purpose of the Kingdom of God has the same mation and purpose of the Kingdom of God has the same implication and purpose to all mankind. implication and purpose to all mankind. In his book, Where Faith Begins, Ellis Nelson In his book, Where Faith Begins, Ellis Nelson indicates four channels of faith communications. Although indicates four channels of faith communications. Although they are powerful, they are relative and have partial ways they are powerful, they are relative and have partial ways of communication: a) Communication through mind, of communication: a) Communication through mind,

148 148 transmitting ideas which leans on the conscious, logical transmitting ideas which leans on the conscious, logical processes of the mind. Here the mind is an instrument of processes of the mind. Here the mind is an instrument of understanding rather than the source of faith. understanding rather than the source of faith. b) Communication through experience. This category b) Communication through experience. This category transmits ideas such as hope, fear, sin, forgiveness, acci- transmits ideas such as hope, fear, sin, forgiveness, acci- dents, evil, death and many other current elements which dents, evil, death and many other current elements which we experience. we experience. c) Communication through self-hood, is to see God c) Communication through self-hood, is to see God as having communication with man. This, although it has a as having communication with man. This, although it has a natural attraction, presents the self as a part of and the natural attraction, presents the self as a part of and the product of society. The self does not stand alone. Hence, product of society. The self does not stand alone. Hence, this notion also is incomplete to develop communication. this notion also is incomplete to develop communication. d) Communication through the church. The church as d) Communication through the church. The church as a “social institution” may attract us, but it is also under judg- a “social institution” may attract us, but it is also under judgment and capable of sin. “For by grace you have been ment and capable of sin. “For by grace you have been saved through faith” (Eph.2:8). Faith cannot be communi- saved through faith” (Eph.2:8). Faith cannot be communicated; it can be discovered. The natural agency of commu- cated; it can be discovered. The natural agency of communication is the community of believers and the Bible is pri- nication is the community of believers and the Bible is primarily a book about the faith of a people. “By faith we un- marily a book about the faith of a people. “By faith we understand God” (Heb.12:2). We cannot separate theology derstand God” (Heb.12:2). We cannot separate theology from our efforts to communicate. We must have a way from our efforts to communicate. We must have a way which is both theologically satisfactory and operationally ef- which is both theologically satisfactory and operationally effective. fective. Almost all educators agree that preaching and teach- Almost all educators agree that preaching and teaching are strong instruments to communicate faith. Worship ing are strong instruments to communicate faith. Worship also, they attest to be our most powerful mode of communi- also, they attest to be our most powerful mode of communication. Hence, through all these means, God of the Bible is cation. Hence, through all these means, God of the Bible is the basic reality of communication, and that reality is shared the basic reality of communication, and that reality is shared through a community of believers. As Nelson sees it, “The through a community of believers. As Nelson sees it, “The Bible is the definitive source for a description of the God in Bible is the definitive source for a description of the God in whom we have faith” though we do not expect the Bible to whom we have faith” though we do not expect the Bible to answer all our questions about modern life. Faith in God is answer all our questions about modern life. Faith in God is communal. The books of the Bible are intimately related to communal. The books of the Bible are intimately related to the faith of a community of believers who put their stories, the faith of a community of believers who put their stories, songs, historical narratives and creeds in written form in songs, historical narratives and creeds in written form in

149 149 order to preserve the meaning of faith for themselves and order to preserve the meaning of faith for themselves and their children. Church speaks out the Word of God through their children. Church speaks out the Word of God through its liturgy. In our Armenian Apostolic tradition, liturgy is an its liturgy. In our Armenian Apostolic tradition, liturgy is an action by which a community expresses its attitude about action by which a community expresses its attitude about the way it is between God and human beings. Liturgy is also the way it is between God and human beings. Liturgy is also education. As we know, a large part of educational activity education. As we know, a large part of educational activity involves impressing on others concepts, facts and skills. involves impressing on others concepts, facts and skills. This is the impressive side of education. People need to be This is the impressive side of education. People need to be taught. Realities have to be communicated to them. Educa- taught. Realities have to be communicated to them. Educa- tors, however, recognize that impressive activity is not tors, however, recognize that impressive activity is not enough in the educational process. It must be completed by enough in the educational process. It must be completed by expressive activity (inward and outward). That is, the expressive activity (inward and outward). That is, the learner, the believer, must express in her or his own way learner, the believer, must express in her or his own way the ideas, facts, or skills, in this case through the liturgy of the ideas, facts, or skills, in this case through the liturgy of faith. faith. According to Nelson, agents of faith communication According to Nelson, agents of faith communication are parents, adults and believers in the faith community. are parents, adults and believers in the faith community. Learning takes place when a person participates in events Learning takes place when a person participates in events (social, cultural, spiritual). God is known in things that hap- (social, cultural, spiritual). God is known in things that happen rather than in speculative reason, and the biblical re- pen rather than in speculative reason, and the biblical record is primarily a description of events. We have to be sen- cord is primarily a description of events. We have to be sensitive to these events in order to get a fresh outlook and un- sitive to these events in order to get a fresh outlook and understanding of God’s activity in the world. derstanding of God’s activity in the world. A characteristic duty, among other roles of the A characteristic duty, among other roles of the church, is to nurture its followers. For the church, evangeliz- church, is to nurture its followers. For the church, evangeliz- ing means bringing the Good News unto all humanity, and ing means bringing the Good News unto all humanity, and through its influence, transforming lives from within to make through its influence, transforming lives from within to make them new creations in Christ; to prepare them to accept the them new creations in Christ; to prepare them to accept the Kingdom of God in their daily lives. In examining the Kingdom of God in their daily lives. In examining the Church’s message, one must get beyond the verbal mes- Church’s message, one must get beyond the verbal messages to the embodied message proclaimed by the life of sages to the embodied message proclaimed by the life of the community. The church exists to evangelize, to serve, to the community. The church exists to evangelize, to serve, to teach, to oversee and live the Word of God and to change teach, to oversee and live the Word of God and to change life and society. By sharing prayers and liturgy in church, we life and society. By sharing prayers and liturgy in church, we express in our hearts and lives the living mystery of Christ express in our hearts and lives the living mystery of Christ

150 150 and the real nature of the Christian community. and the real nature of the Christian community. “Faith, comes through hearing, and what is heard, is “Faith, comes through hearing, and what is heard, is the Word of Christ” (Rom.10:14-17). As educators, our task the Word of Christ” (Rom.10:14-17). As educators, our task is to nurture people in their spiritual development and moti- is to nurture people in their spiritual development and motivation, fostering and deepening their relationship with God vation, fostering and deepening their relationship with God and each other. With confidence in God we can live our and each other. With confidence in God we can live our lives with joy, with hope and with peace. This life calls us to lives with joy, with hope and with peace. This life calls us to love and to serve. This trust, confidence and gracious invita- love and to serve. This trust, confidence and gracious invitation to share His Kingdom, as redeemed people, must be tion to share His Kingdom, as redeemed people, must be expressed by a commitment of total trusting, lasting rela- expressed by a commitment of total trusting, lasting relationship with God in Jesus Christ. Our educational task and tionship with God in Jesus Christ. Our educational task and efforts must aim at bringing our students and ourselves to a efforts must aim at bringing our students and ourselves to a quality of life where there is unity between what we profess quality of life where there is unity between what we profess to believe and how we actually engage in the world. to believe and how we actually engage in the world.

GROWING IN THE LIFE OF CHRISTIAN FAITH GROWING IN THE LIFE OF CHRISTIAN FAITH In general “Faith” means believing, trusting, being In general “Faith” means believing, trusting, being committed. People place their faith in material goods, others committed. People place their faith in material goods, others in ideals or goals, still others in a transcendent Being or Re- in ideals or goals, still others in a transcendent Being or Re- ality. All of these are “forms of faith.” Faith is primarily a reality. All of these are “forms of faith.” Faith is primarily a response to a gift, an activity of recognizing and accepting sponse to a gift, an activity of recognizing and accepting God’s grace. Visual and material elements also help and God’s grace. Visual and material elements also help and simplify to understand, come close, or instill in the hearts simplify to understand, come close, or instill in the hearts and minds seeds of faith. These then give rise to a way of and minds seeds of faith. These then give rise to a way of believing, trusting and orienting a child’s life or those who believing, trusting and orienting a child’s life or those who are still immature in faith. This writer cannot agree to the are still immature in faith. This writer cannot agree to the dogma that human beings are born without faith, without dogma that human beings are born without faith, without conscience. Faith is somehow awareness, the dim light of conscience. Faith is somehow awareness, the dim light of conscience, God’s presence within a child. It is ready to conscience, God’s presence within a child. It is ready to grow or to dry up if left alone without cultivation, spiritual grow or to dry up if left alone without cultivation, spiritual guidance and food. This is why in our Orthodox tradition we guidance and food. This is why in our Orthodox tradition we baptize the child while he/she is still a baby. It could happen baptize the child while he/she is still a baby. It could happen that a deadly sickness, natural disaster, war or an accident that a deadly sickness, natural disaster, war or an accident can take the child’s life without he/she being baptized, with- can take the child’s life without he/she being baptized, without knowing and being sealed by Christ. out knowing and being sealed by Christ.

151 151 We believe that the world and all its creatures have We believe that the world and all its creatures have been created by God, and all are good. With faith and trust been created by God, and all are good. With faith and trust we hold God’s extended hand to be lifted up. Within this we hold God’s extended hand to be lifted up. Within this good creation, human beings out of their own freedom of good creation, human beings out of their own freedom of choice have broken community with God and with one an- choice have broken community with God and with one another. We are helpless but not hopeless. We are not left on other. We are helpless but not hopeless. We are not left on our own. God sent His only begotten Son to rescue us. He our own. God sent His only begotten Son to rescue us. He took all our sins and disobedience on His shoulders and took all our sins and disobedience on His shoulders and made us free, made us heirs of God’s promised eternal life made us free, made us heirs of God’s promised eternal life out of His goodness. To believe in God’s incarnation in out of His goodness. To believe in God’s incarnation in Christ and His act of redemption on the Cross for our salva- Christ and His act of redemption on the Cross for our salvation is “faith.” Our willingness to accept God’s gracious gift tion is “faith.” Our willingness to accept God’s gracious gift out of His love is trusting in our faith and having a firm con- out of His love is trusting in our faith and having a firm conviction in God’s benevolence and purpose for the whole of viction in God’s benevolence and purpose for the whole of mankind. mankind. Faith in Christ as our God and Redeemer gives rise Faith in Christ as our God and Redeemer gives rise to a new kind of life: the “life of faith.” “For by grace you to a new kind of life: the “life of faith.” “For by grace you have been saved through faith and this is not your doing, it have been saved through faith and this is not your doing, it is the gift of God not because of works, lest any man should is the gift of God not because of works, lest any man should boast”(Eph.2:8-9). The “life of faith” is deeply personal, but boast”(Eph.2:8-9). The “life of faith” is deeply personal, but at the same time it is not individual or isolated. It is a life of at the same time it is not individual or isolated. It is a life of sharing God’s love and grace in the life of the world, in other sharing God’s love and grace in the life of the world, in other words it is a life of commitments, dedication, prayer and liv- words it is a life of commitments, dedication, prayer and living a spiritual meaningful life with ourselves and within our ing a spiritual meaningful life with ourselves and within our community of believers. A true Christian life filled with love community of believers. A true Christian life filled with love and faith is a gracious reflection of the Holy Spirit working and faith is a gracious reflection of the Holy Spirit working and active within. Therefore, a new man is created, born of and active within. Therefore, a new man is created, born of the Spirit. Through his life and deeds, Christ is active and the Spirit. Through his life and deeds, Christ is active and glorified. Christ then guides, comforts, and encourages to glorified. Christ then guides, comforts, and encourages to bear fruits of righteousness. bear fruits of righteousness. St. Paul advises all those who have dedicated their St. Paul advises all those who have dedicated their lives to Christ to live accordingly a life of faith: “. . . put on a lives to Christ to live accordingly a life of faith: “. . . put on a merciful heart, kindness, humility, gentleness, patience, merciful heart, kindness, humility, gentleness, patience, bearing with one another and forgiving each other…and in bearing with one another and forgiving each other…and in addition to all these put on love, which is the bond of addition to all these put on love, which is the bond of

152 152 completeness”(Col.3:12-14). Many human activities, good in completeness”(Col.3:12-14). Many human activities, good in themselves, are not good because of the motive for which themselves, are not good because of the motive for which they are done. For example, fasting, prayer, psalmody, they are done. For example, fasting, prayer, psalmody, singing, acts of charity and hospitality are by nature good. singing, acts of charity and hospitality are by nature good. But when performed for the sake of self-esteem, self- But when performed for the sake of self-esteem, self- glorification, they are not good nor do they please God. In glorification, they are not good nor do they please God. In everything we do, God searches out our purpose to see everything we do, God searches out our purpose to see whether we do it for Him or for some other motive. For whether we do it for Him or for some other motive. For God’s judgment looks not at the actions, but at the purpose God’s judgment looks not at the actions, but at the purpose behind them. This knowing, experiencing inwardly God’s behind them. This knowing, experiencing inwardly God’s presence in our lives is the gracious work of the Holy Spirit presence in our lives is the gracious work of the Holy Spirit who reveals the truths to our mind and heart. who reveals the truths to our mind and heart. Knowing God or believing in Him and having faith in Knowing God or believing in Him and having faith in His redemptive act of salvation is not enough to be saved. His redemptive act of salvation is not enough to be saved. Salvation then is more than forgiveness of sins, more than a Salvation then is more than forgiveness of sins, more than a mental acceptance of Christ and His gospels and teachings. mental acceptance of Christ and His gospels and teachings. For the Armenian Apostolic Orthodox tradition, in salvation For the Armenian Apostolic Orthodox tradition, in salvation we are given union with God through Christ, a right and full we are given union with God through Christ, a right and full relationship with the Holy Trinity and the restoration of our relationship with the Holy Trinity and the restoration of our full humanity. All these things are accomplished through the full humanity. All these things are accomplished through the incarnation, the union of God and man in the person of Je- incarnation, the union of God and man in the person of Je- sus Christ. Salvation then is found upon a substantial union sus Christ. Salvation then is found upon a substantial union of the believer with Christ in His full humanity, a flesh-to- of the believer with Christ in His full humanity, a flesh-to- flesh relationship. The new birth, the new life in Christ is flesh relationship. The new birth, the new life in Christ is necessary for salvation. We die in sin, then we are buried necessary for salvation. We die in sin, then we are buried with Christ and rise with Him; we are united to Christ and to with Christ and rise with Him; we are united to Christ and to His body, the Church. We are cleansed, justified and sancti- His body, the Church. We are cleansed, justified and sanctified. fied. The life of Christian faith according to St. Paul is a The life of Christian faith according to St. Paul is a “life in Christ” and “life in the Spirit.” “For those who live ac- “life in Christ” and “life in the Spirit.” “For those who live according to flesh set their minds on the things of the flesh, cording to flesh set their minds on the things of the flesh, but those who live according to the Spirit, the things of the but those who live according to the Spirit, the things of the Spirit”(Rom.8:5); also “. . . if Christ is in you, the body is Spirit”(Rom.8:5); also “. . . if Christ is in you, the body is dead because of sin, but the Spirit is life because of right- dead because of sin, but the Spirit is life because of righteousness”(Rom.8:10). To live a “life in Christ,” is “life eousness”(Rom.8:10). To live a “life in Christ,” is “life

153 153 according to the Spirit.” It is a Christ centered life. He mas- according to the Spirit.” It is a Christ centered life. He masters our lives, activities and careers; gives purpose and ters our lives, activities and careers; gives purpose and meaning to our lives, other truths, realities and values come meaning to our lives, other truths, realities and values come relative to His Spirit, who, now dominates and consumes relative to His Spirit, who, now dominates and consumes our lives. Christ becomes the source of our strength, happi- our lives. Christ becomes the source of our strength, happiness and peace. In our turn, we become more aware of our ness and peace. In our turn, we become more aware of our responsibilities to the new challenges and to our mission in responsibilities to the new challenges and to our mission in this life for His Kingdom. A life of faith gives us freedom. Al- this life for His Kingdom. A life of faith gives us freedom. Al- though we live in this world, but we are not afflicted, capti- though we live in this world, but we are not afflicted, capti- vated or enslaved by sin and evil powers anymore; we live vated or enslaved by sin and evil powers anymore; we live in this world but are above worldly passions. We are liber- in this world but are above worldly passions. We are liber- ated by Christ and live in Christ for Christ. ated by Christ and live in Christ for Christ. In the life of faith, with the eye of the Spirit, we will be In the life of faith, with the eye of the Spirit, we will be able to see ourselves more clearly, with humility we will con- able to see ourselves more clearly, with humility we will confess our sins and dedicate our lives to Christ. “We are af- fess our sins and dedicate our lives to Christ. “We are afflicted in every way” says Paul, “but not crushed; perplexed, flicted in every way” says Paul, “but not crushed; perplexed, but not driven to despair; persecuted but not forsaken; but not driven to despair; persecuted but not forsaken; struck down, but not destroyed; always carrying in the body struck down, but not destroyed; always carrying in the body the death of Jesus, so that the life of Jesus may also be the death of Jesus, so that the life of Jesus may also be manifested in our bodies”(2Cor.4:8-10). manifested in our bodies”(2Cor.4:8-10). In the Spirit we participate in Christ’s living work in the In the Spirit we participate in Christ’s living work in the world to overcome our physical temptations, weaknesses world to overcome our physical temptations, weaknesses and also transform the ills of society for a more just and bet- and also transform the ills of society for a more just and better world. Living and acting together according to the Spirit ter world. Living and acting together according to the Spirit is a life of faith in obedience, gratitude, service and love for is a life of faith in obedience, gratitude, service and love for one other in freedom. The life of Christian faith is obedience one other in freedom. The life of Christian faith is obedience in love. Love is the ultimate sign and manifestation of life in in love. Love is the ultimate sign and manifestation of life in the Spirit of a new life in Christ. Being freed and saved by the Spirit of a new life in Christ. Being freed and saved by the blood of Jesus, we must love one another and the whole the blood of Jesus, we must love one another and the whole creation. We must love and serve. Because from the begin- creation. We must love and serve. Because from the beginning, God kept His promises to the people of ancient Israel; ning, God kept His promises to the people of ancient Israel; He delivered them with a mighty hand; gave them His Com- He delivered them with a mighty hand; gave them His Com- mandments, land and everlasting salvation through His mandments, land and everlasting salvation through His Son. Christ renewed God’s Covenant with a new and holy Son. Christ renewed God’s Covenant with a new and holy generation for they accepted His lordship and believed Him generation for they accepted His lordship and believed Him

154 154 as Messiah. Though God’s promises are not fulfilled yet, nor as Messiah. Though God’s promises are not fulfilled yet, nor the work of Jesus’ has come to its end, He works, struggles the work of Jesus’ has come to its end, He works, struggles and drives the work of creation to its end of the times. “You and drives the work of creation to its end of the times. “You are the salt, and the light of this world,” says Christ. We are are the salt, and the light of this world,” says Christ. We are asked to live our daily lives with faith and become the “salt” asked to live our daily lives with faith and become the “salt” and “light” of this world. and “light” of this world. Faith and a life of faith are indeed transforming, life Faith and a life of faith are indeed transforming, life changing inner powers; they deepen our faith and enrich changing inner powers; they deepen our faith and enrich our lives and the lives of others. Like leaven, slowly but our lives and the lives of others. Like leaven, slowly but surely will leaven, change the whole world, educate, make surely will leaven, change the whole world, educate, make them grow and become mature and aware of God’s be- them grow and become mature and aware of God’s benevolent love. The process of coming to faith and growing in nevolent love. The process of coming to faith and growing in the life of faith is fundamentally a process of participation, the life of faith is fundamentally a process of participation, and communal life as well as spiritual practices. We grow and communal life as well as spiritual practices. We grow together as the body of Christ; “grow up in every way into together as the body of Christ; “grow up in every way into him who is the head”(Eph.4:1-16). This takes time, and as a him who is the head”(Eph.4:1-16). This takes time, and as a journey, on which crucial events take place, may hinder the journey, on which crucial events take place, may hinder the pace of growth. The issue is not how much or how fast we pace of growth. The issue is not how much or how fast we grow but how to grow in faith and Spirit. Growing in Spirit is grow but how to grow in faith and Spirit. Growing in Spirit is coming closer to God and to His life-giving Word. coming closer to God and to His life-giving Word. As Craig Dykstra illustrates, “the life of faith is a living, As Craig Dykstra illustrates, “the life of faith is a living, moving dynamic existence within the sphere of the Spirit.” It moving dynamic existence within the sphere of the Spirit.” It is the source of wisdom, prudence, goodness and spiritual is the source of wisdom, prudence, goodness and spiritual life. This experience of growth includes our bodies, minds, life. This experience of growth includes our bodies, minds, feelings, judgments, and social relationships. We come to feelings, judgments, and social relationships. We come to see that “God has made us and not we ourselves,” and this see that “God has made us and not we ourselves,” and this frees us to allow the Spirit to work in our growing. Growth in frees us to allow the Spirit to work in our growing. Growth in the life of faith also involves a lifelong continuing process of the life of faith also involves a lifelong continuing process of encountering the richness of the mystery of God and of encountering the richness of the mystery of God and of God’s love ever more deeply and profoundly. We grow in God’s love ever more deeply and profoundly. We grow in the life of faith as we hear more and more of the Good the life of faith as we hear more and more of the Good News of the living gospel. We grow in the life of faith when News of the living gospel. We grow in the life of faith when we come across to the sufferings but having resurrected we come across to the sufferings but having resurrected and exalted Christ beside us, Who lives forever, gives us and exalted Christ beside us, Who lives forever, gives us hope to endure and live our lives in faith. hope to endure and live our lives in faith.

155 155 THE CONTEXT OF CHRISTIAN RELIGIOUS EDUCATION THE CONTEXT OF CHRISTIAN RELIGIOUS EDUCATION The church is a community of believers. Within the The church is a community of believers. Within the community of believers there are divisions, dishonesty, in- community of believers there are divisions, dishonesty, in- sincere members and class distinctions. From New Testa- sincere members and class distinctions. From New Testa- ment times until today we have had these problems within ment times until today we have had these problems within the church. Communal reality is found in a self-conscious the church. Communal reality is found in a self-conscious association of believers having face-to-face relationships association of believers having face-to-face relationships with each other in a variety of situations. Fellowship makes with each other in a variety of situations. Fellowship makes faith creative and operational. Searching and reading the faith creative and operational. Searching and reading the Scriptures makes faith meaningful. It takes debate to forge Scriptures makes faith meaningful. It takes debate to forge a belief system. Reality is displayed in conflict and argu- a belief system. Reality is displayed in conflict and argumentation, which when carried out to arrive at truth is the mentation, which when carried out to arrive at truth is the most and finest educational process to shape our social, most and finest educational process to shape our social, personal failures, disappointments and hopelessness. The personal failures, disappointments and hopelessness. The role of the New Testament in the lives of congregations is role of the New Testament in the lives of congregations is important in hammering their beliefs and shaping moral and important in hammering their beliefs and shaping moral and ethical values. The church was wrong in allowing moral is- ethical values. The church was wrong in allowing moral issues to become a responsibility of the individual rather than sues to become a responsibility of the individual rather than of the congregation. To avoid a social issue is to communi- of the congregation. To avoid a social issue is to communicate to the believers that the Christian faith is unrelated to cate to the believers that the Christian faith is unrelated to that particular need. With knowledge of the faith and a clear that particular need. With knowledge of the faith and a clear understanding of the human problem, we can and should understanding of the human problem, we can and should confront issues. The church should reassert its role of the confront issues. The church should reassert its role of the congregation as the place where morals, and personal is- congregation as the place where morals, and personal issues are discussed in light of the facts of a case and the sues are discussed in light of the facts of a case and the gospel we confess. It is only face-to-face interaction that will gospel we confess. It is only face-to-face interaction that will bring inner light and strength to the community. Teaching, bring inner light and strength to the community. Teaching, true Christian religious teaching, starts with us, within our true Christian religious teaching, starts with us, within our inner self-life; then it reflects to our fellow brothers and sis- inner self-life; then it reflects to our fellow brothers and sisters because Christian religious education is a mission and ters because Christian religious education is a mission and witness to the living Word and redemptive act of Jesus witness to the living Word and redemptive act of Jesus Christ. To teach to that end, Daniel Scopany reminds us Christ. To teach to that end, Daniel Scopany reminds us that, “Transformation of the world should be carried on in that, “Transformation of the world should be carried on in obedience, in discipleship and peacefully. Education should obedience, in discipleship and peacefully. Education should lead us to creative alternatives which include action and lead us to creative alternatives which include action and

156 156 accountability.” This surely will promote active engagement accountability.” This surely will promote active engagement in the world in response to the Kingdom of God. This world in the world in response to the Kingdom of God. This world mission to learn and to teach starts at home, school, mission to learn and to teach starts at home, school, churches and in community life. Our life should reflect, and churches and in community life. Our life should reflect, and be a response to the signs of His Kingdom already among be a response to the signs of His Kingdom already among us. Otherwise our faith is dead. Through Jesus Christ, God us. Otherwise our faith is dead. Through Jesus Christ, God invites us toward maturity. And, as educators, our call is to invites us toward maturity. And, as educators, our call is to lead our students as whole persons toward that end. lead our students as whole persons toward that end. To become Christian requires more than believing, trusting and doing in response to the Kingdom of God in Je- sus Christ. It requires social interaction within a Christian faith community. It is within a Christian environment that people commune their faith, beliefs, concerns and carry forward the tradition. The church by its communal nature is an educational environment that incorporates and transmits Christian virtues. Christians in their testifying of the Lord, come to learn “to depend on God as the source of life and the sustainer of our community,” who heals and transforms the community; hence Christians “should not ignore the social agony of the world” as Stanley Hauerwas urges, but be a part and take responsibilities to create a better and just society. For Paulo Freire, the church and Christian education should deal and put into practice all their efforts to change the social unjust order because he believes that, education is and has a liberation purpose too. An educator’s foremost task is to liberate “the oppressed as an exploited social class struggling for liberation.” A dialectical relationship must be promoted between Christian communities and their individual members for the sake of the ongoing reform of the church. One of the essential tasks of Christian religious education is “intentional socialization.” This type of transforming activity is for creative members who are mature enough to acknowledge their inner self-illnesses and are ready to become “Christians together.” In worship and through “divine worship,” patterns

157 of mutual self-destruction become redemptive transforma- of mutual self-destruction become redemptive transformations. Worship teaches the congregation who they are, even tions. Worship teaches the congregation who they are, even while they are in sin. Worship teaches them to come before while they are in sin. Worship teaches them to come before God as they are. Worship is the core of congregational God as they are. Worship is the core of congregational communal life and provides redemption. Within worship (in communal life and provides redemption. Within worship (in spirit and truth) lies the power of the congregation to medi- spirit and truth) lies the power of the congregation to medi- ate the gospel, to call for confession, repentance, prayer ate the gospel, to call for confession, repentance, prayer and proclamation. and proclamation. Christian religious education should prepare people Christian religious education should prepare people for full and active participation in liturgy, and at the same for full and active participation in liturgy, and at the same time teach the Christian Story and its implications as reflec- time teach the Christian Story and its implications as reflec- tive acts upon the community’s experience of worship. Wor- tive acts upon the community’s experience of worship. Wor- ship in its nature is a range of emotions, rituals, and sym- ship in its nature is a range of emotions, rituals, and symbols in which men can be led to acknowledge God and ex- bols in which men can be led to acknowledge God and experience awe-inspiring spirituality; worship involves praise, perience awe-inspiring spirituality; worship involves praise, thanksgiving, gratitude, guilt, forgiveness and close a rela- thanksgiving, gratitude, guilt, forgiveness and close a relationship with God in a spirit of humility but in gladness and tionship with God in a spirit of humility but in gladness and in freedom. According to Jeff Astley, worship liberates us in freedom. According to Jeff Astley, worship liberates us and makes us aware of a still center within ourselves, and makes us aware of a still center within ourselves, cleanses our vision, opens our hearts, and incorporates cleanses our vision, opens our hearts, and incorporates “detachment,” “celebration” and “peace.” In worship God is “detachment,” “celebration” and “peace.” In worship God is known in “the journey inwards.” It is to be “conversing with known in “the journey inwards.” It is to be “conversing with God” as Krikor of Nareg (the great Armenian theologian God” as Krikor of Nareg (the great Armenian theologian and monk), puts that inward journey, in an intimate union and monk), puts that inward journey, in an intimate union with the worshiper’s own deepest being because knowing with the worshiper’s own deepest being because knowing God is a cognitive-affective being and cannot be explained God is a cognitive-affective being and cannot be explained through pure theory or reason but in a warm affective reli- through pure theory or reason but in a warm affective religious experience. The teaching of Christian doctrine and gious experience. The teaching of Christian doctrine and the formation of Christian attitudes must take place to- the formation of Christian attitudes must take place together. gether. It is well said by Ed Farley that, “Christian religious It is well said by Ed Farley that, “Christian religious education should teach, educate and prepare people theo- education should teach, educate and prepare people theologically.” Christian believers should be exposed to Chris- logically.” Christian believers should be exposed to Chris- tian doctrines and to basic disciplines of theology and Chris- tian doctrines and to basic disciplines of theology and Chris- tian ethics. It is Jesus and the Spirit alone who can be tian ethics. It is Jesus and the Spirit alone who can be

158 158 teachers. Christian educators are commissioned to imitate teachers. Christian educators are commissioned to imitate the divine teacher’s teaching. According to Marianne the divine teacher’s teaching. According to Marianne Sawiki, “Christian education is a way of giving peace to the Sawiki, “Christian education is a way of giving peace to the world.” The Christian educator resembles Jesus, the peace- world.” The Christian educator resembles Jesus, the peace- giver. Christian individuals and Christians as a church giver. Christian individuals and Christians as a church should show the face of Jesus to the world so vividly and should show the face of Jesus to the world so vividly and effectively that the world could recognize that Jesus is the effectively that the world could recognize that Jesus is the Christ who transforms our lives and the life of the world. Christ who transforms our lives and the life of the world. Christian religious education is entitled to guide Christians, Christian religious education is entitled to guide Christians, individually and corporately in the exercise of their vocation, individually and corporately in the exercise of their vocation, and “to equip the saints for the work of ministry, for building and “to equip the saints for the work of ministry, for building up the body of Christ”(Eph.4:12). This leadership is shared up the body of Christ”(Eph.4:12). This leadership is shared by every Christian “according to the measure of Christ’s by every Christian “according to the measure of Christ’s gift”(Eph.4:7). “Christian religious education,” says Charles gift”(Eph.4:7). “Christian religious education,” says Charles M. Wood, “in its broader sense incorporates theological M. Wood, “in its broader sense incorporates theological education: in Christian faith, in Christian life, and in Chris- education: in Christian faith, in Christian life, and in Chris- tian ministry.” tian ministry.” Fellowship makes faith operational. Christian ideals Fellowship makes faith operational. Christian ideals faith, hope and love through constant teaching, sermons, faith, hope and love through constant teaching, sermons, stories, conversations and songs become meaningful, alive stories, conversations and songs become meaningful, alive and transforming elements. For instance, to teach about for- and transforming elements. For instance, to teach about forgiveness and the theology of the Cross, the teacher should giveness and the theology of the Cross, the teacher should relate to the live experience of the Redemptive work of relate to the live experience of the Redemptive work of Christ, Lord’s Prayer, the Prodigal Son, the Parable of the Christ, Lord’s Prayer, the Prodigal Son, the Parable of the Unforgiving Servant and other teachings of the Lord. Also, Unforgiving Servant and other teachings of the Lord. Also, searching and reading the Scriptures makes faith meaning- searching and reading the Scriptures makes faith meaningful. Once again, it takes debate to forge a belief system. Re- ful. Once again, it takes debate to forge a belief system. Re- ality or story is displayed in conflict and argumentation, ality or story is displayed in conflict and argumentation, which when carried out to arrive at truth, is the most and fin- which when carried out to arrive at truth, is the most and finest educational process that “hammers out our beliefs.” It is est educational process that “hammers out our beliefs.” It is important the role of the New Testament in the lives of the important the role of the New Testament in the lives of the congregation, as Nelson argues, “in shaping the moral and congregation, as Nelson argues, “in shaping the moral and ethical values.” With knowledge of the faith and a clear ethical values.” With knowledge of the faith and a clear understanding of the human problem, we can confront is- understanding of the human problem, we can confront issues “in the light and trust of a living God and his Word,” sues “in the light and trust of a living God and his Word,”

159 159 always open for new approaches and new solutions. always open for new approaches and new solutions. “Understanding” means to be able to “see and grasp the in- “Understanding” means to be able to “see and grasp the inner character and hidden nature” of the reality of things and ner character and hidden nature” of the reality of things and experience their meaning. Thus, Christian education is the experience their meaning. Thus, Christian education is the church’s attempt to help its people see and attain the inner church’s attempt to help its people see and attain the inner character and hidden nature of its own experience as a con- character and hidden nature of its own experience as a confessing, repenting, praying, proclaiming community in the fessing, repenting, praying, proclaiming community in the world. It is a process that invites people to participate in the world. It is a process that invites people to participate in the interpretation of this experience in freedom. Through criti- interpretation of this experience in freedom. Through criticism and care, Christian education helps the community cism and care, Christian education helps the community see and understand the inner sensibilities and hidden na- see and understand the inner sensibilities and hidden nature of mutual self-destruction and redemption that goes on. ture of mutual self-destruction and redemption that goes on. In its whole ministry, it may heal and transform lives, and it In its whole ministry, it may heal and transform lives, and it may be more open to the redemptive activity and power of may be more open to the redemptive activity and power of God. This God given ability of freedom to choose is a reflec- God. This God given ability of freedom to choose is a reflection of God’s spirit within us. By the power of God’s grace tion of God’s spirit within us. By the power of God’s grace working within our transcendent nature, God makes it possi- working within our transcendent nature, God makes it possible for us to be in communion and in union with Him thus ble for us to be in communion and in union with Him thus leading us to salvation and eternal happiness. leading us to salvation and eternal happiness.

AN EPISTEMOLOGICAL BASIS FOR CHRISTIAN EDUCA- AN EPISTEMOLOGICAL BASIS FOR CHRISTIAN EDUCA- TION TION Sin and disobedience separate us from God. If we Sin and disobedience separate us from God. If we want to become heirs of His Kingdom and share everlasting want to become heirs of His Kingdom and share everlasting life and happiness, we must overcome our personal and so- life and happiness, we must overcome our personal and social sins. We must say yes to God and no to sin. Personal cial sins. We must say yes to God and no to sin. Personal sin gives rise to social injustices, corruptions, exploitations, sin gives rise to social injustices, corruptions, exploitations, discriminations. The choice is ours. To say no and with free discriminations. The choice is ours. To say no and with free will reject His extended hand is to reject the gift of salvation, will reject His extended hand is to reject the gift of salvation, the union and ultimate consummation with God our Creator. the union and ultimate consummation with God our Creator. Salvation is here and now by the grace of God in Jesus Salvation is here and now by the grace of God in Jesus Christ. With Him only we may overcome our personal sins, Christ. With Him only we may overcome our personal sins, failures and struggles against all sinful powers. To live as failures and struggles against all sinful powers. To live as redeemed people we must live in opposition to sin, both redeemed people we must live in opposition to sin, both personal and social. Our responsibility is to respond to that personal and social. Our responsibility is to respond to that

160 160 grace which empowers us to struggle in hope for freedom grace which empowers us to struggle in hope for freedom and peace for ourselves and for all God’s people. By our and peace for ourselves and for all God’s people. By our Liberator and Redeemer for the liberation of all mankind, we Liberator and Redeemer for the liberation of all mankind, we as Christian religious educators are invited, mandated to re- as Christian religious educators are invited, mandated to respond and lead people to inner and spiritual freedom. spond and lead people to inner and spiritual freedom. T.H. Groome in his book Christian Religious Educa- T.H. Groome in his book Christian Religious Educa- tion; Sharing Our Story and Vision in Chapter 7, is in search tion; Sharing Our Story and Vision in Chapter 7, is in search of finding and showing us “ways of knowing” for Christian of finding and showing us “ways of knowing” for Christian religious education. I agree with him that as human beings, religious education. I agree with him that as human beings, created in the image and likeness of God, although per- created in the image and likeness of God, although perverted and alienated, we are capable, with free will, of com- verted and alienated, we are capable, with free will, of coming to some conscious knowledge of ourselves and of our ing to some conscious knowledge of ourselves and of our world. And the calling of the educators is to promote a world. And the calling of the educators is to promote a higher degree of knowledge “knowing.” higher degree of knowledge “knowing.” Methods, procedures, ways of teaching may promote Methods, procedures, ways of teaching may promote our knowledge, but knowledge does not necessarily incu- our knowledge, but knowledge does not necessarily incu- bate or create “knowing God” within our souls. Education bate or create “knowing God” within our souls. Education and knowledge can take us to the doors of heaven, but we and knowledge can take us to the doors of heaven, but we need faith to enter through the gates, to be in God’s pres- need faith to enter through the gates, to be in God’s presence. Even for epistemological knowledge, a first hand ence. Even for epistemological knowledge, a first hand deeper and more reliable source, we should encounter both deeper and more reliable source, we should encounter both with mind and emotion to feel His presence within our- with mind and emotion to feel His presence within ourselves. It should be first hand experience with our Lord and selves. It should be first hand experience with our Lord and Creator. The Divine Liturgy, as mentioned earlier, may cre- Creator. The Divine Liturgy, as mentioned earlier, may create and give us one of the best channels of communication ate and give us one of the best channels of communication when we receive His life giving Body and drink His all sav- when we receive His life giving Body and drink His all saving Blood. We feel His presence and come to “know” our ing Blood. We feel His presence and come to “know” our Savior more closely and in a more intimate way. Savior more closely and in a more intimate way. We come to know that for our salvation and for our We come to know that for our salvation and for our sake, He died to give us hope and everlasting life. The sake, He died to give us hope and everlasting life. The church with its worship and Sacraments tries its best to give church with its worship and Sacraments tries its best to give us the whole knowledge of ourselves and understanding of us the whole knowledge of ourselves and understanding of God’s Redemptive act in the person and incarnated Re- God’s Redemptive act in the person and incarnated Re- deemer Jesus Christ. To know God and to grow deeper in deemer Jesus Christ. To know God and to grow deeper in faith, we must love our Lord. The seeds of knowledge are faith, we must love our Lord. The seeds of knowledge are

161 161 among and within us. We need direction. Yes, to lead peo- among and within us. We need direction. Yes, to lead people out toward a lived response to God’s Kingdom in Jesus ple out toward a lived response to God’s Kingdom in Jesus Christ, we need true and deep knowledge of God. Who is Christ, we need true and deep knowledge of God. Who is going to lead us? With what methods or ways are we going going to lead us? With what methods or ways are we going to deepen our faith and enter into His realm of “knowledge”; to deepen our faith and enter into His realm of “knowledge”; to know, to touch and feel His presence? To this end, to know, to touch and feel His presence? To this end, Groome explores the depths of ancient as well as modern Groome explores the depths of ancient as well as modern avenues of “the ways of knowing” tracing patiently his un- avenues of “the ways of knowing” tracing patiently his understanding between rationalists and empiricists, idealists derstanding between rationalists and empiricists, idealists and realists, positivists and skeptics who have different and and realists, positivists and skeptics who have different and even contradicting approaches to the criteria of epistemol- even contradicting approaches to the criteria of epistemol- ogy. To arrive and have a satisfactory answer or best com- ogy. To arrive and have a satisfactory answer or best communication channel for a lived Christian faith, and a witness munication channel for a lived Christian faith, and a witness to that faith, we need a deep relationship with God, other to that faith, we need a deep relationship with God, other people, and the world in Christ. This faith should arise from people, and the world in Christ. This faith should arise from a Christian faith community and return afresh to that com- a Christian faith community and return afresh to that community to promote human freedom and increase faithful- munity to promote human freedom and increase faithfulness. ness. The community of believers is the group that gives The community of believers is the group that gives meaning to faith by the way it worships and lives together. meaning to faith by the way it worships and lives together. The individual develops his/her Christian self-identification The individual develops his/her Christian self-identification by his/her participation in the life of the congregation. In a by his/her participation in the life of the congregation. In a shared praxis approach, adults in their various roles, par- shared praxis approach, adults in their various roles, parents/teachers, communicate the self-image and values that ents/teachers, communicate the self-image and values that the group forms. In shared praxis, our experience and Story the group forms. In shared praxis, our experience and Story of faith look critically at the past. By using the various inter- of faith look critically at the past. By using the various interpretations of past events, we can determine a rough outline pretations of past events, we can determine a rough outline of what took place and what they mean to us. We must be- of what took place and what they mean to us. We must believe and be certain that God is present in some form in the lieve and be certain that God is present in some form in the events of our lives, and try to become a part of God’s proc- events of our lives, and try to become a part of God’s process in the world. With a shared praxis approach, we can re- ess in the world. With a shared praxis approach, we can relate meaning to the events and to our lives, to our surround- late meaning to the events and to our lives, to our surroundings, community and the world, which are somehow under ings, community and the world, which are somehow under God’s Providence. Hence, we come to understand and see God’s Providence. Hence, we come to understand and see that faith is an active agent in human affairs. In shared that faith is an active agent in human affairs. In shared

162 162 praxis, although we come to recognize our human limita- praxis, although we come to recognize our human limitations to control the world and the events, we also come to tions to control the world and the events, we also come to understand that the world is created by the Word of God understand that the world is created by the Word of God and has a purpose. Such a critical approach, using imagina- and has a purpose. Such a critical approach, using imagination in shared praxis, would unlock the Bible stories from tion in shared praxis, would unlock the Bible stories from fixed theological presuppositions and allow them to stand as fixed theological presuppositions and allow them to stand as accounts of people who displayed faith in decisions about accounts of people who displayed faith in decisions about life situations which are somewhat like our situations. life situations which are somewhat like our situations. This revelation and encounter, this “knowing” has to This revelation and encounter, this “knowing” has to be responded to and expressed in active engagements, life- be responded to and expressed in active engagements, life- changing transformations, and active participations in per- changing transformations, and active participations in personal as well as in communal and social levels. The Chris- sonal as well as in communal and social levels. The Chris- tian religious educator then becomes a transformed leader, tian religious educator then becomes a transformed leader, an inspirer, caring father, brother, or sister who knows his/ an inspirer, caring father, brother, or sister who knows his/ her pupils’ needs and gives from his/her heart and soul. He/ her pupils’ needs and gives from his/her heart and soul. He/ she has only one reason and goal: to lead and bring them she has only one reason and goal: to lead and bring them closer and closer to the unshading knowledge and to the closer and closer to the unshading knowledge and to the Kingdom of God. With shared praxis, Christian religious Kingdom of God. With shared praxis, Christian religious educators become visionary Disciples of Christ. In their lives educators become visionary Disciples of Christ. In their lives and deeds, they extend and reflect the “big” image of the and deeds, they extend and reflect the “big” image of the Redeemed Christ, who is continuously shaping the coming Redeemed Christ, who is continuously shaping the coming ages with a new and bigger vision: Christ the Master, the ages with a new and bigger vision: Christ the Master, the first Teacher and the Transformer of life of the world to- first Teacher and the Transformer of life of the world together for a better future. Only then, according to George gether for a better future. Only then, according to George Albert Coe, when the whole society is transformed, “Christ Albert Coe, when the whole society is transformed, “Christ will rule in all and in everything.” will rule in all and in everything.” The church and the faith community with their long The church and the faith community with their long shared experience with each other and with the Word of the shared experience with each other and with the Word of the Bible stories, accounts, narratives and lived faith with tradi- Bible stories, accounts, narratives and lived faith with traditions of the previous generations, can instill, nourish and di- tions of the previous generations, can instill, nourish and direct a true education based on living and properly guided rect a true education based on living and properly guided knowledge/experience. knowledge/experience. “The experiential approach” to religious education, as “The experiential approach” to religious education, as many of the contemporary religious education theorists are many of the contemporary religious education theorists are suggesting or recommending in Groome, may also promote suggesting or recommending in Groome, may also promote

163 163 the active participation and creativity of the learners. But we the active participation and creativity of the learners. But we should remember that the Church and the congregation as should remember that the Church and the congregation as well as the whole body of the believers are not only experi- well as the whole body of the believers are not only experiencing and learning their faith, but most important is, how encing and learning their faith, but most important is, how they are interpreting this experience in their daily lives and they are interpreting this experience in their daily lives and interactions as missionaries to the Word of God. Let’s interactions as missionaries to the Word of God. Let’s elaborate. After learning and becoming aware of our faith elaborate. After learning and becoming aware of our faith through shared experience within the community of believ- through shared experience within the community of believers, we should and must take out to the world our ers, we should and must take out to the world our “knowledge” as well as our “faith” with deep responsibility as “knowledge” as well as our “faith” with deep responsibility as faithful missionaries without borders: to serve, to heal, to faithful missionaries without borders: to serve, to heal, to comfort and help the needy. We should express our faith in comfort and help the needy. We should express our faith in good deeds. good deeds. It is also important for educators in the congregation It is also important for educators in the congregation to give community members an understanding of “serving to give community members an understanding of “serving each other” in the name of the Lord (Christ washed the feet each other” in the name of the Lord (Christ washed the feet of His disciples). This teaching involves not only lived ex- of His disciples). This teaching involves not only lived experience and interaction of people in communities of Chris- perience and interaction of people in communities of Chris- tian faith, but also evokes, and awakens their awareness to tian faith, but also evokes, and awakens their awareness to a higher calling of their vocation in the world as stewards a higher calling of their vocation in the world as stewards faithful to the living, all-transforming Word of God. It is faithful to the living, all-transforming Word of God. It is shared teaching and learning at the same time. In other shared teaching and learning at the same time. In other words, it is growing in faith and knowledge through service. words, it is growing in faith and knowledge through service.

SHARED CHRISTIAN PRAXIS / THE CO-PARTNERS SHARED CHRISTIAN PRAXIS / THE CO-PARTNERS Christian religious education by shared praxis as we Christian religious education by shared praxis as we discussed, is described by Groome, as “ . . . sharing in dia- discussed, is described by Groome, as “ . . . sharing in dialogue, in critical reflection on present actions in light of the logue, in critical reflection on present actions in light of the Christian past story and its vision to shape the future.” It is Christian past story and its vision to shape the future.” It is an activity and a process of remembering, a creative imagi- an activity and a process of remembering, a creative imagination to discover the source of our present in past actions, nation to discover the source of our present in past actions, which reflect in the present and look with hope to the future. which reflect in the present and look with hope to the future. As human beings, only we can dream, imagine and fanta- As human beings, only we can dream, imagine and fanta- size. Through the power of the mind and imagination, we size. Through the power of the mind and imagination, we can shape and reshape our present as well as our future. can shape and reshape our present as well as our future.

164 164 For education to be authentic and to “lead out” requires criti- For education to be authentic and to “lead out” requires critical imagination for both students and teachers. cal imagination for both students and teachers. Our imagination plays a vital role, and it is essential Our imagination plays a vital role, and it is essential for transforming our future lives. This could be achieved for transforming our future lives. This could be achieved through mutual love, humility and faith between the dia- through mutual love, humility and faith between the dialoguers. I quote from Paulo Freire, who gives an insightful loguers. I quote from Paulo Freire, who gives an insightful summary for an authentic relationship of mutual trust be- summary for an authentic relationship of mutual trust between the dialoguers, affirming that, “Dialogue requires tween the dialoguers, affirming that, “Dialogue requires hope, a hope that is aware of our incompleteness but is de- hope, a hope that is aware of our incompleteness but is determined not to settle for silence or escape from reality. It is termined not to settle for silence or escape from reality. It is an active hope… dialogue cannot be carried on in a climate an active hope… dialogue cannot be carried on in a climate of hopelessness.” of hopelessness.” In a shared praxis approach, the participants with In a shared praxis approach, the participants with critical imagination reflect upon and share the stories and critical imagination reflect upon and share the stories and visions in their present actions, and in the light of Christian visions in their present actions, and in the light of Christian tradition. They prepare themselves to respond to that tradi- tradition. They prepare themselves to respond to that tradition, which is still in the future and a vision. The Truth is al- tion, which is still in the future and a vision. The Truth is always there, sometimes we ignore it, or we cannot see it. ways there, sometimes we ignore it, or we cannot see it. The shared praxis approach intends to ease the way of our The shared praxis approach intends to ease the way of our understanding to grasp and attain that truth which is God’s understanding to grasp and attain that truth which is God’s vision for creation; expectation of a positive response with vision for creation; expectation of a positive response with engaged commitments to His call and His Kingdom. Then, engaged commitments to His call and His Kingdom. Then, Christian education in shared praxis is a reflection and ac- Christian education in shared praxis is a reflection and active knowing which arises from the present, is well informed tive knowing which arises from the present, is well informed by past tradition, and is ready to shape our future, which is by past tradition, and is ready to shape our future, which is hope for a more perfect world. hope for a more perfect world.

In using Groome’s shared praxis approach of Chris- In using Groome’s shared praxis approach of Chris- tian education, we will draw and present a picture, attempt- tian education, we will draw and present a picture, attempting to follow his footsteps. ing to follow his footsteps. …It was almost dark in late November …It was almost dark in late November when Ara came home. He was a little upset. when Ara came home. He was a little upset. His Mom had just finished arranging the dinner His Mom had just finished arranging the dinner table, when she saw Ara’s worried face, and table, when she saw Ara’s worried face, and asked. asked.

165 165 “What is wrong? Have fight at school? “What is wrong? Have fight at school? “No mom. Our history teacher in our last les- “No mom. Our history teacher in our last lesson told us bad stories about the Ottoman son told us bad stories about the Ottoman Turks. I hate them, and when I meet one, I will Turks. I hate them, and when I meet one, I will kill him!” kill him!” “What your teacher told you, son, has af- “What your teacher told you, son, has af- fected you so deeply that you want to commit fected you so deeply that you want to commit murder. You do not know that “killing” is a sin murder. You do not know that “killing” is a sin and against God’s commandments? and against God’s commandments? Ara’s Mom knew everything about the Mus- Ara’s Mom knew everything about the Mus- lim Turks, but she kept her patience and said lim Turks, but she kept her patience and said nothing to her seven-year-old son just then; nothing to her seven-year-old son just then; she wanted to teach him a lesson of forgive- she wanted to teach him a lesson of forgiveness without denying or forgetting the past. ness without denying or forgetting the past. “He told us that, while the Armenians were “He told us that, while the Armenians were living peacefully almost six hundred years in living peacefully almost six hundred years in their native homeland under the sovereignty of their native homeland under the sovereignty of the Ottoman Empire as faithful citizens, they the Ottoman Empire as faithful citizens, they were not considered equal to Muslims. They were not considered equal to Muslims. They were not allowed to ride horses. Even their tes- were not allowed to ride horses. Even their testimonies were denied, not accepted and had timonies were denied, not accepted and had not equal value to the Muslims. In the villages, not equal value to the Muslims. In the villages, Turkish soldiers humiliated, raped, robbed and Turkish soldiers humiliated, raped, robbed and killed innocent people and burned their houses. killed innocent people and burned their houses. The authorities did nothing to stop these vio- The authorities did nothing to stop these violence acts and persecutions against Christian lence acts and persecutions against Christian Armenians, to punish or prevent the murderers; Armenians, to punish or prevent the murderers; they ignored their complaints. They even they ignored their complaints. They even helped by encouraging the taking of Christian helped by encouraging the taking of Christian houses, properties and belongings. What kind houses, properties and belongings. What kind of God do we have, Mom, that does not punish of God do we have, Mom, that does not punish the sinners and the murderers? Maybe their the sinners and the murderers? Maybe their God is more powerful than ours!” God is more powerful than ours!”

“Why do you think that way, son?” After a “Why do you think that way, son?” After a short silence, Ara answered. short silence, Ara answered.

166 166 “Because, I think being the first Christian “Because, I think being the first Christian nation, adopting Christianity in 301 A.D., nation, adopting Christianity in 301 A.D., Ottomans invaded our land and seized it. But Ottomans invaded our land and seized it. But the worst happened when between 1914/5-21, the worst happened when between 1914/5-21, they massacred one and half million Armenians they massacred one and half million Armenians and drove what was left out of their homeland; and drove what was left out of their homeland; they forcefully deported the rest of the popula- they forcefully deported the rest of the population. Majority were old men, women and chil- tion. Majority were old men, women and children that were marched into the deserts of dren that were marched into the deserts of Syria; and they are still unpunished. The sys- Syria; and they are still unpunished. The systematic and professional destruction, pillaging, tematic and professional destruction, pillaging, deportations and tortures on the part of Turkish deportations and tortures on the part of Turkish leaders went on. This is a government that de- leaders went on. This is a government that denied and still denies the right of a non-Turk to nied and still denies the right of a non-Turk to share the same soil without having to wipe out share the same soil without having to wipe out his identity or conceal his language in public. his identity or conceal his language in public. Slaughtered, deported or exiled, the very name Slaughtered, deported or exiled, the very name of Armenia disappeared from the maps. To of Armenia disappeared from the maps. To many Turks as well as foreigners, Ani, the me- many Turks as well as foreigners, Ani, the medieval capital of Armenia, remains a Byzantine dieval capital of Armenia, remains a Byzantine site; just as Akhtamar and Varak, near Van. site; just as Akhtamar and Varak, near Van. They remain in the eyes of the Turkish leaders, They remain in the eyes of the Turkish leaders, nameless piles of stone…they belong to a for- nameless piles of stone…they belong to a forgotten period…to a forgotten people… “What gotten period…to a forgotten people… “What kind of just and Good God do we have, mom?” kind of just and Good God do we have, mom?”

It was difficult to answer, but Ara’s mom It was difficult to answer, but Ara’s mom put the question in this way. put the question in this way. “Do you not think that God had and has a “Do you not think that God had and has a special plan for our people by forcing and push- special plan for our people by forcing and pushing us out of our lands into foreign countries? ing us out of our lands into foreign countries? What did the apostles do when they came out What did the apostles do when they came out of Jerusalem?” Ara fell in a sea of thoughts, but of Jerusalem?” Ara fell in a sea of thoughts, but minutes later he responded with a calm expres- minutes later he responded with a calm expression on his face. sion on his face.

167 167 “Yes, mom, I understand, and now I remember, that the apostles preached the Gos- pel and took the Good News to all nations, including our small nation; and it was then centuries later, our turn, which first seemed unjust and against our will to come out of our forefathers’ lands and preach the gospel, live a good Christian life and keep our traditions and identity in the midst of these Mediterranean Arab countries. God gave us that opportunity and the privilege though it was a hard and painful experience. This was to teach us a lesson of humility, self suffering and sacrifice and bear witness, in building churches, sanctuaries and schools in the wilderness for His glory.”

“Now, my son, will you hate your enemies? Let us read a Bible story and see what God has to say?” Together they opened the Bi- ble and the mother started reading from Ezekiel chapter 37 verses 1 - 10.

“The hand of the Lord came upon me, and He led me out in the spirit of the Lord and set me in the center of the plain, which was now filled with bones. He made me walk among them in every direction so that I saw how many there were on the surface of the plain. How dry they were! He asked me: Son of man, can these bones come to life? “Lord God”, I answered, “You alone know that”. Then He said to me: Prophesy over these bones, and say to them: Dry bones, hear the word of the Lord! Thus says the Lord God to these bones: See I will bring spirit into you, that you may come to life. I will put sinews upon you, make flesh grow over you, cover you with skin, and put spirit in you so that you may come to life and know that I am the Lord.

168 I prophesied as I had been told, and even as I was prophesying I heard a noise; it was a rattling as the bones came together, bone joining bone. I saw the sinews and the flesh come upon them, and the skin cover them, but there was no spirit in them. Then He said to me: Prophesy to the spirit, prophesy, son of man, and say to the spirit: Thus says the Lord God: From the four winds come, O spirit, and breathe into these slain that they may come to life. I prophesied as He told me, and the spirit came into them; they came alive and stood upright, a vast army.”

“What do you think, son?” Ara, without lifting his eyes from the Book, was in deep thought. Quite a moments later, he kissed the Bible, put it aside and in mixed emotions looked into his mom’s eyes and said.

“No, I do not hate them, I only pity them. You, dad and I are the resurrected generations from that “dead valley,” and bear witness that we are still alive. We are here to proclaim the victory of life over death and the living faith of an ancient race who refuses to die but testifies that the Cross and crucifixion are not the end but just a beginning of a resurrected life. The lifeless bones in the desert were and are not the end but a fresh beginning of a new pilgrimage. Sometimes God as vinedresser prunes our branches to make us stronger, healthier and to bear more fruits for His glory and His Kingdom. Our enemies did not imagine that “good can overcome evil.” God can work in different and mysterious ways. Our enemies thought that by killing and torturing, they can

169 get rid of us. They did not expect the orphans and the great sons of those massacred would, eighty years later, regain their independence. More than that, the Genocide scattered us to the four winds and all over the world. We are the transformed and resurrected ones of an ancient civilization. Our culture goes back to the time when the Ark of Noah landed on Mt. Ararat. And in 2001, our nation celebrated its 1700 anniversary of adopting Christianity as statewide religion. What have the Ottoman to be proud of?”

“Now my son, you answered well, and that is enough for today! Dinner is ready, and it is getting cold! Let us pray.”

To “lead people out” requires moving inward and outward in the likeness of our first Teacher. The purpose of Christian education is a lived Christian faith and human freedom enabling people to choose free engagement and self-transcendence in the world. This is an ideal that calls us to a life of constant conversion. As Piaget understands and commends that education must promote an active discovery of reality, rather than “providing with ready-made wills to will with and ready-made truths to know.” Thus, Christian religious education must promote an active, dialectical and creative process of discoveries, and more discoveries. John Westerhoff reminds us that, “education is a process of a journey together, to grow in faith together.” Educators and students are pilgrims and their vision is to grow together but each in its own, unique way in the likeness of our Creator. It is our calling to make choices, make a difference, and even to reshape the world, to make His

170 Kingdom a possibility within our society. Hence, Christian religious education’s aim is maturity of shared Christian faith. In his turn, Bushnell summons that in order for the child to reach this point, “faith maturity must be nurtured at the earliest years.” Teaching in shared praxis is sharing knowledge, it is self-becoming and all Christians are called to learn and to teach, to build up the Body of Christ. Since religious beliefs function as values, we must constantly state, test, argue, reflect, criticize and reformulate our beliefs and life situations in the light and instructions of the Spirit. We must learn to interpret the Bible historically. This would require of us to open ourselves to the leading of God’s Spirit. We must analyze the human situation we face as teachers and students in relation to similar situations in the Bible stories. Doing so would help us to judge, reflect, imagine and apply the biblical affirmations to our contemporary situations or develop new values, perspectives and approaches. In shared praxis, we become more conscious of our teacher/student roles in the process of the Story, sensitive and concerned toward the vision which takes shape within ourselves: “the mind and spirit of Christ”(Phil.2:1-11), who frees us from every earthly bondage and limitation to choose life. Then we will grow together “in grace and knowledge”(2Peter 3:18), and our growth will communicate faith because we are in touch with the Source of faith, life, knowledge, love, peace, hope and happiness. This will be possible and is possible not through our human efforts but through the Holy Spirit who empowers and works mysteriously within our human efforts; moving us through history toward the fulfillment of God’s Kingdom. Christian religious educators as ministers and prophets are called to a prophetic function in the community. It is a mission of self-denial, self-emptying activity in bringing and sharing the Word and Vision of God to the community and with the community.

171 PREACHING FROM THE OLD TESTAMENT

THE AUTHORITY OF THE OLD TESTAMENT FOR CHRISTIANS

The Old Testament was the Scripture used by Christ and the apostles. Christ recognized the binding authority of Scripture, while reserving for Himself the right to be its true interpreter. The New Testament records no quarrel over the inspiration or authority of the Old Testament. Throughout the entire Bible, despite its diversity there is unity. In both Testaments it is the same God who is Creator, revealer, and sustainer of the universe; He reveals Himself in history and through persons, until He reveals Himself in One who is both God and man. God directs human history. He created man to glorify himself by doing His will. He continues to uphold and to govern all things by His Providence. From the very beginning He has employed special means to acquaint men with His sovereign design. Initially, God revealed His purpose for men’s lives through direct communication or by means of dreams or visions. In the course of history He furnished men with a written record of His will for them. Divine inspiration makes the Bible uniquely the Word of God or the Breath of God, and as such is different from any other book, sacred or secular. It is an inspired revelation of God’s redemptive plan and purposes in Christ on behalf of man, and not a revelation of natural science or a book of secular history. The unifying theme of Scripture is Christ. The O.T. prepares for Him and predicts Him in both type and prophecy. The Bible presents one continuous story, that of human redemption. This story is a progressive unfolding of the central truth of the Bible that God in His eternal councils was to become incarnate in Jesus Christ for the salvation of fallen man. God creates a new relationship

172 to Himself by the revelation in Christ, that He makes Himself known fully in His mercy to sinful men in the death and resurrection of Jesus Christ, so that the Jewish way of salvation, the way of the Law and its works, is superseded. The Law may, therefore, be considered to have been rendered out of date as the way of salvation and to have passed away. The Law has been superceded by Christ as the central point of revelation. At the heart of the O.T. message lies the expectation of the Kingdom of God, now fulfilled in the person of Jesus who is Christ. Therefore, the prophets and the Law are given a new meaning by Jesus. In both Testaments, God is revealed as compassionate and saving. Throughout the Bible, God is concerned with saving men from sin. The saving character of God was revealed in bringing Israel out of Egypt; but it was revealed on a new level at Golgotha. In the O.T. and the New, the covenant calls for obedience. Yet the judgment of God is tempered with mercy. Although the Bible consists of 75 books (48 in the O.T. and 27 in the N.T.), it is nevertheless one book. The unifying theme of Scripture is Christ; the fulfillment of Law and the prophets. The Gospels present Him redemptively in divine-human manifestation (Theophany). The Acts portrays Him preaching and His gospel propa- gated in the world. The Epistles expounded His redemptive work. The Revelation reveals Him as the consummation of all the plans and purposes of God. He is “the beginning and the end”, the first and the last in God’s revealed ways with man. Following Jesus’ example in embracing the authority of the Scriptures, the N.T. writers found in them not the letter which kills but the Spirit-directed witness to God’s life- giving activity; redemptive plan in history, love, salvation, and restoration of Creation. To understand and to preach Christ from the O.T., one must see it through the eyes of Jesus and His apostles.

173 Yet at the same time, the modern read must try to see and Yet at the same time, the modern read must try to see and grasp the meaning of God’s revelatory passages, words, grasp the meaning of God’s revelatory passages, words, and deeds through their original context. Only when we be- and deeds through their original context. Only when we begin to understand the intent of a passage for the author’s gin to understand the intent of a passage for the author’s own time, can we seek the full significance of the passage own time, can we seek the full significance of the passage for Christian faith and life. Then we hear God’s voice for Christian faith and life. Then we hear God’s voice through all of Scripture. That the God who had acted in Je- through all of Scripture. That the God who had acted in Je- sus was the same God who acted in the Exodus recorded in sus was the same God who acted in the Exodus recorded in the O.T. and in all the events which flowed from it is the his- the O.T. and in all the events which flowed from it is the history of Israel. The O.T. looks forward to the goal of the King- tory of Israel. The O.T. looks forward to the goal of the King- dom of God. Because that Kingdom has come in Jesus dom of God. Because that Kingdom has come in Jesus Christ, the O.T. can be preached only in the light of that ful- Christ, the O.T. can be preached only in the light of that fulfillment and completeness of the N.T. event of Jesus Christ. fillment and completeness of the N.T. event of Jesus Christ. With these considerations, one would definitely see With these considerations, one would definitely see how the O.T. is important in its entirety; that God was active how the O.T. is important in its entirety; that God was active in history in different ways leading to His redemptive plan to in history in different ways leading to His redemptive plan to its final revelation in the N.T. One can see in dim lights its final revelation in the N.T. One can see in dim lights God’s Providence in different books of the O.T. whereas in God’s Providence in different books of the O.T. whereas in the N.T., He is in full light and brightness. Yahweh as the the N.T., He is in full light and brightness. Yahweh as the Mighty Warrior in ancient Israel is the same Mighty Prince of Mighty Warrior in ancient Israel is the same Mighty Prince of Peace and the Father of Jesus Christ; and whoever needs Peace and the Father of Jesus Christ; and whoever needs to know the Son or preach the Son should know and preach to know the Son or preach the Son should know and preach His Father because He is the way and His teachings His Father because He is the way and His teachings (Gospel) are the paths that lead to His Father, the Creator (Gospel) are the paths that lead to His Father, the Creator of the heavens and earth. The theology of the N.T. is the of the heavens and earth. The theology of the N.T. is the same theology of the O.T., which now embraces the entire same theology of the O.T., which now embraces the entire mankind and its salvation reaches all. mankind and its salvation reaches all.

A sermon is an oral message incorporated into an or- A sermon is an oral message incorporated into an order of worship, on a religious truth, directed to the popular der of worship, on a religious truth, directed to the popular mind with a view to a decision of the hearers which shall mind with a view to a decision of the hearers which shall educate, encourage, inspire, and communicate God’s educate, encourage, inspire, and communicate God’s mighty works and redemptive history; transmit faith and mighty works and redemptive history; transmit faith and hope, uplift their minds and souls to the unfading truths, and hope, uplift their minds and souls to the unfading truths, and lead them into the Christian experience, individually and lead them into the Christian experience, individually and socially. The preacher is a messenger of Good News; his socially. The preacher is a messenger of Good News; his

174 174 sermons must bear the marks of deep conviction and mov- sermons must bear the marks of deep conviction and moving urgency. The truth contained in the sermon should have ing urgency. The truth contained in the sermon should have the sanction of the Bible. The objective of the sermon there- the sanction of the Bible. The objective of the sermon therefore, is to bring Christ to men and men to Christ, who is the fore, is to bring Christ to men and men to Christ, who is the Logos, the eternal Word of God present from the beginning, Logos, the eternal Word of God present from the beginning, only after O.T. times incarnate, crucified but resurrected only after O.T. times incarnate, crucified but resurrected Lord. We, as preacher, should follow the N.T. church who Lord. We, as preacher, should follow the N.T. church who preached the birth, ministry, death, resurrection, and exalta- preached the birth, ministry, death, resurrection, and exaltation of Jesus as the fulfillment of God’s covenant promises, tion of Jesus as the fulfillment of God’s covenant promises, His presence today in the Spirit and His imminent return. His presence today in the Spirit and His imminent return. Therefore, preaching Christ from the O.T. means preaching Therefore, preaching Christ from the O.T. means preaching Christ/God incarnate in the context of redemptive history Christ/God incarnate in the context of redemptive history from creation to the New Creation. He is the only way of sal- from creation to the New Creation. He is the only way of salvation. Eternal life is to be found only in Jesus Christ. vation. Eternal life is to be found only in Jesus Christ. Hence, there are many good reasons for preaching from the Hence, there are many good reasons for preaching from the O.T. because the theology of the O.T. is part of the Chris- O.T. because the theology of the O.T. is part of the Chris- tian theology and canon; the O.T. discloses the history of tian theology and canon; the O.T. discloses the history of redemption leading to Christ; it proclaims truths and helps redemption leading to Christ; it proclaims truths and helps us understand the N.T. us understand the N.T. The N.T. writers as well as Jesus Himself teach us The N.T. writers as well as Jesus Himself teach us that Christ-centered preaching must aim at the glory of God, that Christ-centered preaching must aim at the glory of God, and that Christ-centered preaching must be God-centered. and that Christ-centered preaching must be God-centered. “No one comes to the Father except through Me…whoever “No one comes to the Father except through Me…whoever has seen Me has seen the Father”, (John 14:6,9). For God- has seen Me has seen the Father”, (John 14:6,9). For God- centered preaching is Christ-centered Trinitarian preaching, centered preaching is Christ-centered Trinitarian preaching, and the theology of the N.T. must therefore bear witness to and the theology of the N.T. must therefore bear witness to the Father and the Son and the Holy Spirit as the one singu- the Father and the Son and the Holy Spirit as the one singular God, who while being one, is at the same time three dis- lar God, who while being one, is at the same time three dis- tinguishable Persons. tinguishable Persons.

GENERAL CONSIDERATIONS IN PREACHING THE GENERAL CONSIDERATIONS IN PREACHING THE BIBLE BIBLE The sermon is an oral address to the popular mind The sermon is an oral address to the popular mind and heart on religious truths contained in the Scriptures and and heart on religious truths contained in the Scriptures and elaborately treated with a view to persuasion. The sermons elaborately treated with a view to persuasion. The sermons

175 175 should be direct and personal. It should aim at something should be direct and personal. It should aim at something and hit it. Without rudeness, with the sensitivity and kindly and hit it. Without rudeness, with the sensitivity and kindly spirit of a Christian love, the message should be given in a spirit of a Christian love, the message should be given in a way that men shall not escape it but apply it to their own way that men shall not escape it but apply it to their own lives. After all, preaching is a direct message to the hearts lives. After all, preaching is a direct message to the hearts of men, a word from life to life. The life of truth is us should of men, a word from life to life. The life of truth is us should find a living way, a living witness to the hearts of others. find a living way, a living witness to the hearts of others. Faith needs to be enlightened, conviction deepened, the Faith needs to be enlightened, conviction deepened, the lost to be found, and sinners to repent. lost to be found, and sinners to repent. We should not strive to see how many things we can We should not strive to see how many things we can bring together in one sermon, rather how clear and attrac- bring together in one sermon, rather how clear and attractive and impressive we can make a few things. A very sim- tive and impressive we can make a few things. A very simple plan developed with varied material will make the most ple plan developed with varied material will make the most lasting impress. lasting impress. The preacher has not only to declare the fundamental The preacher has not only to declare the fundamental facts of the Gospel history, but to show also the application facts of the Gospel history, but to show also the application of the great principles and laws of the Kingdom of Christ to of the great principles and laws of the Kingdom of Christ to the complex affairs of human life through the changing the complex affairs of human life through the changing ages. ages. The proper use of a text makes the sermon Biblical The proper use of a text makes the sermon Biblical and gives authority and unity of revealed truth. In general, and gives authority and unity of revealed truth. In general, short texts are more easily remembered. A vivid and ener- short texts are more easily remembered. A vivid and energetic mind will naturally seek short texts and sermons will getic mind will naturally seek short texts and sermons will be direct and the minds of the audience awake and active. be direct and the minds of the audience awake and active. The preacher is to interpret the message of the Bible The preacher is to interpret the message of the Bible in his sermons. The preacher is not the teacher or science in his sermons. The preacher is not the teacher or science or history, literature or economics, but of Christian faith; or history, literature or economics, but of Christian faith; expositor and introducer of timeless truths of Life, God’s expositor and introducer of timeless truths of Life, God’s redemptive plan through faith-history and providence. redemptive plan through faith-history and providence.

ADVANTAGES AND CHALLENGES IN PREACHING ADVANTAGES AND CHALLENGES IN PREACHING FROM THE O.T. FROM THE O.T. The whole Bible or the Scripture is the “Breath of The whole Bible or the Scripture is the “Breath of God”. This means that the authors of the Bible were God”. This means that the authors of the Bible were inspired by God in a very special way. The writers who inspired by God in a very special way. The writers who wrote down the inspiration or message that they received wrote down the inspiration or message that they received

176 176 down the inspiration or message that they received from down the inspiration or message that they received from God were not thrown out of their time and place. They put God were not thrown out of their time and place. They put the message or the revelation in the language that they the message or the revelation in the language that they knew and coordinated the inspiration with the information knew and coordinated the inspiration with the information that they had from their contemporary sources. Thus, we that they had from their contemporary sources. Thus, we can say that the real author of the Bible is God Himself and can say that the real author of the Bible is God Himself and His authorship extends over the whole Bible. His authorship extends over the whole Bible. A difficult problem confronting the reader of the Bible A difficult problem confronting the reader of the Bible is its interpretation. In the early Church there were two ma- is its interpretation. In the early Church there were two major ways of interpreting the Bible, one of which was the ear- jor ways of interpreting the Bible, one of which was the earlier and predominant way and came to be adopted as the lier and predominant way and came to be adopted as the centuries went by. The theologians of the city of Antioch centuries went by. The theologians of the city of Antioch leaned toward a literal interpretation of the Bible, as certain leaned toward a literal interpretation of the Bible, as certain fundamentalists do today. The theologians of the city of Al- fundamentalists do today. The theologians of the city of Al- exandria, which whom the Fathers of the Armenian Church exandria, which whom the Fathers of the Armenian Church were in closer agreement, interpreted the Bible, particularly were in closer agreement, interpreted the Bible, particularly the O.T., allegorically. They tried to penetrate behind the the O.T., allegorically. They tried to penetrate behind the words of a given text in order to extract from it a relevant words of a given text in order to extract from it a relevant and eternal meaning. The allegorical method consists in and eternal meaning. The allegorical method consists in pointing out the moral and religious meaning of a particular pointing out the moral and religious meaning of a particular phrase or passage. For example, the phrase “hand of God” phrase or passage. For example, the phrase “hand of God” cannot be literally true for the simple reason that God has cannot be literally true for the simple reason that God has no hands. It therefore means “power of God”. But once we no hands. It therefore means “power of God”. But once we relinquish the literal meaning of the Bible, there is no limit to relinquish the literal meaning of the Bible, there is no limit to the ways in which a particular passage can be interpreted. the ways in which a particular passage can be interpreted. It is for this reason that the final interpreter is the Church. It is for this reason that the final interpreter is the Church. The same Holy Spirit who inspired the writers of the Bible The same Holy Spirit who inspired the writers of the Bible dwells in the Church and guides its interpreters. dwells in the Church and guides its interpreters. The Bible was written over a period of about fifteen The Bible was written over a period of about fifteen hundred years, from the time of Moses to about the end of hundred years, from the time of Moses to about the end of the first century A.D. We do not know exactly how many the first century A.D. We do not know exactly how many writers contributed to it. It contains a rich variety of personal writers contributed to it. It contains a rich variety of personal situations and civilizations in which the divine voice was re- situations and civilizations in which the divine voice was received. Prophets and priests, kings and story-tellers, poets ceived. Prophets and priests, kings and story-tellers, poets and historians, and many people of other conditions and oc- and historians, and many people of other conditions and oc- cupations say in its pages what God reveals. Finally, the cupations say in its pages what God reveals. Finally, the

177 177 Bible contains the words actually spoken by God Himself in the person of Jesus Christ our Lord. A preacher’s first responsibility is to seek to understand the message of the selected passage in its own literary, historical-cultural context. Only after we have heard a passage the way Israel heard it can we move on to understand this message in the broad contexts of the whole canon and the redemptive history; Creation-Fall- Redemption a restored and transformed New Creation. A Christian sermon on an O.T. text will necessarily move on to the N.T. to the climax of God’s promises in Jesus Christ. In Him, all the O.T. promises come to fulfillment. The coming of Jesus is that decisive act of the O.T. to which the O.T. looked forward, and in His coming all the hopes of the O.T. are fulfilled; the last days have come. Redemption-historical progression is the foundational way of preaching Christ from the O.T. found in the historical narratives, psalms, and Wisdom Literature, and in the prophetic message-promises of the prophets. Specific biblical typology, as well as analogy for preaching Christ from the O.T., also have their own place and significance in God’s redemptive history. In this regards we should be very careful; whereas promises are usually spoken words, types are historical events, persons, and institutions. Promises point forward to future fulfillment, typology generally moves from N.T. fulfillment to the past. And the search for “types” in every detail leads interpreters into chaos. To prevent misin- terpretation, we should have in mind that a genuine type in its nature is a) historical and deals with historical facts, persons, actions, events, and institutions, b) is theocentric, that is it has to do with God’s acts in and through human person and events, c) a genuine typology deals with fundamental principles and rules out all superficial parallels, d) a genuine type in its relation to its antitype is

178 marked by escalation. Jesus and the N.T. writer use typology to set forth and show the escalation and the continuation of past redemptive events for a strong theology. Anal- ogy and typology in their correct use and interpretation fore- shadow God’s redemptive plan realized in Christ and His New Covenant. By analogy or parallel too, the Word of God for Israel can be addressed to the Church because analogy is based on the unity of redemptive history. The manifold temptations, judgments for Israel in the past are also the temptations and judgments of the Church of Christ, today. Analogy also can be used as a way of preaching Christ from the O.T. for the unity of redemptive history adheres in Christ; the continuity between the O.T. and the Church is accomplished only in Christ. The Church, now the new Israel, is the recipient of the same covenant of grace, faith, and hope, seeking to demonstrate the same love to God and each other. We must be careful also in our preaching Christ by way of contrast. The message of an O.T. text will sometimes stand in contrast to the N.T. text. For example, to establish His kingdom God ordered Israel to destroy completely the seven nations living in the Promised Land. In the N.T., by contrast, Jesus orders His Church to “make disciples of all nations”. Also, we can find contrasts in the O.T. ceremonial laws, civil laws, and between N.T. teachings. Therefore, these O.T. passages should be interpreted and preached in the light of God’s final revelation in Christ.

HELPFUL GUIDELINES IN PREACHING CHRIST FROM THE O.T. Greidanus Sidney’s suggested ten basics steps for Christo-centric sermons from the O.T. text is a helpful and valuable method to follow: a) Select a textual unit with an eye to congregational

179 needs. This is the passage of Scripture that contains or suggests the truth that is presented in the sermon. The text of the sermon is that portion of Scripture that suggests an d may also furnish the plan for building up the body of Christ according to which a particular need should be addressed in this sermon. The preacher should honor the selected texts by treating them honestly. The text should be a summary of the main points to be dealt with. Sermon and text should b e closely related to each other. The text should be short, sugges-tive, easily understood, and easily remembered. The con-gregational need provided the target – matching proper text. The selected text must be a message unit and should pro-claim a vital theme. b) Read and reread the text in its literary context. The preacher should take every possible care that he has grasped the real meaning of the text by a diligent study of its original and historical settings and the occasion of its utterance; at the same time he should think, imagine, ask, and be aware of the big picture before going any further. He may involve the congregation even more directly by reading the selected passage in pastoral calls. He must be- ware of forcing into the text a meaning that is quite foreign to what the author intended. The true meaning of the text is determined by the context. Taken out of its setting, a text can be made to bear quite a number of different interpretations, or misinterpretations. c) Outline the structure of the text. In exposing the structure of the text we begin to assimilate and understand better its textual flow in its part and the whole. Outlining the structure leads the preacher to close study and thought. It helps to keep the discussion in proportion. Neglect of plan-making leads to loss of constructive power. A true plan makes a sermon attractive. d) Interpret the text in its own historical setting. In this step most of the detailed literary, historical, and theocentric analyses will be done. Under literary interpretation we try to

180 raise questions and find out the genre or the form of the raise questions and find out the genre or the form of the text, the structure and the figures of speech within the text. text, the structure and the figures of speech within the text. This literary analysis needs to be combined with grammati- This literary analysis needs to be combined with grammatical analysis as well as sentence structure. cal analysis as well as sentence structure. For the historical interpretation of the text, we need to For the historical interpretation of the text, we need to know who wrote this text, why? When? And what was the know who wrote this text, why? When? And what was the author’s intention for his original hearers? What does the author’s intention for his original hearers? What does the author seek to address? Every text has a question and author seek to address? Every text has a question and original message behind it. Understanding the original mes- original message behind it. Understanding the original message can help prevent allegorizing, typologizing, or manipu- sage can help prevent allegorizing, typologizing, or manipu- lating the text, and offers an objective point also and does lating the text, and offers an objective point also and does justice to the original message. Under the theocentric inter- justice to the original message. Under the theocentric interpretation we come to know about God and His redemptive pretation we come to know about God and His redemptive acts, His covenant, His will, and His revelation to His peo- acts, His covenant, His will, and His revelation to His people. Theocentric interpretation also provides an important ple. Theocentric interpretation also provides an important link to Christ-centered preaching. link to Christ-centered preaching. e) Formulating the text’s theme and goal. This is a sum- e) Formulating the text’s theme and goal. This is a summary statement of that which the sermon is about, made mary statement of that which the sermon is about, made specific enough so that it may be presented in a single specific enough so that it may be presented in a single statement or thought. The goal of the text is the shortest statement or thought. The goal of the text is the shortest possible statement of the subject in the form of a declarative possible statement of the subject in the form of a declarative sentence. With each text, however, we need to move be- sentence. With each text, however, we need to move beyond the general goal to the specific goal of this particular yond the general goal to the specific goal of this particular text. The author’s specific goal exposes the question behind text. The author’s specific goal exposes the question behind the text, which he sought to address. The other half of the the text, which he sought to address. The other half of the goal should consist of insights and addresses which the goal should consist of insights and addresses which the preacher would discover and expose a similar need among preacher would discover and expose a similar need among the contemporary hearers, so that the word of the Lord for the contemporary hearers, so that the word of the Lord for Israel may be proclaimed as a relevant world of the Lord for Israel may be proclaimed as a relevant world of the Lord for the Church today. the Church today. f) Understand the message in the contexts of canon and f) Understand the message in the contexts of canon and redemptive history. With the historical theme and goal in redemptive history. With the historical theme and goal in mind, we can now broaden the scope and seek to under- mind, we can now broaden the scope and seek to understand the message in the contexts of the whole canon and stand the message in the contexts of the whole canon and all of redemptive history, from Genesis to Revelation, and to all of redemptive history, from Genesis to Revelation, and to

181 181 the New Creation. Now the direct road leads us from this the New Creation. Now the direct road leads us from this O.T. passage to the good news of Jesus Christ, our Savior O.T. passage to the good news of Jesus Christ, our Savior and Lord. Then we may ask; Does N.T. teaching stand in and Lord. Then we may ask; Does N.T. teaching stand in contrast to this O.T. message? In this process, we should contrast to this O.T. message? In this process, we should be prepared to select a few decisive links which support the be prepared to select a few decisive links which support the sermon theme and help to accomplish the sermon goal. sermon theme and help to accomplish the sermon goal. g) Formulate the sermon theme and goal. Now the g) Formulate the sermon theme and goal. Now the outline of the text will support the sermon theme. This is of- outline of the text will support the sermon theme. This is often called the “body” of the sermon. It is the principal part of ten called the “body” of the sermon. It is the principal part of the discourse and its preparations is the chief work of the the discourse and its preparations is the chief work of the preacher. The truth suggested by the text phrased in the preacher. The truth suggested by the text phrased in the subject and explicitly stated in the proposition, is to be de- subject and explicitly stated in the proposition, is to be developed and presented in such a way that it will convince veloped and presented in such a way that it will convince the mind, move the feelings, and sway the will of the con- the mind, move the feelings, and sway the will of the congregation. The sermon theme should be formulated as a gregation. The sermon theme should be formulated as a single assertion. The sermon theme will help keep the ser- single assertion. The sermon theme will help keep the sermon focused and unified and thus provide movement. The mon focused and unified and thus provide movement. The goal will guide the style of the sermon and can also be used goal will guide the style of the sermon and can also be used to determine the content of the introduction and conclusion. to determine the content of the introduction and conclusion. h) Select a suitable sermon form. In expository h) Select a suitable sermon form. In expository preaching we should not only expose the meaning of the preaching we should not only expose the meaning of the text but also the form and the structure that convey this text but also the form and the structure that convey this meaning. For example, when the text is a narrative, we meaning. For example, when the text is a narrative, we should seriously consider using a narrative form that follows should seriously consider using a narrative form that follows the story line of the text. the story line of the text. i) Prepare a sermon outline. The ideal sermon form i) Prepare a sermon outline. The ideal sermon form follows the flow of the text, or moves in the body of the ser- follows the flow of the text, or moves in the body of the sermon. Reversing the order and additions should support the mon. Reversing the order and additions should support the main points of the sermon. In addition, we need to reflect on main points of the sermon. In addition, we need to reflect on an effective instruction. A fitting conclusion for a good out- an effective instruction. A fitting conclusion for a good outline is characterized by unity, balance, and movement to a line is characterized by unity, balance, and movement to a climax. climax. j) Write the sermon in oral style. The sermon should j) Write the sermon in oral style. The sermon should be written in oral style using short sentences, vivid words, be written in oral style using short sentences, vivid words, strong nouns and verbs, active voice, present tense, im- strong nouns and verbs, active voice, present tense, images, and illustrations. ages, and illustrations.

182 182 ARMENIAN SPIRITUALITY ARMENIAN SPIRITUALITY HISTORICAL BACKGROUND HISTORICAL BACKGROUND

The Establishment of Christianity in Armenia. The Establishment of Christianity in Armenia. Ancient or historical Armenia was located in present- Ancient or historical Armenia was located in present- day eastern Turkey and in boarding areas of the former So- day eastern Turkey and in boarding areas of the former So- viet Union and Iran. The beginning of the Armenian people viet Union and Iran. The beginning of the Armenian people dates back approximately three thousand years. Before ac- dates back approximately three thousand years. Before accepting Christianity, the religion of the Armenians was poly- cepting Christianity, the religion of the Armenians was polytheism. According to tradition, during the first half of the first theism. According to tradition, during the first half of the first century the Apostles St. Thaddeus and St. Bartholomew century the Apostles St. Thaddeus and St. Bartholomew came to Armenia and preached Christianity. From then on, came to Armenia and preached Christianity. From then on, Christian communities began to appear throughout the na- Christian communities began to appear throughout the nation. Their members practiced the new faith in secrecy. tion. Their members practiced the new faith in secrecy. In 301 A.D., during the time of the Armenian king In 301 A.D., during the time of the Armenian king Trdat III (291-330) and St. Gregory the Illuminator (300- Trdat III (291-330) and St. Gregory the Illuminator (300- 325), who was the first Catholicos of the Armenians, Christi- 325), who was the first Catholicos of the Armenians, Christi- anity was proclaimed the official state religion in Armenia. A anity was proclaimed the official state religion in Armenia. A cathedral was soon built at Etchmiadzin, which to this day cathedral was soon built at Etchmiadzin, which to this day remains the center of the Armenian Church. remains the center of the Armenian Church. Less than a century after becoming a Christian state, Less than a century after becoming a Christian state, Armenia was divided between the Byzantine and Sassanid Armenia was divided between the Byzantine and Sassanid empires, and has enjoyed only a few brief centuries of na- empires, and has enjoyed only a few brief centuries of national autonomy since then. Long a vulnerable state be- tional autonomy since then. Long a vulnerable state between the hostile Roman and Persian empires, the ancient tween the hostile Roman and Persian empires, the ancient Armenian kingdom was destroyed in the eleventh century. Armenian kingdom was destroyed in the eleventh century. Many Armenians then fled to Cilicia (in south central Asia Many Armenians then fled to Cilicia (in south central Asia Minor), where a new Armenian kingdom was established. Minor), where a new Armenian kingdom was established. Here the Armenians had extensive contacts with the Latin Here the Armenians had extensive contacts with the Latin Crusaders. Although this new kingdom also ceased to exist Crusaders. Although this new kingdom also ceased to exist by the 14th century and the Armenian people were dis- by the 14th century and the Armenian people were dispersed, they survived in spite of foreign dominations. Their persed, they survived in spite of foreign dominations. Their identity as a people centered on their language and their identity as a people centered on their language and their Church. Dominated by foreign powers, and often massa- Church. Dominated by foreign powers, and often massacred, the Armenians were dispersed from Constantinople, cred, the Armenians were dispersed from Constantinople, Erzeroum, Van, Sivas, Aleppo (1895), Adana (1909), and Erzeroum, Van, Sivas, Aleppo (1895), Adana (1909), and

183 183 from Smyrna (1922). from Smyrna (1922). During the late 19th and early 20th centuries, the Ar- During the late 19th and early 20th centuries, the Ar- menians in Turkey (Western historical Armenia, occupied by menians in Turkey (Western historical Armenia, occupied by the Ottoman Turks), suffered a series of massacres and ex- the Ottoman Turks), suffered a series of massacres and ex- pulsions that led to the death of large numbers of them. It is pulsions that led to the death of large numbers of them. It is widely believed that altogether between 1.5 to 2 million Ar- widely believed that altogether between 1.5 to 2 million Ar- menians died in the genocide perpetrated by the Ottoman menians died in the genocide perpetrated by the Ottoman Turks. The survivors fled to neighboring countries, Europe Turks. The survivors fled to neighboring countries, Europe and the United States. and the United States. Today the Armenian Apostolic Church is centered in Today the Armenian Apostolic Church is centered in the Republic of Armenia, which declared its independence the Republic of Armenia, which declared its independence on September 21, 1991. The Holy See of Etchmiadzin, the on September 21, 1991. The Holy See of Etchmiadzin, the ancient residence of the Armenian Catholicos, is near Yere- ancient residence of the Armenian Catholicos, is near Yere- van, the capital. The collapse of Soviet Communism pro- van, the capital. The collapse of Soviet Communism provided conditions for a renaissance of this ancient church on vided conditions for a renaissance of this ancient church on 1/3 of its homeland. New dioceses and parishes are being 1/3 of its homeland. New dioceses and parishes are being opened, new organizations founded, religious periodicals opened, new organizations founded, religious periodicals published, and religious instruction introduced in the published, and religious instruction introduced in the schools. schools. The church celebrated in 2001 the 1700th anniversary The church celebrated in 2001 the 1700th anniversary of the acceptance of Christianity as Armenia’s state religion, of the acceptance of Christianity as Armenia’s state religion, which was to include the consecration of a large new Cathe- which was to include the consecration of a large new Cathe- dral in Yerevan. But the church is experiencing a lack of suf- dral in Yerevan. But the church is experiencing a lack of sufficient clergy, and feels threatened by the new activities of ficient clergy, and feels threatened by the new activities of other religious groups that are now free to function in the other religious groups that are now free to function in the country, most of them motivated by the poor economical country, most of them motivated by the poor economical condition of the country, which opens the door and provides condition of the country, which opens the door and provides a good opportunity for their infiltration to occupy footage and a good opportunity for their infiltration to occupy footage and cause more divisions. We of the Armenian Apostolic Church cause more divisions. We of the Armenian Apostolic Church encourage such experimentation and missionary zeal in encourage such experimentation and missionary zeal in non-Christian countries. non-Christian countries. By 1977, it was estimated that as much as 10% of the By 1977, it was estimated that as much as 10% of the population belonged to these fast-growing sects. The gov- population belonged to these fast-growing sects. The government was taking action to restrict the activity of religious ernment was taking action to restrict the activity of religious groups other than the Armenian Apostolic Church. groups other than the Armenian Apostolic Church.

184 184 Although the Armenian Catholicos in Etchmiadzin is Although the Armenian Catholicos in Etchmiadzin is recognized by all Armenians as the spiritual head of their recognized by all Armenians as the spiritual head of their church, three other Armenian jurisdictions have survived the church, three other Armenian jurisdictions have survived the centuries. Two Catholicosates are in full communion but ad- centuries. Two Catholicosates are in full communion but ad- ministratively independent, while two Patriarchates are de- ministratively independent, while two Patriarchates are dependent in spiritual matters on Etchmiadzin. The Catholico- pendent in spiritual matters on Etchmiadzin. The Catholico- sate of Etchmiadzin has jurisdiction over Armenians sate of Etchmiadzin has jurisdiction over Armenians throughout the former USSR and much of the diaspora, in- throughout the former USSR and much of the diaspora, including Iraq, India, Egypt, Sudan, Ethiopia, Europe, Austra- cluding Iraq, India, Egypt, Sudan, Ethiopia, Europe, Austra- lia, and the Americas. It includes about 5,000,000 faithful. lia, and the Americas. It includes about 5,000,000 faithful. The Patriarchate of Jerusalem has its headquarters at St. The Patriarchate of Jerusalem has its headquarters at St. James Monastery in that city and is responsible for the Holy James Monastery in that city and is responsible for the Holy Places that belong to the Armenian Church. The Patriar- Places that belong to the Armenian Church. The Patriar- chate of Constantinople has jurisdiction over Turkey and the chate of Constantinople has jurisdiction over Turkey and the Greek island of Crete. Greek island of Crete. The Catholicosate of Cilicia, now based in Antelias, The Catholicosate of Cilicia, now based in Antelias, Lebanon, has jurisdiction in Lebanon, Syria, Greece, Cy- Lebanon, has jurisdiction in Lebanon, Syria, Greece, Cy- prus, Iran, Kuwait and other Gulf Countries. It has about prus, Iran, Kuwait and other Gulf Countries. It has about 800,000 members. The Cilician See has had a history of 800,000 members. The Cilician See has had a history of tension with Etchmiadzin, and both maintain separate juris- tension with Etchmiadzin, and both maintain separate jurisdictions in North America, and Canada. In 1997 delegations dictions in North America, and Canada. In 1997 delegations from the two Catholicosates met in Etchmiadzin to try to from the two Catholicosates met in Etchmiadzin to try to overcome those differences and strengthen the unity of the overcome those differences and strengthen the unity of the Armenian Church. Efforts to draft a common Constitution for Armenian Church. Efforts to draft a common Constitution for the Armenian Church that would normalize relations be- the Armenian Church that would normalize relations between Etchmiadzin and Cilicia are also underway. Catholi- tween Etchmiadzin and Cilicia are also underway. Catholi- cos Aram I Keshishian was elected in 1995 to the See of cos Aram I Keshishian was elected in 1995 to the See of Cilicia. He has been the Moderator of the World Council of Cilicia. He has been the Moderator of the World Council of Churches, being elected in 1999 for a second term. Churches, being elected in 1999 for a second term. The Armenian Apostolic Church currently maintains The Armenian Apostolic Church currently maintains five Seminaries: Kevorkian Seminary in Etchmiadzin; Vaz- five Seminaries: Kevorkian Seminary in Etchmiadzin; Vaz- kenian Seminary in Lake Sevan, Armenia; a Seminary of kenian Seminary in Lake Sevan, Armenia; a Seminary of the Catholicosate of Cilicia in Bikfaya, Lebanon; St James the Catholicosate of Cilicia in Bikfaya, Lebanon; St James Seminary in Jerusalem; and St. Nersess Seminary in New Seminary in Jerusalem; and St. Nersess Seminary in New York. York.

185 185 MIRACULOUS INVENTION OF THE ARMENIAN ALPHABET MIRACULOUS INVENTION OF THE ARMENIAN ALPHABET AND CULTURAL REVOLUTION AND CULTURAL REVOLUTION Until the beginning of the 5th century, despite not hav- Until the beginning of the 5th century, despite not having a written alphabet, our forefathers probably had primitive ing a written alphabet, our forefathers probably had primitive hieroglyphic literature and for inter-governmental relations hieroglyphic literature and for inter-governmental relations used the Persian language with the Persian Empire and used the Persian language with the Persian Empire and Greek with Byzantine Empire. Our ancestors also devel- Greek with Byzantine Empire. Our ancestors also developed oral histories, fables and songs. One such example is oped oral histories, fables and songs. One such example is the “Songs of Koght” which contains familiar heroic stories the “Songs of Koght” which contains familiar heroic stories such as the “Birth of Vahakn” and the fable of Haik and Pel. such as the “Birth of Vahakn” and the fable of Haik and Pel. We also see ballads devoted to work, wedding feasts and We also see ballads devoted to work, wedding feasts and funeral dirges. funeral dirges.

During the Macedonian occupation era in Armenia, During the Macedonian occupation era in Armenia, Hellenistic culture and influence were widespread; yet the Hellenistic culture and influence were widespread; yet the Armenians, at the same time, had a highly developed and Armenians, at the same time, had a highly developed and sophisticated language called “Hayeren” that was widely sophisticated language called “Hayeren” that was widely spoken and sung. Because of the highly developed nature spoken and sung. Because of the highly developed nature and sophistication of the oral language prior to the invention and sophistication of the oral language prior to the invention of the alphabet, Armenia was able to propel into her Golden of the alphabet, Armenia was able to propel into her Golden Age of Literature shortly after the invention of her own al- Age of Literature shortly after the invention of her own alphabet. phabet.

Also during the pre-alphabet era, we know of the develop- Also during the pre-alphabet era, we know of the development of the first public schools through the efforts of the St. ment of the first public schools through the efforts of the St. Gregory the Illuminator. Noteworthy was the royal school Gregory the Illuminator. Noteworthy was the royal school where the princes and royal family members would be edu- where the princes and royal family members would be educated using Greek and Syriac written alphabets. After the cated using Greek and Syriac written alphabets. After the establishment of Christianity as Armenia’s state religion in establishment of Christianity as Armenia’s state religion in 301, King Drtad and St. Gregory sought the assistance of 301, King Drtad and St. Gregory sought the assistance of the Assyrian scholars even though St. Gregory’s own formal the Assyrian scholars even though St. Gregory’s own formal education was in the Greek language. The oral Armenian education was in the Greek language. The oral Armenian language “Hayeren” was developed to such a degree, prior language “Hayeren” was developed to such a degree, prior to the invention, that it was capable of expressing every nu- to the invention, that it was capable of expressing every nu- ance of sophisticated oral communication. ance of sophisticated oral communication.

186 186 By its conversion to Christianity, Armenia entered into By its conversion to Christianity, Armenia entered into a new phase of civilization. It is the Armenian Church that a new phase of civilization. It is the Armenian Church that gave the Armenian people the alphabet and the efficient in- gave the Armenian people the alphabet and the efficient instruments of civilization. This enabled the nation to cultivate struments of civilization. This enabled the nation to cultivate the language and create an original literature. the language and create an original literature. The fifth successor of St. Gregory, Nerses the Great The fifth successor of St. Gregory, Nerses the Great (329-373), a prominent figure in the history of the Armenian (329-373), a prominent figure in the history of the Armenian Church, gave much attention to charitable institutions. How- Church, gave much attention to charitable institutions. How- ever in her assumed task the Church labored under a seri- ever in her assumed task the Church labored under a serious disadvantage. Since there existed no Armenian alpha- ous disadvantage. Since there existed no Armenian alphabet, the scriptures were read in Greek or in Syriac in the Ar- bet, the scriptures were read in Greek or in Syriac in the Ar- menian Churches. Clergymen had to learn one or both of menian Churches. Clergymen had to learn one or both of these languages besides their native tongue. They would these languages besides their native tongue. They would first read the Bible in either of these languages, then trans- first read the Bible in either of these languages, then translate it into Armenian. This practice, besides its many obvi- late it into Armenian. This practice, besides its many obvious disadvantages, hindered their work of preaching and ous disadvantages, hindered their work of preaching and explaining the Holy Scriptures in terms that would be readily explaining the Holy Scriptures in terms that would be readily grasped by the common people. St. Nerses was succeeded grasped by the common people. St. Nerses was succeeded by his son St. Sahag (348/50-439/40), a great Catholicos by his son St. Sahag (348/50-439/40), a great Catholicos and a profound scholar, was the last male descendant of St. and a profound scholar, was the last male descendant of St. Gregory the Enlightener. He was educated in Caesarea of Gregory the Enlightener. He was educated in Caesarea of Cappodocia and then in Constantinople. He was married Cappodocia and then in Constantinople. He was married and had one daughter, who became the mother of the fa- and had one daughter, who became the mother of the famous Armenian national hero, St. Vartan Mamigonian. Be- mous Armenian national hero, St. Vartan Mamigonian. Be- sides his ecclesiastical activities, St. Sahag became one of sides his ecclesiastical activities, St. Sahag became one of the great forerunners of Armenian Christian literature. In the great forerunners of Armenian Christian literature. In 404, when the Armenian alphabet was invented, he dedi- 404, when the Armenian alphabet was invented, he dedicated himself to the sublime task of translating the Bible and cated himself to the sublime task of translating the Bible and other religious works into Armenian. Furthermore he wrote other religious works into Armenian. Furthermore he wrote extensively on Canon, Dogma and Ritual. extensively on Canon, Dogma and Ritual.

The two powerful nations bordering on Armenia to- The two powerful nations bordering on Armenia toward the end of the fourth century, in 387, Greek Byzantium ward the end of the fourth century, in 387, Greek Byzantium and Persia, partitioned Armenia between them and adopted and Persia, partitioned Armenia between them and adopted a policy of assimilating the Armenian people. Due to a policy of assimilating the Armenian people. Due to

187 187 unfortunate political events, a split was created in the Arme- unfortunate political events, a split was created in the Arme- nian Church which rendered the holy tasks of St. Sahag nian Church which rendered the holy tasks of St. Sahag more difficult. It was clear that militarily Armenia was in a more difficult. It was clear that militarily Armenia was in a difficult position. It was unthinkable to wage war against two difficult position. It was unthinkable to wage war against two powerful neighbors. The partition of Armenia toward the end powerful neighbors. The partition of Armenia toward the end of the fourth century had created a potential political and of the fourth century had created a potential political and cultural threat for the Armenian people. On the ecclesiasti- cultural threat for the Armenian people. On the ecclesiastical front, there was another potential danger. The Armenian cal front, there was another potential danger. The Armenian Church was dependent on the Byzantine and Syrian Church was dependent on the Byzantine and Syrian Churches in using their liturgies. It was necessary to keep Churches in using their liturgies. It was necessary to keep the nation alert and well aware of these dangers and the nation alert and well aware of these dangers and threats, especially the younger generation. threats, especially the younger generation.

CHRISTIAN CIVILIZATION CHRISTIAN CIVILIZATION Religion and Political motivations propelled King Religion and Political motivations propelled King Vramshabouh and Catholicos Sahak to collaboratively solve Vramshabouh and Catholicos Sahak to collaboratively solve these complex issues by encouraging St. Mesrop to dedi- these complex issues by encouraging St. Mesrop to dedicate himself to inventing a unique alphabet which would be cate himself to inventing a unique alphabet which would be Armenian’s shield of protection against certain annihilation Armenian’s shield of protection against certain annihilation by the giant neighboring empires. With the invention of the by the giant neighboring empires. With the invention of the Ayp oo Pen, the Golden era of Armenian culture was ush- Ayp oo Pen, the Golden era of Armenian culture was ushered in….. opening of Armenian schools, translations of the ered in….. opening of Armenian schools, translations of the Holy Scriptures, classical literature and writings of the Holy Scriptures, classical literature and writings of the church fathers. church fathers. Both the temporal and religious leaders of Armenia, Both the temporal and religious leaders of Armenia, king Vramshabouh and Catholicos Sahag respectively, had king Vramshabouh and Catholicos Sahag respectively, had the farsightedness to see the necessity of the Armenian lan- the farsightedness to see the necessity of the Armenian language as a unifying factor of the partitioned land, as well as guage as a unifying factor of the partitioned land, as well as an effective tool of communication for the propagation of the an effective tool of communication for the propagation of the Gospel. Gospel.

Saint Mesrop Mashtots (Armenian: Մեսրոպ Մաշ- Saint Mesrop Mashtots (Armenian: Մեսրոպ Մաշ- տոց) 361/2-440/1, was an Armenian monk, theologian and տոց) 361/2-440/1, was an Armenian monk, theologian and linguist. Was born in the village of Hatzik in the Province of linguist. Was born in the village of Hatzik in the Province of Taron. His baptismal name is Mashdotz, and he aquired the Taron. His baptismal name is Mashdotz, and he aquired the

188 188 name Mesrob after his ordination into the priesthood. Prior name Mesrob after his ordination into the priesthood. Prior to his ordination, Mesrob was the chief secretary at the to his ordination, Mesrob was the chief secretary at the royal court of Armenia, serving under two kings, king Khos- royal court of Armenia, serving under two kings, king Khos- rov (384-389) and king Vramshabouh (389-394). Mesrob rov (384-389) and king Vramshabouh (389-394). Mesrob entered the priesthood at the age of 40. He was ordained by entered the priesthood at the age of 40. He was ordained by Catholicos Sahag, thenceforth becoming Sahag’s chief col- Catholicos Sahag, thenceforth becoming Sahag’s chief colleague in his endeavors to nationalize the Armenian league in his endeavors to nationalize the Armenian Church. He is best known for having invented the Armenian Church. He is best known for having invented the Armenian alphabet, which was a fundamental step in strengthening alphabet, which was a fundamental step in strengthening the Armenian Church, the government of the Armenian the Armenian Church, the government of the Armenian Kingdom, and ultimately the bond between Armenians in Kingdom, and ultimately the bond between Armenians in the Armenian Kingdom, the Byzantine Empire, and the Per- the Armenian Kingdom, the Byzantine Empire, and the Per- sian Empire. sian Empire.

By means of his invention, Mashtots gave Armenians By means of his invention, Mashtots gave Armenians a cultural and religious identity, as well as the means to sur- a cultural and religious identity, as well as the means to survive as a people despite the efforts of larger and more pow- vive as a people despite the efforts of larger and more powerful neighbors to subsume or destroy them. Mesrob's al- erful neighbors to subsume or destroy them. Mesrob's alphabet consisted of thirty-six letters; two more (O and F) phabet consisted of thirty-six letters; two more (O and F) were added in the twelfth century. were added in the twelfth century. Mashtots' principal purpose in inventing the alphabet Mashtots' principal purpose in inventing the alphabet was to change Armenia's cultural orientation from the Ira- was to change Armenia's cultural orientation from the Ira- nian East to the Mediterranean West. He gave Armenia the nian East to the Mediterranean West. He gave Armenia the means and the incentive to remain Christian. The invention means and the incentive to remain Christian. The invention brought spiritual and national awakening; ushered in a new brought spiritual and national awakening; ushered in a new age of intellectual and spiritual enlightenment; it became a age of intellectual and spiritual enlightenment; it became a granite rock foundation upon which the Golden Age of the granite rock foundation upon which the Golden Age of the Armenian culture, as well as educational and literary move- Armenian culture, as well as educational and literary movement of the fifth and the following centuries were flourished ment of the fifth and the following centuries were flourished and edified. and edified. Having an alphabet allowed Armenians not only to translate Having an alphabet allowed Armenians not only to translate the Bible into their own language but works of Christian the- the Bible into their own language but works of Christian theology, saints' lives, history, and works of classical literature ology, saints' lives, history, and works of classical literature as well. It also allowed them to develop scholarly institutions as well. It also allowed them to develop scholarly institutions and a literature of their own. and a literature of their own.

189 189 Within a century, Armenians had a library of classical Within a century, Armenians had a library of classical and Christian learning and were able to build their own liter- and Christian learning and were able to build their own literary tradition. As a result, they became independent and al- ary tradition. As a result, they became independent and almost self-sufficient, and they became impervious to at- most self-sufficient, and they became impervious to attempts by Rome to Hellenize them or attempts by the Sas- tempts by Rome to Hellenize them or attempts by the Sas- sanian empire to re-impose Persian culture on them. sanian empire to re-impose Persian culture on them. After the invention of the alphabet in 404 A.D. the After the invention of the alphabet in 404 A.D. the chief works of the Syrian and Greek Church Fathers were chief works of the Syrian and Greek Church Fathers were translated into Armenian. The Bible is the masterpiece of translated into Armenian. The Bible is the masterpiece of these translations. In a short time a rich literature flourished. these translations. In a short time a rich literature flourished. The Armenian classical spiritual literature in its own way is a The Armenian classical spiritual literature in its own way is a living witness to the Christian faith made by this people who living witness to the Christian faith made by this people who so often are forgotten or ignored. The intensive activity of so often are forgotten or ignored. The intensive activity of translation during the fifth century gave vital rise and new translation during the fifth century gave vital rise and new creative impulse to the thought and spiritual life of the newly creative impulse to the thought and spiritual life of the newly Christianized people of Armenia. Christianized people of Armenia. One measure of the alphabet's success is the fact One measure of the alphabet's success is the fact that there have been few changes in the letters or in the that there have been few changes in the letters or in the spelling of words since Mashtots created it in the fifth cen- spelling of words since Mashtots created it in the fifth century. This is a striking circumstance, especially when we tury. This is a striking circumstance, especially when we compare the Armenian Alphabet with English where spelling compare the Armenian Alphabet with English where spelling has changed a great deal in just the last 500 years. It shows has changed a great deal in just the last 500 years. It shows that the Armenian alphabet was already so perfect that that the Armenian alphabet was already so perfect that there was little reason for it to change. there was little reason for it to change. The first monument of this Armenian literature is the The first monument of this Armenian literature is the version of the Holy Scriptures. The first translation of the Bi- version of the Holy Scriptures. The first translation of the Bi- ble from the Syriac text was about 411.This work must have ble from the Syriac text was about 411.This work must have been considered imperfect, for soon afterwards John of been considered imperfect, for soon afterwards John of Egheghiatz and Joseph of Baghin were sent to Edessa to Egheghiatz and Joseph of Baghin were sent to Edessa to translate the Scriptures. They journeyed as far as Constan- translate the Scriptures. They journeyed as far as Constan- tinople, and brought back with them authentic copies of the tinople, and brought back with them authentic copies of the Greek text. With the help of other copies obtained from Al- Greek text. With the help of other copies obtained from Al- exandria the Bible was translated again from the Greek ac- exandria the Bible was translated again from the Greek according to the text of the Septuagint and Origen's Hexapla. cording to the text of the Septuagint and Origen's Hexapla. (Ἑξαπλά: Greek. for "sixfold") is the term for an edition of (Ἑξαπλά: Greek. for "sixfold") is the term for an edition of

190 190 the Bible in six versions. Especially it applies to the edition the Bible in six versions. Especially it applies to the edition of the Old Testament compiled by Origen, which placed of the Old Testament compiled by Origen, which placed side by side: This version (75 books), now in use in the Ar- side by side: This version (75 books), now in use in the Ar- menian Church, was completed about 434. This translation menian Church, was completed about 434. This translation of the Bible is called by biblical scholars “The Queen of of the Bible is called by biblical scholars “The Queen of Translations”. Translations”. The invention of the alphabet (404 A.D.) was the be- The invention of the alphabet (404 A.D.) was the beginning of Armenian literature, and proved a powerful factor ginning of Armenian literature, and proved a powerful factor in the up-building of the national spirit. "The result of the in the up-building of the national spirit. "The result of the work of St. Sahag and St. Mesrop", says St. Martin, "was to work of St. Sahag and St. Mesrop", says St. Martin, "was to separate for ever the Armenians from the other peoples of separate for ever the Armenians from the other peoples of the East, to make of them a distinct nation, and to the East, to make of them a distinct nation, and to strengthen them in the Christian Faith by forbidding or ren- strengthen them in the Christian Faith by forbidding or rendering profane all the foreign alphabetic scripts which were dering profane all the foreign alphabetic scripts which were employed for transcribing the books of the heathens and of employed for transcribing the books of the heathens and of the followers of Zoroaster. To Mesrob we owe the preserva- the followers of Zoroaster. To Mesrob we owe the preserva- tion of the language and literature of Armenia; but for his tion of the language and literature of Armenia; but for his work, the people would have been absorbed by the Per- work, the people would have been absorbed by the Per- sians and Syrians, and would have disappeared like so sians and Syrians, and would have disappeared like so many nations of the East". many nations of the East". Anxious that others should profit by his discovery, Anxious that others should profit by his discovery, and encouraged by the Catholicos patriarch and the king, and encouraged by the Catholicos patriarch and the king, Mesrob founded numerous schools in different parts of the Mesrob founded numerous schools in different parts of the country, in which the youth were taught the new alphabet. country, in which the youth were taught the new alphabet. But his activity was not confined to Eastern Armenia. Pro- But his activity was not confined to Eastern Armenia. Pro- vided with letters from St. Sahag, he went to Constantinople vided with letters from St. Sahag, he went to Constantinople and obtained from the Emperor Theodosius the Younger and obtained from the Emperor Theodosius the Younger permission to preach and teach in his Armenian posses- permission to preach and teach in his Armenian possessions. He evangelized successively the Georgians and Al- sions. He evangelized successively the Georgians and Al- banians (Aghouanghk), adapting his alphabet to their lan- banians (Aghouanghk), adapting his alphabet to their languages, and, wherever he preached the Gospel, he built guages, and, wherever he preached the Gospel, he built schools and appointed teachers and priests to continue his schools and appointed teachers and priests to continue his work. Having returned to Eastern Armenia to report on his work. Having returned to Eastern Armenia to report on his missions to the Catholicos, his first thought was to provide a missions to the Catholicos, his first thought was to provide a religious literature for his countrymen. Having gathered religious literature for his countrymen. Having gathered

191 191 around him numerous disciples, he sent some to Edessa, around him numerous disciples, he sent some to Edessa, Constantinople, Athens, Antioch, Alexandria, and other cen- Constantinople, Athens, Antioch, Alexandria, and other centers of learning, to study the Greek language and bring back ters of learning, to study the Greek language and bring back the masterpieces of Greek literature. The most famous of the masterpieces of Greek literature. The most famous of his pupils were Pavstos Puzant, John of Egheghiatz, Jo- his pupils were Pavstos Puzant, John of Egheghiatz, Jo- seph of Baghin, Yeznik, Koryun, Moses of Khorene, and seph of Baghin, Yeznik, Koryun, Moses of Khorene, and John Mandakuni. John Mandakuni.

The decrees of the first three councils —Nicæa (325), The decrees of the first three councils —Nicæa (325), Constantinople (381), and Ephesus (431)— and the na- Constantinople (381), and Ephesus (431)— and the national liturgy (so far written in Syriac) were also translated tional liturgy (so far written in Syriac) were also translated into Armenian, the latter being revised on the liturgy of St. into Armenian, the latter being revised on the liturgy of St. Basil, though retaining characteristics of its own. Many Basil, though retaining characteristics of its own. Many works of the Greek Fathers also passed into Armenian. The works of the Greek Fathers also passed into Armenian. The loss of the Greek originals has given some of these ver- loss of the Greek originals has given some of these versions a special importance; thus, the second part of Euse- sions a special importance; thus, the second part of Euse- bius's Chronicle, of which only a few fragments exist in the bius's Chronicle, of which only a few fragments exist in the Greek, has been preserved entirly in Armenian. In the midst Greek, has been preserved entirly in Armenian. In the midst of his literary labours Mesrob did not neglect the spiritual of his literary labours Mesrob did not neglect the spiritual needs of the people. He revisited the districts he had evan- needs of the people. He revisited the districts he had evangelized in his earlier years, and, after the death of St. Sahag gelized in his earlier years, and, after the death of St. Sahag in 440, looked after the spiritual administration of the patriar- in 440, looked after the spiritual administration of the patriarchate. He survived his friend and master only six months. chate. He survived his friend and master only six months. He is buried in Oshakan, a village 8 km southwest from He is buried in Oshakan, a village 8 km southwest from Ashtarak. Ashtarak.

Just to give a hint of the extent of the literary achieve- Just to give a hint of the extent of the literary achievement of this century in the field of translations, the following ment of this century in the field of translations, the following selective list of Patristic literature may be mention: selective list of Patristic literature may be mention: Ignatius of Antioch (c.35-c.107), Aristides, the Apolo- Ignatius of Antioch (c.35-c.107), Aristides, the Apolo- gist (second century), Irenaeus of Lyons (c.130-c.200), Hip- gist (second century), Irenaeus of Lyons (c.130-c.200), Hip- polytus of Rome (c.170c.236), Dionysius of Alexandria polytus of Rome (c.170c.236), Dionysius of Alexandria (d.c.264), Gregory Thaumaturgus (c.213-c.270), Eusebius (d.c.264), Gregory Thaumaturgus (c.213-c.270), Eusebius of Caesarea (c.260-c.340), Athanasius of Alexandria (c.296- of Caesarea (c.260-c.340), Athanasius of Alexandria (c.296- c.373), Gregory of Nazianzus (c.329-c.389), Gregory of c.373), Gregory of Nazianzus (c.329-c.389), Gregory of

192 192 Nyssa (c.330-c.395), Basil the Great (c.330-c.379), Cyril of Nyssa (c.330-c.395), Basil the Great (c.330-c.379), Cyril of Jerusalem (c.315-c.403), Evagrius Poticus (c.346-c.399), Jerusalem (c.315-c.403), Evagrius Poticus (c.346-c.399), Aphraates (fourth century), Ephraim Syrus (c.306-c.373), Aphraates (fourth century), Ephraim Syrus (c.306-c.373), Cyril of Alexandria (c.444). Cyril of Alexandria (c.444).

The Armenian manuscripts and spiritual literature The Armenian manuscripts and spiritual literature have not yet been thoroughly investigated in terms of scien- have not yet been thoroughly investigated in terms of scientific method and coordinated study. Particularly unexplored tific method and coordinated study. Particularly unexplored are the Patristic texts. The number of the Armenian manu- are the Patristic texts. The number of the Armenian manuscripts in light of new studies in Patristic literature will still scripts in light of new studies in Patristic literature will still enlarge the sphere of the contribution of the Armenian enlarge the sphere of the contribution of the Armenian translations to the general body of Christian literature. It was translations to the general body of Christian literature. It was not only in the fifth century that translating was a distinctive not only in the fifth century that translating was a distinctive part of the intellectual and literary activity in Armenia, but part of the intellectual and literary activity in Armenia, but rather a process going on through the centuries and bring- rather a process going on through the centuries and bringing fresh air in and giving new impulses to the Armenian in- ing fresh air in and giving new impulses to the Armenian intellectual and ecclesiastical life. These and other theologi- tellectual and ecclesiastical life. These and other theological, philosophical, ecclesiastical and spiritual translations cal, philosophical, ecclesiastical and spiritual translations indicate the openness of the Armenian Church to the out- indicate the openness of the Armenian Church to the outside Christian world which characterizes among other fea- side Christian world which characterizes among other features, the spiritual tie and the deep foundation of her faith. tures, the spiritual tie and the deep foundation of her faith. Yeghisheh, Movses, and Tavit the Invincible: Yegh- Yeghisheh, Movses, and Tavit the Invincible: Yegh- ishé (Armenian: Եղիշէ 400-480) was a prominent Armenian ishé (Armenian: Եղիշէ 400-480) was a prominent Armenian historian of the 5th century. Some identify him with Yegh- historian of the 5th century. Some identify him with Yegh- ishé, Bishop of Amatuni, who took part in the Synod of Arta- ishé, Bishop of Amatuni, who took part in the Synod of Arta- shat (449). Yeghisheh was one of the most renowned of the shat (449). Yeghisheh was one of the most renowned of the students of St. Sahag and St. Mesrob and, according to tra- students of St. Sahag and St. Mesrob and, according to tradition, served as secretary to general St. Vartan Mamigo- dition, served as secretary to general St. Vartan Mamigo- nian, during the war of religious independence (449-451) nian, during the war of religious independence (449-451) against the Persian King, Yazdegerd II. He wrote the great against the Persian King, Yazdegerd II. He wrote the great history of the Battle of Vartanantz in which he also included history of the Battle of Vartanantz in which he also included a section about the Council of Ardashad. His work is a section about the Council of Ardashad. His work is considered one of the masterpieces of ancient Armenian considered one of the masterpieces of ancient Armenian literature and is almost entirely free from Greek words and literature and is almost entirely free from Greek words and expressions. He was author of many books and wrote expressions. He was author of many books and wrote

193 193 commentaries on some of the books of the Old Testament commentaries on some of the books of the Old Testament (Joshua and Judges). After the Battle of Vartanantz, he re- (Joshua and Judges). After the Battle of Vartanantz, he re- tired to the mountains. After returning for a time to civiliza- tired to the mountains. After returning for a time to civilization, he once again retreated to the mountains of the prov- tion, he once again retreated to the mountains of the province of Mogk where he lived a virtuous ascetic life. Later ince of Mogk where he lived a virtuous ascetic life. Later when the local peasants learned of his saintly ways, he when the local peasants learned of his saintly ways, he moved to the mountains of the Rushdouni province, where moved to the mountains of the Rushdouni province, where he passed away. he passed away. Quotes: Մահ ոչ իմացեալ՝ մահ է, մահ իմացեալ՝ Quotes: Մահ ոչ իմացեալ՝ մահ է, մահ իմացեալ՝ անմահութիւն է: Death, unanticipated, is death; death, an- անմահութիւն է: Death, unanticipated, is death; death, anticipated, is immortality. ticipated, is immortality. Լաւ է աչքով կոյր ըլլալ՝ քան մտքով: It is preferable Լաւ է աչքով կոյր ըլլալ՝ քան մտքով: It is preferable to be blind by eyesight, than by mind. to be blind by eyesight, than by mind. Ամբողջ մարմնի կենդանութիւնը հոգին է, իսկ Ամբողջ մարմնի կենդանութիւնը հոգին է, իսկ մարմինն ու հոգին կառավարողը՝ միտքն է: The whole es- մարմինն ու հոգին կառավարողը՝ միտքն է: The whole essence of the body is the spirit, while the governor of both sence of the body is the spirit, while the governor of both spirit and body is the mind. (Yeghisheh-Fifth Century) spirit and body is the mind. (Yeghisheh-Fifth Century)

Movses Khorenatsi (Armenian: Մովսէս Խորենացի; Movses Khorenatsi (Armenian: Մովսէս Խորենացի; Movses of Khoren, 410–490) was an Armenian historian Movses of Khoren, 410–490) was an Armenian historian and author of History of Armenia. He is credited with the and author of History of Armenia. He is credited with the earliest known historiographical work on Armenia, but was earliest known historiographical work on Armenia, but was also a poet, or hymn writer, and a grammarian. Movses of also a poet, or hymn writer, and a grammarian. Movses of Khoren, known as the father of Armenian history, was also Khoren, known as the father of Armenian history, was also one of the more important students of St. Sahag and St. one of the more important students of St. Sahag and St. Mesrob. Movses and several of their other students were Mesrob. Movses and several of their other students were sent to Alexandria, Egypt so that they would learn the Greek sent to Alexandria, Egypt so that they would learn the Greek and Assyrian languages, as well as to learn grammar, ora- and Assyrian languages, as well as to learn grammar, ora- tory, theology and philosophy. He is noted for his abilities in tory, theology and philosophy. He is noted for his abilities in philosophy as well as being a great spiritual leader and pi- philosophy as well as being a great spiritual leader and pious in nature. He possessed a genius, which was soon real- ous in nature. He possessed a genius, which was soon realized, and he was commissioned to write a history of Arme- ized, and he was commissioned to write a history of Arme- nia. Later he also wrote a number of very important works nia. Later he also wrote a number of very important works among which are histories, poems, hymns, orations, and among which are histories, poems, hymns, orations, and chants. He was ordained bishop but in a later period, he chants. He was ordained bishop but in a later period, he

194 194 met opposition as a student of the great translators and was met opposition as a student of the great translators and was martyred. martyred. Movses is considered to be the "father of Armenian Movses is considered to be the "father of Armenian history" (patmahayr) and is sometimes referred to as the history" (patmahayr) and is sometimes referred to as the "Armenian Herodotus. The History of Armenia attributed to "Armenian Herodotus. The History of Armenia attributed to Movses of Khorene is an early account of Armenia, cover- Movses of Khorene is an early account of Armenia, covering the mythological origins of the Armenian people as well ing the mythological origins of the Armenian people as well as Sassanid, Byzantine and Arsacid Armenia down to the as Sassanid, Byzantine and Arsacid Armenia down to the 5th century. Some scholars doubt that Movses wrote the 5th century. Some scholars doubt that Movses wrote the work in the fifth century and have moved him and History to work in the fifth century and have moved him and History to the seventh century. His book covers the time-frame from the seventh century. His book covers the time-frame from the formation of the Armenian people to the 5th century. It the formation of the Armenian people to the 5th century. It contains unique material on ancient Armenian legends, and contains unique material on ancient Armenian legends, and such information on pagan (pre-Christian) Armenian as has such information on pagan (pre-Christian) Armenian as has survived. It also contains plentiful data on the history and survived. It also contains plentiful data on the history and culture of contiguous countries. The book had an enormous culture of contiguous countries. The book had an enormous impact on Armenian historiography. In the text, the author impact on Armenian historiography. In the text, the author self-identifies as a disciple of Saint Mesrop, and states that self-identifies as a disciple of Saint Mesrop, and states that he composed his work at the request of prince Sahak, the he composed his work at the request of prince Sahak, the Bagratuni prince who fell in battle in 482. Bagratuni prince who fell in battle in 482.

The following works are also attributed to Movses: The following works are also attributed to Movses: Treatise on Rhetoric Treatise on Rhetoric Treatise on Geography Treatise on Geography Letter on the Assumption of the Blessed Virgin Mary Letter on the Assumption of the Blessed Virgin Mary Homily on Christ's Transfiguration Homily on Christ's Transfiguration Oration on Hripsime, an Armenian Virgin and Martyr Oration on Hripsime, an Armenian Virgin and Martyr Hymns used in Armenian Church Worship Hymns used in Armenian Church Worship Commentaries on the Armenian Grammarians Commentaries on the Armenian Grammarians Explanations of Armenian Church Offices Explanations of Armenian Church Offices Geography ("Ashkharhatsuyts") - a description of the Geography ("Ashkharhatsuyts") - a description of the World with maps (Later Movses' "Geography" was edited World with maps (Later Movses' "Geography" was edited and renewed by the 7th century's scientist Anania Shiraka- and renewed by the 7th century's scientist Anania Shiraka- tsi and other geographies of Medieval Armenia) tsi and other geographies of Medieval Armenia)

Quotes: "For even though we are small and very Quotes: "For even though we are small and very

195 195 limited in numbers and have been conquered many times limited in numbers and have been conquered many times by foreign kingdoms, yet too, many acts of bravery have by foreign kingdoms, yet too, many acts of bravery have been performed in our land, worthy of being written and re- been performed in our land, worthy of being written and remembered, but which no one has bothered to write membered, but which no one has bothered to write down." (Movses Khorenatsi – Fifth Century) down." (Movses Khorenatsi – Fifth Century)

Tavit the Invincible (Դաւիթ Անյաղթ) (David An- Tavit the Invincible (Դաւիթ Անյաղթ) (David An- haght), was a student and nephew of Movses, and received haght), was a student and nephew of Movses, and received his higher education in centers outside Armenia, particularly his higher education in centers outside Armenia, particularly in Alexanderia, Byzantium and Athens where he received in Alexanderia, Byzantium and Athens where he received the title of Invincible because of his genius in philosophy. the title of Invincible because of his genius in philosophy. He translated the works of Plato including Definition of Phi- He translated the works of Plato including Definition of Phi- losophy and Exegesis of Aristotle, and is also noted for a losophy and Exegesis of Aristotle, and is also noted for a number of commentaries and ecclesiastical writings. Like number of commentaries and ecclesiastical writings. Like Movses, he was subject to persecution. Tavit, like Movses Movses, he was subject to persecution. Tavit, like Movses and Yeghisheh, is remembered as one of the Great Trans- and Yeghisheh, is remembered as one of the Great Trans- lators and intellectuals of the late 5th century who, with pure lators and intellectuals of the late 5th century who, with pure faith and genius crowned the Golden Age of Armenian lit- faith and genius crowned the Golden Age of Armenian literature and church history. erature and church history.

The Definition of Philosophy written by David Anhaght The Definition of Philosophy written by David Anhaght is the most important monument of the mundane philosophi- is the most important monument of the mundane philosophical thought in Armenia. It is one of the rare works that con- cal thought in Armenia. It is one of the rare works that continues the antique philosophical traditions, widely using the tinues the antique philosophical traditions, widely using the theories of Plato, Aristotle, Pythagoras. At the same time theories of Plato, Aristotle, Pythagoras. At the same time many progressive theories on philosophy and logics are many progressive theories on philosophy and logics are worked out. worked out.

Koryun (Armenian: Կորիւն, also transliterated as Koryun (Armenian: Կորիւն, also transliterated as Koriun, Goriun or Gorune) was the earliest Armenian- Koriun, Goriun or Gorune) was the earliest Armenian- language historian, writing in the fifth century, he left a Life language historian, writing in the fifth century, he left a Life of Mesrob which contains many details of the evangelization of Mesrob which contains many details of the evangelization of Armenia and the invention of the alphabet. Some of Armenia and the invention of the alphabet. Some Armenian and European scholars, such as G. Alishan, Armenian and European scholars, such as G. Alishan, O.Torosyan, G.Fintigliyan, A.Sarukhan, G.Ter-Mkrtchyan O.Torosyan, G.Fintigliyan, A.Sarukhan, G.Ter-Mkrtchyan (Miaban), S.Weber and others, have speculated that Koryun (Miaban), S.Weber and others, have speculated that Koryun

196 196 could have been an ethnic Georgian (Iberian) or Georgian- Armenian. Having received his early education under Mes- rob Mashtots, Koryun went to Byzantium for higher studies, returning to Armenia with other students in 432. Later, he was appointed Bishop of Georgia. He has been listed among the junior translators. His style is original, but somewhat obscure due to grammatical irregularities. To him have been attributed the translations of the three apocryphal books of the Maccabees. Koryun was the origin of the claim that the Georgian alphabet was created by Mesrob Mash- tots. Faustus of Byzantium (Armenian: Փաւստոս Բիւզանդ, Pavstos Buzand) was an Armenian historian of the 5th century. He wrote a three volume history, of which the first two volumes are lost. He described in details the reign of Arshak II and his son Pap (Պապ) of Armenia.

Ghazar Parpetsi (Armenian: Ղազար Փարպեցի, Ghazar of Parpi, alternatively spelled as Lazar Parpetsi and łazar Parpetsi) was a fifth to sixth century Armenian chroni- cler and historian. He had close ties with the powerful Ma- mikonian noble famiily and is most prominent for writing a history of Armenia, History of Armenia, sometime in the early sixth century. Ghazar was born in the village of Parpi (in what is now the current city of Ashtarak in Armenia). Owing to the close ties he held with the Mamikonian family, following the defeat of the Armenians at the battle of Avarayr in 451, Ghazar moved to the Mamikonian Prince Ashusah's castle in (Ցրտաւ) Tsurtav (in Georgia), where he received his primary education. Studying under the auspices of Aghan Art- struni, he befriended Vahan Mamikonian; he was an excellent student and from 465 to 470 he attended school in Con- stantinople, learning new languages, studying religion, literature, and classical philosophy. Returning back to

197 Armenia, Ghazar busied himself with educational and spiri- Armenia, Ghazar busied himself with educational and spiritual activities in the town of Shirak, then part of the domains tual activities in the town of Shirak, then part of the domains of the Kamsarakan family. From 484 to 486, he lived in of the Kamsarakan family. From 484 to 486, he lived in Syunik until Vahan Mamikonian, who had been recently ap- Syunik until Vahan Mamikonian, who had been recently appointed the head of marzpan Armenia, invited him to over- pointed the head of marzpan Armenia, invited him to oversee the reconstruction of a monastery being built in Vaghar- see the reconstruction of a monastery being built in Vaghar- shapat. Vahan appointed Ghazar an abbot at the monas- shapat. Vahan appointed Ghazar an abbot at the monastery, although the education that Ghazar had received as tery, although the education that Ghazar had received as well as his educational and spiritual policies did not sit well well as his educational and spiritual policies did not sit well with the more conservative elements of the church. Accus- with the more conservative elements of the church. Accus- ing him of heresy, he was forced out of the monastery in ing him of heresy, he was forced out of the monastery in 490, taking up residence in the city of Amida in Byzantium. 490, taking up residence in the city of Amida in Byzantium. Ghazar is best known for writing the History of Arme- Ghazar is best known for writing the History of Arme- nia. After returning from Amida in 493, Vahan Mamikonian nia. After returning from Amida in 493, Vahan Mamikonian asked his friend to write a new history of Armenia, starting asked his friend to write a new history of Armenia, starting from where historian Faustus of Byzantium left off; that is, from where historian Faustus of Byzantium left off; that is, with the reign of king Arshak II (350-367). Despite having a with the reign of king Arshak II (350-367). Despite having a troublesome reign, Arshak II was able to improve many as- troublesome reign, Arshak II was able to improve many aspects of his kingdom. The chief architect of the reforms was pects of his kingdom. The chief architect of the reforms was Saint Narses I the Great. They included: Saint Narses I the Great. They included: The establishment of many monasteries, to isolate The establishment of many monasteries, to isolate monks from the stress of everyday life and helped spread monks from the stress of everyday life and helped spread the gospel; the gospel; The building of hospitals; The building of hospitals; The founding of many schools that would teach As- The founding of many schools that would teach As- syrian and Greek, since the Holy Bible was read in those syrian and Greek, since the Holy Bible was read in those languages at that time; languages at that time; The interdiction of inbred marriages, polygamy, di- The interdiction of inbred marriages, polygamy, divorce, pagan rituals, drunkenness and revenge killings; vorce, pagan rituals, drunkenness and revenge killings; Strongly encouraging slave-owners to be merciful to Strongly encouraging slave-owners to be merciful to slaves and treat them as equals. slaves and treat them as equals. History of Armenia is composed of three parts: the History of Armenia is composed of three parts: the first is about Armenian history from the mid-fourth century first is about Armenian history from the mid-fourth century and life in Armenia under Sasanian rule until the deaths of and life in Armenia under Sasanian rule until the deaths of Sahak Partev and Mesrop Mashtots in the mid-fifth century; Sahak Partev and Mesrop Mashtots in the mid-fifth century;

198 198 the second concerns the events leading up to the battle of the second concerns the events leading up to the battle of Avarayr as well as its subsequent consequences; and the Avarayr as well as its subsequent consequences; and the third follows up on the Vartanank wars and the 484 signing third follows up on the Vartanank wars and the 484 signing of the Nvarsak Treaty. The main sources he uses in History of the Nvarsak Treaty. The main sources he uses in History are the primary works of other historians, Agathangelos, are the primary works of other historians, Agathangelos, Koryun, and Faustus, although he apparently made use of Koryun, and Faustus, although he apparently made use of other historians' works, including Eusebius of Caesarea's other historians' works, including Eusebius of Caesarea's Historia Ecclesiastica. Historia Ecclesiastica. According to Armenian tradition, it is said that Ghazar According to Armenian tradition, it is said that Ghazar was buried near the ruins of an Armenian church in Parpi was buried near the ruins of an Armenian church in Parpi Canyon, south of a village named Lazrev in Armenia. Canyon, south of a village named Lazrev in Armenia.

Sebeos (Armenian: Սեբէոս) was a 7th Century Ar- Sebeos (Armenian: Սեբէոս) was a 7th Century Ar- menian bishop and historian who participated in the first menian bishop and historian who participated in the first Council of Dvin in 645. The history Sebeos contains de- Council of Dvin in 645. The history Sebeos contains detailed descriptions from the period of Sassanid supremacy tailed descriptions from the period of Sassanid supremacy in Armenia up to the Islamic conquest in 661. To him has in Armenia up to the Islamic conquest in 661. To him has been (probably wrongly) attributed ''A History of [Heraclius], been (probably wrongly) attributed ''A History of [Heraclius], chronicling events from the end of the fifth century to 661''. chronicling events from the end of the fifth century to 661''.

“Twelve peoples representing all the tribes of the “Twelve peoples representing all the tribes of the [Jews] assembled at the city of Edessa, Mesopotamia, [Jews] assembled at the city of Edessa, Mesopotamia, Edessa. When they saw that the Persian Empire troops had Edessa. When they saw that the Persian Empire troops had departed leaving the city in peace, they closed the gates departed leaving the city in peace, they closed the gates and fortified themselves. They refused entry to troops of the and fortified themselves. They refused entry to troops of the Byzantine Empire/Roman lordship. Thus Heraclius, emperor Byzantine Empire/Roman lordship. Thus Heraclius, emperor of the Byzantines, gave the order to besiege it. When the of the Byzantines, gave the order to besiege it. When the Jews realized that they could not militarily resist him, they Jews realized that they could not militarily resist him, they promised to make peace. Opening the city gates, they went promised to make peace. Opening the city gates, they went before him, and [Heraclius] ordered that they should go and before him, and [Heraclius] ordered that they should go and stay in their own place. So they departed, taking the road stay in their own place. So they departed, taking the road through the desert to Tachkastan (Arabia) to the sons of through the desert to Tachkastan (Arabia) to the sons of Ishmael. The Jews called the [Arabs] to their aid and famil- Ishmael. The Jews called the [Arabs] to their aid and famil- iarized them with the relationship they had through the iarized them with the relationship they had through the books of the [Old Testament]. Although the Arabs were books of the [Old Testament]. Although the Arabs were

199 199 convinced of their close relationship, they were unable to convinced of their close relationship, they were unable to get a consensus from their multitude, for they were divided get a consensus from their multitude, for they were divided from each other by religion. In that period a certain one of from each other by religion. In that period a certain one of them, a man of the sons of [Ishmael] named [Muhammad], them, a man of the sons of [Ishmael] named [Muhammad], became prominent. A sermon about the Way of Truth, sup- became prominent. A sermon about the Way of Truth, sup- posedly at God’s command, was revealed to them, and posedly at God’s command, was revealed to them, and [Muhammad] taught them to recognize the God of [Muhammad] taught them to recognize the God of [Abraham], especially since he was informed and knowl- [Abraham], especially since he was informed and knowl- edgeable about [Moses|Mosaic] history. Because the com- edgeable about [Moses|Mosaic] history. Because the command had come from on High, he ordered them all to as- mand had come from on High, he ordered them all to assemble together and to unite in faith. Abandoning the rever- semble together and to unite in faith. Abandoning the reverence of vain things, they turned toward the living God, who ence of vain things, they turned toward the living God, who had appeared to their father–Abraham. Muhammad legis- had appeared to their father–Abraham. Muhammad legis- lated that they were not to eat carrion, not to drink wine, not lated that they were not to eat carrion, not to drink wine, not to speak falsehoods, and not to commit adultery. He said: to speak falsehoods, and not to commit adultery. He said: “God promised that country to [Abraham] and to his son af- “God promised that country to [Abraham] and to his son after him, for eternity. And what had been promised was ful- ter him, for eternity. And what had been promised was fulfilled during that time when [God] loved [Israel]. Now, how- filled during that time when [God] loved [Israel]. Now, however, you are the sons of Abraham, and God shall fulfill the ever, you are the sons of Abraham, and God shall fulfill the promise made to Abraham and his son on you. Only love promise made to Abraham and his son on you. Only love the God of Abraham, and go and take the country which the God of Abraham, and go and take the country which God gave to your father Abraham. No one can successfully God gave to your father Abraham. No one can successfully resist you in war, since God is with you” (Excerpts from ''A resist you in war, since God is with you” (Excerpts from ''A History of Heraclius). History of Heraclius).

Sebeos also wrote the [Armenian chronicles] around Sebeos also wrote the [Armenian chronicles] around 660 A.D. which describes how Muhammad established a 660 A.D. which describes how Muhammad established a community which comprised both [Ishmaelites] (i.e. Arabs) community which comprised both [Ishmaelites] (i.e. Arabs) and [Jews] based on their common descent from and [Jews] based on their common descent from [Abraham]; the Arabs via [Ishmael], and the Jews via [Abraham]; the Arabs via [Ishmael], and the Jews via [Isaac]. Sebeos thus noted in the Chronicles that Muham- [Isaac]. Sebeos thus noted in the Chronicles that Muham- mad had endowed both communities with a birthright to the mad had endowed both communities with a birthright to the Holy Land, based on a common monotheist genealogy. Holy Land, based on a common monotheist genealogy. These Doctors, great thinkers and intellectual giants These Doctors, great thinkers and intellectual giants of the Arm. Church in fifth century, participated and of the Arm. Church in fifth century, participated and

200 200 contributed in the outpouring of literary activity of the cen- contributed in the outpouring of literary activity of the century and helped create the Golden Age of Armenian litera- tury and helped create the Golden Age of Armenian literature and church history. ture and church history.

THE MAIN LINES OF THE ARMENIAN ORIGINAL LITERA- THE MAIN LINES OF THE ARMENIAN ORIGINAL LITERA- TURE TURE The movement of translation was an intellectual The movement of translation was an intellectual stream that irrigated the soil of the Armenian cultural tradi- stream that irrigated the soil of the Armenian cultural tradition and gave rise to a new and richer literature. The litera- tion and gave rise to a new and richer literature. The literature was original and broad, covering various branches. To ture was original and broad, covering various branches. To our amazement, this was carried on in spite of the unhappy our amazement, this was carried on in spite of the unhappy political circumstances of the historical life of the Armenian political circumstances of the historical life of the Armenian people. people.

There are six main lines of the Armenian original literature. There are six main lines of the Armenian original literature. a) The sacred Poetry. It embodies liturgical hymns a) The sacred Poetry. It embodies liturgical hymns used in the Church’s worship. The most beautiful of them used in the Church’s worship. The most beautiful of them have been recognized for various reasons, in the hymns have been recognized for various reasons, in the hymns dedicated to St. Mary, the Epiphany, Holy Week, as well as dedicated to St. Mary, the Epiphany, Holy Week, as well as those of the Resurrection, Transfiguration, the Ascension, those of the Resurrection, Transfiguration, the Ascension, and Pentecost. and Pentecost. b) The liturgical Literature. This contains prayers, and b) The liturgical Literature. This contains prayers, and whole services of Christian worship such as the Eucharist, whole services of Christian worship such as the Eucharist, the Divine Offices, the Sacraments and other services of the Divine Offices, the Sacraments and other services of special benedictions or of spiritual expressions. special benedictions or of spiritual expressions. c) The lives of the Saints and Martyrs. This literature c) The lives of the Saints and Martyrs. This literature venerates the lives and the martyrdom of the heroes of venerates the lives and the martyrdom of the heroes of faith. This type of literature was important and influential for faith. This type of literature was important and influential for the consolation and exhortation of the Christian Armenians. the consolation and exhortation of the Christian Armenians. They had to be always nourished in their faith and strength- They had to be always nourished in their faith and strength- ened in their faithfulness through the examples of the mar- ened in their faithfulness through the examples of the martyrs because martyrdom was a permanent line, an unbroken tyrs because martyrdom was a permanent line, an unbroken chain of events in the life of the people in Christian Armenia chain of events in the life of the people in Christian Armenia all along the centuries. all along the centuries. d) The Exegetical Literature. This branch of Christian d) The Exegetical Literature. This branch of Christian

201 201 literature constituted the central part of importance for reli- literature constituted the central part of importance for religious education in Armenia. This literature combines within gious education in Armenia. This literature combines within itself elements of philosophy, biblical studies and other itself elements of philosophy, biblical studies and other branches of human knowledge. branches of human knowledge. e) The Historical Literature. This section of Armenian e) The Historical Literature. This section of Armenian Christian literature has been the most extensively studied, Christian literature has been the most extensively studied, and therefore, the most widely known. In fact, the Armenian and therefore, the most widely known. In fact, the Armenian historiographers do not describe only the religious side of historiographers do not describe only the religious side of the Armenian history, but its political and cultural aspects as the Armenian history, but its political and cultural aspects as well. well. f) The Theological Literature. “Theological Literature” f) The Theological Literature. “Theological Literature” here refers to that part of Armenian Christian Literature in here refers to that part of Armenian Christian Literature in which theology is expounded through sermons or homilies, which theology is expounded through sermons or homilies, discourses, exhortations, refutations, commentaries and so discourses, exhortations, refutations, commentaries and so forth. It is legitimate in this sense to look at the encompass- forth. It is legitimate in this sense to look at the encompass- ing religious literature of the Armenian Church as theologi- ing religious literature of the Armenian Church as theological literature when this term is understood in its largest and cal literature when this term is understood in its largest and original meaning. It is important to mention here the most original meaning. It is important to mention here the most notorious authors and works in this field. Herein are the notorious authors and works in this field. Herein are the eleven. eleven.

1. The Stromateis (Hadjakhapatoum). Twenty-three homi- 1. The Stromateis (Hadjakhapatoum). Twenty-three homilies traditionally ascribed to St. Gregory the Illuminator. lies traditionally ascribed to St. Gregory the Illuminator. 2. The Homilies (Djark) of St. John Mandakouni (fifth cen- 2. The Homilies (Djark) of St. John Mandakouni (fifth century). Most of the homilies have a moral character rather tury). Most of the homilies have a moral character rather than strictly doctrinal, having been conceived with the than strictly doctrinal, having been conceived with the idea and intention of Christian instruction. idea and intention of Christian instruction. 3. A Treatise on The Iconoclasts by Vertanes Kertogh 3. A Treatise on The Iconoclasts by Vertanes Kertogh (seventh century). It is the first written document pre- (seventh century). It is the first written document preserved in defense of veneration of images/icons in the served in defense of veneration of images/icons in the Christian church. Christian church. 4. The five Christological Treaties of Khosrovik Tarkmanich 4. The five Christological Treaties of Khosrovik Tarkmanich (eighth century). Written against the Monophysite hereti- (eighth century). Written against the Monophysite heretical doctrines concerning the corruptibility and incorrupti- cal doctrines concerning the corruptibility and incorrupti- bility of the body of Christ. bility of the body of Christ.

202 202 5. The Works of Hovhannes Imastasere (John the Philoso- 5. The Works of Hovhannes Imastasere (John the Philoso- pher, eight century). It is an exposition of Christian doc- pher, eight century). It is an exposition of Christian doctrine composed in the midst of conflicting heretical move- trine composed in the midst of conflicting heretical movements. ments. 6. The Exposition of the Prayers of The Liturgy and The 6. The Exposition of the Prayers of The Liturgy and The Commentary of The Divine Offices of Khosrov Antzevatzi Commentary of The Divine Offices of Khosrov Antzevatzi (tenth century). Richly documented treatises, important (tenth century). Richly documented treatises, important especially for the historical study of the Liturgy and the especially for the historical study of the Liturgy and the Divine Offices in the Armenian Church. Divine Offices in the Armenian Church. 7. The Works of Nerses Lambronatzi (twelfth century). 7. The Works of Nerses Lambronatzi (twelfth century). Composed of commentaries, theological treatises, and Composed of commentaries, theological treatises, and an exposition of the Holy Liturgy. an exposition of the Holy Liturgy. 8. The Works of Yeznik of Kolb; Refutation of the Sects (fifth 8. The Works of Yeznik of Kolb; Refutation of the Sects (fifth century). Composed of four books: a) Against the Pa- century). Composed of four books: a) Against the Pa- gans, b) Against the Religion of the Persians-Mazdaism, gans, b) Against the Religion of the Persians-Mazdaism, c) Against the Greek Philosophers, and d) Against the c) Against the Greek Philosophers, and d) Against the Heresy of Marcion. The unity of thought which underlies Heresy of Marcion. The unity of thought which underlies all these sections of the book is the Christian doctrine all these sections of the book is the Christian doctrine and Orthodox conception of God defensively expounded and Orthodox conception of God defensively expounded against the background of non-orthodox conceptions. against the background of non-orthodox conceptions. 9. St. Gregory of Narek (tenth century); his work The Book 9. St. Gregory of Narek (tenth century); his work The Book of Lamentations is the highest expression of Armenian of Lamentations is the highest expression of Armenian mystical literature. Composed of a series of prayers, mystical literature. Composed of a series of prayers, which are, indeed, genuine mystical elevations to God. which are, indeed, genuine mystical elevations to God. While communion with God brings him into the unspeak- While communion with God brings him into the unspeak- able joy of the divine life, yet, at the same time, it is for able joy of the divine life, yet, at the same time, it is for him the clear mirror in which human sinfulness and noth- him the clear mirror in which human sinfulness and noth- ingness are revealed. Thus, he sees himself unworthy ingness are revealed. Thus, he sees himself unworthy and incapable on his own merits that blissful enjoyment and incapable on his own merits that blissful enjoyment of God’s presence in him. Hence, his mind clings to and of God’s presence in him. Hence, his mind clings to and is absorbed by the idea of God’s immeasurable power of is absorbed by the idea of God’s immeasurable power of grace as the only ground of spiritual firmness and safety grace as the only ground of spiritual firmness and safety for him. for him. 10. St. Nerses Shnorhali; theologian and poet (twelfth cen- 10. St. Nerses Shnorhali; theologian and poet (twelfth century). His expositions of the doctrine of the Armenian tury). His expositions of the doctrine of the Armenian

203 203 Church are the clearest and the soundest of all the trea- Church are the clearest and the soundest of all the treatises on the doctrinal position of the Armenian Church. tises on the doctrinal position of the Armenian Church. The hymns from his pen are the most beautiful ones in The hymns from his pen are the most beautiful ones in the Armenian Hymnal. In connection with his poetical the Armenian Hymnal. In connection with his poetical works, he is to the Armenian Church what Romanus is to works, he is to the Armenian Church what Romanus is to the Greek Orthodox Church, and much more than a the Greek Orthodox Church, and much more than a Wesley or Keble to the Anglican Church. His prayers Wesley or Keble to the Anglican Church. His prayers may, indeed, be counted among the best pieces of may, indeed, be counted among the best pieces of Christian spiritual literature. Christian spiritual literature. 11. St. Gregory of Datev; author of the Book of Questions 11. St. Gregory of Datev; author of the Book of Questions (fourteenth century). His book has often been recognized (fourteenth century). His book has often been recognized as equivalent in Armenian literature to the Summa The- as equivalent in Armenian literature to the Summa The- ologica of St. Thomas Aquinas in Latin Medieval litera- ologica of St. Thomas Aquinas in Latin Medieval literature both in method and in content. Gregory’s argumen- ture both in method and in content. Gregory’s argumentation follows the same discourse of question and an- tation follows the same discourse of question and answer, of objection and solution given in numerical order swer, of objection and solution given in numerical order as in the scholastic method used in the Western medie- as in the scholastic method used in the Western medieval theological literature. val theological literature.

The general features of Armenian spirituality arise The general features of Armenian spirituality arise from the vicissitudes of history (unpredictable changes in from the vicissitudes of history (unpredictable changes in life, ups and downs). Catastrophes are hardly conducive to life, ups and downs). Catastrophes are hardly conducive to the development of great theological syntheses. Monasti- the development of great theological syntheses. Monasti- cism followed St. Basil and was deeply attached to the lit- cism followed St. Basil and was deeply attached to the liturgy. A predilection, preference for the traditional and the urgy. A predilection, preference for the traditional and the practical, followed from this and above all a great number of practical, followed from this and above all a great number of hymns, prayers, and elevations to God, some of which are hymns, prayers, and elevations to God, some of which are among the most beautiful within the mystical tradition any- among the most beautiful within the mystical tradition anywhere. where.

The Armenian Liturgy developed very early in the The Armenian Liturgy developed very early in the Christian era and has been relatively unchanged since the Christian era and has been relatively unchanged since the twelfth century. It drew from the traditions of both Antioch twelfth century. It drew from the traditions of both Antioch and Byzantium, within the framework of the Jerusalem tradi- and Byzantium, within the framework of the Jerusalem tradition. Classical Armenian continues to be the liturgical tion. Classical Armenian continues to be the liturgical

204 204 language, but the sermons are usually given in the modern language, but the sermons are usually given in the modern tongue, or in languages of their residing countries. Unlike tongue, or in languages of their residing countries. Unlike their sister churches in the Oriental Orthodox group, Arme- their sister churches in the Oriental Orthodox group, Arme- nians use the organ to accompany their worship. nians use the organ to accompany their worship.

The Arm. Church has been the torchbearer of Chris- The Arm. Church has been the torchbearer of Chris- tian civilization in the Middle East during long and dark tian civilization in the Middle East during long and dark ages. Armenians have suffered and have been persecuted ages. Armenians have suffered and have been persecuted under the Persians, Arabs, Tartars and Turks for their Chris- under the Persians, Arabs, Tartars and Turks for their Chris- tian faith. Century after century, the Armenian people val- tian faith. Century after century, the Armenian people val- iantly resisted the attacks on their very existence. Armed iantly resisted the attacks on their very existence. Armed with an ever-growing national culture, they were able to face with an ever-growing national culture, they were able to face untold trials and tribulations, defending their faith with their untold trials and tribulations, defending their faith with their lives. They have remained faithful to Christ and have found lives. They have remained faithful to Christ and have found their salvation in their Christian religion and they have given their salvation in their Christian religion and they have given many martyrs and saints to the Christian Church. many martyrs and saints to the Christian Church.

Through the miraculous invention of the alphabet, Ar- Through the miraculous invention of the alphabet, Ar- menia was able to secure her racial identity and maintain menia was able to secure her racial identity and maintain her cultural and political independence. It is noteworthy to her cultural and political independence. It is noteworthy to mention the contemporary students of St. Sahak and St. mention the contemporary students of St. Sahak and St. Mesrop who were known as the translator Vartabeds, Mesrop who were known as the translator Vartabeds, Goruin, Yeznik Goghpatzi, Paustos Puizant, Moses of Goruin, Yeznik Goghpatzi, Paustos Puizant, Moses of Khoren, Yeshishe, Ghazar Parbetzi and David the Invinci- Khoren, Yeshishe, Ghazar Parbetzi and David the Invinci- ble. These Translator Vartabeds, against insurmountable ble. These Translator Vartabeds, against insurmountable odds, ushered in the Golden Age of cultural enlightenment odds, ushered in the Golden Age of cultural enlightenment for Armenia. Every October we honor their memory and refor Armenia. Every October we honor their memory and recall their unselfish dedication to God and country by cele- call their unselfish dedication to God and country by celebrating Armenian Cultural Month in communities all over the brating Armenian Cultural Month in communities all over the world. Our language, culture, and religion have been main- world. Our language, culture, and religion have been maintained throughout the ages as a result of the God-given tained throughout the ages as a result of the God-given miracle of the Ayp oo Pen. Let us pass the eternal flame on miracle of the Ayp oo Pen. Let us pass the eternal flame on to the future generations by honoring the memories of St. to the future generations by honoring the memories of St. Mesrop, St. Sahak and the Translator Vartabeds. Mesrop, St. Sahak and the Translator Vartabeds.

205 205 THE DOCTRINE THE DOCTRINE The Armenian Church belongs to the family of an- The Armenian Church belongs to the family of ancient Eastern Orthodox Churches, which includes the Ethio- cient Eastern Orthodox Churches, which includes the Ethio- pian, Coptic, Assyrian and Indian Malabar Christian pian, Coptic, Assyrian and Indian Malabar Christian churches. The Armenian Church is an independent national churches. The Armenian Church is an independent national Christian Church. Doctrinally, it bases its faith on the Bible, Christian Church. Doctrinally, it bases its faith on the Bible, Tradition, and the decisions of the first three Ecumenical Tradition, and the decisions of the first three Ecumenical Councils: Nicea (325), Constantinople (381), and Ephesus Councils: Nicea (325), Constantinople (381), and Ephesus (431). In 506, an Armenian Synod rejected the Christologi- (431). In 506, an Armenian Synod rejected the Christologi- cal teachings of the Council of Chalcedon (451), which no cal teachings of the Council of Chalcedon (451), which no Armenian bishop had attended. At that time the Armenian Armenian bishop had attended. At that time the Armenian Church was more concerned with countering the Nestorian- Church was more concerned with countering the Nestorian- izing tendencies of the neighboring Church in the Persian izing tendencies of the neighboring Church in the Persian Empire, as well as waging survival battles against the tyran- Empire, as well as waging survival battles against the tyran- nical attempts of Persia. Persia sought total assimilation of nical attempts of Persia. Persia sought total assimilation of Christian Armenians and surrender into the Sassanite Zoro- Christian Armenians and surrender into the Sassanite Zoro- astrian religion. astrian religion. On the question of Christology, the Armenian Church On the question of Christology, the Armenian Church accepts the definition set by the Ecumenical Council of accepts the definition set by the Ecumenical Council of Ephesus, that Christ is “One in the incarnate nature of the Ephesus, that Christ is “One in the incarnate nature of the Word.” The Armenian Church and the above-mentioned an- Word.” The Armenian Church and the above-mentioned ancient Eastern Churches do not accept the decisions of the cient Eastern Churches do not accept the decisions of the Council of Chalcedon and also renounce the teachings of Council of Chalcedon and also renounce the teachings of Nestorius and the Monophysitism taught by Eutyches. Nestorius and the Monophysitism taught by Eutyches. The Church of Christ, One and Universal, while main- The Church of Christ, One and Universal, while maintaining the unity of the faith and its universality, fell adminis- taining the unity of the faith and its universality, fell adminis- tratively into pieces. Every people, every nation, communi- tratively into pieces. Every people, every nation, communicated to its own church a nationalistic impress, whence re- cated to its own church a nationalistic impress, whence resulted the local variations in the bosom of the same One sulted the local variations in the bosom of the same One and Universal Christian Church. and Universal Christian Church. It is heart-breaking for the Christians to see how the It is heart-breaking for the Christians to see how the simplicity of the apostolic age, the harmonious life which simplicity of the apostolic age, the harmonious life which prevailed in the time of the first three Ecumenical Councils, prevailed in the time of the first three Ecumenical Councils, degenerated and gave way to hatred, to the passion for degenerated and gave way to hatred, to the passion for domination and for command. In consequence, Christian domination and for command. In consequence, Christian

206 206 rose up against Christian armed with all that was unforgiv- rose up against Christian armed with all that was unforgivable and anti-Christian in essence as in its particular mani- able and anti-Christian in essence as in its particular manifestations. festations. At Chalcedon, it was not a question of combating a At Chalcedon, it was not a question of combating a heresy like those of Arius, Macedonius and Nestorius. The heresy like those of Arius, Macedonius and Nestorius. The first three Ecumenical Councils had discussed the contro- first three Ecumenical Councils had discussed the contro- versies concerning God the Father, The Son, and The Holy versies concerning God the Father, The Son, and The Holy Ghost, and had given a decisive solution in very precise for- Ghost, and had given a decisive solution in very precise for- mulas. The problem which was propounded in the council of mulas. The problem which was propounded in the council of Chalcedon had interest only for subtle theologians, who re- Chalcedon had interest only for subtle theologians, who re- considering the teaching of Nestorius, wanted to introduce considering the teaching of Nestorius, wanted to introduce more “precision” in the mystery of incarnation, namely in the more “precision” in the mystery of incarnation, namely in the mode of the “union of two natures of Jesus Christ.” Cyril of mode of the “union of two natures of Jesus Christ.” Cyril of Alexandria, the adversary of Nestorius, had already decided Alexandria, the adversary of Nestorius, had already decided the question by his famous formula: “One Nature United of the question by his famous formula: “One Nature United of the Incarnate Word.” Jesus Christ was perfect God and per- the Incarnate Word.” Jesus Christ was perfect God and perfect man. The divinity and the humanity were united without fect man. The divinity and the humanity were united without confusion, forming one single nature in Jesus Christ. confusion, forming one single nature in Jesus Christ. From the moment the Armenian Church obtained her From the moment the Armenian Church obtained her administrative independence, she elaborated her theology, administrative independence, she elaborated her theology, her rites, her Traditions. She has known how to defend her- her rites, her Traditions. She has known how to defend herself against all attacks with a firmness and perseverance self against all attacks with a firmness and perseverance worthy of admiration. worthy of admiration. The doctrinal differences certainly are no reason for The doctrinal differences certainly are no reason for arming one church against another. Christian theology and arming one church against another. Christian theology and the principles of the Christian faith are different things. The the principles of the Christian faith are different things. The first, whatever form it takes, should not be an obstacle to a first, whatever form it takes, should not be an obstacle to a harmonious collaboration, based on the Christian faith. The harmonious collaboration, based on the Christian faith. The Armenian Church in defending herself has never attacked Armenian Church in defending herself has never attacked the conscience of others. She has always preached toler- the conscience of others. She has always preached tolerance for that which separates churches, love and agree- ance for that which separates churches, love and agreement in that which unites them. ment in that which unites them. The Christian churches should draw together and fill The Christian churches should draw together and fill themselves with the spirit of cooperation, mutual love and themselves with the spirit of cooperation, mutual love and respect, because the present “danger” threatens Christianity respect, because the present “danger” threatens Christianity

207 207 itself. It is not the churches of this or that denomination itself. It is not the churches of this or that denomination which are persecuted, but religion itself is in peril. All the which are persecuted, but religion itself is in peril. All the Christian churches, small or great should form a single front Christian churches, small or great should form a single front against the common dangers that arise from indifference, against the common dangers that arise from indifference, from the neglect of religious teaching, from different world from the neglect of religious teaching, from different world views, from the intolerance of one church towards another. views, from the intolerance of one church towards another. No separate church will be able to do anything without this No separate church will be able to do anything without this “One Front.” “One Front.”

SOME PIOUS SPIRITUAL CUSTOMS AND TRADITIONS SOME PIOUS SPIRITUAL CUSTOMS AND TRADITIONS There are many pious customs and Traditions that There are many pious customs and Traditions that traditional churches and the Armenian Church practice con- traditional churches and the Armenian Church practice connected with the Feasts and Saints' Days. Here we have nected with the Feasts and Saints' Days. Here we have listed some of the most common pious customs of our faith- listed some of the most common pious customs of our faithful. ful.

Making the Sign Of The Cross Making the Sign Of The Cross Worship By Prostration Worship By Prostration Incense Incense House Blessing House Blessing Madagh Madagh Lighting Candles Lighting Candles Pilgrimage Pilgrimage Yughakin Yughakin Grave Blessing Grave Blessing Unleavened Bread Unleavened Bread Hokehankisd/Requiem Services Hokehankisd/Requiem Services

1. MAKING THE SIGN OF THE CROSS: Is an an- 1. MAKING THE SIGN OF THE CROSS: Is an ancient Christian custom, which is practiced in all ancient cient Christian custom, which is practiced in all ancient churches. When one enters a church, firstly because of the churches. When one enters a church, firstly because of the sanctity of the House of God and of the presence of the sanctity of the House of God and of the presence of the Host the Body and Blood of Christ, the living God, one Host the Body and Blood of Christ, the living God, one crosses oneself. Armenians make the sign of the cross with crosses oneself. Armenians make the sign of the cross with the three fingers of the right hand, starting from the the three fingers of the right hand, starting from the

208 208 forehead downward and from left shoulder to the right, thus forehead downward and from left shoulder to the right, thus giving the shape of a cross as a symbol of the Trinity and giving the shape of a cross as a symbol of the Trinity and monotheism. We also make the sign of the cross before and monotheism. We also make the sign of the cross before and after saying a prayer, receiving Holy Communion, when after saying a prayer, receiving Holy Communion, when lighting a candle, kissing the cross or Gospel, or whenever lighting a candle, kissing the cross or Gospel, or whenever one is censed by a priest or deacon. This pious custom re- one is censed by a priest or deacon. This pious custom reminds the faithful of the crucifixion of our Lord and His glori- minds the faithful of the crucifixion of our Lord and His glorious resurrection. ous resurrection. 2. WORSHIP BY PROSTRATION: During Eucharist 2. WORSHIP BY PROSTRATION: During Eucharist or other church services, it is a custom to worship God by or other church services, it is a custom to worship God by frequent prostration. This pious custom is a devout expres- frequent prostration. This pious custom is a devout expression of reverence and worship during the service. sion of reverence and worship during the service. 3. INCENSING IN RELIGIOUS WORSHIP: Incense 3. INCENSING IN RELIGIOUS WORSHIP: Incense was used widely in antiquity and was considered an expen- was used widely in antiquity and was considered an expen- sive commodity. You may recall that it was one of the costly sive commodity. You may recall that it was one of the costly gifts brought by the Wise Men to the baby Jesus. “They of- gifts brought by the Wise Men to the baby Jesus. “They offered him gifts, gold and frankincense and myrrh” (Matt. fered him gifts, gold and frankincense and myrrh” (Matt. 2:11). Incense is used in the church as in ancient times as a 2:11). Incense is used in the church as in ancient times as a symbol of reverence, honor and sanctity. symbol of reverence, honor and sanctity. Likewise when we are censed by a deacon or a Likewise when we are censed by a deacon or a priest, we cross ourselves so that our prayers may ascend priest, we cross ourselves so that our prayers may ascend to heaven with the incense. to heaven with the incense. Also, offering of incense is paralleled to the offering of Also, offering of incense is paralleled to the offering of prayer. In the Book of Psalms we read, “Let my prayer be prayer. In the Book of Psalms we read, “Let my prayer be counted as incense before Thee, and let the lifting up of counted as incense before Thee, and let the lifting up of my hands as an evening sacrifice” (Psalm 141:2). More my hands as an evening sacrifice” (Psalm 141:2). More specific description of this idea is developed in the Book of specific description of this idea is developed in the Book of Revelation and later entered into our liturgy as well. “And Revelation and later entered into our liturgy as well. “And another angel came and stood at the altar with a golden another angel came and stood at the altar with a golden censer. And he was given much incense to mingle with censer. And he was given much incense to mingle with the prayers of the saints upon the golden altar before the prayers of the saints upon the golden altar before the throne, and the smoke of the incense rose with the the throne, and the smoke of the incense rose with the prayers of the saints from the hand of the angels before prayers of the saints from the hand of the angels before God” (Rev. 8:3-4). “We are grouped in a choir with God” (Rev. 8:3-4). “We are grouped in a choir with sweet smelling incense in the upper court of this sweet smelling incense in the upper court of this

209 209 tabernacle. Receive our prayers ascending straight tabernacle. Receive our prayers ascending straight unto Thee as the savor of frankincense, myrrh and unto Thee as the savor of frankincense, myrrh and cinnamon” (Missal). cinnamon” (Missal). These are the two basic meanings of the incense. These are the two basic meanings of the incense. The vessel, censer or Poorvahr as it is called in Armenian The vessel, censer or Poorvahr as it is called in Armenian itself has a symbolism. It has two basic parts; the lower, itself has a symbolism. It has two basic parts; the lower, where the incense is burned and the upper. The lower part where the incense is burned and the upper. The lower part symbolizes the world. The upper part, which is dome- symbolizes the world. The upper part, which is dome- shaped, symbolizes heaven. Four chains, symbolizing the shaped, symbolizes heaven. Four chains, symbolizing the Holy Trinity and one Godhead unite the two parts. There are Holy Trinity and one Godhead unite the two parts. There are 12 bells hanging on these chains (3 on each), representing 12 bells hanging on these chains (3 on each), representing the 12 disciples. the 12 disciples. So, when incense is burned in the censer, it is we, the So, when incense is burned in the censer, it is we, the inhabitants of this lower world, who are praying and our inhabitants of this lower world, who are praying and our prayers are ascending to heaven with the intercession of prayers are ascending to heaven with the intercession of the disciples. Poorvahr thus is the unity of heaven and earth the disciples. Poorvahr thus is the unity of heaven and earth with the union made by earth’s prayers and heaven’s re- with the union made by earth’s prayers and heaven’s receiving them. ceiving them. 4. House Blessing: This ancient and pious custom is 4. House Blessing: This ancient and pious custom is attributed to the Apostles. In those days, the apostles used attributed to the Apostles. In those days, the apostles used to go around the houses of the faithful to announce Christ’s to go around the houses of the faithful to announce Christ’s Nativity or hhs Resurrection. Now, the priest travels and vis- Nativity or hhs Resurrection. Now, the priest travels and vis- its the homes of the faithful at Christmas and Easter, bless- its the homes of the faithful at Christmas and Easter, blessing the home and passing on the Good News of Christ’s ing the home and passing on the Good News of Christ’s Birth or Resurrection. Similarly, the faithful also visited each Birth or Resurrection. Similarly, the faithful also visited each other’s houses to announce the good tidings. Likewise other’s houses to announce the good tidings. Likewise House Blessing symbolizes God’s protective care over the House Blessing symbolizes God’s protective care over the home of Christian faithful, and its inhabitants therein. home of Christian faithful, and its inhabitants therein. As decreed by the church Fathers, the day after every As decreed by the church Fathers, the day after every tabernacle feast, i.e. Nativity, Easter, Transfiguration, St. tabernacle feast, i.e. Nativity, Easter, Transfiguration, St. Mary’s feast of her Assumption and the feast of the Holy Mary’s feast of her Assumption and the feast of the Holy Cross, is devoted to the remembrance of the dead or the Cross, is devoted to the remembrance of the dead or the departed souls. Holy Mass is said in the cemetery chapel departed souls. Holy Mass is said in the cemetery chapel and Requiem Mass performed for the departed faithful, after and Requiem Mass performed for the departed faithful, after which the rite of the blessing of the graves is performed. which the rite of the blessing of the graves is performed.

210 210 5. Madagh: Madagh is a mercy offering intended for 5. Madagh: Madagh is a mercy offering intended for the poor and needy. The Armenian Book of Ritual contains the poor and needy. The Armenian Book of Ritual contains first the blessing of salt intended for the madagh and then first the blessing of salt intended for the madagh and then the blessing of the madagh. Madagh should be totally con- the blessing of the madagh. Madagh should be totally consumed and is distributed freely and without charge. One sumed and is distributed freely and without charge. One may offer madagh for a specific vow or in memory of loved may offer madagh for a specific vow or in memory of loved ones on a special holiday. Traditionally, madagh is boiled ones on a special holiday. Traditionally, madagh is boiled lamb. The mercy offering is one of our Christian duties, and lamb. The mercy offering is one of our Christian duties, and one means of helping the poor and the needy. one means of helping the poor and the needy. 6. Lighting Candles: One of the most beautiful devo- 6. Lighting Candles: One of the most beautiful devo- tional traditions of our Church is the practice of lighting can- tional traditions of our Church is the practice of lighting candles. The candle symbolizes the sacrifice of the faithful in dles. The candle symbolizes the sacrifice of the faithful in order to shine in divine grace. Also, it symbolizes both Je- order to shine in divine grace. Also, it symbolizes both Je- sus Christ and His faithful who selflessly burn or sacrifice sus Christ and His faithful who selflessly burn or sacrifice themselves for the welfare and the spiritual growth of their themselves for the welfare and the spiritual growth of their fellow men. This pious Christian custom, usually performed fellow men. This pious Christian custom, usually performed before a consecrated painting of a saint or saints. A person before a consecrated painting of a saint or saints. A person may ask for the intercession of the saint represented in the may ask for the intercession of the saint represented in the painting, or of any saint close to his/her heart. painting, or of any saint close to his/her heart. The faithful light candles and offers a prayer either for The faithful light candles and offers a prayer either for the living or the dead, or, in some instances, when making a the living or the dead, or, in some instances, when making a vow. Lighting a candle is symbolic of the Light that Jesus vow. Lighting a candle is symbolic of the Light that Jesus brings into the world. St. Gregory the Illuminator brought the brings into the world. St. Gregory the Illuminator brought the Light of Christ to the Armenian nation by preaching the Gos- Light of Christ to the Armenian nation by preaching the Gos- pel. Lighting a candle helps remind us of Jesus' Light, and pel. Lighting a candle helps remind us of Jesus' Light, and thus helps focus us on God while we pray. We don't light a thus helps focus us on God while we pray. We don't light a candle for good luck, we light a candle to help us pray well. candle for good luck, we light a candle to help us pray well. 7. Pilgrimage: The act of pilgrimage is an ancient 7. Pilgrimage: The act of pilgrimage is an ancient one among Christians. In the early church, Christians trav- one among Christians. In the early church, Christians traveled to Jerusalem and Bethlehem to visit and view with their eled to Jerusalem and Bethlehem to visit and view with their own Eyes the places where our Lord was born, crucified, own Eyes the places where our Lord was born, crucified, buried, and rose again. A person going on pilgrimage to Je- buried, and rose again. A person going on pilgrimage to Je- rusalem was called mahdesi, ‘one who sees death’ for two rusalem was called mahdesi, ‘one who sees death’ for two reasons: religiously, as having seen the place of our Lord’s reasons: religiously, as having seen the place of our Lord’s death and resurrection and practically, because in those death and resurrection and practically, because in those

211 211 times travel was so long and dangerous one would have to times travel was so long and dangerous one would have to face one’s own death in order to make such a pilgrimage. face one’s own death in order to make such a pilgrimage. Pilgrimages are also made to holy places, churches, Pilgrimages are also made to holy places, churches, and shrines, as is practiced today in Iran with the annual pil- and shrines, as is practiced today in Iran with the annual pilgrimage to the monastery of St. Thaddeus. Also, many Ar- grimage to the monastery of St. Thaddeus. Also, many Ar- menians still make pilgrimages to Jerusalem and to Holy menians still make pilgrimages to Jerusalem and to Holy Etchmiadzin. To go on pilgrimage is a blessed thing: the pil- Etchmiadzin. To go on pilgrimage is a blessed thing: the pilgrim has made a sacred vow. This ancient and beautiful grim has made a sacred vow. This ancient and beautiful custom should be encouraged within the church. custom should be encouraged within the church. 8. Youghakin: Youghakin is made up of two Arme- 8. Youghakin: Youghakin is made up of two Arme- nian words: “yough” and “kin.” “Youghakin” literally means nian words: “yough” and “kin.” “Youghakin” literally means the price of oil or donation in lieu of oil. Since the times of the price of oil or donation in lieu of oil. Since the times of Moses, the faithful have been commissioned to keep the Moses, the faithful have been commissioned to keep the lights of the House of the Lord burning. In olden days, prior lights of the House of the Lord burning. In olden days, prior to electricity, oil lamps and lanterns illuminated homes and to electricity, oil lamps and lanterns illuminated homes and worship places. Parishioners donated oil to keep the church worship places. Parishioners donated oil to keep the church lighted. After the invention of electricity, as oil lamps were lighted. After the invention of electricity, as oil lamps were replaced with electrical lamps, the Armenian Apostolic replaced with electrical lamps, the Armenian Apostolic Church continued asking members to bring symbolic contri- Church continued asking members to bring symbolic contributions for the illumination of the church through the butions for the illumination of the church through the youghakin program at Christmas and Easter. youghakin program at Christmas and Easter. The context of this practice is inner illumination rather The context of this practice is inner illumination rather than stewardship. When you send in your youghakin enve- than stewardship. When you send in your youghakin enve- lope, you are not merely helping the church financially but lope, you are not merely helping the church financially but are helping centuries of Armenian faith shine. Light and faith are helping centuries of Armenian faith shine. Light and faith are synonymous. According to the New Testament, who- are synonymous. According to the New Testament, whoever has faith is in light. Jesus says: “I am the light of the ever has faith is in light. Jesus says: “I am the light of the world; he who follows me will not walk in darkness but will world; he who follows me will not walk in darkness but will have the light of life.” (John 8:12). Through youghakin, you have the light of life.” (John 8:12). Through youghakin, you are in effect refueling the traditional symbolic lantern of are in effect refueling the traditional symbolic lantern of faith, which St. Gregory the Illuminator lighted. faith, which St. Gregory the Illuminator lighted. Pure oil was burned in ancient times, and until this Pure oil was burned in ancient times, and until this century the faithful either made monetary donations or century the faithful either made monetary donations or brought pure olive oil to be used for the ‘ganteghs’ (or brought pure olive oil to be used for the ‘ganteghs’ (or “lamps”) of the church. This custom continues today at “lamps”) of the church. This custom continues today at

212 212 Easter and Christmas, with monetary gifts given to the Easter and Christmas, with monetary gifts given to the church to ensure that its lights will remain burning. church to ensure that its lights will remain burning. 9. HOKEHANKISD (Requiem Service): The Requiem 9. HOKEHANKISD (Requiem Service): The Requiem Service, or hokehankisd, is not merely a custom but a rule Service, or hokehankisd, is not merely a custom but a rule of the church. Forty days after the death of a member of the of the church. Forty days after the death of a member of the church, a requiem is offered for the repose of his/her soul. church, a requiem is offered for the repose of his/her soul. This also ends the official mourning period, and usually the This also ends the official mourning period, and usually the grave of the departed is also blessed. After the Forty-Days’ grave of the departed is also blessed. After the Forty-Days’ Requiem (karasoonk), hokehankisd may be requested an- Requiem (karasoonk), hokehankisd may be requested annually on the Sunday closest to the date of death or, ac- nually on the Sunday closest to the date of death or, according to a more ancient custom, the day commemorating cording to a more ancient custom, the day commemorating the saint after whom the departed was named. Requiem the saint after whom the departed was named. Requiem services may be requested at any time during the ecclesias- services may be requested at any time during the ecclesiastical year. However, they may not be performed on the five tical year. However, they may not be performed on the five major or tabernacle (daghavar) feasts, as hokehankisd is major or tabernacle (daghavar) feasts, as hokehankisd is penitential and the feasts are dominical in nature. Likewise, penitential and the feasts are dominical in nature. Likewise, hokehankisd should not be performed on Major Dominical hokehankisd should not be performed on Major Dominical Feasts or Tabernacles (Armenian Daghavars), i.e. Christ- Feasts or Tabernacles (Armenian Daghavars), i.e. Christ- mas, Palm Sunday, Easter, Ascension, Vartavar or Trans- mas, Palm Sunday, Easter, Ascension, Vartavar or Trans- figuration, Pentecost, Assumption and Exaltation of The figuration, Pentecost, Assumption and Exaltation of The Holy Cross). Through our diligent prayers, offerings and in- Holy Cross). Through our diligent prayers, offerings and intercession of the saints we implore God to judge the souls tercession of the saints we implore God to judge the souls of our deceased not according to the law but according to of our deceased not according to the law but according to His benevolent mercy. His benevolent mercy. Through the requiem we are praying for the departed Through the requiem we are praying for the departed as a matter of love and respect, we cannot alter their state as a matter of love and respect, we cannot alter their state or God’s Final Judgment. What we do request through or God’s Final Judgment. What we do request through prayer is that the Lord should remember our loved ones, prayer is that the Lord should remember our loved ones, and judge them mercifully and with compassion. and judge them mercifully and with compassion. Concerning the Hokehankisd service, prior notifica- Concerning the Hokehankisd service, prior notifica- tion of the church office will facilitate appropriate recordings tion of the church office will facilitate appropriate recordings to avoid errors and misunderstandings. At any event, those to avoid errors and misunderstandings. At any event, those who request Hokehankisd should be at the church before who request Hokehankisd should be at the church before the services start to pray for their departed, and attend the services start to pray for their departed, and attend Hokehankisd services. Hokehankisd services.

213 213 10. Grave Blessing: The faithful who have departed 10. Grave Blessing: The faithful who have departed are referred to as the “Church Triumphant:’ For this reason, are referred to as the “Church Triumphant:’ For this reason, the church fathers set aside the day following each of the the church fathers set aside the day following each of the five tabernacle (daghavar) feasts as merelotz, or Com- five tabernacle (daghavar) feasts as merelotz, or Com- memoration of the Departed. On such occasions, according memoration of the Departed. On such occasions, according to tradition, the Divine Liturgy is celebrated with hokehank- to tradition, the Divine Liturgy is celebrated with hokehankisd for all souls and particularly for those which are the sub- isd for all souls and particularly for those which are the subject of specific requests. Afterwards, the clergy and faithful ject of specific requests. Afterwards, the clergy and faithful proceed to the cemeteries, where the graves of the de- proceed to the cemeteries, where the graves of the departed faithful are blessed individually. Although this custom parted faithful are blessed individually. Although this custom is maintained in the Near East and in Armenia, in the United is maintained in the Near East and in Armenia, in the United States and Canada grave blessings usually take place on States and Canada grave blessings usually take place on Memorial Day and upon special request. Memorial Day and upon special request. 11. UNLEAVENED BREAD: The unleavened bread 11. UNLEAVENED BREAD: The unleavened bread is prepared in the church for distribution to the congrega- is prepared in the church for distribution to the congregation. The unleavened bread is meant for the sanctification of tion. The unleavened bread is meant for the sanctification of the Eucharist and is administered to the faithful as a com- the Eucharist and is administered to the faithful as a communion. Before partaking in the Holy Communion, it is es- munion. Before partaking in the Holy Communion, it is essential for the communicants to fast in the morning and sential for the communicants to fast in the morning and make a confession to a priest. It is also a custom to distrib- make a confession to a priest. It is also a custom to distrib- ute blessed unleavened bread to the faithful after Holy ute blessed unleavened bread to the faithful after Holy Mass. Mass. After the 11th century, the Armenian Church intro- After the 11th century, the Armenian Church introduced two kinds of breads to differentiate between the frac- duced two kinds of breads to differentiate between the frac- tion to be used for communion and that to be distributed tion to be used for communion and that to be distributed among parishioners: among parishioners: a) Mahss, very thin unleavened and unsalted bread of a) Mahss, very thin unleavened and unsalted bread of wheat symbolizing the bond among the members of the wheat symbolizing the bond among the members of the church, may be prepared by a parishioner; church, may be prepared by a parishioner; b) Nushkhar, the bread for oblation, should be pre- b) Nushkhar, the bread for oblation, should be prepared by the celebrant priest or a deacon on Sunday before pared by the celebrant priest or a deacon on Sunday before Eucharist. It is a thin loaf about 3 inches in diameter, made Eucharist. It is a thin loaf about 3 inches in diameter, made of unleavened dough of pure wheat and no salt. It should be of unleavened dough of pure wheat and no salt. It should be stamped so as to have the figures of the crucifix or a lamb, stamped so as to have the figures of the crucifix or a lamb, and baked short of getting brown. and baked short of getting brown.

214 214 THE IMMERGENCE OF A SPIRITUAL RENEWAL THE IMMERGENCE OF A SPIRITUAL RENEWAL To rescue the Armenian Church from heavy secular To rescue the Armenian Church from heavy secular influence and direction, internal religious revitalization and influence and direction, internal religious revitalization and reforms are urgently needed. In some regions, the church is reforms are urgently needed. In some regions, the church is just a custodian of spiritual values; to preserve its vital spiri- just a custodian of spiritual values; to preserve its vital spiritual dynamism, the Armenian liturgy needs a substantial re- tual dynamism, the Armenian liturgy needs a substantial re- vision and reformation. Many of its sacraments, services, vision and reformation. Many of its sacraments, services, ceremonies and traditions should be re-evaluated in new ceremonies and traditions should be re-evaluated in new perspectives and be related to new life-situations in terms of perspectives and be related to new life-situations in terms of content, expression and length. content, expression and length. Armenian communities situated in different political, Armenian communities situated in different political, cultural, religious and social environments and settings are cultural, religious and social environments and settings are exposed to the imminent danger of losing their unique spiri- exposed to the imminent danger of losing their unique spiritual and cultural identity. The church simply cannot ignore tual and cultural identity. The church simply cannot ignore the impact of these ideological trends, modern world views, the impact of these ideological trends, modern world views, political and religious conflicts, and racial tensions. Obvi- political and religious conflicts, and racial tensions. Obvi- ously they pose new problems; they bring new challenges. ously they pose new problems; they bring new challenges. Sometimes they even threaten the very existence of this Sometimes they even threaten the very existence of this small Church. It needs unshaken strong faith, spirituality small Church. It needs unshaken strong faith, spirituality and witnessing to survive oppressions over centuries. and witnessing to survive oppressions over centuries. The Armenian Church is not an institution of spiritual- The Armenian Church is not an institution of spirituality, but she is the spirituality. An overflowing source of her ity, but she is the spirituality. An overflowing source of her very being, she has lived and witnessed that spirituality very being, she has lived and witnessed that spirituality throughout her history in martyrdom. The Armenian Church, throughout her history in martyrdom. The Armenian Church, beyond her institutional manifestations is in fact the reincar- beyond her institutional manifestations is in fact the reincarnation of Christian faith in all its features and implications in nation of Christian faith in all its features and implications in the people’s lives. Witness to Christ meant a Christ- the people’s lives. Witness to Christ meant a Christ- centered life, which extended her spirituality in her deep and centered life, which extended her spirituality in her deep and active involvement and participation in the life of the nation active involvement and participation in the life of the nation as well as in Christendom. In other words, all the spheres of as well as in Christendom. In other words, all the spheres of Armenian life were touched by the transforming power of Armenian life were touched by the transforming power of Christ. Christ. The following are tentative suggestions of the various The following are tentative suggestions of the various areas and items to be considered for reform in the Arme- areas and items to be considered for reform in the Arme- nian Church: nian Church: I. LITURGICAL PROBLEMS I. LITURGICAL PROBLEMS

215 215 a) Divine offices a) Divine offices b) Ecclesiastical feasts b) Ecclesiastical feasts c) Sacraments and sacred ceremonies c) Sacraments and sacred ceremonies d) Lectionary d) Lectionary

II. GENERAL PROBLEMS II. GENERAL PROBLEMS a) The training of the clergy a) The training of the clergy b)The case of celibate priesthood b)The case of celibate priesthood c)Marriage and divorce c)Marriage and divorce d) New calendar d) New calendar e) Change of ecclesiastical dress e) Change of ecclesiastical dress f) The financial security of the parish priest f) The financial security of the parish priest g) Fasting g) Fasting h) Liturgical language h) Liturgical language i) Religious education i) Religious education j) Social service j) Social service k)Church constitution k)Church constitution l) Free the church from political influences l) Free the church from political influences

The reforms suggested above, are too many and too The reforms suggested above, are too many and too varied. They should be reviewed and dealt with by the two varied. They should be reviewed and dealt with by the two catholicosates (Etchmiadzin and Cilicia) in joint study and catholicosates (Etchmiadzin and Cilicia) in joint study and through common action. through common action. Recently elected, the new Catholicos of all Armenians Recently elected, the new Catholicos of all Armenians (Catholicos given title to the head of the Armenian Church), (Catholicos given title to the head of the Armenian Church), His Holiness Karekin II was elected on October 27, 1999, His Holiness Karekin II was elected on October 27, 1999, and consecrated and enthroned on November 4, 1999. In a and consecrated and enthroned on November 4, 1999. In a recent interview with ENI, describing his views and the role recent interview with ENI, describing his views and the role of the church as well as his priority concerns, he states that of the church as well as his priority concerns, he states that “The Armenian Church has always been the national church “The Armenian Church has always been the national church of Armenia and the Armenian people, and as in the past, of Armenia and the Armenian people, and as in the past, she is committed to the spiritual and social welfare of the she is committed to the spiritual and social welfare of the people. Everything that concerns the people should concern people. Everything that concerns the people should concern the church. We have created a nation which holds to Christ the church. We have created a nation which holds to Christ and which will always be under the Lord’s blessing and and which will always be under the Lord’s blessing and

216 216 and praise his glory.” The new millennium, the new pontiff and praise his glory.” The new millennium, the new pontiff sees and considers “as best opportunity for all churches to sees and considers “as best opportunity for all churches to renew faith, to revitalize the life of churches, and Christians renew faith, to revitalize the life of churches, and Christians all over the globe to rededicate themselves to the goal of all over the globe to rededicate themselves to the goal of alleviating the pain and suffering within the society and the alleviating the pain and suffering within the society and the whole world, and re-organize inter-church relations in the whole world, and re-organize inter-church relations in the framework of cooperation.” framework of cooperation.”

“Today, our greatest challenge,” the pontiff states, “is “Today, our greatest challenge,” the pontiff states, “is to bring the church back to the very centre of the people’s to bring the church back to the very centre of the people’s life. The church has to conduct its own mission and evange- life. The church has to conduct its own mission and evangelization to teach the faith to its members. To make our lization to teach the faith to its members. To make our Christian preaching and witness more relevant and to sat- Christian preaching and witness more relevant and to satisfy the spiritual hunger, the church should reorganize her isfy the spiritual hunger, the church should reorganize her charitable and religious educational programs and reach out charitable and religious educational programs and reach out to the social as well as economical needs of the people. to the social as well as economical needs of the people. What is most important for us now is the Christian education What is most important for us now is the Christian education of the people. For that, we need to prepare teachers, clergy of the people. For that, we need to prepare teachers, clergy and organize community life.” His Holiness concludes his and organize community life.” His Holiness concludes his interview stating that, “The church must be built in the souls interview stating that, “The church must be built in the souls of her members”(ENI Bulletin, No 23. Dec. 22, 1999. Pp.15- of her members”(ENI Bulletin, No 23. Dec. 22, 1999. Pp.15- 17). 17). Today, the Armenian Church in Armenia and in the Today, the Armenian Church in Armenia and in the diaspora faces a variety of problems and challenges. The diaspora faces a variety of problems and challenges. The younger generation that is born and brought up in areas younger generation that is born and brought up in areas such as the Middle East, Europe, the United States or in such as the Middle East, Europe, the United States or in South America has to be cared for in different ways and by South America has to be cared for in different ways and by different methods from those to which their fathers and fore- different methods from those to which their fathers and forefathers were accustomed. Attention should be given to the fathers were accustomed. Attention should be given to the particular conditions in which they live today. The Armenian particular conditions in which they live today. The Armenian Church is in tremendous need of self-examination and self- Church is in tremendous need of self-examination and self- assessment. The gap between the church and modern soci- assessment. The gap between the church and modern society, between the people and the younger generation is get- ety, between the people and the younger generation is getting wider and wider. The Church as a whole should adopt ting wider and wider. The Church as a whole should adopt certain principles and indicate certain general lines concern- certain principles and indicate certain general lines concern-

217 217 ing church reforms. Undoubtedly, church renewal and re- ing church reforms. Undoubtedly, church renewal and reforms are growing concerns that touch several domains, forms are growing concerns that touch several domains, structures and dimensions of the church’s life, mission and structures and dimensions of the church’s life, mission and witness. witness. Today, a considerable proportion of the youth are Today, a considerable proportion of the youth are gradually drifting away from active and responsible partici- gradually drifting away from active and responsible participation in the life of the church. This is mainly due to the pation in the life of the church. This is mainly due to the secularization and technologization of society and particu- secularization and technologization of society and particularly the church’s failure to keep pace with the rhythm of larly the church’s failure to keep pace with the rhythm of changing times. It is of paramount importance that the changing times. It is of paramount importance that the church expresses more understanding and openness to the church expresses more understanding and openness to the problems with which youth are struggling and facing. The problems with which youth are struggling and facing. The youth must not be dealt with on the periphery of church life; youth must not be dealt with on the periphery of church life; rather, they should be given deeper and conscious involve- rather, they should be given deeper and conscious involvement and higher responsibility in the decision-making proc- ment and higher responsibility in the decision-making process of church life. ess of church life. In his recent reflections “Towards a Renewed Arme- In his recent reflections “Towards a Renewed Arme- nian Church” (an article appeared in The Armenian Re- nian Church” (an article appeared in The Armenian Re- porter Int’l in December 9, 2000) the pontiff of the Great porter Int’l in December 9, 2000) the pontiff of the Great House of Cilicia, His Holiness Aram I, shares his thoughts House of Cilicia, His Holiness Aram I, shares his thoughts and concerns in regard to a dynamic process of renewal/ and concerns in regard to a dynamic process of renewal/ reformation of the Armenian Church, which is believed to be reformation of the Armenian Church, which is believed to be an urgent necessity and the imperative of changing times. an urgent necessity and the imperative of changing times. Vehapar investigates with realistic approach and perspec- Vehapar investigates with realistic approach and perspective the most important issues of concern: Church unity; tive the most important issues of concern: Church unity; Church liturgy; Moral issues; Christian education; Re- Church liturgy; Moral issues; Christian education; Re- evangelization. evangelization. First: According to His Holiness, church unity must be First: According to His Holiness, church unity must be dealt “realistically, honestly and in an unbiased way within a dealt “realistically, honestly and in an unbiased way within a close and well organized collaboration.” Church unity should close and well organized collaboration.” Church unity should be achieved in a natural way in the life of the people. be achieved in a natural way in the life of the people. Second: Church Liturgy must be communicated and Second: Church Liturgy must be communicated and understood by everyone. To avoid arbitrary decisions and understood by everyone. To avoid arbitrary decisions and provisional arrangements, liturgical renewal must be per- provisional arrangements, liturgical renewal must be per- ceived and achieved with a realistic approach. One should ceived and achieved with a realistic approach. One should

218 218 take into consideration the theology, the tradition, the partake into consideration the theology, the tradition, the par- ticularities of the Armenian liturgy and today’s expectations. ticularities of the Armenian liturgy and today’s expectations. And as always, we should bear in mind that “the goal of lit- And as always, we should bear in mind that “the goal of liturgy is to create spirituality, which transcends all kinds of urgy is to create spirituality, which transcends all kinds of language barriers.” language barriers.” Third: Moral issues of sex and family, abortion, sexual Third: Moral issues of sex and family, abortion, sexual orientation. The church is called to address these issues orientation. The church is called to address these issues and give direction to her congregation, especially to the and give direction to her congregation, especially to the youth. If the Church fails to do so, then the youth will seek youth. If the Church fails to do so, then the youth will seek the answers to their questions in different communities, the answers to their questions in different communities, churches and movements. churches and movements. Fourth: Christian education. The family, Sunday and Fourth: Christian education. The family, Sunday and day school remain sacred institutions and efficient environ- day school remain sacred institutions and efficient environments for transmitting Christian values. These are called to ments for transmitting Christian values. These are called to play in a decisive role in Christian formation. Yet, the De- play in a decisive role in Christian formation. Yet, the De- partment of Christian Education needs to revise, reassess partment of Christian Education needs to revise, reassess and renew its educational structures, methodologies and and renew its educational structures, methodologies and take into consideration the new realities and concerns of the take into consideration the new realities and concerns of the time. time. Fifth: Re-evangelization. His Holiness Aram I, investi- Fifth: Re-evangelization. His Holiness Aram I, investi- gating and evaluating the present situation of the Armenian gating and evaluating the present situation of the Armenian Church, marks his concerns as well as initiates constructive Church, marks his concerns as well as initiates constructive suggestions to overcome the desolate non-satisfactory, sad suggestions to overcome the desolate non-satisfactory, sad condition of the Armenian Church. His Holiness is well condition of the Armenian Church. His Holiness is well aware that Christian values and traditions are in the process aware that Christian values and traditions are in the process of becoming marginalized in the life of the Armenian people of becoming marginalized in the life of the Armenian people all over the world. For a renewed, living and vibrant church all over the world. For a renewed, living and vibrant church and community, he defines creative solutions and impera- and community, he defines creative solutions and imperative tasks for spiritual development, growth and betterment tive tasks for spiritual development, growth and betterment of this divine institution, which must transcend its liturgical, of this divine institution, which must transcend its liturgical, theological and institutional confines. To achieve this, Ve- theological and institutional confines. To achieve this, Ve- hapar urges to consider and find responsible and effective hapar urges to consider and find responsible and effective solutions to the following initiatives: solutions to the following initiatives: a) Special attention must be given to the parish a) Special attention must be given to the parish structure and parish life. structure and parish life.

219 219 b) Attention must be given to youth ministry. The b) Attention must be given to youth ministry. The youth are called to assume an important role in all youth are called to assume an important role in all spheres and in all levels, including the decision- spheres and in all levels, including the decision- making bodies of the church. Also the Armenian making bodies of the church. Also the Armenian woman must have more visible, active and important woman must have more visible, active and important responsibility in the life of the church. responsibility in the life of the church. c) The Armenian Church should develop a responsive c) The Armenian Church should develop a responsive diaconal/social service to deal efficiently with the diaconal/social service to deal efficiently with the growing needs of its people. growing needs of its people. d) The renewal of the Armenian Church requires d) The renewal of the Armenian Church requires spiritually and intellectually equipped clergy, who with spiritually and intellectually equipped clergy, who with renewed calling and dedication will face the chal- renewed calling and dedication will face the challenges of a new society. lenges of a new society.

In his concluding notes, his Holiness states that, “The In his concluding notes, his Holiness states that, “The 1700th anniversary celebrations will soon fade away. The 1700th anniversary celebrations will soon fade away. The great achievement of the 1700th anniversary should be a re- great achievement of the 1700th anniversary should be a renewed church for the Third Millennium. The Armenian newed church for the Third Millennium. The Armenian Church is the church of the people. Our people, and espe- Church is the church of the people. Our people, and especially the youth, must take an active part in the renewal of cially the youth, must take an active part in the renewal of the church. Are we ready to take this challenge seriously the church. Are we ready to take this challenge seriously and responsibly?” and responsibly?”

220 220 JESUS CHRIST IN THE SCRIPTURES AND IN THE JESUS CHRIST IN THE SCRIPTURES AND IN THE NICENE CREED NICENE CREED

“We believe in one God, the Father Almighty, the “We believe in one God, the Father Almighty, the Creator of heaven and earth, of things visible and invisible. Creator of heaven and earth, of things visible and invisible. And in one Lord Jesus Christ, the Son of God, begot- And in one Lord Jesus Christ, the Son of God, begotten of God the Father, Only-Begotten, that is of the sub- ten of God the Father, Only-Begotten, that is of the sub- stance of the Father. God of God, Light of Light, very God of stance of the Father. God of God, Light of Light, very God of very God, Begotten and not made. Himself of the very na- very God, Begotten and not made. Himself of the very nature of the Father by whom all things came into being in ture of the Father by whom all things came into being in heaven and on earth, both visible and invisible. heaven and on earth, both visible and invisible. Who for us men, and for our salvation coming down Who for us men, and for our salvation coming down from heaven, was incarnate, was made man, was born per- from heaven, was incarnate, was made man, was born per- fectly of the Holy Virgin Mary by the Holy Ghost…” (Nicene fectly of the Holy Virgin Mary by the Holy Ghost…” (Nicene Creed) Creed)

The Holy Universal and Apostolic Church anathema- The Holy Universal and Apostolic Church anathema- tizes those who say there was a time when the Son did not tizes those who say there was a time when the Son did not exist, or there was a time when the Holy Ghost did not exist, exist, or there was a time when the Holy Ghost did not exist, or that they came into being out of nothing, or who say that or that they came into being out of nothing, or who say that either the Son of God or the Holy Ghost is of different es- either the Son of God or the Holy Ghost is of different essence; or that they are changeable or alterable. sence; or that they are changeable or alterable.

We glorify Him, who existed before all eternities, bow- We glorify Him, who existed before all eternities, bow- ing down to the Holy Trinity and the One God-head, the Fa- ing down to the Holy Trinity and the One God-head, the Fa- ther and the Son and the Holy Ghost, now and always and ther and the Son and the Holy Ghost, now and always and forever, and ever. Amen. (Arm. Divine Liturgy) forever, and ever. Amen. (Arm. Divine Liturgy)

Led by an Alexandrian theologian named Arius, one Led by an Alexandrian theologian named Arius, one school of thought argued that Jesus had undoubtedly been school of thought argued that Jesus had undoubtedly been a remarkable leader, but he was not God in flesh. Arius ar- a remarkable leader, but he was not God in flesh. Arius argued and brought forward biblical verses illustrating differ- gued and brought forward biblical verses illustrating differences between Jesus and God, such as John 14:28 “the ences between Jesus and God, such as John 14:28 “the Father is greater than I”. Arius argued that Jesus of Naz- Father is greater than I”. Arius argued that Jesus of Naz- areth could not possibly share God the Father’s unique areth could not possibly share God the Father’s unique

221 221 divinity. In the Da Vinchi Code, the heretic author and fic- divinity. In the Da Vinchi Code, the heretic author and fic- tional thriller Dan Brown, adopts Arius as his representative tional thriller Dan Brown, adopts Arius as his representative for all pre-Nicene Christianity. Referring to the Council of for all pre-Nicene Christianity. Referring to the Council of Nicea, which condemned Arius and his false teachings, Nicea, which condemned Arius and his false teachings, Brown claims that ‘until that moment in history, Jesus was Brown claims that ‘until that moment in history, Jesus was viewed by His followers as a mortal prophet... a great and viewed by His followers as a mortal prophet... a great and powerful man, but a man’. powerful man, but a man’. It is fact that early Christians overwhelmingly wor- It is fact that early Christians overwhelmingly worshipped Jesus Christ as their risen Savior and Lord. Before shipped Jesus Christ as their risen Savior and Lord. Before the church adopted doctrinal creeds, early Christian leaders the church adopted doctrinal creeds, early Christian leaders and church fathers developed a set of instructional summa- and church fathers developed a set of instructional summa- ries of belief, termed the ‘Canon’ of Faith, which affirmed ries of belief, termed the ‘Canon’ of Faith, which affirmed this truth. For example, the canon of prominent second cen- this truth. For example, the canon of prominent second century bishop Irenaeus took its cue from I Corinthians 8:6, ‘Yet tury bishop Irenaeus took its cue from I Corinthians 8:6, ‘Yet for us there is but one God, the Father, from whom all for us there is but one God, the Father, from whom all things came and for whom we live; and there is but one things came and for whom we live; and there is but one Lord/Kyrios, Jesus Christ’. In Greek language, Kyrios was Lord/Kyrios, Jesus Christ’. In Greek language, Kyrios was used to denote divinity; for Christians this term became the used to denote divinity; for Christians this term became the preferred substitution for ‘Jahweh’, the holy name of God. preferred substitution for ‘Jahweh’, the holy name of God. The Christians took over this usage of Kyrios and ap- The Christians took over this usage of Kyrios and applied it to Jesus, from the earliest days of the Church. Pre- plied it to Jesus, from the earliest days of the Church. Pre- Nicene Christians acknowledged Jesus’s divinity by petition- Nicene Christians acknowledged Jesus’s divinity by petition- ing God the Father in Christ’s name. Church Fathers, in- ing God the Father in Christ’s name. Church Fathers, including Justin Martyr, a second-century and the first great cluding Justin Martyr, a second-century and the first great church apologist, baptized in the name of the triune God – church apologist, baptized in the name of the triune God – Father, Son, and Holy Spirit– thereby acknowledging the Father, Son, and Holy Spirit– thereby acknowledging the equality of the one Lord’s three distinct persons. equality of the one Lord’s three distinct persons. The Council of Nicea did not entirely end the contro- The Council of Nicea did not entirely end the controversy over Arius’s teachings, but affirmed the historic and versy over Arius’s teachings, but affirmed the historic and standard Christian beliefs, erecting a united front against standard Christian beliefs, erecting a united front against future efforts to dilute Christ’s gift of salvation. Such at- future efforts to dilute Christ’s gift of salvation. Such attempts was made by the Gnostic religious movement in tempts was made by the Gnostic religious movement in second century. second century. Around 140 a Gnostic leader named Marcion began Around 140 a Gnostic leader named Marcion began spreading a theory that the New and Old Testaments didn’t spreading a theory that the New and Old Testaments didn’t

222 222 share the same God. Marcion argued that the O.T.’s God share the same God. Marcion argued that the O.T.’s God represent law and wrath, while the N.T.’s God, represented represent law and wrath, while the N.T.’s God, represented by Christ, exemplified love. As a result Marcion rejected the by Christ, exemplified love. As a result Marcion rejected the O.T. and the most overtly Jewish N.T. writings, including O.T. and the most overtly Jewish N.T. writings, including Matthew, Mark, Acts, and Hebrews. In 144 the Church in Matthew, Mark, Acts, and Hebrews. In 144 the Church in Rome declared his views heretical, Marcion’s teaching Rome declared his views heretical, Marcion’s teaching sparked a new cult. Challenged by Marcion’s threat, Church sparked a new cult. Challenged by Marcion’s threat, Church leaders began to consider earnestly their own views on a leaders began to consider earnestly their own views on a definitive list of Scriptural books including both the Old and definitive list of Scriptural books including both the Old and New Testaments. New Testaments. Dan Brown’s claims resemble those of Arius and his Dan Brown’s claims resemble those of Arius and his numerous heirs throughout history, who have contradicted numerous heirs throughout history, who have contradicted the united testimony of the apostles and the early Church the united testimony of the apostles and the early Church they built. Those Scriptures, testaments and historical re- they built. Those Scriptures, testaments and historical records always attested that Jesus Christ was and remains cords always attested that Jesus Christ was and remains God himself. God himself.

St. MARY: “THE BEARER OF GOD” or AN ORDINARY St. MARY: “THE BEARER OF GOD” or AN ORDINARY WOMAN WOMAN In 1854 the Catholic Church, as a dogma, established In 1854 the Catholic Church, as a dogma, established the concept of the “Immaculate Conception” based on the the concept of the “Immaculate Conception” based on the belief that Mary, unlike normal births, was conceived in her belief that Mary, unlike normal births, was conceived in her mother Anna’s womb without the slightest taint of Original mother Anna’s womb without the slightest taint of Original Sin. Sin. Although the Armenian Church celebrates the feast of Although the Armenian Church celebrates the feast of Anna’s Conception, it rejects it as a dogma. Mary as a child Anna’s Conception, it rejects it as a dogma. Mary as a child was dedicated to the temple. She was later espoused to Jo- was dedicated to the temple. She was later espoused to Jo- seph and they lived together in Nazareth. seph and they lived together in Nazareth. The Bible gives details of the Annunciation to Mary by The Bible gives details of the Annunciation to Mary by the angel Gabriel: “You will conceive in your womb, and the angel Gabriel: “You will conceive in your womb, and bring forth a Son, and shall call his name Jesus. He will be bring forth a Son, and shall call his name Jesus. He will be great, and will be called the Son of the Highest…” (Luke great, and will be called the Son of the Highest…” (Luke 1:31-32). Jesus was born in Bethlehem. The shepherds and 1:31-32). Jesus was born in Bethlehem. The shepherds and the Magi who came from the East under the guidance of the Magi who came from the East under the guidance of the Star were the first to worship and offer gifts of gold, the Star were the first to worship and offer gifts of gold,

223 223 frankincense and myrrh to the infant Jesus. frankincense and myrrh to the infant Jesus.

According to Saint Matthew chapter 2:13, when the According to Saint Matthew chapter 2:13, when the Magi departed, “behold the angel of the Lord appeared to Magi departed, “behold the angel of the Lord appeared to Joseph in a dream, saying, ‘Arise and take the young Child Joseph in a dream, saying, ‘Arise and take the young Child and his mother, flee to Egypt, and stay there until I bring and his mother, flee to Egypt, and stay there until I bring you word; for Herod will seek the young Child to destroy you word; for Herod will seek the young Child to destroy Him”’. After this, for a long time nothing is said in the New Him”’. After this, for a long time nothing is said in the New Testament about Mary’s life. Testament about Mary’s life. Then the Bible describes the incident of the marriage Then the Bible describes the incident of the marriage at Cana, when Mary was present. There it is also stated that at Cana, when Mary was present. There it is also stated that she was among the women standing at the foot of the she was among the women standing at the foot of the Cross, when Jesus was crucified in Golgotha, and almost Cross, when Jesus was crucified in Golgotha, and almost with his last breath, Jesus entrusted her to the apostle John. with his last breath, Jesus entrusted her to the apostle John. In the Acts of the Apostles, she is mentioned as one of the In the Acts of the Apostles, she is mentioned as one of the band of disciples and was always with them in Jerusalem band of disciples and was always with them in Jerusalem after the Ascension. after the Ascension.

The Ecumenical Council of Constantinople was con- The Ecumenical Council of Constantinople was con- vened in the year 381 by the order of emperor Theodosius. vened in the year 381 by the order of emperor Theodosius. 150 bishops participated. The object of the Council was to 150 bishops participated. The object of the Council was to debate on the subject of the heresy of Macedon who was debate on the subject of the heresy of Macedon who was teaching that the Holy Spirit was not an equal standing with teaching that the Holy Spirit was not an equal standing with the Father and the Son. The Council criticized, denounced the Father and the Son. The Council criticized, denounced and anathematized Macedon and condemned his teach- and anathematized Macedon and condemned his teachings/movement. The Council then declared the doctrine of ings/movement. The Council then declared the doctrine of the equality of the H. Spirit with the Father and the Son, the equality of the H. Spirit with the Father and the Son, thus ending a fierce theological controversy and a long dis- thus ending a fierce theological controversy and a long dis- pute about the Trinitarian doctrine. pute about the Trinitarian doctrine. From the very early days of Christianity, a very deep From the very early days of Christianity, a very deep respect and reverence was shown to the Virgin Mary. Dur- respect and reverence was shown to the Virgin Mary. Dur- ing the period of doctrinal disputes and debates, her name ing the period of doctrinal disputes and debates, her name was often mentioned, and in the Ecumenical Council of was often mentioned, and in the Ecumenical Council of Ephesus, held in 431, as a doctrinal principal she was for- Ephesus, held in 431, as a doctrinal principal she was formally declared as “Mother of God”. mally declared as “Mother of God”.

224 224 In 431 emperor Theodosius summoned the Third In 431 emperor Theodosius summoned the Third Ecumenical Council in Ephesus, to debate on the heretical Ecumenical Council in Ephesus, to debate on the heretical teachings of Nestorius. 200 bishops participated. Nestorius teachings of Nestorius. 200 bishops participated. Nestorius then Patriarch of Constantinople (428), declared that ‘God- then Patriarch of Constantinople (428), declared that ‘God- Bearer’ or ‘Mother of God’ as applied to the Virgin Mary was Bearer’ or ‘Mother of God’ as applied to the Virgin Mary was unsuitable and doubtful. He also was suggesting that Christ unsuitable and doubtful. He also was suggesting that Christ was born as a man like any of us and later the nature of was born as a man like any of us and later the nature of God dwelt in him. The Council of Ephesus, headed by the God dwelt in him. The Council of Ephesus, headed by the Patriarch Cyril of Alexandria condemned the heretical Patriarch Cyril of Alexandria condemned the heretical teachings of Nestorius and restated/ affirmed the Orthodox teachings of Nestorius and restated/ affirmed the Orthodox teachings of the Church formally declaring that Virgin Mary teachings of the Church formally declaring that Virgin Mary is ‘God-Bearer/ Mother of God’ and the union of Christ’s two is ‘God-Bearer/ Mother of God’ and the union of Christ’s two natures (human and divine). The Arm. Church states that natures (human and divine). The Arm. Church states that our Lord was truly God and truly man, laying equal stress our Lord was truly God and truly man, laying equal stress on both statements. He was one person and had one na- on both statements. He was one person and had one nature, and the Holy Virgin is the ‘God Bearer’. ture, and the Holy Virgin is the ‘God Bearer’. The religious thinking of the Middle Ages was greatly The religious thinking of the Middle Ages was greatly inspired and influenced by Virgin Mary’s fascinating charm. inspired and influenced by Virgin Mary’s fascinating charm. Many painters, poets and composers of religious songs re- Many painters, poets and composers of religious songs received their creative impulse and inspiration from her. ceived their creative impulse and inspiration from her. Armenian church hymns devoted to the Virgin Mary, most of Armenian church hymns devoted to the Virgin Mary, most of which are ascribed to Movses Kertogh (Moses the poet), which are ascribed to Movses Kertogh (Moses the poet), bear the mark of simplicity, charm, tenderness and delicacy bear the mark of simplicity, charm, tenderness and delicacy of feeling and are considered among the best classical Ar- of feeling and are considered among the best classical Ar- menian literary gems. Equally elegant and beautiful are also menian literary gems. Equally elegant and beautiful are also the songs and melodies devoted to the “God–bearer”, which the songs and melodies devoted to the “God–bearer”, which are sung in the church on the various occasions of her are sung in the church on the various occasions of her feast. days. Among these hymns, the most significant one is feast. days. Among these hymns, the most significant one is that which is sung during the feast of the Assumption of the that which is sung during the feast of the Assumption of the Blessed Virgin Mary and which, with its magnificent literary Blessed Virgin Mary and which, with its magnificent literary qualities, panegyrizes the “Mother of God”. qualities, panegyrizes the “Mother of God”. As we think about St. Mary, we must remember that As we think about St. Mary, we must remember that she was a complete human being just as you and I are. Yet, she was a complete human being just as you and I are. Yet, there is one area in which we are called to imitate her and there is one area in which we are called to imitate her and to follow her example. She was obedient to God’s will. As a to follow her example. She was obedient to God’s will. As a

225 225 result, Jesus Christ was born into the world. As individuals result, Jesus Christ was born into the world. As individuals and as the Church, we too, are called to be obedient to and as the Church, we too, are called to be obedient to God’s will. It is through our example of obedience that the God’s will. It is through our example of obedience that the world can again see the saving influence and power of Je- world can again see the saving influence and power of Je- sus Christ. sus Christ. We honor St. Mary, Theotokos; “the bearer of God”, We honor St. Mary, Theotokos; “the bearer of God”, the Mother-of-God, because of her very special mother- the Mother-of-God, because of her very special mother- hood. As Mary is the mother of Christ, so she is the mother hood. As Mary is the mother of Christ, so she is the mother of all those in whom Christ lives. Therefore, we have the of all those in whom Christ lives. Therefore, we have the right to claim Mary as our mother, in so far as we identify right to claim Mary as our mother, in so far as we identify ourselves with Jesus by grace and true Christian life. Eve is ourselves with Jesus by grace and true Christian life. Eve is our natural mother, because she is the origin of our natural our natural mother, because she is the origin of our natural life. Mary is our spiritual mother, because she gave birth to life. Mary is our spiritual mother, because she gave birth to the One, who became the origin and source of our spiritual the One, who became the origin and source of our spiritual life. life.

We must realize and declare that nothing has exer- We must realize and declare that nothing has exercised a more profound and a more salutary influence upon cised a more profound and a more salutary influence upon Armenian womanhood than devotion to and veneration of Armenian womanhood than devotion to and veneration of the holy Virgin Mary. If Armenian women had higher moral the holy Virgin Mary. If Armenian women had higher moral attributes in the East than their sisters in other neighboring attributes in the East than their sisters in other neighboring nations, it was mostly due to the high esteem that our nations, it was mostly due to the high esteem that our Church has about this holy woman, the mother of Christ. Church has about this holy woman, the mother of Christ.

226 226 SEXUAL ORIENTATION SEXUAL ORIENTATION

THROUGH THE LENS OF SCRIPTURE THROUGH THE LENS OF SCRIPTURE

“In the beginning God “In the beginning God made us male and fe- made us male and female to live in Covenant male to live in Covenant with God and with one with God and with one another” (Genesis 1:27). another” (Genesis 1:27).

In June of 2015 the U.S. Supreme Court decided that In June of 2015 the U.S. Supreme Court decided that same-sex couples have a right to marry throughout the same-sex couples have a right to marry throughout the United States. However, the decision affects only civil mar- United States. However, the decision affects only civil marriages. Churches and clergy continue to have the right to riages. Churches and clergy continue to have the right to decide whom to marry and which marriages to recognize as decide whom to marry and which marriages to recognize as valid. The court decision states: valid. The court decision states: Finally, it must be emphasized that religions, and Finally, it must be emphasized that religions, and those who adhere to religious doctrines, may continue to those who adhere to religious doctrines, may continue to advocate with utmost, sincere conviction that, by divine pre- advocate with utmost, sincere conviction that, by divine precepts, same-sex marriage should not be condoned. The cepts, same-sex marriage should not be condoned. The First Amendment ensures that religious organizations and First Amendment ensures that religious organizations and persons are given proper protection as they seek to teach persons are given proper protection as they seek to teach the principles that are so fulfilling and so central to their the principles that are so fulfilling and so central to their lives and faiths, and to their own deep aspirations to con- lives and faiths, and to their own deep aspirations to continue the family structure they have long revered. tinue the family structure they have long revered.

DEFINITIONS OF SEXUALITY DEFINITIONS OF SEXUALITY Because sexuality is so intimate and significant a Because sexuality is so intimate and significant a part of human life, it is not easy to talk about. In some socie- part of human life, it is not easy to talk about. In some societies, the subject is taboo. It affects our lives deeply, influ- ties, the subject is taboo. It affects our lives deeply, influences our behavior and is a vital arena for our faith. ences our behavior and is a vital arena for our faith. Our sexuality is something much wider than sex, Our sexuality is something much wider than sex, which is the drive to coition. It includes all those physical, which is the drive to coition. It includes all those physical, psychological and spiritual dimensions of human nature, by psychological and spiritual dimensions of human nature, by virtue of which we are drawn to other people. Our sexuality virtue of which we are drawn to other people. Our sexuality

227 227 is as truly and completely a part of our nature as is our ra- is as truly and completely a part of our nature as is our ra- tionality; we are sexual beings. The most intense expres- tionality; we are sexual beings. The most intense expression of our sexuality is in genital acts, but it is also ex- sion of our sexuality is in genital acts, but it is also expressed in various degrees of intensity in relationships pressed in various degrees of intensity in relationships which have no place for such acts, for instance in family af- which have no place for such acts, for instance in family affection and in friendship. In other realms of life, it furnishes fection and in friendship. In other realms of life, it furnishes much of the inspiration and subject matter for the creative much of the inspiration and subject matter for the creative arts; it is intertwined with religious feeling and activity. It is arts; it is intertwined with religious feeling and activity. It is one of the motive forces of history, capable of creating ei- one of the motive forces of history, capable of creating either good or evil. It is part of all human relationships, and ther good or evil. It is part of all human relationships, and there are very few human activities into which it does not there are very few human activities into which it does not enter. enter. Our sexuality then is something made as given, part Our sexuality then is something made as given, part of God’s creation. According to Genesis 1:27, God made us of God’s creation. According to Genesis 1:27, God made us male and female. Our sexuality is the product of biology and male and female. Our sexuality is the product of biology and in this sense given. Yet it is also a social construct. That is in this sense given. Yet it is also a social construct. That is as we grow up in our families, we learn what it means to be as we grow up in our families, we learn what it means to be sexual persons. We acquire attitudes, we take on particular sexual persons. We acquire attitudes, we take on particular male or female roles, and we learn special sexual values. male or female roles, and we learn special sexual values. Our culture and society have influenced these affectional Our culture and society have influenced these affectional orientations, which includes our attitudes about our bodies orientations, which includes our attitudes about our bodies and those of others. and those of others. As children move out into the community through As children move out into the community through friendships, school, workplace etc.; these social attitudes friendships, school, workplace etc.; these social attitudes may be reinforced or changed. may be reinforced or changed.

WHAT IS HOMOSEXUALITY WHAT IS HOMOSEXUALITY Homosexuality has become a subject of major contro- Homosexuality has become a subject of major controversy in society and church. While homosexual practices versy in society and church. While homosexual practices have been recorded since the dawn of human history, they have been recorded since the dawn of human history, they have also been denounced, banished or proscribed in East- have also been denounced, banished or proscribed in East- ern as well as Western civilizations since the beginning of ern as well as Western civilizations since the beginning of the Christian era. the Christian era. In all peoples, societies and professional groups there In all peoples, societies and professional groups there have been and are people who prefer partnership and have been and are people who prefer partnership and

228 228 sexual relations with persons of the same sex. In the past, sexual relations with persons of the same sex. In the past, these persons have always been discriminated against these persons have always been discriminated against more or less strongly. While there have been exceptions to more or less strongly. While there have been exceptions to this, especially in ancient Greece, and some Muslim coun- this, especially in ancient Greece, and some Muslim countries. Male homosexuality in Muslim cultures has been re- tries. Male homosexuality in Muslim cultures has been regarded as strength and male dominion. In Islamic Sufi litera- garded as strength and male dominion. In Islamic Sufi literature, homosexual eroticism was used as a metaphorical ex- ture, homosexual eroticism was used as a metaphorical expression of spiritual relationship between God and man, and pression of spiritual relationship between God and man, and much Persian poetry and fiction used homosexual relation- much Persian poetry and fiction used homosexual relationships as examples of moral love. The Koran and early reli- ships as examples of moral love. The Koran and early religious writings display a mildly negative attitude towards ho- gious writings display a mildly negative attitude towards homosexuality. Muslim cultures seem to treat homosexuality mosexuality. Muslim cultures seem to treat homosexuality with indifference, if not admiration. with indifference, if not admiration. Efforts to legitimize the homosexual behavior- Efforts to legitimize the homosexual behavior- experience and accord full human rights to homosexual per- experience and accord full human rights to homosexual persons, constitutes a social movement of recent origin. This sons, constitutes a social movement of recent origin. This movement for social liberation has received both resistance movement for social liberation has received both resistance and opposition from churches. Hence, the moral and legal and opposition from churches. Hence, the moral and legal status of homosexual persons and their place in society, status of homosexual persons and their place in society, raises complex and difficult questions with personal, social raises complex and difficult questions with personal, social and pastoral dimensions. and pastoral dimensions. Living alongside homosexual persons on the job, in Living alongside homosexual persons on the job, in the neighborhood, within the circle of friends or relatives the neighborhood, within the circle of friends or relatives leads to a reconsideration of traditional social or individual leads to a reconsideration of traditional social or individual prejudices. A second factor was the exposure of individuals prejudices. A second factor was the exposure of individuals or groups in a good number of churches and congregations or groups in a good number of churches and congregations to the investigations and findings of modern empirical re- to the investigations and findings of modern empirical research on sexuality. search on sexuality. In countries where Christians are the majority, the In countries where Christians are the majority, the churches in the past have usually played an important role churches in the past have usually played an important role in formulating and administering family law. Birth, marriage, in formulating and administering family law. Birth, marriage, divorce, remarriage and burial were often the subject of divorce, remarriage and burial were often the subject of canon law and ecclesiastical rites; thus a considerable part canon law and ecclesiastical rites; thus a considerable part of the responsibility for public morality and especially for the of the responsibility for public morality and especially for the regulation of sexual relations lay with church officials. Not regulation of sexual relations lay with church officials. Not

229 229 until the latter half of the 19th century did some states begin until the latter half of the 19th century did some states begin to take marriage and family law out of the jurisdiction of the to take marriage and family law out of the jurisdiction of the churches and establish it as religiously neutral. To this day, churches and establish it as religiously neutral. To this day, conflicts between church and state are often touched off conflicts between church and state are often touched off when state laws, which apply to all citizens whatever their when state laws, which apply to all citizens whatever their religious and ideological convictions, do not form the outset religious and ideological convictions, do not form the outset accord with the moral principles and canonical provisions of accord with the moral principles and canonical provisions of the churches. Many churches have sought and are seeking the churches. Many churches have sought and are seeking a way to have as many of their ethical principles as possible a way to have as many of their ethical principles as possible incorporated into the laws of even secular states. incorporated into the laws of even secular states. In fact, the history of church attitudes to homosexual In fact, the history of church attitudes to homosexual persons is not always clear. Sexual orientation still repre- persons is not always clear. Sexual orientation still represents one of the most challenging situations facing Christian sents one of the most challenging situations facing Christian churches. The ways in which churches respond vary churches. The ways in which churches respond vary greatly. Some, as Orthodox Churches of the Middle East, greatly. Some, as Orthodox Churches of the Middle East, ignore it, but history and the facts show that it won’t go ignore it, but history and the facts show that it won’t go away. Some seek to bury or avoid it, with as little success. away. Some seek to bury or avoid it, with as little success. Some seek to face it openly whatever the consequences Some seek to face it openly whatever the consequences may be. More and more, it has become a critical test of may be. More and more, it has become a critical test of faithfulness as churches struggle to know what is God’s will faithfulness as churches struggle to know what is God’s will for us as sexual beings. Part of the confusion is that in for us as sexual beings. Part of the confusion is that in wrestling with issues related to homosexuality, we are wres- wrestling with issues related to homosexuality, we are wrestling with ourselves, our bodies, our status as sexual beings tling with ourselves, our bodies, our status as sexual beings within the embrace of God’s creation. within the embrace of God’s creation. There seem to be two major ways of understanding There seem to be two major ways of understanding how one’s sexual orientation is produced. One, which is how one’s sexual orientation is produced. One, which is called the “social constructivist” view, regards homosexual- called the “social constructivist” view, regards homosexuality as a behavior produced and interpreted in different ways ity as a behavior produced and interpreted in different ways by different societies at different times. One version of this, by different societies at different times. One version of this, which was current for some time, was that it is the result of which was current for some time, was that it is the result of very complex psychosocial factors. The other view, which very complex psychosocial factors. The other view, which has largely been adopted by many churches, is that homo- has largely been adopted by many churches, is that homosexuality is of the essence of a person, given in that per- sexuality is of the essence of a person, given in that person’s biological and/or psychological make up. The testi- son’s biological and/or psychological make up. The testimony of many homosexual persons seems clear, that they mony of many homosexual persons seems clear, that they

230 230 did not choose to be homosexual. More attention is currently being paid to possible biological elements. A 1986 Lutheran Church of America study cites research, which shows that the line between male and female is not as rigid as has been supposed. The data suggests that sexual orientation and behavior may have a neurobio- logical explanation. A study of the Episcopal Church in the USA, in 1991, summarizes the research conclusions of eleven notable scientists on homosexuality in the following points: “The exact causes of heterosexuality and homosexuality are unknown. Homosexuality and heterosexuality are likely to be the result of an interaction of several different factors, including genetic, hormonal and environmental factors. Psychological and social influences alone cannot cause homosexuality. A biological (genetic, hormonal, neurological, or other) predisposition towards a homosexual, bisexual, or heterosexual orientation is present at birth in all boys and girls. None of the contributing factors alone can cause homosexuality. Sexual orientation cannot be changed permanently through therapy.”

THE BIBLE AND HOMOSEXUALITY The scriptures do not evade the topic. They face it head on. The Bible has considerable material for reflection on the subject of human sexual behavior. The Bible sheds light on marriage and family as central to the divine purpose for human sexuality and its responsible uses in relation to God’s covenant with Israel. The Bible generally teaches against any sexual relations except between husband and wife. The Bible specifically mentions sexual intercourse between persons of the same sex as among the forbidden acts. Homosexual acts are mentioned in seven Bible passages:

231 Old Testament Old Testament a) The first mention in the Bible is in Genesis 19:1-13. a) The first mention in the Bible is in Genesis 19:1-13. “The wicked men of Sodom attempted a homosexual “The wicked men of Sodom attempted a homosexual rape of two messengers from God who had come to rape of two messengers from God who had come to visit Lot. As a result of this and other widespread wick- visit Lot. As a result of this and other widespread wickedness, God destroyed the cities of Sodom and Gomor- edness, God destroyed the cities of Sodom and Gomor- rah in a storm of fire and brimstone”. rah in a storm of fire and brimstone”. The next two mentions are in Leviticus. “You shall The next two mentions are in Leviticus. “You shall not lie with a male as with a woman. It is an abomina- not lie with a male as with a woman. It is an abomination” (Leviticus 18:22). tion” (Leviticus 18:22). “If a man lies with a male as he lies with a woman, “If a man lies with a male as he lies with a woman, both of them have committed an abomination. They both of them have committed an abomination. They shall surely be put to death. Their blood shall be upon shall surely be put to death. Their blood shall be upon them” (Leviticus 20:13). them” (Leviticus 20:13). Starting with the two creation stories in the opening Starting with the two creation stories in the opening chapters of Genesis (Gen.1:28; 2:18-24) and including a va- chapters of Genesis (Gen.1:28; 2:18-24) and including a variety of narratives found in the historical books of Genesis riety of narratives found in the historical books of Genesis 9:21-27; 19:4-11; Leviticus 18:22; 20:13; Deut.22:5; 23:17; 9:21-27; 19:4-11; Leviticus 18:22; 20:13; Deut.22:5; 23:17; Judges 19:16-26; Kings 14:24; 15:12; 22:46). The story Judges 19:16-26; Kings 14:24; 15:12; 22:46). The story concerning the men of Sodom (Gen.19:4-11) has been a concerning the men of Sodom (Gen.19:4-11) has been a traditional stand for homosexual condemnation. traditional stand for homosexual condemnation.

New Testament New Testament b) It must be emphasized that, according to the New b) It must be emphasized that, according to the New Testament, we are no longer under the harsh Old Testa- Testament, we are no longer under the harsh Old Testa- ment Law (John 1:16-17, Romans 8:1-3, 1 Corinthians 9:20- ment Law (John 1:16-17, Romans 8:1-3, 1 Corinthians 9:20- 21). The concern with punishment is now secondary to Je- 21). The concern with punishment is now secondary to Je- sus' message of repentance and redemption. Both reward sus' message of repentance and redemption. Both reward and punishment are seen as properly taking place in eter- and punishment are seen as properly taking place in eternity, rather than in this life. nity, rather than in this life. Jesus never mentioned homosexuality, but He did Jesus never mentioned homosexuality, but He did condemn all forms of sexual immorality: “What comes out condemn all forms of sexual immorality: “What comes out of you is what defiles you. For from within, out of your of you is what defiles you. For from within, out of your hearts, come evil thoughts, sexual immorality, theft, hearts, come evil thoughts, sexual immorality, theft, murder, adultery, greed, malice, deceit, lewdness, envy, murder, adultery, greed, malice, deceit, lewdness, envy,

232 232 slander, arrogance and folly. All these evils come from slander, arrogance and folly. All these evils come from inside and defile you”(Mark 7:20-23). inside and defile you”(Mark 7:20-23). The apostle Paul, in one of his letters to the Corin- The apostle Paul, in one of his letters to the Corin- thians, wrote the verses most often quoted on this subject: thians, wrote the verses most often quoted on this subject: “Do you not know that the wicked will not inherit the “Do you not know that the wicked will not inherit the kingdom of God? Do not be deceived: Neither the sexu- kingdom of God? Do not be deceived: Neither the sexually immoral nor idolaters nor adulterers nor male pros- ally immoral nor idolaters nor adulterers nor male prostitutes nor homosexual offenders nor thieves nor the titutes nor homosexual offenders nor thieves nor the greedy nor drunkards nor slanderers nor swindlers will greedy nor drunkards nor slanderers nor swindlers will inherit the kingdom of God. And that is what some of inherit the kingdom of God. And that is what some of you were. But you were washed, you were sanctified, you were. But you were washed, you were sanctified, you were justified in the name of the Lord Jesus Christ you were justified in the name of the Lord Jesus Christ and by the Spirit of our God” (1st Corinthians 6:9-11). and by the Spirit of our God” (1st Corinthians 6:9-11). There are two other New Testament mentions of ho- There are two other New Testament mentions of homosexual acts, in Romans 1:25-27 and 1 Timothy 1:8-10. In mosexual acts, in Romans 1:25-27 and 1 Timothy 1:8-10. In this passage from Romans, again in the context of idolatry, this passage from Romans, again in the context of idolatry, Paul mentions women who "exchanged natural relations Paul mentions women who "exchanged natural relations for unnatural ones." This is the only mention of lesbian for unnatural ones." This is the only mention of lesbian acts: “They exchanged the truth of God for a lie, and acts: “They exchanged the truth of God for a lie, and worshiped and served created things rather than the worshiped and served created things rather than the Creator-- who is forever praised. Amen. ‘Because of Creator-- who is forever praised. Amen. ‘Because of this, God gave them over to shameful lusts. Even their this, God gave them over to shameful lusts. Even their women exchanged natural relations for unnatural ones. women exchanged natural relations for unnatural ones. In the same way the men also abandoned natural rela- In the same way the men also abandoned natural relations with women and were inflamed with lust for one tions with women and were inflamed with lust for one another. Men committed indecent acts with other men, another. Men committed indecent acts with other men, and received in themselves the due penalty for their and received in themselves the due penalty for their perversion”(Romans 1:25-27). perversion”(Romans 1:25-27). “We know that the law is good if one uses it prop- “We know that the law is good if one uses it properly. We also know that the law is made not for the erly. We also know that the law is made not for the righteous but for lawbreakers and rebels, the ungodly righteous but for lawbreakers and rebels, the ungodly and sinful, the unholy and irreligious, for those who kill and sinful, the unholy and irreligious, for those who kill their fathers or mothers, for murderers, for the sexually their fathers or mothers, for murderers, for the sexually immoral, for those practicing homosexuality, for slave immoral, for those practicing homosexuality, for slave traders and liars and perjurers—and for whatever else traders and liars and perjurers—and for whatever else

233 233 is contrary to the sound doctrine that conforms to the is contrary to the sound doctrine that conforms to the gospel concerning the glory of the blessed God, which gospel concerning the glory of the blessed God, which he entrusted to me” (1 Timothy 1:8-10). he entrusted to me” (1 Timothy 1:8-10). The Bible prohibits homosexual intercourse and The Bible prohibits homosexual intercourse and teaches that homosexual acts of all kinds are serious teaches that homosexual acts of all kinds are serious sins. Homosexual behavior is prohibited in Scripture sins. Homosexual behavior is prohibited in Scripture (Leviticus 20:13) and was a major cause of the divine judg- (Leviticus 20:13) and was a major cause of the divine judgment against Sodom and Gomorrah (Genesis 19:4-5, 12- ment against Sodom and Gomorrah (Genesis 19:4-5, 12- 13). 13). The apostle Paul listed homosexuals among “the un- The apostle Paul listed homosexuals among “the unrighteous” who would not inherit the kingdom of God righteous” who would not inherit the kingdom of God (1 Corinthians 6:9), and declared that God’s wrath stands (1 Corinthians 6:9), and declared that God’s wrath stands against such behavior, whether practiced by men or women against such behavior, whether practiced by men or women (Romans 1:26-27). (Romans 1:26-27).

The New Testament is likewise eloquent in its testi- The New Testament is likewise eloquent in its testimony to marriage and family as the embodiment of the di- mony to marriage and family as the embodiment of the divine purpose for human sexuality. The gospel passages on vine purpose for human sexuality. The gospel passages on marriage and divorce (Matt.5:31-32; 19:1-9; Mark 10:1-2; marriage and divorce (Matt.5:31-32; 19:1-9; Mark 10:1-2; Luke 16:18) and on celibacy for the sake of the kingdom of Luke 16:18) and on celibacy for the sake of the kingdom of God (Matt.19:10-12; on sexual desires Matt.5:27-30; Ro- God (Matt.19:10-12; on sexual desires Matt.5:27-30; Ro- mans 1:26-27; 1:18-3:20; I Cor.6:9-10)are clear. Paul con- mans 1:26-27; 1:18-3:20; I Cor.6:9-10)are clear. Paul con- demns all forms of sexual activities that result from a con- demns all forms of sexual activities that result from a conscious choice. He understands homosexuality to be the in- scious choice. He understands homosexuality to be the intentional perversion of one’s natural, heterosexual orienta- tentional perversion of one’s natural, heterosexual orientation. Homosexual acts according to Paul are a self-chosen tion. Homosexual acts according to Paul are a self-chosen sexual “exchange” for which a person is responsible and sexual “exchange” for which a person is responsible and held accountable… like any other sinful behavior such as held accountable… like any other sinful behavior such as gossip, malice, covetousness, disobedience to parents, and gossip, malice, covetousness, disobedience to parents, and other sins of the mind and heart that stand in need of re- other sins of the mind and heart that stand in need of redemption. demption. The good human sexuality was understood to be a The good human sexuality was understood to be a social good, the establishment of a stable family for the pro- social good, the establishment of a stable family for the pro- creation and education of children. Thomas Aquinas puts creation and education of children. Thomas Aquinas puts forth as his primary rational argument for sexual monogamy forth as his primary rational argument for sexual monogamy

234 234 and the indissolubility of marriage the consideration that and the indissolubility of marriage the consideration that such conditions were essential to marriage in order to pro- such conditions were essential to marriage in order to promote the social good. Sex required marriage, and marriage mote the social good. Sex required marriage, and marriage required monogamy to ensure the appropriate environment required monogamy to ensure the appropriate environment and the stable family for the proper birthing and rearing of and the stable family for the proper birthing and rearing of children. “The church teaches that, each and every mar- children. “The church teaches that, each and every marriage act…must remain open to the transmission of riage act…must remain open to the transmission of life… That teaching… is founded upon the inseparable life… That teaching… is founded upon the inseparable connection, willed by God and unable to be broken by connection, willed by God and unable to be broken by man on his own initiative, between the two meanings of man on his own initiative, between the two meanings of the conjugal act: the unitive meaning and the procrea- the conjugal act: the unitive meaning and the procrea- tive meaning.” tive meaning.”

HOMOSEXUALITY AND THE ORTHODOX CHURCH HOMOSEXUALITY AND THE ORTHODOX CHURCH PERSPECTIVE PERSPECTIVE Homosexuals Defile The Temple of God. Homosexuals Defile The Temple of God. In I Corinthians 6:9 the apostle Paul says, “Do not In I Corinthians 6:9 the apostle Paul says, “Do not be deceived. Neither fornicators, nor idolaters, nor be deceived. Neither fornicators, nor idolaters, nor adulterers, nor homosexuals, nor sodomites…will in- adulterers, nor homosexuals, nor sodomites…will inherit the kingdom of God.” Homosexuality is against na- herit the kingdom of God.” Homosexuality is against nature. Sexual expression is permitted only within marriage, ture. Sexual expression is permitted only within marriage, between man and woman, male and female. Anything else between man and woman, male and female. Anything else is an abnormality and is against nature. When our Lord Je- is an abnormality and is against nature. When our Lord Je- sus Christ discussed this matter with the Scribes and Phari- sus Christ discussed this matter with the Scribes and Phari- sees (Matt.19 and Mark 10), he said: “From the begin- sees (Matt.19 and Mark 10), he said: “From the beginning…God made them male and female,” man and ning…God made them male and female,” man and woman. This is the will of our God from the beginning of woman. This is the will of our God from the beginning of creation. creation. In the Old Testament, when people walked according In the Old Testament, when people walked according to the lust of the flesh, they received severe punishment to the lust of the flesh, they received severe punishment from God. At the same time of the Flood, only the pure were from God. At the same time of the Flood, only the pure were saved in the ark of Noah. The people of Sodom, who were saved in the ark of Noah. The people of Sodom, who were not clean, were burned with fire. They walked according to not clean, were burned with fire. They walked according to the lust of the flesh, the lust of the body. They were not the lust of the flesh, the lust of the body. They were not clean in the spirit. Carnal persons cannot inherit the clean in the spirit. Carnal persons cannot inherit the

235 235 kingdom of heaven. We read this in Revelation 21:8 which kingdom of heaven. We read this in Revelation 21:8 which says about the heavenly Jerusalem: “But the cowardly, says about the heavenly Jerusalem: “But the cowardly, unbelieving, abominable, murderers, sexually immoral, unbelieving, abominable, murderers, sexually immoral, sorcerers, idolaters, and all liars shall have their part in sorcerers, idolaters, and all liars shall have their part in the lake which burns with fire and brimstone.” In the Old the lake which burns with fire and brimstone.” In the Old Testament homosexuality is described as an abomination Testament homosexuality is described as an abomination worthy of the punishment of death. For example, Leviticus worthy of the punishment of death. For example, Leviticus 18:22 reads, “You shall not lie with a male as with a 18:22 reads, “You shall not lie with a male as with a woman. It is an abomination.” Leviticus Chapter 20:13 woman. It is an abomination.” Leviticus Chapter 20:13 says, “if a man lies with a male as he lies with a woman, says, “if a man lies with a male as he lies with a woman, both of them have committed an abomination. They both of them have committed an abomination. They shall be put to death. Their blood shall be upon them.” shall be put to death. Their blood shall be upon them.” St. Paul spoke about the debased mind of the homo- St. Paul spoke about the debased mind of the homosexual using the phrase “exchanged the natural use for sexual using the phrase “exchanged the natural use for what is against nature” (Rom. 1:24-27). If there was an what is against nature” (Rom. 1:24-27). If there was an attempt to make such acts lawful, it would be a disaster. If attempt to make such acts lawful, it would be a disaster. If we change something perverted, shameful and worthy of we change something perverted, shameful and worthy of penalty, something clearly against nature, to a thing ac- penalty, something clearly against nature, to a thing accepted-permitted and lawful, then we deserve the punish- cepted-permitted and lawful, then we deserve the punishment of God on earth and in the world to come. “Do you ment of God on earth and in the world to come. “Do you not know that your body is the temple of the Holy Spirit not know that your body is the temple of the Holy Spirit who is in you, whom you have from God, and you are who is in you, whom you have from God, and you are not your own?”(I Cor.6:19). The homosexual is sinning not your own?”(I Cor.6:19). The homosexual is sinning against the temple of the Holy Spirit. “Every sin that a man against the temple of the Holy Spirit. “Every sin that a man does is outside the body, but he who commits sexual does is outside the body, but he who commits sexual immorality sins against his own body” (I Cor.6:18). immorality sins against his own body” (I Cor.6:18). When a person sins against the Holy Spirit, that means he When a person sins against the Holy Spirit, that means he is separating himself from the Holy Spirit. Light and dark- is separating himself from the Holy Spirit. Light and darkness cannot exist together in one place. From the beginning ness cannot exist together in one place. From the beginning God separated light from darkness. The apostle then ex- God separated light from darkness. The apostle then exhorts, “glorify God in your body and in your spirit which horts, “glorify God in your body and in your spirit which are God’s”(I Cor.6:11-16). are God’s”(I Cor.6:11-16). In his epistle, St. Jude writes, “As Sodom and Go- In his epistle, St. Jude writes, “As Sodom and Go- morrah, and the cities around them in a similar manner morrah, and the cities around them in a similar manner to these, having given themselves over to sexual to these, having given themselves over to sexual

236 236 immorality and gone after strange flesh, are set forth as immorality and gone after strange flesh, are set forth as an example; suffering the vengeance of eternal fire.” an example; suffering the vengeance of eternal fire.” And in his first epistle to St. Timothy, St. Paul says that “the And in his first epistle to St. Timothy, St. Paul says that “the law is not made for a righteous person, but for sinners, law is not made for a righteous person, but for sinners, for the unholy and profane, for murderers of fathers for the unholy and profane, for murderers of fathers and murderers of mothers, for manslayers, for fornica- and murderers of mothers, for manslayers, for fornicators, for sodomites.” St. Paul includes this word tors, for sodomites.” St. Paul includes this word “sodomites” or homosexuals among the murderers, among “sodomites” or homosexuals among the murderers, among the lawless, among the ungodly. This sin then was con- the lawless, among the ungodly. This sin then was condemned in the Old Testament and in the New Testament. demned in the Old Testament and in the New Testament. In the Creed we say, “We believe in one, holy In the Creed we say, “We believe in one, holy church:” the whole body of the Church, the whole believers. church:” the whole body of the Church, the whole believers. In the apostolic age believers were called saints, which In the apostolic age believers were called saints, which means clean, separated from the rest of the nonbelievers means clean, separated from the rest of the nonbelievers and worldly affairs, living a holy and devoted life. We are and worldly affairs, living a holy and devoted life. We are also the image of God, and we carry the image of God to also the image of God, and we carry the image of God to the world. The world sees in our conduct, in our behavior, the world. The world sees in our conduct, in our behavior, the proof that we are the real children of God. If we are sup- the proof that we are the real children of God. If we are supposed to be the “light and the salt” of this world, how must posed to be the “light and the salt” of this world, how must we behave to transform the life of the world and lead every- we behave to transform the life of the world and lead everyone to God? How must we be good examples in carrying one to God? How must we be good examples in carrying the holy image of our Lord to the world in such a life style? the holy image of our Lord to the world in such a life style? In the apostolic age, not everyone was allowed to enter the In the apostolic age, not everyone was allowed to enter the church, only those who were worthy to attend the Holy church, only those who were worthy to attend the Holy Eucharist and partake of the body and blood of our Lord Je- Eucharist and partake of the body and blood of our Lord Je- sus Christ. This holy life is what we are called to, because sus Christ. This holy life is what we are called to, because we are the children of a Holy Father. St. Paul speaks about we are the children of a Holy Father. St. Paul speaks about this point and says, “as obedient children, not conform- this point and says, “as obedient children, not conform- ing yourselves to the former lusts, as in your igno- ing yourselves to the former lusts, as in your ignorance, but as he who called you is holy, you also be rance, but as he who called you is holy, you also be holy in all your conduct, because it is written, ‘Be holy, holy in all your conduct, because it is written, ‘Be holy, for I am holy.’” for I am holy.’” Holy persons do not live in the lust of the flesh, but Holy persons do not live in the lust of the flesh, but they walk according to the spirit. Hence the life of the they walk according to the spirit. Hence the life of the church should be a life of holiness. A holy person is a church should be a life of holiness. A holy person is a

237 237 member of the church, but the unholy one is not considered member of the church, but the unholy one is not considered a full and active participant member of the church. a full and active participant member of the church. It is claimed that homosexuality is a different kind of It is claimed that homosexuality is a different kind of “love” between man and man. Love should be brotherly and “love” between man and man. Love should be brotherly and spiritually, love should be pure among two male friends. As spiritually, love should be pure among two male friends. As Christians we must love others in the spirit. Loving others Christians we must love others in the spirit. Loving others should not be against our love of God, because our Lord Je- should not be against our love of God, because our Lord Je- sus said, “He who loves father, son, wife, sister or brother sus said, “He who loves father, son, wife, sister or brother more than me is not worthy of me, is not worthy to be my more than me is not worthy of me, is not worthy to be my disciple.” We cannot love any other person more and above disciple.” We cannot love any other person more and above our Lord Jesus Christ. Every love, any kind of love, which our Lord Jesus Christ. Every love, any kind of love, which we have, should be love in the Lord. We love in the Lord, we have, should be love in the Lord. We love in the Lord, not against the Lord. Homosexual love is not love, but lust. not against the Lord. Homosexual love is not love, but lust. There is a great difference between love and lust, lust of the There is a great difference between love and lust, lust of the flesh. The word love for homosexual relations is not suit- flesh. The word love for homosexual relations is not suitable, because in the gospel we say, “God is love.” able, because in the gospel we say, “God is love.” Homosexual relations are simply bodily lust. A devi- Homosexual relations are simply bodily lust. A devi- ated lust of the flesh is pursued, a wrong and sinful lust that ated lust of the flesh is pursued, a wrong and sinful lust that should be corrected. If a person “loves,” another man, can should be corrected. If a person “loves,” another man, can he abuse the man whom he loves? Is this “love” or destruc- he abuse the man whom he loves? Is this “love” or destruction-humiliation? If a person “loves” a man, can he lead this tion-humiliation? If a person “loves” a man, can he lead this man to lose his “soul”-“eternity” if he is concerned about the man to lose his “soul”-“eternity” if he is concerned about the eternal life, and be punished in the next life? Is this a kind of eternal life, and be punished in the next life? Is this a kind of “love,” to lose one’s image over, the image of God? “love,” to lose one’s image over, the image of God? Without repentance, changing your ways of life, you Without repentance, changing your ways of life, you will perish. This judgment of our Lord was repeated twice in will perish. This judgment of our Lord was repeated twice in Luke 13 in verses 3 and 5. “I tell you, no; but unless you Luke 13 in verses 3 and 5. “I tell you, no; but unless you repent you will all likewise perish.” To homosexuals as to repent you will all likewise perish.” To homosexuals as to all other sinners, they need help. We should treat them all other sinners, they need help. We should treat them medically and spiritually. We should care for them, correct medically and spiritually. We should care for them, correct and pray for them and guide them in the ways of God to re- and pray for them and guide them in the ways of God to repent, change of heart and life. pent, change of heart and life. We have had too many saints through the history of We have had too many saints through the history of the church who were fornicators, sinners or committed the church who were fornicators, sinners or committed moral wrongs before repentance, and they were corrected. moral wrongs before repentance, and they were corrected.

238 238 St. Augustine is a good example. Moses, St. Paul and St. St. Augustine is a good example. Moses, St. Paul and St. Pelagia still another. Through the grace of God, through the Pelagia still another. Through the grace of God, through the work of pastoral care, they were corrected. But we cannot work of pastoral care, they were corrected. But we cannot say to the homosexual, “Your case is exceptional, your case say to the homosexual, “Your case is exceptional, your case is lawful.” Because if we give him this “lawful” status, that is lawful.” Because if we give him this “lawful” status, that means we permit him to remain in sin and not to repent. It is means we permit him to remain in sin and not to repent. It is not within the power of the church to justify the case of sin- not within the power of the church to justify the case of sinners, or to please sinners, but to lead them to a changed ners, or to please sinners, but to lead them to a changed and repented new life. and repented new life.

SHOULD A CHRISTIAN OPPOSE GAY MARRIAGE AND SHOULD A CHRISTIAN OPPOSE GAY MARRIAGE AND PARTNERSHIPS? PARTNERSHIPS? Yes, as Christians abiding by divine and natural as Yes, as Christians abiding by divine and natural as well as moral laws, we should strongly oppose to legalize well as moral laws, we should strongly oppose to legalize what we view as sinful behavior and a perversion of God's what we view as sinful behavior and a perversion of God's plan for marriage and distinct gender roles (Genesis 2:24, plan for marriage and distinct gender roles (Genesis 2:24, 3:16-19, Leviticus 20:13, Mark 10:6-9). But on the other 3:16-19, Leviticus 20:13, Mark 10:6-9). But on the other hand as good Christians we must act with kindness and re- hand as good Christians we must act with kindness and respect for all people and avoid judging the moral choices oth- spect for all people and avoid judging the moral choices others make (Matthew 22:37-40, Matthew 7:1-5, Romans ers make (Matthew 22:37-40, Matthew 7:1-5, Romans 14:10-14, James 4:11-12). 14:10-14, James 4:11-12).  As stated in verse 11 of 1 Corinthians 6:9-11, all these  As stated in verse 11 of 1 Corinthians 6:9-11, all these sins are sins that God will forgive if a person repents. sins are sins that God will forgive if a person repents.  Other Bible passages mention serious sins that many  Other Bible passages mention serious sins that many of us fall into sometimes: anger (Ecclesiastes 7:9, Matthew of us fall into sometimes: anger (Ecclesiastes 7:9, Matthew 5:22, Romans 12:19), self-righteousness (Luke 18:9-14, 5:22, Romans 12:19), self-righteousness (Luke 18:9-14, Galatians 6:2-5), lack of mercy (Matthew 6:14-15, Matthew Galatians 6:2-5), lack of mercy (Matthew 6:14-15, Matthew 18:23-35), excessive concern with money and wealth 18:23-35), excessive concern with money and wealth (Matthew 6:24, 1 Timothy 6:9-10), pride/arrogance (Matthew 6:24, 1 Timothy 6:9-10), pride/arrogance (Matthew 20:25-28, Mark 7:21-23, Romans 12:15-19), lying/ (Matthew 20:25-28, Mark 7:21-23, Romans 12:15-19), lying/ deception (Exodus 20:16, Revelation 21:8), greed/ deception (Exodus 20:16, Revelation 21:8), greed/ covetousness (Exodus 20:17, 1 Corinthians 6:9-11), and covetousness (Exodus 20:17, 1 Corinthians 6:9-11), and hypocrisy (Matthew 23:2-4, 23:23, 23:33). hypocrisy (Matthew 23:2-4, 23:23, 23:33).  We are all sinners in our own ways (Romans 3:21-24,  We are all sinners in our own ways (Romans 3:21-24, 5:12, 1 John 1:8). When we fail to meet God's standards of 5:12, 1 John 1:8). When we fail to meet God's standards of

239 239 conduct, we must repent and try harder. None of us can conduct, we must repent and try harder. None of us can claim to be worthy of heaven on our own merit. We all must claim to be worthy of heaven on our own merit. We all must depend on God's love, mercy and forgiveness for our salva- depend on God's love, mercy and forgiveness for our salvation (Mark 10:24-27, Ephesians 2:4-8, Titus 3:3-8). God of- tion (Mark 10:24-27, Ephesians 2:4-8, Titus 3:3-8). God offers His love, mercy and forgiveness to all people of the fers His love, mercy and forgiveness to all people of the world who sincerely seek it (Luke 11:9, John 12:31-32); no world who sincerely seek it (Luke 11:9, John 12:31-32); no one is excluded. one is excluded. Who gets to heaven is entirely God's decision. The Who gets to heaven is entirely God's decision. The bible teaches that we should help other people achieve holi- bible teaches that we should help other people achieve holiness, not condemn them or presume to know who will or will ness, not condemn them or presume to know who will or will not be saved (Romans 14:10-13, 1 Corinthians 4:3-5, not be saved (Romans 14:10-13, 1 Corinthians 4:3-5, James 4:11-12). James 4:11-12).

PASTORAL CARE PASTORAL CARE In Matthew 18 God, our Lord Jesus Christ, gave au- In Matthew 18 God, our Lord Jesus Christ, gave authority to his servants the apostles, the priests, saying, “I thority to his servants the apostles, the priests, saying, “I say to you, whatever you bind on earth will be bound in say to you, whatever you bind on earth will be bound in heaven, and whatever you loose on earth will be loosed in heaven, and whatever you loose on earth will be loosed in heaven.” We know that the authority to bind or to loose heaven.” We know that the authority to bind or to loose must be in harmony with the Bible, thus in obedience to the must be in harmony with the Bible, thus in obedience to the commandment of God. But if one should bind or loose in commandment of God. But if one should bind or loose in disobedience then it will most certainly not be accepted by disobedience then it will most certainly not be accepted by God. This is known to us from Galatians 1:8-9. “But even if God. This is known to us from Galatians 1:8-9. “But even if we (the apostles) or an angel from heaven preach any we (the apostles) or an angel from heaven preach any other gospel to you than what we have preached to other gospel to you than what we have preached to you, let him be accursed, and if anyone preaches any you, let him be accursed, and if anyone preaches any other gospel to you than what you have received, let other gospel to you than what you have received, let him be accursed.” him be accursed.” Pastors should guide people through the command- Pastors should guide people through the commandment of God. They have no power to give any law contrary ment of God. They have no power to give any law contrary to the law of God. “For the lips of a priest should keep to the law of God. “For the lips of a priest should keep knowledge, and people should seek the law from his knowledge, and people should seek the law from his mouth, for he is the messenger of the Lord of mouth, for he is the messenger of the Lord of hosts” (Mala.2:7). The people take the law of the Lord from hosts” (Mala.2:7). The people take the law of the Lord from his mouth, because he is the person who knows quite well his mouth, because he is the person who knows quite well

240 240 the law of God, more than any member of the congregation. the law of God, more than any member of the congregation. He is the teacher. He is the guide. He is the teacher. He is the guide. The responsibility of the clergy towards the people is The responsibility of the clergy towards the people is grave. This is repeated twice in the prophecy of Ezekiel in grave. This is repeated twice in the prophecy of Ezekiel in chapter 3 and also in chapter 33. “Son of man, I have chapter 3 and also in chapter 33. “Son of man, I have made you a watchman for the house of Israel, therefore made you a watchman for the house of Israel, therefore hear a word from my mouth and give them warning hear a word from my mouth and give them warning from me: when I say to the wicked, ‘You shall surely from me: when I say to the wicked, ‘You shall surely die’ and you give him no warning, nor speak to warn die’ and you give him no warning, nor speak to warn the wicked from his wicked way, to save his life, that the wicked from his wicked way, to save his life, that same wicked man shall die in his iniquity, but his blood same wicked man shall die in his iniquity, but his blood I will require at your hand.” I will require at your hand.” The Orthodox Church in general as well as the Arme- The Orthodox Church in general as well as the Arme- nian Apostolic Church do not accept, deny, reject or humili- nian Apostolic Church do not accept, deny, reject or humili- ate homosexuals but consider them as having weak person- ate homosexuals but consider them as having weak person- alities and character; accepts them as they are without har- alities and character; accepts them as they are without har- assing or degrading them but consider them unfit to a assing or degrading them but consider them unfit to a teaching, ministering or any community leading positions. teaching, ministering or any community leading positions. Yet cares for them and invites to change their lifestyle and Yet cares for them and invites to change their lifestyle and behavior. behavior. Homosexuals usually are hidden from our society and Homosexuals usually are hidden from our society and kept in secret. Till now their problem was theirs. They man- kept in secret. Till now their problem was theirs. They man- age on their own. They are not a threat to the community or age on their own. They are not a threat to the community or church life. Hence, it is not an issue. Homosexuals are con- church life. Hence, it is not an issue. Homosexuals are considered pervasive in Middle Eastern societies. sidered pervasive in Middle Eastern societies. Recent studies show that when young believing peo- Recent studies show that when young believing people grow up in Christian families and discover in themselves ple grow up in Christian families and discover in themselves a persistent inclination towards members of the same-sex, a persistent inclination towards members of the same-sex, not because they want to be this way but because they are not because they want to be this way but because they are this way. Do they with their sexuality, which pervades the this way. Do they with their sexuality, which pervades the totality of a person, fall within the sentence of condemna- totality of a person, fall within the sentence of condemnation? Surely not. Are they in their experience of their dispo- tion? Surely not. Are they in their experience of their disposition the “wicked” of Romans 1 and the “lawless and dis- sition the “wicked” of Romans 1 and the “lawless and dis- obedient” of I Timothy 1:10? Maybe yes, maybe no. And if obedient” of I Timothy 1:10? Maybe yes, maybe no. And if after many doubts and struggles they are ever brought to after many doubts and struggles they are ever brought to

241 241 act, does their place belong to the Moloch cult of Leviticus act, does their place belong to the Moloch cult of Leviticus 18? Maybe, only God knows. 18? Maybe, only God knows. No matter how many reservations and qualifications No matter how many reservations and qualifications we wish to make as to whether or not this experience is per- we wish to make as to whether or not this experience is per- missible or not, it should remain a secret and a decision of missible or not, it should remain a secret and a decision of that person’s life and conscience. Yet, somehow, we agree that person’s life and conscience. Yet, somehow, we agree that scripture does not speak about the possibility of a ho- that scripture does not speak about the possibility of a homosexual disposition. The condemnatory force of the scrip- mosexual disposition. The condemnatory force of the scriptures is aimed at all those who abandon themselves to li- tures is aimed at all those who abandon themselves to li- centiousness and thus knowingly to a heathen “gay” world. centiousness and thus knowingly to a heathen “gay” world. We recognize that there are very significant Pastoral We recognize that there are very significant Pastoral implications dealing with this issue. At this time it is required implications dealing with this issue. At this time it is required that there are some imperatives that churches should con- that there are some imperatives that churches should consider. sider. a. Patient, informed and courageous education about a. Patient, informed and courageous education about sexuality itself, in order to remove distorted views, sexuality itself, in order to remove distorted views, b. Sharing widely the best information available about b. Sharing widely the best information available about the facts of homosexuality, the facts of homosexuality, c. Facing honestly the reasons why the issue of ho- c. Facing honestly the reasons why the issue of homosexuality is avoided or hidden, mosexuality is avoided or hidden, d. Exposing homophobia as an evil similar to racism d. Exposing homophobia as an evil similar to racism or anti-Semitism, or anti-Semitism, e. Calling people to support action for justice and hu- e. Calling people to support action for justice and human rights for gay and lesbian persons. man rights for gay and lesbian persons.

Pastoral care of homosexual persons raises impor- Pastoral care of homosexual persons raises important questions. There are many issues as it is raised and tant questions. There are many issues as it is raised and suggested above, also a wide variety of views among Chris- suggested above, also a wide variety of views among Chris- tians. It is this author’s modest opinion that each church tians. It is this author’s modest opinion that each church must determine the principles on which it will base its pas- must determine the principles on which it will base its pastoral care. toral care. One of the most debated issues in considering the One of the most debated issues in considering the pastoral care of homosexual persons arises from the ques- pastoral care of homosexual persons arises from the question as to whether a person’s sexual orientation is perma- tion as to whether a person’s sexual orientation is permanent or can be changed. Responses to this question are nent or can be changed. Responses to this question are

242 242 determined by one’s understanding of what homosexual determined by one’s understanding of what homosexual orientation is. Others see it as an aberration, a sickness or a orientation is. Others see it as an aberration, a sickness or a sin. In some cases, the inclination is to accept would be sin. In some cases, the inclination is to accept would be awkward, in other cases to accept and affirm the right of ho- awkward, in other cases to accept and affirm the right of homosexual persons to be with integrity what they are. In the mosexual persons to be with integrity what they are. In the other it is to offer counseling, treatment or the hope of con- other it is to offer counseling, treatment or the hope of conversion as possibilities for change. version as possibilities for change. In fact the issue is not so clear cut. As we have seen, In fact the issue is not so clear cut. As we have seen, it is more accurate to speak of “sexualities” than of it is more accurate to speak of “sexualities” than of “sexuality” because “sexuality” in human beings is much “sexuality” because “sexuality” in human beings is much more complicated and expressed in a great many ways. more complicated and expressed in a great many ways. The pastoral issue then becomes one of how to help The pastoral issue then becomes one of how to help and support a man or woman, first, to come to terms with and support a man or woman, first, to come to terms with the reality of who and what he or she is, and second, to live the reality of who and what he or she is, and second, to live out the appropriate loving, joyful and responsible behavior out the appropriate loving, joyful and responsible behavior as Christians. The first principle is to respect who a person as Christians. The first principle is to respect who a person is and not to assume that one knows better than they do is and not to assume that one knows better than they do what is good and right for them. what is good and right for them. Commenting on this, the 1990 British Methodist re- Commenting on this, the 1990 British Methodist report states: “One of the main questions which many port states: “One of the main questions which many people wish to address is the possibility of a change in people wish to address is the possibility of a change in orientation. Some claims have been made for this: there orientation. Some claims have been made for this: there is evidence that some people have been successfully is evidence that some people have been successfully treated medically, and in some cases it is claimed reli- treated medically, and in some cases it is claimed religious conversion has led to actual reorientation. There gious conversion has led to actual reorientation. There is, however, a general consensus in the field of psy- is, however, a general consensus in the field of psy- chology, which suggests that fundamental change of chology, which suggests that fundamental change of orientation is not likely, though there might be some orientation is not likely, though there might be some modifications of behavior. modifications of behavior. It has to be recognized that many homosexuals It has to be recognized that many homosexuals like heterosexuals, do not want their orientation like heterosexuals, do not want their orientation changed. Much depends on how homosexuality is re- changed. Much depends on how homosexuality is regarded; as a deviation, a sickness, and maladjustment garded; as a deviation, a sickness, and maladjustment or simply as a variant. In this context, it is important to or simply as a variant. In this context, it is important to underline the facts that gay men are no more probable underline the facts that gay men are no more probable

243 243 seducers of the young than are heterosexual men, and seducers of the young than are heterosexual men, and that homosexual practice is not to be identified with that homosexual practice is not to be identified with pedophilia.” pedophilia.” Central to all questions of pastoral care is the matter Central to all questions of pastoral care is the matter of the ordination of gay and lesbian candidates for ministry. of the ordination of gay and lesbian candidates for ministry. The 1990 British Methodist Report joins the voices and The 1990 British Methodist Report joins the voices and churches now calling for a new understanding, with these churches now calling for a new understanding, with these words: words: “Up to now the Methodist Church has not found it “Up to now the Methodist Church has not found it necessary to give a definitive ruling regarding the ac- necessary to give a definitive ruling regarding the acceptance of candidates for ordained ministry who are ceptance of candidates for ordained ministry who are homosexual or lesbian, in orientation or in practice. homosexual or lesbian, in orientation or in practice. Members of the Commission are agreed that sexual ori- Members of the Commission are agreed that sexual orientation in itself should not be a bar to ordination. entation in itself should not be a bar to ordination. Some members of the Commission would wish to say Some members of the Commission would wish to say quite explicitly that no practicing homosexual or les- quite explicitly that no practicing homosexual or lesbian should be accepted for training for ordination. bian should be accepted for training for ordination. Other members of the Commission would wish to say Other members of the Commission would wish to say quite explicitly that no practicing homosexual or les- quite explicitly that no practicing homosexual or lesbian should be rejected for training for ordination on bian should be rejected for training for ordination on the grounds of the expression of their sexuality alone.” the grounds of the expression of their sexuality alone.” The Lutheran Church of America, in its 1986 state- The Lutheran Church of America, in its 1986 statement, noted the difficulties but affirmed: “We have seen ment, noted the difficulties but affirmed: “We have seen too much pain among lesbian and gay persons and too much pain among lesbian and gay persons and their families, within the church, and within society as a their families, within the church, and within society as a whole.” Addressing their congregations, the Lutheran whole.” Addressing their congregations, the Lutheran document asked questions, raised issues and made af- document asked questions, raised issues and made affirmations. They said:” We begin with our communities firmations. They said:” We begin with our communities of faith. We ask our congregations to look honestly at of faith. We ask our congregations to look honestly at their own situations regarding gay and lesbian people. their own situations regarding gay and lesbian people. Are these persons welcome to participate in the full life Are these persons welcome to participate in the full life of the Word and sacrament, of fellowship, learning and of the Word and sacrament, of fellowship, learning and service? If that welcome is not present in a Christian service? If that welcome is not present in a Christian community we believe that community needs to wrestle community we believe that community needs to wrestle with questions about the nature of the church.” with questions about the nature of the church.”

244 244 On a later report they say: “It affirmed the way in On a later report they say: “It affirmed the way in which pain turned to healing and joy, when gay and les- which pain turned to healing and joy, when gay and lesbian persons had been welcomed to a community in bian persons had been welcomed to a community in which we all participate by grace.” Whatever one con- which we all participate by grace.” Whatever one concludes, it said: “But we, the Committee, have all concludes, it said: “But we, the Committee, have all concluded that ministry to and with gay and lesbian per- cluded that ministry to and with gay and lesbian persons can and should take place even as the church sons can and should take place even as the church continues to struggle to gain an understanding of the continues to struggle to gain an understanding of the nature and origins of homosexuality that would allow a nature and origins of homosexuality that would allow a clearer answer to this central question… “Baptism – clearer answer to this central question… “Baptism – not behavior- is the one criterion for membership in the not behavior- is the one criterion for membership in the church. It would be irresponsible for this church to use church. It would be irresponsible for this church to use its own divided judgment as an excuse for failing ho- its own divided judgment as an excuse for failing homosexuality and the needs of these persons.” mosexuality and the needs of these persons.”

CHURCH DOCTRINE CHURCH DOCTRINE Here is a sampling of official church positions on ho- Here is a sampling of official church positions on homosexuality from several large denominations in the United mosexuality from several large denominations in the United States: States: Roman Catholic: Basing itself on Sacred Scripture, which Roman Catholic: Basing itself on Sacred Scripture, which presents homosexual acts as acts of grave depravity, tradi- presents homosexual acts as acts of grave depravity, tradition has always declared that "homosexual acts are intrinsi- tion has always declared that "homosexual acts are intrinsically disordered. They are contrary to the natural law. They cally disordered. They are contrary to the natural law. They close the sexual act to the gift of life. They do not proceed close the sexual act to the gift of life. They do not proceed from a genuine affective and sexual complementarity. Un- from a genuine affective and sexual complementarity. Un- der no circumstances can they be approved. der no circumstances can they be approved.

Homosexual persons are called to chastity. By the vir- Homosexual persons are called to chastity. By the virtues of self-mastery that teach them inner freedom, at times tues of self-mastery that teach them inner freedom, at times by the support of disinterested friendship, by prayer and by the support of disinterested friendship, by prayer and sacramental grace, they can and should gradually and reso- sacramental grace, they can and should gradually and reso- lutely approach Christian perfection”. lutely approach Christian perfection”. (From Catechism of the Catholic Church, (c) 1994, United (From Catechism of the Catholic Church, (c) 1994, United States Catholic Conference, Inc., States Catholic Conference, Inc., http://www.nccbuscc.org/catechism/text/index.htm) http://www.nccbuscc.org/catechism/text/index.htm)

245 245 Southern Baptist: We affirm God's plan for marriage and Southern Baptist: We affirm God's plan for marriage and sexual intimacy - one man, and one woman, for life. Homo- sexual intimacy - one man, and one woman, for life. Homo- sexuality is not a "valid alternative lifestyle." The Bible con- sexuality is not a "valid alternative lifestyle." The Bible con- demns it as sin. It is not, however, unforgivable sin. The demns it as sin. It is not, however, unforgivable sin. The same redemption available to all sinners is available to ho- same redemption available to all sinners is available to homosexuals. They, too, may become new creations in Christ. mosexuals. They, too, may become new creations in Christ. (From Position Statements, Copyright (c) 1999-2001, (From Position Statements, Copyright (c) 1999-2001, Executive Committee of the Southern Baptist Convention, http:// Executive Committee of the Southern Baptist Convention, http:// sbc.net/default.asp?url=position-statements.html) sbc.net/default.asp?url=position-statements.html)

United Methodist: Homosexual persons no less than het- United Methodist: Homosexual persons no less than heterosexual persons are individuals of sacred worth. All per- erosexual persons are individuals of sacred worth. All persons need the ministry and guidance of the church in their sons need the ministry and guidance of the church in their struggles for human fulfillment, as well as the spiritual and struggles for human fulfillment, as well as the spiritual and emotional care of a fellowship that enables reconciling rela- emotional care of a fellowship that enables reconciling relationships with God, with others, and with self. Although we tionships with God, with others, and with self. Although we do not condone the practice of homosexuality and consider do not condone the practice of homosexuality and consider this practice incompatible with Christian teaching, we affirm this practice incompatible with Christian teaching, we affirm that God's grace is available to all. We implore families and that God's grace is available to all. We implore families and churches not to reject or condemn their lesbian and gay churches not to reject or condemn their lesbian and gay members and friends. We commit ourselves to be in minis- members and friends. We commit ourselves to be in ministry for and with all persons. try for and with all persons. Certain basic human rights and civil liberties are due Certain basic human rights and civil liberties are due all persons. We are committed to supporting those rights all persons. We are committed to supporting those rights and liberties for homosexual persons. We see a clear issue and liberties for homosexual persons. We see a clear issue of simple justice in protecting their rightful claims where they of simple justice in protecting their rightful claims where they have shared material resources, pensions, guardian rela- have shared material resources, pensions, guardian relationships, mutual powers of attorney, and other such lawful tionships, mutual powers of attorney, and other such lawful claims typically attendant to contractual relationships that claims typically attendant to contractual relationships that involve shared contributions, responsibilities, and liabilities, involve shared contributions, responsibilities, and liabilities, and equal protection before the law. Moreover, we support and equal protection before the law. Moreover, we support efforts to stop violence and other forms of coercion against efforts to stop violence and other forms of coercion against gays and lesbians. We also commit ourselves to social wit- gays and lesbians. We also commit ourselves to social witness against the coercion and marginalization of former ho- ness against the coercion and marginalization of former homosexuals. mosexuals. (From The Book of Discipline of The United Methodist (From The Book of Discipline of The United Methodist

246 246 Church--2000,161G, 162H. Copyright 2000 by The United Meth- Church--2000,161G, 162H. Copyright 2000 by The United Meth- odist Publishing House, odist Publishing House, http://www.umc.org/abouttheumc/policy/ ) http://www.umc.org/abouttheumc/policy/ )

Episcopal: In 1976, the General Convention of the Episco- Episcopal: In 1976, the General Convention of the Episco- pal Church declared that “homosexual persons are children pal Church declared that “homosexual persons are children of God who have a full and equal claim with all other per- of God who have a full and equal claim with all other persons upon the love, acceptance, and pastoral concern and sons upon the love, acceptance, and pastoral concern and care of the Church" (1976-A069). Since then, faithful Epis- care of the Church" (1976-A069). Since then, faithful Epis- copalians have been working toward a greater understand- copalians have been working toward a greater understanding and radical inclusion of all of God’s children. ing and radical inclusion of all of God’s children. Along the way, The Episcopal Church has garnered a Along the way, The Episcopal Church has garnered a lot of attention, but with the help of organizations such as lot of attention, but with the help of organizations such as Integrity USA, the church has continued its work toward full Integrity USA, the church has continued its work toward full inclusion of lesbian, gay, bisexual, and transgender (LGBT) inclusion of lesbian, gay, bisexual, and transgender (LGBT) Episcopalians. In 2003, the first openly gay bishop was con- Episcopalians. In 2003, the first openly gay bishop was consecrated; in 2009, General Convention resolved that God’s secrated; in 2009, General Convention resolved that God’s call is open to all; and in 2012, a provisional rite of blessing call is open to all; and in 2012, a provisional rite of blessing for same-gender relationships was authorized, and discrimi- for same-gender relationships was authorized, and discrimination against transgender persons in the ordination proc- nation against transgender persons in the ordination process was officially prohibited. ess was officially prohibited. To our lesbian, gay, bisexual, and transgender broth- To our lesbian, gay, bisexual, and transgender brothers and sisters: “The Episcopal Church welcomes you!” ers and sisters: “The Episcopal Church welcomes you!” (From http://www.episcopalchurch.org/page/lgbt-church) (From http://www.episcopalchurch.org/page/lgbt-church)

Bible Teachings Bible Teachings Jesus taught by word and example not to be Jesus taught by word and example not to be self-righteous or shun those we consider to be "sinners". self-righteous or shun those we consider to be "sinners". (Matthew 9:10-13, Luke 7:36-48). The Bible's moral teach- (Matthew 9:10-13, Luke 7:36-48). The Bible's moral teachings are intended to help us live according to God's will. ings are intended to help us live according to God's will. They are not intended to be used to condemn other people. They are not intended to be used to condemn other people. We are never to take upon ourselves the task of judgment We are never to take upon ourselves the task of judgment that belongs to God alone (Matthew 22:37-40, Hebrews that belongs to God alone (Matthew 22:37-40, Hebrews 10:30, Romans 14:10-13, 1 Corinthians 4:5). Jesus told us 10:30, Romans 14:10-13, 1 Corinthians 4:5). Jesus told us to eliminate the sins in our own lives rather than passing to eliminate the sins in our own lives rather than passing

247 247 judgment or looking down on others. Jesus said that if we judgment or looking down on others. Jesus said that if we judge other people harshly, we will, in turn, be judged judge other people harshly, we will, in turn, be judged harshly: "Do not judge, or you too will be judged. For in harshly: "Do not judge, or you too will be judged. For in the same way you judge others, you will be judged, and the same way you judge others, you will be judged, and with the measure you use, it will be measured to you. with the measure you use, it will be measured to you. (Matthew 7:1-2) (Matthew 7:1-2) James makes it clear that we must treat others with James makes it clear that we must treat others with mercy, not with judgment (criticism or condemnation) or par- mercy, not with judgment (criticism or condemnation) or partiality (prejudice or discrimination): You do well if you really tiality (prejudice or discrimination): You do well if you really fulfill the royal law according to the scripture, "You shall fulfill the royal law according to the scripture, "You shall love your neighbor as yourself." But if you show partiality, love your neighbor as yourself." But if you show partiality, you commit sin and are convicted by the law as transgres- you commit sin and are convicted by the law as transgres- sors. For whoever keeps the whole law but fails in one point sors. For whoever keeps the whole law but fails in one point has become accountable for all of it. For the one who said, has become accountable for all of it. For the one who said, "You shall not commit adultery," also said, "You shall "You shall not commit adultery," also said, "You shall not murder." Now if you do not commit adultery but if you not murder." Now if you do not commit adultery but if you murder, you have become a transgressor of the law. So murder, you have become a transgressor of the law. So speak and so act as those who are to be judged by the law speak and so act as those who are to be judged by the law of liberty. For judgment will be without mercy to anyone who of liberty. For judgment will be without mercy to anyone who has shown no mercy; mercy triumphs over judgment. has shown no mercy; mercy triumphs over judgment. (James 2:8-13) (James 2:8-13) As Christians, we must remember that we are all sin- As Christians, we must remember that we are all sinners in our own ways (Romans 3:21-24, 5:12, 1 John 1:8). ners in our own ways (Romans 3:21-24, 5:12, 1 John 1:8). Despite that, God loves all His children (Genesis 1:31, Despite that, God loves all His children (Genesis 1:31, Psalms 145:9, Matthew 5:43-45, John 3:16, Romans 5:8). Psalms 145:9, Matthew 5:43-45, John 3:16, Romans 5:8). We cannot let our feelings or fears about homosexuality We cannot let our feelings or fears about homosexuality blind us to Jesus' commandment to "Love your neighbor blind us to Jesus' commandment to "Love your neighbor as yourself" (Matthew 22:36-39). as yourself" (Matthew 22:36-39).

WITHIN THE CHURCH WITHIN THE CHURCH The Church community has a responsibility to correct The Church community has a responsibility to correct matters of wrongdoing within the church and may excom- matters of wrongdoing within the church and may excom- municate stubborn offenders. But this must always be done municate stubborn offenders. But this must always be done with love and with the goal of bringing the offender back with love and with the goal of bringing the offender back into harmony with the church community (Matthew 18:15- into harmony with the church community (Matthew 18:15-

248 248 17, 1 Corinthians 5:9-13, 2 Corinthians 2:5-9, Titus 3:9-11). 17, 1 Corinthians 5:9-13, 2 Corinthians 2:5-9, Titus 3:9-11).

SOME PRACTICAL RECOMMENDATIONS SOME PRACTICAL RECOMMENDATIONS 1. Churches have a duty above all to commit them- 1. Churches have a duty above all to commit themselves to overcoming any discrimination contrary to human selves to overcoming any discrimination contrary to human rights, including discrimination against people because of rights, including discrimination against people because of their sexual orientation. their sexual orientation. 2. Further fundamental and context-specific study 2. Further fundamental and context-specific study should be devoted to the questions of the understanding should be devoted to the questions of the understanding and use of the Bible in view of the different types and tradi- and use of the Bible in view of the different types and traditions of ethical decision-making. tions of ethical decision-making. 3. Sexual ethics should be the object of church in- 3. Sexual ethics should be the object of church instruction, youth work and family education and counseling. struction, youth work and family education and counseling. 4. There is an urgent need for intercultural studies of 4. There is an urgent need for intercultural studies of sexual science and sexual ethics and their particular cultural sexual science and sexual ethics and their particular cultural conditions. conditions.

249 249 BIBLIOGRAPHY BIBLIOGRAPHY

The male prostitutes of pagan temples are mentioned in The male prostitutes of pagan temples are mentioned in Deuteronomy 23:17-18, 1 Kings 14:23-24, 15:12-13, Deuteronomy 23:17-18, 1 Kings 14:23-24, 15:12-13, 22:46, 2 Kings 23:6-8. 22:46, 2 Kings 23:6-8. J. Swanson, Dictionary of Biblical Languages with Seman- J. Swanson, Dictionary of Biblical Languages with Seman- tic Domains : Hebrew (Old Testament) (electronic tic Domains : Hebrew (Old Testament) (electronic ed.), Oak Harbor: Logos Research Systems, Inc. ed.), Oak Harbor: Logos Research Systems, Inc. 1997. 1997. P. J. Achtemeier, Harper & Row, & Society of Biblical Lit- P. J. Achtemeier, Harper & Row, & Society of Biblical Lit- erature, Harper’s Bible Dictionary (1st ed.), (402), erature, Harper’s Bible Dictionary (1st ed.), (402), San Francisco: Harper & Row. 1988 San Francisco: Harper & Row. 1988 H. Marshall, A. R. Millard, J. I. Packer & D. J. Wiseman, H. Marshall, A. R. Millard, J. I. Packer & D. J. Wiseman, Ed., New Bible Dictionary (3rd ed.) (479), Leicester, Ed., New Bible Dictionary (3rd ed.) (479), Leicester, England; Downers Grove, IL: Inter Varsity Press. England; Downers Grove, IL: Inter Varsity Press. 1996. 1996. J. Strong. Enhanced Strong’s Lexicon, Bellingham, WA: Lo- J. Strong. Enhanced Strong’s Lexicon, Bellingham, WA: Lo- gos Bible Software. 1995. gos Bible Software. 1995. Donald Senior, ed., The Catholic Study Bible. New York, Donald Senior, ed., The Catholic Study Bible. New York, NY, Oxford University Press, footnote to NY, Oxford University Press, footnote to 1 Corinthians 6:9. 1990. 1 Corinthians 6:9. 1990. Ronald F. Youngblood, F. F. Bruce, R. K. Harrison, Ed. Nel- Ronald F. Youngblood, F. F. Bruce, R. K. Harrison, Ed. Nel- son’s New Illustrated Bible Dictionary, Nashville, TN. son’s New Illustrated Bible Dictionary, Nashville, TN. Thomas Nelson, Inc. 1995. Thomas Nelson, Inc. 1995. Mark Achtemeier. The Bible’s Yes to Same-Sex Marriage, Mark Achtemeier. The Bible’s Yes to Same-Sex Marriage, An Evangelical's Change of Heart, Louisville, Ken- An Evangelical's Change of Heart, Louisville, Ken- tucky: Westminster John Knox Press. 2014. (Mark tucky: Westminster John Knox Press. 2014. (Mark Achtemeier, Ph.D. has served the Presbyterian Achtemeier, Ph.D. has served the Presbyterian Church (U.S.A.) since 1984 as a pastor, writer, and Church (U.S.A.) since 1984 as a pastor, writer, and theologian. He taught theology and ethics for 15 theologian. He taught theology and ethics for 15 years on the faculty of Dubuque Theological Semi- years on the faculty of Dubuque Theological Semi- nary.) nary.) P. J. Achtemeier, et al. (402) and H. Marshall, et al. (479) P. J. Achtemeier, et al. (402) and H. Marshall, et al. (479) Obergefell v. Hodges, Supreme Court of the United States, Obergefell v. Hodges, Supreme Court of the United States, June 26, 2015. June 26, 2015.

250 250

American Psychological Association. Sexual Orientation & American Psychological Association. Sexual Orientation & Homosexuality. Washington, DC. Homosexuality. Washington, DC. http://www.apa.org/topics/lgbt/orientation.aspx . 2008. http://www.apa.org/topics/lgbt/orientation.aspx . 2008. Robert L. Spitzer. Spitzer Reassesses His 2003 Study of Robert L. Spitzer. Spitzer Reassesses His 2003 Study of Reparative Therapy of Homosexuality. Archives of Reparative Therapy of Homosexuality. Archives of Sexual Behavior 41 (4): 757, doi:10.1007/s10508-012 Sexual Behavior 41 (4): 757, doi:10.1007/s10508-012 -9966-y. -9966-y. http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/s10508-012-9966-y. 2012. http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/s10508-012-9966-y. 2012. American Psychiatric Association. Position Statement on American Psychiatric Association. Position Statement on Therapies Focused on Attempts to Change Sexual Therapies Focused on Attempts to Change Sexual Orientation (Reparative or Conversion Therapies). Orientation (Reparative or Conversion Therapies). APA Official Actions. APA Official Actions. http://www.psychiatry.org/File%20Library/Learn/ http://www.psychiatry.org/File%20Library/Learn/ Archives/ps2000_ReparativeTherapy.pdf. 2000. Archives/ps2000_ReparativeTherapy.pdf. 2000. American Academy of Pediatrics. Homosexuality and American Academy of Pediatrics. Homosexuality and Adolescence. Elk Grove Village, IL. Pediatrics Adolescence. Elk Grove Village, IL. Pediatrics 1993;92;631. 1993;92;631. http://pediatrics.aappublications.org/ http://pediatrics.aappublications.org/ content/92/4/631.full.pdf. 1993 content/92/4/631.full.pdf. 1993 W.W.W.christianbiblereference.org W.W.W.christianbiblereference.org

251 251 ABORTION ABORTION

WHAT IS ABORTION? WHAT IS ABORTION? Abortion is an issue that is so controversial that it has Abortion is an issue that is so controversial that it has ripped America apart at the seams as no other issue since ripped America apart at the seams as no other issue since slavery. It is the deliberate induced termination of a preg- slavery. It is the deliberate induced termination of a pregnancy in a manner designed to mean the death of the un- nancy in a manner designed to mean the death of the unborn child. Harold O.J. Brown summarizes well the Christian born child. Harold O.J. Brown summarizes well the Christian view of abortion: “The overwhelming consensus of the spiri- view of abortion: “The overwhelming consensus of the spiritual leaders … is clearly anti-abortion. Abortion is an attack tual leaders … is clearly anti-abortion. Abortion is an attack on the image of God in the developing child and is a great on the image of God in the developing child and is a great evil.” Since the 1973 Supreme Court decision in Roe vs. evil.” Since the 1973 Supreme Court decision in Roe vs. Wade public debate of the abortion issue has increased Wade public debate of the abortion issue has increased dramatically. dramatically. The pro-life side on this issue understands abortion to The pro-life side on this issue understands abortion to be the murder of unborn babies and the equivalent of infan- be the murder of unborn babies and the equivalent of infanticide.. The basis of their position is that human life starts ticide.. The basis of their position is that human life starts with conception and that no natural point of division exists in with conception and that no natural point of division exists in a person between the fertilization of the egg and the point of a person between the fertilization of the egg and the point of the viability of an unborn baby to survive outside the the viability of an unborn baby to survive outside the mother’s womb. mother’s womb. An extremely arresting conflict on the pro-life side of An extremely arresting conflict on the pro-life side of the abortion issue is the large number of people who’s the abortion issue is the large number of people who’s views are actually inconsistent with the “starts with concep- views are actually inconsistent with the “starts with conception” if they believe that abortion should be allowed in cases tion” if they believe that abortion should be allowed in cases of incest or rape. If the “starts with conception” view of the of incest or rape. If the “starts with conception” view of the beginning of human life is to be applied consistently, a child beginning of human life is to be applied consistently, a child of incest or rape is completely innocent of those heinous of incest or rape is completely innocent of those heinous acts and does not deserve to be killed because of the crime acts and does not deserve to be killed because of the crime of the father. of the father. The pro-abortion or pro-choice side views the pro-life The pro-abortion or pro-choice side views the pro-life attitude towards this issue as directly opposing the freedom attitude towards this issue as directly opposing the freedom of women, as an effort to view women as baby-making ma- of women, as an effort to view women as baby-making ma- chines, and as failing to be compassionate and concerned chines, and as failing to be compassionate and concerned about the number of women who would die because of about the number of women who would die because of botched abortions in back-alley operations. botched abortions in back-alley operations.

252 252 An interesting issue within the pro-abortion or pro- An interesting issue within the pro-abortion or pro- choice camp is the issue of responsibility or lack of it. The choice camp is the issue of responsibility or lack of it. The pro-choice argument that is against putting any obstacles in pro-choice argument that is against putting any obstacles in the path of abortion on demand is that a woman has a right the path of abortion on demand is that a woman has a right to control her body at all times and has as much right to to control her body at all times and has as much right to choose an abortion as she does to choose to have inter- choose an abortion as she does to choose to have intercourse. This seems to imply that a woman’s right to have course. This seems to imply that a woman’s right to have intercourse is more important than the baby’s right to exist intercourse is more important than the baby’s right to exist that may accidentally happen. Pro-abortion advocates who that may accidentally happen. Pro-abortion advocates who push “abortion on demand” in society can easily be per- push “abortion on demand” in society can easily be per- ceived as pushing sex without any responsibility. ceived as pushing sex without any responsibility. Supporters of a liberal abortion policy usually support Supporters of a liberal abortion policy usually support their position by using three key arguments. The most popu- their position by using three key arguments. The most popular argument is that the abortion decision is properly a part lar argument is that the abortion decision is properly a part of the woman’s “right of privacy” or her right of “control over of the woman’s “right of privacy” or her right of “control over her own body.” The pro-life reply is that one’s freedom to her own body.” The pro-life reply is that one’s freedom to act only extends to the point where it impinges upon an- act only extends to the point where it impinges upon another’s right not to be acted upon. Abortion involves the other’s right not to be acted upon. Abortion involves the rights of the mother and the right of the unborn child. The rights of the mother and the right of the unborn child. The pro-life response rejects the view that the unborn child is a pro-life response rejects the view that the unborn child is a mere appendage of the mother’s body, and holds that the mere appendage of the mother’s body, and holds that the unborn child is a valuable human being in his or her own unborn child is a valuable human being in his or her own right. right. To not hold to a permissive abortion policy is to im- To not hold to a permissive abortion policy is to impose a particular view of morality, a particular value system pose a particular view of morality, a particular value system upon our law, and is the second argument commonly made upon our law, and is the second argument commonly made in support of a permissive abortion policy. The assumption in support of a permissive abortion policy. The assumption is that such “legislation of morality” is inappropriate in a plu- is that such “legislation of morality” is inappropriate in a plu- ralistic society. The pro-life response to this argument is that ralistic society. The pro-life response to this argument is that there is no position which “values neutrality.” It is not a there is no position which “values neutrality.” It is not a question of whether but whose morality or values will be re- question of whether but whose morality or values will be reflected in our law and public policy. flected in our law and public policy. A third significant argument often made by abortion A third significant argument often made by abortion advocates is that it is necessary to protect the “quality of advocates is that it is necessary to protect the “quality of life” of the mother and those children who are allowed to be life” of the mother and those children who are allowed to be

253 253 born. Therefore the Christian “sanctity of life” ethic is reborn. Therefore the Christian “sanctity of life” ethic is replaced by a “quality of life” ethic. This argument has an placed by a “quality of life” ethic. This argument has an emotional appeal to many who are sensitive to human suf- emotional appeal to many who are sensitive to human suffering by concentrating on the hard cases of pregnancy fol- fering by concentrating on the hard cases of pregnancy following rape, incest, and genetic defects. Subsequently, as lowing rape, incest, and genetic defects. Subsequently, as they argue that they ought to be given the legal right to de- they argue that they ought to be given the legal right to determine who should be born and which “products of concep- termine who should be born and which “products of conception” should be “terminated.” Doctors, politicians, scientists, tion” should be “terminated.” Doctors, politicians, scientists, and philosophers appear to be taking the compassionate and philosophers appear to be taking the compassionate role. The pro-life reply to this argument is to reject as mor- role. The pro-life reply to this argument is to reject as morally and theologically repugnant the contention that the un- ally and theologically repugnant the contention that the unborn child’s right to life depends upon their being wanted, born child’s right to life depends upon their being wanted, upon their genetic or physical health, or upon how much it upon their genetic or physical health, or upon how much it will cost their parents or society to raise them. will cost their parents or society to raise them. What kind of right is an abortion right? We must dis- What kind of right is an abortion right? We must distinguish between it being a transcendent right or a right tinguish between it being a transcendent right or a right given by government. Human laws are such that if they give given by government. Human laws are such that if they give a right they can also take it away. The nature of rights that a right they can also take it away. The nature of rights that find their foundation only in human law may be suspended find their foundation only in human law may be suspended or abolished. Abortion is clearly a right that exists today be- or abolished. Abortion is clearly a right that exists today because of law. cause of law. In today’s world the distinction between transcendent In today’s world the distinction between transcendent rights and government rights has been distorted. Normative rights and government rights has been distorted. Normative ethical relativism or conventionalism rules. The view is that ethical relativism or conventionalism rules. The view is that since there is no transcendent code, no absolutes, each since there is no transcendent code, no absolutes, each person ought to act in keeping with his/her society’s code. person ought to act in keeping with his/her society’s code. What’s right for one society is not necessarily right for an- What’s right for one society is not necessarily right for another society. other society. The pro-life argument is based on the idea of tran- The pro-life argument is based on the idea of transcendent human rights and that there is a very important scendent human rights and that there is a very important and critical difference between being legal and being moral. and critical difference between being legal and being moral. Just because something is legal doesn’t necessarily imply Just because something is legal doesn’t necessarily imply that it is moral. The question should always be whether that it is moral. The question should always be whether man’s law is in violation of a higher more transcendent law man’s law is in violation of a higher more transcendent law that deals with the issues of human rights and human dig- that deals with the issues of human rights and human dignity and if so how may we abolish or change the law. We nity and if so how may we abolish or change the law. We

254 254 must resist the idea that because something is legal, it is must resist the idea that because something is legal, it is necessarily moral. The pro-lifers are attempting to counter necessarily moral. The pro-lifers are attempting to counter this type of argument. Their argument is based on a tran- this type of argument. Their argument is based on a transcendent law not on man’s law. scendent law not on man’s law. A final important argument that the pro-abortion peo- A final important argument that the pro-abortion people use is the personhood argument which concedes that ple use is the personhood argument which concedes that the unborn entity is genetically a human being as belonging the unborn entity is genetically a human being as belonging to the species homo sapiens, but it is not a person hence to the species homo sapiens, but it is not a person hence not fully human until some stage of development before or not fully human until some stage of development before or after birth. Those people who defend this argument will de- after birth. Those people who defend this argument will defend either a decisive moment or gradualist position to the fend either a decisive moment or gradualist position to the status of the unborn. The decisive moment approach ar- status of the unborn. The decisive moment approach argues that although human life does begin at the moment of gues that although human life does begin at the moment of conception, it is at a later stage in the development of the conception, it is at a later stage in the development of the unborn that it becomes worthy of our protection and at this unborn that it becomes worthy of our protection and at this moment it becomes a person. The gradualist position ar- moment it becomes a person. The gradualist position argues that the unborn human gradually gains more rights as gues that the unborn human gradually gains more rights as it develops. it develops. The abortion stance defended with the personhood The abortion stance defended with the personhood argument is bogged down with serious difficulties. Six diffi- argument is bogged down with serious difficulties. Six difficulties are very damaging to the argument. First, this dis- culties are very damaging to the argument. First, this distinction between persons and humans may be legally irrele- tinction between persons and humans may be legally irrele- vant. Second, making a distinction between humans and vant. Second, making a distinction between humans and persons is arbitrary. Third, to make the distinction between persons is arbitrary. Third, to make the distinction between humans and persons on the grounds that they lack certain humans and persons on the grounds that they lack certain functions which would justify killing children and adults who functions which would justify killing children and adults who have lost these same functions. Fourth, determining person- have lost these same functions. Fourth, determining personhood by function confuses function with essence. Function hood by function confuses function with essence. Function is a result of essence, not the reverse. There is no essential is a result of essence, not the reverse. There is no essential difference between a human being and a human person, difference between a human being and a human person, only a functional one. Fifth, there is no agreement on when only a functional one. Fifth, there is no agreement on when personhood begins after conception. Is it at implantation, personhood begins after conception. Is it at implantation, animation or viability? Sixth, if one is not a person until pos- animation or viability? Sixth, if one is not a person until possession of self-consciousness, then infanticide is justified up session of self-consciousness, then infanticide is justified up

255 255 to about a year and a half after birth. For it is not until this to about a year and a half after birth. For it is not until this point that self-consciousness develops in human beings. point that self-consciousness develops in human beings. Thus we see that the personhood argument that a Thus we see that the personhood argument that a person would use to defend abortion self-destructs. person would use to defend abortion self-destructs.

BIBLICAL POSITION BIBLICAL POSITION People defend abortion rights by appealing to the People defend abortion rights by appealing to the Scriptures. They argue either that the Bible does not specifi- Scriptures. They argue either that the Bible does not specifically condemn abortion or that the Bible actually supports cally condemn abortion or that the Bible actually supports the abortion rights position. For those who do not consider the abortion rights position. For those who do not consider the Bible authoritative, arguments for or against abortion the Bible authoritative, arguments for or against abortion based on its contents are obviously not compelling. Many based on its contents are obviously not compelling. Many people, however, do consider the Bible authoritative and people, however, do consider the Bible authoritative and many others hold it in high respect. many others hold it in high respect.

BIBLE DOES NOT SPECIFICALLY FORBID ABORTION BIBLE DOES NOT SPECIFICALLY FORBID ABORTION Some scholars claim “the Bible itself supports a pro- Some scholars claim “the Bible itself supports a pro- abortion position.” This claim is untrue if one recognizes that abortion position.” This claim is untrue if one recognizes that the Bible’s statements on some other matters can be used the Bible’s statements on some other matters can be used to draw an inference that is consistent with a pro-life posi- to draw an inference that is consistent with a pro-life position. For instance, it is clearly taught in the Bible that murder tion. For instance, it is clearly taught in the Bible that murder –unjustified killing of a human being- is wrong (Ex.20:13). It –unjustified killing of a human being- is wrong (Ex.20:13). It follows logically from this that if the Bible teaches that the follows logically from this that if the Bible teaches that the unborn are fully human, then it would be morally wrong to unborn are fully human, then it would be morally wrong to kill the unborn. The question then is whether the Bible kill the unborn. The question then is whether the Bible teaches that the unborn are fully human, not whether the teaches that the unborn are fully human, not whether the Bible mentions or directly prohibits abortion. Bible mentions or directly prohibits abortion. A number of passages in the Bible apply personal A number of passages in the Bible apply personal language to the unborn from the moment of conception. language to the unborn from the moment of conception. Genesis 4:1 reads: “Now the man had relations with his wife Genesis 4:1 reads: “Now the man had relations with his wife Eve, and she conceived and gave birth to Cain.” Theologian Eve, and she conceived and gave birth to Cain.” Theologian John Jefferson Davis has observed “the writer’s interest in John Jefferson Davis has observed “the writer’s interest in Cain extends back beyond his birth, to his conception. That Cain extends back beyond his birth, to his conception. That is when his personal history begins. The individual is when his personal history begins. The individual

256 256 conceived and the individual born are one and the same, conceived and the individual born are one and the same, namely, Cain.” What follows from this is that Cain’s concep- namely, Cain.” What follows from this is that Cain’s conception, birth and postnatal life form a natural continuum, with tion, birth and postnatal life form a natural continuum, with the God of the covenant involved at every stage. the God of the covenant involved at every stage. In Job 3:3, the author writes: “Let the day perish on In Job 3:3, the author writes: “Let the day perish on which I was to be born. And the night, which said, ‘A boy which I was to be born. And the night, which said, ‘A boy (geber) is conceived.’” It is interesting to note that although (geber) is conceived.’” It is interesting to note that although the Hebrew word geber=”boy” specifically applied to the un- the Hebrew word geber=”boy” specifically applied to the unborn, it is usually used to describe postnatal humans and born, it is usually used to describe postnatal humans and translated “male”, “man”, or “husband” (see Ps.34:9; 52:9; translated “male”, “man”, or “husband” (see Ps.34:9; 52:9; 94:12; Prov.6:34). In Job 3:3 it is translated as “boy” and ap- 94:12; Prov.6:34). In Job 3:3 it is translated as “boy” and applied specifically to an unborn human being. This passage plied specifically to an unborn human being. This passage connects the individual born with the individual conceived. connects the individual born with the individual conceived. Job traces his personal history back beyond his birth to the Job traces his personal history back beyond his birth to the night of conception. Another passage, Psalm 51:5, states: night of conception. Another passage, Psalm 51:5, states: “Behold, I was brought forth in iniquity, and in sin my mother “Behold, I was brought forth in iniquity, and in sin my mother conceived me.” Again we have evidence that one’s begin- conceived me.” Again we have evidence that one’s beginning of existence can be traced back to conception. Accord- ning of existence can be traced back to conception. Accord- ing to Bruce K. Waltke, Psalm 51:5f certainly supports the ing to Bruce K. Waltke, Psalm 51:5f certainly supports the notion that “at the time of conception, man is in a state of notion that “at the time of conception, man is in a state of sin and that man’s spiritual, moral faculty is already present sin and that man’s spiritual, moral faculty is already present in the fetus.” in the fetus.”

UNBORN CALLED CHILDREN UNBORN CALLED CHILDREN According to many scholars, the Bible refers to the According to many scholars, the Bible refers to the unborn in the same way as it refers to infants and young unborn in the same way as it refers to infants and young children. In Luke 1:41, 44 the word baby (brephos) is ap- children. In Luke 1:41, 44 the word baby (brephos) is applied to the unborn: “and it came about that when Elizabeth plied to the unborn: “and it came about that when Elizabeth heard Mary’s greeting, the baby leaped in her womb; and heard Mary’s greeting, the baby leaped in her womb; and Elizabeth was filled with the Holy Spirit…”For behold, when Elizabeth was filled with the Holy Spirit…”For behold, when the sound of your greeting reached my ears, the baby the sound of your greeting reached my ears, the baby leaped in my womb for joy”. This word is used by Luke both leaped in my womb for joy”. This word is used by Luke both for that which is in a womb and for newborn infants where for that which is in a womb and for newborn infants where the infant Jesus is called a baby (brephos): “And this will be the infant Jesus is called a baby (brephos): “And this will be

257 257 a sign for you; you will find a baby wrapped in clothes, and a sign for you; you will find a baby wrapped in clothes, and lying in a manger… And they came in haste and found their lying in a manger… And they came in haste and found their way to Mary and Joseph, and the baby as he lay in the way to Mary and Joseph, and the baby as he lay in the manger.” This may mean that Luke assumed a continuity manger.” This may mean that Luke assumed a continuity between newborn infants and fetal life, at least in its later between newborn infants and fetal life, at least in its later stages. stages.

UNBORN KNOWN BY GOD IN A PERSONAL WAY UNBORN KNOWN BY GOD IN A PERSONAL WAY A number of biblical passages are clear on the point that A number of biblical passages are clear on the point that the unborn are known by God in a personal way. (Jer.1:5; the unborn are known by God in a personal way. (Jer.1:5; Ps.139:13-16; Isa.49:1; Judg.12:3-5,6,7; Lk.1:15; Gal.1:15). Ps.139:13-16; Isa.49:1; Judg.12:3-5,6,7; Lk.1:15; Gal.1:15). The most well known verse supporting this position is The most well known verse supporting this position is Jeremiah 1:5, “Before I formed you in the womb I knew you, Jeremiah 1:5, “Before I formed you in the womb I knew you, and therefore you were born. I consecrated you; I appointed and therefore you were born. I consecrated you; I appointed you a prophet to the nations”). (NSRV) you a prophet to the nations”). (NSRV) Some authors, such as Robert Wennberg, have ques- Some authors, such as Robert Wennberg, have questioned the use of many of the passages to establish the full tioned the use of many of the passages to establish the full humanity of the unborn. Although he makes some valid humanity of the unborn. Although he makes some valid points concerning some passages, Wennberg tries to rob points concerning some passages, Wennberg tries to rob the right-to-lifer’s biblical cases of its strength by a herme- the right-to-lifer’s biblical cases of its strength by a hermeneutical slight of hand. First, concerning those passages neutical slight of hand. First, concerning those passages that use personal language to describe the unborn, that use personal language to describe the unborn, Wennberg writes “such references designate individuals not Wennberg writes “such references designate individuals not only before birth but before conception… only before birth but before conception… And so they are not really to the point.” One problem And so they are not really to the point.” One problem with this criticism is that it is not applicable to all such pas- with this criticism is that it is not applicable to all such passages, for some do speak exclusively of personal existence sages, for some do speak exclusively of personal existence beginning at conception (e.g., Gen.4:1; Job.3:3). Another beginning at conception (e.g., Gen.4:1; Job.3:3). Another problem is that none of these passages claim that the per- problem is that none of these passages claim that the persons in question existed prior to their conception, but rather, sons in question existed prior to their conception, but rather, that God knew them or had plans for them before concep- that God knew them or had plans for them before conception. This is certainly possible for an eternal God, who tion. This is certainly possible for an eternal God, who knows all things simultaneously (see Ps.147:5; Job 28:24; knows all things simultaneously (see Ps.147:5; Job 28:24; Isa.41:21-24; 46:10) and is not bound by any time or space Isa.41:21-24; 46:10) and is not bound by any time or space (see Ps.90:2; Isa.40:28; 43:12b; 13; 57:15a), since he is the (see Ps.90:2; Isa.40:28; 43:12b; 13; 57:15a), since he is the

258 258 creator of time and space (see Acts.17:25; Col.1:16,17; Heb.11:3; Rev.4:11). That is, it is possible for him to know each and every one of us before we were conceived. William S. Kurz states: “… behind the call to this person lies God’s forming of all humans in the womb. But even this special call is given before the person is born, while still in the womb. If God makes each human in the womb, and if he configures the personhood of some individuals to their vocation as prophet, it is not out of step with biblical world views to argue that God probably has a plan for each human He makes, even while He is in the process of forming him or her in the womb.”

Thus, such foreknowledge of human persons prior to their conception cannot be cited in order to explain away either conception as the beginning of personal existence or that personal existence is attributed to prenatal life when a passage in question specifically says, for example, that a certain individual either has personally existed from conception (e.g., Gen.4:1) or has personally existed prior to birth (e.g., Jer.1:5; Ps.139:13-16; Lk.1:41-44).

Wennberg puts forth a second argument: Extending our examination, it would be a mistake to argue that since it was David who was being formed [or “brought forth” in NASB] in his mother’s womb (Ps.51:5), it must therefore have been David the person who was in his mother’s womb. That would be to confuse “formation / creation” of a thing with the “completion/existence” of that thing. The fact is that an entity can be on the way to becoming a particular thing without it being that thing. It is quite natural for us to refer to what is in the process of becoming (the zygote or fetus in a Semite woman’s womb) in terms of what it will eventually become (a king David), but we are

259 are not then speaking with technical accuracy. If a but- are not then speaking with technical accuracy. If a butterfly is being formed in a cocoon, it does not follow that terfly is being formed in a cocoon, it does not follow that there is a butterfly there (rather than a caterpillar or some- there is a butterfly there (rather than a caterpillar or something betwixt or between). thing betwixt or between). In essence, Wennberg is arguing that one cannot cite In essence, Wennberg is arguing that one cannot cite passages such as Psalm 51:5 to show that the unborn are passages such as Psalm 51:5 to show that the unborn are fully human, since such passages are only saying that the fully human, since such passages are only saying that the person in question is “being formed,” not that the human be- person in question is “being formed,” not that the human being in the womb has become that person. There are several ing in the womb has become that person. There are several problems with this argument. problems with this argument. First, even if Wennberg’s interpretation of passages First, even if Wennberg’s interpretation of passages such as Psalm 51:5 were correct, he would still have to deal such as Psalm 51:5 were correct, he would still have to deal with other passages that clearly state that individual per- with other passages that clearly state that individual personal existence begins at conception (e.g., Gen.4:1). sonal existence begins at conception (e.g., Gen.4:1). Second, Wennberg commits the hermeneutical fal- Second, Wennberg commits the hermeneutical fallacy that James Sire calls “worldview confusion.” (This fallacy that James Sire calls “worldview confusion.” (This fallacy occurs whenever a reader of Scripture fails to interpret lacy occurs whenever a reader of Scripture fails to interpret the Bible within the intellectual and broadly cultural frame- the Bible within the intellectual and broadly cultural framework of the Bible itself and uses instead a foreign frame of work of the Bible itself and uses instead a foreign frame of reference). Wennberg’s distinction between person and hu- reference). Wennberg’s distinction between person and human being is an invention of some contemporary philoso- man being is an invention of some contemporary philosophers who argue that a human being becomes a person at phers who argue that a human being becomes a person at some stage in his or her development. Since Wennberg has some stage in his or her development. Since Wennberg has the burden to prove that the author of Psalms was assum- the burden to prove that the author of Psalms was assuming such a distinction, and since he provides no reason to ing such a distinction, and since he provides no reason to believe he has satisfied this burden, it is reasonable to con- believe he has satisfied this burden, it is reasonable to con- clude that Wennberg is reading back into David’s assertion clude that Wennberg is reading back into David’s assertion a foreign worldview. a foreign worldview. Third, the passage does say “in sin my mother con- Third, the passage does say “in sin my mother conceived me.” This clearly indicates that David’s personal ex- ceived me.” This clearly indicates that David’s personal existence can be traced back to conception, since it was at istence can be traced back to conception, since it was at conception that he asserts he was conceived. And if this is conception that he asserts he was conceived. And if this is the case, then it seems natural to interpret the first half of the case, then it seems natural to interpret the first half of Psalm 51:5 (“I was brought forth” or “I was being formed”) Psalm 51:5 (“I was brought forth” or “I was being formed”) as describing the subsequent physical development of as describing the subsequent physical development of

260 260 David in the womb, development that continues after birth David in the womb, development that continues after birth into infancy, childhood, adolescence, and adulthood. Al- into infancy, childhood, adolescence, and adulthood. Al- though Wennberg is correct in saying that “if a butterfly is though Wennberg is correct in saying that “if a butterfly is being formed in a cocoon, it does not follow that there is a being formed in a cocoon, it does not follow that there is a butterfly there (rather than a caterpillar or something betwixt butterfly there (rather than a caterpillar or something betwixt or between),” the insect that is becoming the butterfly is still or between),” the insect that is becoming the butterfly is still the same insect that was once a caterpillar and will be a the same insect that was once a caterpillar and will be a butterfly. In the same way, the being at conception is the butterfly. In the same way, the being at conception is the same person who will become the infant, the child, the ado- same person who will become the infant, the child, the ado- lescent, the adult, and maybe even a philosopher. lescent, the adult, and maybe even a philosopher. In summary, it is clear that passages such as Psalm In summary, it is clear that passages such as Psalm 51:5 are describing a person who is in the process of devel- 51:5 are describing a person who is in the process of development, not a thing that is in the process of developing into opment, not a thing that is in the process of developing into a person. a person.

THE BREATH OF LIFE THE BREATH OF LIFE Some people argue that since Adam became a living Some people argue that since Adam became a living soul God “breathed into his nostrils the breath of life and the soul God “breathed into his nostrils the breath of life and the man became a living nefesh” (Gen.2:7). According to man became a living nefesh” (Gen.2:7). According to Charles W. Baughman, nefesh can be translated as either Charles W. Baughman, nefesh can be translated as either “breath” or “being.” There is reference to “the breath of life” “breath” or “being.” There is reference to “the breath of life” in Genesis 7:22 where we read, “And all flesh that moved in Genesis 7:22 where we read, “And all flesh that moved on the earth perished, birds, cattle, wild animals, all swarm- on the earth perished, birds, cattle, wild animals, all swarm- ing creatures that swarm upon the earth and all human being creatures that swarm upon the earth and all human beings. Everything which had the breath [Hebrew, nishmat] of ings. Everything which had the breath [Hebrew, nishmat] of life in its nostrils, all that were on dry land died.” Breath is life in its nostrils, all that were on dry land died.” Breath is understood to be essential to life and when the breath understood to be essential to life and when the breath stops, life ends. This indicates that life began for this human stops, life ends. This indicates that life began for this human being (Adam) when God breathed breath into him. This being (Adam) when God breathed breath into him. This concept can be found throughout the Hebrew Bible (see concept can be found throughout the Hebrew Bible (see Josh. 10:40; 11; 10 and 14; I Kgs.17; Gen.35:18; Ezek.37). Josh. 10:40; 11; 10 and 14; I Kgs.17; Gen.35:18; Ezek.37). In each of these passages the “breath” is received or taken In each of these passages the “breath” is received or taken away by God. For example in I Kings 17:17 Elijah stretched away by God. For example in I Kings 17:17 Elijah stretched himself upon the widow’s child and cried to Yahweh, “O himself upon the widow’s child and cried to Yahweh, “O Yahweh, my God let the life force (or ‘breath’) of this boy Yahweh, my God let the life force (or ‘breath’) of this boy

261 261 enter into him again!” Yahweh listened to the plea of the enter into him again!” Yahweh listened to the plea of the prophet and caused the life force (or ‘breath’) of the boy to prophet and caused the life force (or ‘breath’) of the boy to enter into him once more and he lived. Nefesh is translated enter into him once more and he lived. Nefesh is translated here as “life force” because according to Baughman, “it is here as “life force” because according to Baughman, “it is closer to the meaning of the Hebrew than “soul.” For us, the closer to the meaning of the Hebrew than “soul.” For us, the word “soul” connotes a far more ethereal concept than word “soul” connotes a far more ethereal concept than nefesh had for Bible writers. Nefesh is often equated with nefesh had for Bible writers. Nefesh is often equated with life itself and can indicate a living person or persons. How- life itself and can indicate a living person or persons. How- ever, as we saw earlier, nefesh can mean “breath.” Since ever, as we saw earlier, nefesh can mean “breath.” Since this story of the boy’s illness began with the report that his this story of the boy’s illness began with the report that his breath left him, it might be best to read “breath” at the close breath left him, it might be best to read “breath” at the close of the account. We have already discovered that nefesh is of the account. We have already discovered that nefesh is closely connected with the concept of breath. closely connected with the concept of breath. Thus, again, we can see the close connection be- Thus, again, we can see the close connection between life and breath. When the Bible says, “There was no tween life and breath. When the Bible says, “There was no breath left in him,” that can be seen as saying, “He died.” breath left in him,” that can be seen as saying, “He died.” The same thing can be said when the breath enters back The same thing can be said when the breath enters back into the body, it revitalizes the life. This is found in Ezekiel into the body, it revitalizes the life. This is found in Ezekiel 37, where the prophet is told to prophesy to bones and say, 37, where the prophet is told to prophesy to bones and say, “Thus says Yahweh, ‘I will cause breath to enter into you “Thus says Yahweh, ‘I will cause breath to enter into you and you shall live!’” and you shall live!’” Again, we can see this connection between “breath” Again, we can see this connection between “breath” and “life” in Psalm 104:29-30, “When you hide your face, and “life” in Psalm 104:29-30, “When you hide your face, they are terrified. When you gather in their breath, they die they are terrified. When you gather in their breath, they die and return to their dust. When you send forth your breath and return to their dust. When you send forth your breath [spirit], they are created and you renew the face of the [spirit], they are created and you renew the face of the ground [or earth.]”. ground [or earth.]”. Problematic in Baughman’s argument is the interpre- Problematic in Baughman’s argument is the interpretation of the Hebrew term ruach. It is as used in each of the tation of the Hebrew term ruach. It is as used in each of the passages and can be as easily read as “spirit” as it can be passages and can be as easily read as “spirit” as it can be as “breath.” Doing this thus negates the argument that life as “breath.” Doing this thus negates the argument that life begins when breath is taken. It can just as easily be inferred begins when breath is taken. It can just as easily be inferred that life begins when God’s spirit is imparted. Since this is that life begins when God’s spirit is imparted. Since this is an unknown moment in the life process, it would be a fallacy an unknown moment in the life process, it would be a fallacy to continue the “life” equals “breath” position. to continue the “life” equals “breath” position.

262 262 LIFE AND THE LAW LIFE AND THE LAW Finally, this biblical equation of life with breathing Finally, this biblical equation of life with breathing finds formulation in a law dealing with how to handle a mis- finds formulation in a law dealing with how to handle a miscarriage that results from a fight. This law is found in carriage that results from a fight. This law is found in Ex.21:22-25 (RSV Bible) where we read: “When men striv- Ex.21:22-25 (RSV Bible) where we read: “When men striving together, and hurt a woman with child, so that there is a ing together, and hurt a woman with child, so that there is a miscarriage, and yet no harm follows, the one who hurt her miscarriage, and yet no harm follows, the one who hurt her shall be fined, according as the woman’s husband shall lay shall be fined, according as the woman’s husband shall lay upon him; and he shall pay as the judges determine. If any upon him; and he shall pay as the judges determine. If any harm follows, then you shall give life for life, eye for eye, harm follows, then you shall give life for life, eye for eye, tooth for tooth, hand for hand, foot for foot, burn for burn, tooth for tooth, hand for hand, foot for foot, burn for burn, wound for wound, stripe for stripe,” This is noted as one of wound for wound, stripe for stripe,” This is noted as one of the oldest collection of laws in the Bible. This is also noted the oldest collection of laws in the Bible. This is also noted as a theological argument popular among biblical scholars. as a theological argument popular among biblical scholars. This argument can be criticized on several counts. This argument can be criticized on several counts. First, assuming that the abortion rights interpretation of Exo- First, assuming that the abortion rights interpretation of Exo- dus 21:22-25 is correct, does it logically follow that abortion dus 21:22-25 is correct, does it logically follow that abortion on demand is morally justified? After all, the passage says on demand is morally justified? After all, the passage says that the unborn are worth something. In contrast, contempo- that the unborn are worth something. In contrast, contemporary defenders of abortion rights seem to be saying that the rary defenders of abortion rights seem to be saying that the unborn are worth only the value that their mothers place on unborn are worth only the value that their mothers place on them. If the abortion-rights interpretation is correct, the pas- them. If the abortion-rights interpretation is correct, the passage in question is not teaching that the pregnant woman sage in question is not teaching that the pregnant woman can willfully kill the human contents of her womb. It merely can willfully kill the human contents of her womb. It merely teaches that there is a lesser penalty for accidentally killing teaches that there is a lesser penalty for accidentally killing an unborn human than there is for accidentally killing her/his an unborn human than there is for accidentally killing her/his mother. mother. Second, the severity of an Old Testament penalty is Second, the severity of an Old Testament penalty is not always indicative of the full humanness of a victim. For not always indicative of the full humanness of a victim. For example, in his important article on the Old Testament and example, in his important article on the Old Testament and abortion, Bruce K. Waltke writes that “It does not necessar- abortion, Bruce K. Waltke writes that “It does not necessarily follow that because the law did not apply the principle of ily follow that because the law did not apply the principle of lex talionis, that is ‘person for person,’ when the fetus was lex talionis, that is ‘person for person,’ when the fetus was aborted through fighting, therefore the fetus is less than a aborted through fighting, therefore the fetus is less than a human being.” For “in the preceding case, the judgment did human being.” For “in the preceding case, the judgment did

263 263 not apply the principle of lex talionis in the case of a debat- not apply the principle of lex talionis in the case of a debat- able death of a servant at the hands of his master. But it able death of a servant at the hands of his master. But it does not follow that since ‘life for life’ was not exacted here does not follow that since ‘life for life’ was not exacted here that therefore the slave was less than a fully human life.” that therefore the slave was less than a fully human life.” This passage of Exodus 21:22-25 divides biblical commen- This passage of Exodus 21:22-25 divides biblical commen- tators into two camps. One camp holds that the passage is tators into two camps. One camp holds that the passage is teaching that the woman and the unborn are valued differ- teaching that the woman and the unborn are valued differently. In their view a fetus is considered as something of a ently. In their view a fetus is considered as something of a different order than a mother. When the ‘fetus’ becomes a different order than a mother. When the ‘fetus’ becomes a ‘child,’ and then becomes a girl, and eventually becomes a ‘child,’ and then becomes a girl, and eventually becomes a pregnant woman, then she is more valuable than as a fetus pregnant woman, then she is more valuable than as a fetus in the womb. Therefore, the death of the unborn is not in the womb. Therefore, the death of the unborn is not considered the same as the death of an adult. A life for life considered the same as the death of an adult. A life for life is to be given if she is fatally wounded. According to the is to be given if she is fatally wounded. According to the second camp, the passage is saying that if the unborn is ac- second camp, the passage is saying that if the unborn is accidentally killed, there is only a fine, but if the pregnant cidentally killed, there is only a fine, but if the pregnant woman is accidentally killed, it is a much more serious of- woman is accidentally killed, it is a much more serious of- fense. fense. Hence, Exodus 21:22-25 is saying that if the incident Hence, Exodus 21:22-25 is saying that if the incident in question results only in a premature birth, the perpetrator in question results only in a premature birth, the perpetrator should be fined. However, if “harm follows” (that is, if either should be fined. However, if “harm follows” (that is, if either the mother or the child is injured or killed), the same should the mother or the child is injured or killed), the same should be inflicted upon the perpetrator (Jerusalem Bible). be inflicted upon the perpetrator (Jerusalem Bible).

CONCLUSION CONCLUSION It has been shown that while the Bible does not It has been shown that while the Bible does not speak directly to the abortion issue, it does represent the speak directly to the abortion issue, it does represent the position that the unborn are to be considered as fully human position that the unborn are to be considered as fully human beings. beings. The Lukan account of the birth of Jesus gives us the The Lukan account of the birth of Jesus gives us the concept that even in the womb, the fully human person of concept that even in the womb, the fully human person of Christ is cognizant of both the Spirit of God and the pres- Christ is cognizant of both the Spirit of God and the presence of others outside the womb. ence of others outside the womb. Throughout the Bible, it can be seen that the fetus is Throughout the Bible, it can be seen that the fetus is considered to be a developing human and not something considered to be a developing human and not something

264 264 that is developing into a human being. that is developing into a human being. Along this same line, it has been shown that life does Along this same line, it has been shown that life does not necessarily begin at the first intake of breath but can not necessarily begin at the first intake of breath but can also be considered to begin when God’s Spirit is imparted. also be considered to begin when God’s Spirit is imparted. Finally, it has been shown that the law in Biblical Finally, it has been shown that the law in Biblical times viewed the fetus to have value separate from the times viewed the fetus to have value separate from the mother and in the same degree as the mother. Since the mother and in the same degree as the mother. Since the unborn are seen as fully human beings with the same status unborn are seen as fully human beings with the same status as those outside the womb, then it is morally wrong to end as those outside the womb, then it is morally wrong to end the life of an unborn child. the life of an unborn child.

THE CHURCH TODAY ON THE ABORTION ISSUE THE CHURCH TODAY ON THE ABORTION ISSUE Jesus is Lord over all creation, and all life comes Jesus is Lord over all creation, and all life comes under His dominion. He is to be honored, glorified, wor- under His dominion. He is to be honored, glorified, worshipped and obeyed. Humankind is His handmade creation shipped and obeyed. Humankind is His handmade creation and are stewards of the creation and life. We read in Gene- and are stewards of the creation and life. We read in Gene- sis 1:28 God commissioning Adam, “Be fruitful and multiply, sis 1:28 God commissioning Adam, “Be fruitful and multiply, fill the earth and subdue it; and have dominion over every fill the earth and subdue it; and have dominion over every creation that moves upon the earth.” Such stewardship be- creation that moves upon the earth.” Such stewardship becomes an exercise in dominion over the creation. Human comes an exercise in dominion over the creation. Human stewardship is a covenant to accept responsibilities as well stewardship is a covenant to accept responsibilities as well as to know the limits of human resources. On the other as to know the limits of human resources. On the other hand, as God’s creation, we should know that God alone is hand, as God’s creation, we should know that God alone is the creator of life and the owner of all that He has made the creator of life and the owner of all that He has made (Ps.24:1). Hence, He alone has the right of decision over (Ps.24:1). Hence, He alone has the right of decision over life and death. St Chrysostom and Clement both viewed the life and death. St Chrysostom and Clement both viewed the fetus as an “Object of God’s care.” The fetus’ sanctity of life fetus as an “Object of God’s care.” The fetus’ sanctity of life was placed within the realm of God’s providence. Then was placed within the realm of God’s providence. Then whose right is it to make the ultimate abortion decision? Are whose right is it to make the ultimate abortion decision? Are women free and allowed or capable to make good moral women free and allowed or capable to make good moral choices in regards to problem pregnancies? The decision to choices in regards to problem pregnancies? The decision to abort or not abort must be based on a greater issue than abort or not abort must be based on a greater issue than that of personal freedom and economics. that of personal freedom and economics. Being stewards of God’s creation, only humans have Being stewards of God’s creation, only humans have decision-making capacity and are endowed with a unique decision-making capacity and are endowed with a unique

265 265 moral, rational, and intellectual responsibility to God. moral, rational, and intellectual responsibility to God. On occasions of life-threatening pregnancies, the On occasions of life-threatening pregnancies, the mother may justifiably choose to live at the expense of her mother may justifiably choose to live at the expense of her unborn child. unborn child. Rape, incest or serious fetal deformities are also jus- Rape, incest or serious fetal deformities are also justifiable reasons for abortion. tifiable reasons for abortion. Grounds for recommending abortions to be per- Grounds for recommending abortions to be performed as early as possible are two-fold and may shed formed as early as possible are two-fold and may shed some light on the differing arguments concerning viability. some light on the differing arguments concerning viability. The crux of the argument settles around when a fetus is hu- The crux of the argument settles around when a fetus is human and when viable life starts. Abortions done within the man and when viable life starts. Abortions done within the first trimester are statistically safer for the patient. As well, first trimester are statistically safer for the patient. As well, first trimester abortions are preferable because the surgical first trimester abortions are preferable because the surgical procedure is one of evacuation of the uterus. Such procedure is one of evacuation of the uterus. Such abortions are rationalized in that the fetus is not sufficiently abortions are rationalized in that the fetus is not sufficiently developed to survive as a physical autonomous human be- developed to survive as a physical autonomous human being before the third trimester. Therefore, the moral question ing before the third trimester. Therefore, the moral question still resides in the area of dominion (human responsibility still resides in the area of dominion (human responsibility directing the natural order) under the direction of the Holy directing the natural order) under the direction of the Holy Spirit and not inviolability. After the third trimester, the fetus Spirit and not inviolability. After the third trimester, the fetus could be delivered and survive and therefore must be af- could be delivered and survive and therefore must be afforded the same human rights that are afforded infant chil- forded the same human rights that are afforded infant children. That is inviolability. dren. That is inviolability. The second group would argue that there are at least The second group would argue that there are at least four markers of viability before the third trimester. The first four markers of viability before the third trimester. The first marker of viability rests in the moment of conception when marker of viability rests in the moment of conception when the egg and sperm come together to form a human zygote. the egg and sperm come together to form a human zygote. In this zygote, rest all the genetic information that this per- In this zygote, rest all the genetic information that this person will need to control that individual’s possible growth and son will need to control that individual’s possible growth and development for the rest of his or her life. The second development for the rest of his or her life. The second marker of life would be that of the first beats of the human marker of life would be that of the first beats of the human heart at week four and the elementary foundations of the heart at week four and the elementary foundations of the nervous system, including the brain, nerves and the spinal nervous system, including the brain, nerves and the spinal chord. The third marker comes at six weeks when the child chord. The third marker comes at six weeks when the child begins to coordinate its own muscle movements and with begins to coordinate its own muscle movements and with

266 266 completion of the heart’s development. The fourth and last completion of the heart’s development. The fourth and last marker of viability centers in the brain of the fetus. At eight marker of viability centers in the brain of the fetus. At eight weeks, it is fully functioning and the lungs are largely com- weeks, it is fully functioning and the lungs are largely complete. plete. This last point is critical to the argument of inviolability This last point is critical to the argument of inviolability before the third trimester distinction since the definitive and before the third trimester distinction since the definitive and final measure of the end of human life is brain death. The final measure of the end of human life is brain death. The argument is clear. The fetus is viable 14-16 weeks before argument is clear. The fetus is viable 14-16 weeks before the popular date of viability for those proposing choice in the popular date of viability for those proposing choice in abortions. For many, scripture is clear that God’s work of abortions. For many, scripture is clear that God’s work of creation began while we were still in our mothers wombs creation began while we were still in our mothers wombs (Ps.139:13). Therefore, earlier classifications of viability only (Ps.139:13). Therefore, earlier classifications of viability only seem reasonable. seem reasonable. In the area of viability, this group would also argue In the area of viability, this group would also argue the issue of ensoulment, and when that occurs. To be alive the issue of ensoulment, and when that occurs. To be alive in the mothers womb is to be both body and soul from the in the mothers womb is to be both body and soul from the beginning. The soul is not breathed into the child at some beginning. The soul is not breathed into the child at some later stage of the child’s development. It is not just the body later stage of the child’s development. It is not just the body that is aborted but the soul too. This group would see, as that is aborted but the soul too. This group would see, as Christians, the two inextricably connected. Christians, the two inextricably connected. The church is called to be the community, which, The church is called to be the community, which, through its behavior and its mission, the reign of God be- through its behavior and its mission, the reign of God becomes visible, serving as a precursor and avante-guard of comes visible, serving as a precursor and avante-guard of the society that will be the fulfillment of all hope. The church the society that will be the fulfillment of all hope. The church stands under the governance and judgment of God and stands under the governance and judgment of God and must be a leader in encouraging and training parents to ap- must be a leader in encouraging and training parents to approach the subject of sex education with their children. The proach the subject of sex education with their children. The church must stress and elaborate the sanctity of life and church must stress and elaborate the sanctity of life and marriage. Abstinence must be proposed as the most bibli- marriage. Abstinence must be proposed as the most biblically responsible and in the long-run fulfilling solution to ma- cally responsible and in the long-run fulfilling solution to mature loving. Yet, in the realities of life, the church must also ture loving. Yet, in the realities of life, the church must also be bold to tackle the issues that surround contraceptive us- be bold to tackle the issues that surround contraceptive usage and less violent alternatives to problem pregnancies. age and less violent alternatives to problem pregnancies. Stressing life-giving alternatives strongly over those of abor- Stressing life-giving alternatives strongly over those of abortion is not only prudent but also a moral responsibility. We tion is not only prudent but also a moral responsibility. We

267 267 must not allow our children to continue to be influenced en- must not allow our children to continue to be influenced entirely by the media or societies’ mores over those of the tirely by the media or societies’ mores over those of the Christian faith and values. Christian faith and values.

The church as Christ’s bride and body on earth must The church as Christ’s bride and body on earth must be an active witness of Christ’s love in the lives of the peo- be an active witness of Christ’s love in the lives of the people, extend moral and financial support, and counseling ple, extend moral and financial support, and counseling while at the same time actively engaging in providing crea- while at the same time actively engaging in providing creative and comprehensive health care programs. tive and comprehensive health care programs.

Our involvement should not end with the end of the Our involvement should not end with the end of the pregnancy. Rather, it should continue by aiding in grief and pregnancy. Rather, it should continue by aiding in grief and forgiveness counseling if the woman has chosen abortion, forgiveness counseling if the woman has chosen abortion, separation counseling if adoption was the choice, and par- separation counseling if adoption was the choice, and par- enting classes for both parents if keeping the child was the enting classes for both parents if keeping the child was the final decision. All in all, we as the church of Jesus Christ final decision. All in all, we as the church of Jesus Christ must be about caring for all the different phases faced by must be about caring for all the different phases faced by God’s children in wanted or unwanted pregnancies. God’s children in wanted or unwanted pregnancies.

268 268 BIBLIOGRAPHY BIBLIOGRAPHY

Anderson, John O. (1984). Cry of the innocents. Anderson, John O. (1984). Cry of the innocents. Beckwith Francis J. (December 1989). Abortion and Public Beckwith Francis J. (December 1989). Abortion and Public Policy: A Response to Some Arguments. Journal of Policy: A Response to Some Arguments. Journal of the Evangelical Theological Society 32 the Evangelical Theological Society 32 Beckwith, Francis J. (Spring 1991, 8) Answering the Argu- Beckwith, Francis J. (Spring 1991, 8) Answering the Argu- ments for Abortion Rights. Christian Research Jour- ments for Abortion Rights. Christian Research Jour- nal. nal. Beckwith, Francis J. and Geisler, Norman L. (1991, Decem- Beckwith, Francis J. and Geisler, Norman L. (1991, Decem- ber 4). Matters of Life and Death. Brave New Bible: A ber 4). Matters of Life and Death. Brave New Bible: A Reply to the Moderate Evangelical Position on Abor- Reply to the Moderate Evangelical Position on Abor- tion. Journal of the Evangelical Theological Society, tion. Journal of the Evangelical Theological Society, 33/4. 33/4. Brown, Harold O.J. (Fall 1976). Christian Response to Abor- Brown, Harold O.J. (Fall 1976). Christian Response to Abor- tion. The Human Life Review, 131. tion. The Human Life Review, 131. Brown, Harold O.J. (1977). Death Before Birth. Brown, Harold O.J. (1977). Death Before Birth. Callahan, Daniel. (1970). Abortion: Law, Choice, and Mo- Callahan, Daniel. (1970). Abortion: Law, Choice, and Mo- rality. rality. Charles W. Baughman. (June 1996). The Breath of Life. Charles W. Baughman. (June 1996). The Breath of Life. Christian Social Action, 31. Christian Social Action, 31. Elwell, Walter A. (Ed.). (1984). Evangelical Dictionary of Elwell, Walter A. (Ed.). (1984). Evangelical Dictionary of Theology. Theology. Gardner, R.F.R. (1972). Abortion: The Personal Dilemma. Gardner, R.F.R. (1972). Abortion: The Personal Dilemma. Gorman, Michael J. Abortion and the Early Church, 1982. Gorman, Michael J. Abortion and the Early Church, 1982. Koukl, Gregory. (1994). Stand to Reason. Koukl, Gregory. (1994). Stand to Reason. Kurz, William S.J. (1986). Genesis and Abortion: An Exe- Kurz, William S.J. (1986). Genesis and Abortion: An Exe- getical Test of a Biblical warrant in ethics. Theological getical Test of a Biblical warrant in ethics. Theological Studies 47, 676. Studies 47, 676. Lahaye, Tim. (1990). The Battle For the Mind. Lahaye, Tim. (1990). The Battle For the Mind. Mott, Stephen Charles. (1982). Biblical Ethics and Social Mott, Stephen Charles. (1982). Biblical Ethics and Social Change. Change. Russell Fuller. (June 1994). Exodus 21:22-23: The Miscar- Russell Fuller. (June 1994). Exodus 21:22-23: The Miscar- riage Interpretation and the Personhood of the Fetus. riage Interpretation and the Personhood of the Fetus. Journal of the Evangelical Theological Society 37/2. Journal of the Evangelical Theological Society 37/2.

269 269

Schlossberg, Terry, and Achtemeier, Elizabeth. (1995). Not Schlossberg, Terry, and Achtemeier, Elizabeth. (1995). Not My Own Abortion and the Marks of The Church. My Own Abortion and the Marks of The Church. Speckard, Anne. (1987). Psycho-social stress following Speckard, Anne. (1987). Psycho-social stress following abortion. abortion. Swindoll, Charles R. (1990). Sanctity of life. Swindoll, Charles R. (1990). Sanctity of life. Waltke, Bruce K. (Winter 1976). Reflections from the Old Waltke, Bruce K. (Winter 1976). Reflections from the Old Testament on abortion. Testament on abortion. Journal of the Evangelical Theological Society 19, 12 & 19. Journal of the Evangelical Theological Society 19, 12 & 19.

270 270 RACE, DIVERSITY AND SOCIAL JUSTICE RACE, DIVERSITY AND SOCIAL JUSTICE

HISTORICAL FOUNDATION: DEFINING RACE HISTORICAL FOUNDATION: DEFINING RACE The idea of “race” is a human creation. People have The idea of “race” is a human creation. People have given names to their varied strains since physical differ- given names to their varied strains since physical differences first began to appear. The investigation of physical ences first began to appear. The investigation of physical differences is the task of anthropology (the science of differences is the task of anthropology (the science of “man”). The anthropologist’s duty is to establish numerically “man”). The anthropologist’s duty is to establish numerically in the most exact manner possible the conspicuous differ- in the most exact manner possible the conspicuous differences of “fundamental types and between the mixed races ences of “fundamental types and between the mixed races arising from them.” Differences are based on skeletal struc- arising from them.” Differences are based on skeletal structure, muscularity and general formation of the soft parts of ture, muscularity and general formation of the soft parts of the face. Also noted is the color of the eyes, skin and the the face. Also noted is the color of the eyes, skin and the form and color of hair. Although the human race must be form and color of hair. Although the human race must be regarded as a unit intellectually and physically, the differ- regarded as a unit intellectually and physically, the differences that have existed and still exist permit a classification ences that have existed and still exist permit a classification into various races. into various races.

ANCIENT RACIAL CLASSIFICATIONS ANCIENT RACIAL CLASSIFICATIONS Anthropologists are not the only people who have Anthropologists are not the only people who have ever defined or thought about racial classifications. Also, ever defined or thought about racial classifications. Also, race has not always been as specific as that of the anthro- race has not always been as specific as that of the anthropologist with regard to specific physical differences. Racial pologist with regard to specific physical differences. Racial classifications date back to 1200-850 B.C. with Homer. In classifications date back to 1200-850 B.C. with Homer. In the Iliad and Odyssey there is acknowledged variability. the Iliad and Odyssey there is acknowledged variability. There were the Aethiopians (People at the eastern and There were the Aethiopians (People at the eastern and western edges of the known world) and Cubit-men (African western edges of the known world) and Cubit-men (African pygmies?). pygmies?). Aristotle (384-322 B.C.) stated that environmental Aristotle (384-322 B.C.) stated that environmental causes were formative of physical variations in human be- causes were formative of physical variations in human beings. He claimed that the wooly hair of the Aethiopians was ings. He claimed that the wooly hair of the Aethiopians was due to arid climate and the straight hair of the Scythians due to arid climate and the straight hair of the Scythians was due to moist air. was due to moist air. Saint Augustine (354-430 A.D.) even addressed Saint Augustine (354-430 A.D.) even addressed race and said, “All ‘men’ born everywhere, no matter how race and said, “All ‘men’ born everywhere, no matter how

271 271 strange they appear to ‘us’ are descended from Adam” (or strange they appear to ‘us’ are descended from Adam” (or are descended from a single ancestral stock). are descended from a single ancestral stock).

18th CENTURY RACIAL IDEOLOGY 18th CENTURY RACIAL IDEOLOGY During the 18th century, a debate occurred regarding During the 18th century, a debate occurred regarding the term monogenism and polygenism. Monogenism means the term monogenism and polygenism. Monogenism means that all humans had a single origin from Adam and Eve. Po- that all humans had a single origin from Adam and Eve. Po- lygenism means that different races are descendants of lygenism means that different races are descendants of “different Adams.” Races were ranked on various criteria “different Adams.” Races were ranked on various criteria judged to access intelligence or moral standards. Many sci- judged to access intelligence or moral standards. Many scientists and/or anthropologists state their viewpoints regard- entists and/or anthropologists state their viewpoints regarding race during the 18th century. ing race during the 18th century.

CAROLUS LINNAEUS 1707-1778 CAROLUS LINNAEUS 1707-1778 Carolus Linnaeus was a Swedish botanist also Carolus Linnaeus was a Swedish botanist also known as the “Father of Taxonomy.” He viewed the task of known as the “Father of Taxonomy.” He viewed the task of classification as one attempting to understand natural laws. classification as one attempting to understand natural laws. Linnaeus defined at least seven different races, four real Linnaeus defined at least seven different races, four real (Americanus, Europaeus, Asiaticus, Afer) and three imagi- (Americanus, Europaeus, Asiaticus, Afer) and three imaginary (Ferus, Troglodytes and Monstrous). nary (Ferus, Troglodytes and Monstrous).

JOHANN FRIEDRICH BLUMENBACH 1752-1840 JOHANN FRIEDRICH BLUMENBACH 1752-1840 Johann Blumenbach was a German anatomy profes- Johann Blumenbach was a German anatomy profes- sor. He was known as the “Father of Physical Anthropol- sor. He was known as the “Father of Physical Anthropol- ogy,” “Father of Craniology” and founder of anthroplogy in ogy,” “Father of Craniology” and founder of anthroplogy in Germany. He advocated monogenism and refuted the Germany. He advocated monogenism and refuted the imaginary classifications of Linnaeus. Blumenbach classi- imaginary classifications of Linnaeus. Blumenbach classi- fied humans into five different races based on the shape of fied humans into five different races based on the shape of the skull. His classifications are Caucasoid (Europeans), the skull. His classifications are Caucasoid (Europeans), Mongoloid (Asians), American (Native Americans), Ethio- Mongoloid (Asians), American (Native Americans), Ethio- pian (Africans) and Malayan (Southeast Asians). pian (Africans) and Malayan (Southeast Asians).

SAMUEL GEORGE MORTON 1799-1851 SAMUEL GEORGE MORTON 1799-1851 Samuel Morton was a physician from Philadelphia. Samuel Morton was a physician from Philadelphia. He was a polygenist and convinced of inferiority of the He was a polygenist and convinced of inferiority of the

272 272 African population. By measuring cranial capacity, he deter- African population. By measuring cranial capacity, he determined differential worth. He agreed with the classifications mined differential worth. He agreed with the classifications of Blumenbach. of Blumenbach.

PIERRE PAUL BROCA 1824-1880 PIERRE PAUL BROCA 1824-1880 Pierre Broca was the founder of French anthropology. Pierre Broca was the founder of French anthropology. He founded the first society and school of anthropology. He He founded the first society and school of anthropology. He followed in Morton’s footsteps with regard to cranium and followed in Morton’s footsteps with regard to cranium and brain size stating that the larger the brain the better the indi- brain size stating that the larger the brain the better the individual. He also looked at the ratio of the radius to the hume- vidual. He also looked at the ratio of the radius to the humerus, and if he found a high ratio, he considered this “apelike” rus, and if he found a high ratio, he considered this “apelike” and of lower worth. This poses a problem as some races do and of lower worth. This poses a problem as some races do have a high humerus/radius ratio. Broca believed men su- have a high humerus/radius ratio. Broca believed men superior to women, eminent men superior to mediocre men perior to women, eminent men superior to mediocre men and the Caucasian race superior to other races. and the Caucasian race superior to other races.

MODERN RACIAL DIVISION MODERN RACIAL DIVISION Interestingly enough, statistics are often measured Interestingly enough, statistics are often measured and categorized by race. According to the United States In- and categorized by race. According to the United States In- formation Agency, there are three main categories: White, formation Agency, there are three main categories: White, African-American and Hispanic (which they include a foot- African-American and Hispanic (which they include a footnote saying that persons of Hispanic origin may be of any note saying that persons of Hispanic origin may be of any race). The United States Census Bureau offers a graph por- race). The United States Census Bureau offers a graph por- traying the racial/ethnic composition of the population. Their traying the racial/ethnic composition of the population. Their categories include White, non-Hispanic; Black, non- categories include White, non-Hispanic; Black, non- Hispanic; Hispanic; Asian and American Indian. Hispanic; Hispanic; Asian and American Indian.

RACISM RACISM Racism is alive and well in our world. The term has Racism is alive and well in our world. The term has often been overused and has lost its true meaning. Racism often been overused and has lost its true meaning. Racism “goes beyond prejudice and discrimination, and even tran- “goes beyond prejudice and discrimination, and even transcends bigotry, largely because it arises from outlooks and scends bigotry, largely because it arises from outlooks and assumptions of which we are largely unaware.” According assumptions of which we are largely unaware.” According to the Encarta 98 Encyclopedia, racism is defined as to the Encarta 98 Encyclopedia, racism is defined as “making the race of other people a factor in attitudes or “making the race of other people a factor in attitudes or

273 273 actions concerning them. Racism implies a belief in the su- actions concerning them. Racism implies a belief in the su- periority of one’s own race.” Jody Miller Shearer defines ra- periority of one’s own race.” Jody Miller Shearer defines racism as race prejudice plus power. cism as race prejudice plus power. Scientists or anthropologists have contributed to the Scientists or anthropologists have contributed to the development of racism, but they are not the only ones. We development of racism, but they are not the only ones. We can also look at the classical aesthetic values of beauty, can also look at the classical aesthetic values of beauty, proportion and human form. “The role of classical aesthetic proportion and human form. “The role of classical aesthetic and cultural norms in the emergence of the idea of white and cultural norms in the emergence of the idea of white supremacy as an object of modern discourse can not be supremacy as an object of modern discourse can not be under-estimated.” under-estimated.”

JOHANN JOACHIM WINCKELMANN JOHANN JOACHIM WINCKELMANN Johann Joachim Winckelmann was a German classi- Johann Joachim Winckelmann was a German classical archaeologist, art historian and was one of the most in- cal archaeologist, art historian and was one of the most influential Enlightenment writers supporting the idea of white fluential Enlightenment writers supporting the idea of white supremacy. In his book History of Ancient Art, he defined supremacy. In his book History of Ancient Art, he defined beauty as portrayed in ancient Greece with focus on size of beauty as portrayed in ancient Greece with focus on size of eyes and eyebrows, collarbones, hands, feet and especially eyes and eyebrows, collarbones, hands, feet and especially noses. During the enlightenment, many of the major writing noses. During the enlightenment, many of the major writing figures held and supported racist views basing their author- figures held and supported racist views basing their authority on naturalists, anthropologists, physiognomists and phre- ity on naturalists, anthropologists, physiognomists and phre- nologists. nologists.

CHARLES LOUIS MONTESQUIEU CHARLES LOUIS MONTESQUIEU Charles Louis Montesquieu was a French writer and Charles Louis Montesquieu was a French writer and jurist whose satirical remarks in Spirit of the Laws about jurist whose satirical remarks in Spirit of the Laws about Black people may seem to suggest an equivocal disposition Black people may seem to suggest an equivocal disposition toward the idea of white supremacy. He went as far as to toward the idea of white supremacy. He went as far as to say “It is impossible that these beings should be men; be- say “It is impossible that these beings should be men; because, if we supposed them to be men, one would begin to cause, if we supposed them to be men, one would begin to believe we ourselves were not Christians.” believe we ourselves were not Christians.”

FRANCOIS MARIE AROVET FRANCOIS MARIE AROVET Francois Marie Arovet, also known as Voltaire, a Francois Marie Arovet, also known as Voltaire, a French writer and philosopher also endorsed white suprem- French writer and philosopher also endorsed white suprem-

274 274 acy stating, “The Negro race is a species of man as differ- acy stating, “The Negro race is a species of man as different from ours as the breed of spaniels is from that of grey- ent from ours as the breed of spaniels is from that of grey- hounds. If their understanding is not of a different nature hounds. If their understanding is not of a different nature from ours, it is at least greatly inferior. They are not capable from ours, it is at least greatly inferior. They are not capable of any great application or association of ideas, and seem of any great application or association of ideas, and seem formed neither for the advantages nor the abuses of phi- formed neither for the advantages nor the abuses of philosophy. losophy.

DAVID HUME DAVID HUME David Hume was a Scottish historian and philosopher David Hume was a Scottish historian and philosopher and his racism was notorious. In his famous footnote to his and his racism was notorious. In his famous footnote to his essay Of National Characteristics, he stated: “I am apt to essay Of National Characteristics, he stated: “I am apt to suspect the Negroes, and in general all the other species of suspect the Negroes, and in general all the other species of men (for there are four or five different kinds) to be naturally men (for there are four or five different kinds) to be naturally inferior to the whites.” inferior to the whites.”

MODERN RACISM MODERN RACISM Andrew Hacker writes about three ways that modern Andrew Hacker writes about three ways that modern racism is expressed. One of the ways racism happens is by racism is expressed. One of the ways racism happens is by people making and/or acting upon limited impressions in people making and/or acting upon limited impressions in their everyday life. For example, a taxi cab driver may not their everyday life. For example, a taxi cab driver may not pick up a person if the person is African-American. The pick up a person if the person is African-American. The driver only sees the color of skin and makes an assumption; driver only sees the color of skin and makes an assumption; therefore, he does not stop. therefore, he does not stop. Another form of racism is “institutional racism.” Institu- Another form of racism is “institutional racism.” Institu- tions can be colleges, business firms or governmental agen- tions can be colleges, business firms or governmental agencies. Some organizations are known for their biases toward cies. Some organizations are known for their biases toward certain races. Racism is often subtler. Members of institu- certain races. Racism is often subtler. Members of institutional organizations develop their own culture, which is often tional organizations develop their own culture, which is often inherently “white.” inherently “white.” When people think of racism, they frequently think of When people think of racism, they frequently think of the white race looking “down” at other races. This is not al- the white race looking “down” at other races. This is not always the case. For example, many Japanese believe they ways the case. For example, many Japanese believe they represent the highest evolution of humanity and have cited represent the highest evolution of humanity and have cited Chinese, Koreans and Americans as their genetic inferiors. Chinese, Koreans and Americans as their genetic inferiors.

275 275 HATE GROUPS HATE GROUPS The most recent statistics on this subject comes from The most recent statistics on this subject comes from the Intelligence Project on the Internet. There are more than the Intelligence Project on the Internet. There are more than 500 hate groups and more than 800 sites that include hate 500 hate groups and more than 800 sites that include hate speech in USA alone. speech in USA alone.

REFLECTIONS REFLECTIONS 1. How do we individually treat those who are “different” 1. How do we individually treat those who are “different” from ourselves? from ourselves? 2. Does a person’s skin color or skeletal structure deter- 2. Does a person’s skin color or skeletal structure determine who they are as a person? mine who they are as a person? 3. If we are all children of God, why do God’s white chil- 3. If we are all children of God, why do God’s white children have more financial resources than the Black children? dren have more financial resources than the Black children? 4. How can our educational or workplaces change their 4. How can our educational or workplaces change their systems to be more inclusive and not racial? systems to be more inclusive and not racial? 5. How are we educating our children and congregations 5. How are we educating our children and congregations regarding the issues of racism? Or are we educating them? regarding the issues of racism? Or are we educating them?

LEGAL AND PRACTICED JUSTICE LEGAL AND PRACTICED JUSTICE Within the realm of the legal spectrum, race and di- Within the realm of the legal spectrum, race and diversity are not legitimate reasons for discrimination and op- versity are not legitimate reasons for discrimination and oppression. However, in practice, ethical standards for equal- pression. However, in practice, ethical standards for equality and social justice are not equal among the people of the ity and social justice are not equal among the people of the United States of America, hence the need for action promot- United States of America, hence the need for action promoting social justice. In order to understand this contradiction ing social justice. In order to understand this contradiction between the laws and the practices, this section will focus between the laws and the practices, this section will focus on both the Biblical and legal provisions for equality and jus- on both the Biblical and legal provisions for equality and justice and on what actually occurs in the name of justice in the tice and on what actually occurs in the name of justice in the police network, the court systems, and the prisons suppos- police network, the court systems, and the prisons suppos- edly guided by the prior provisions. edly guided by the prior provisions. For Christians, an understanding of God’s order and For Christians, an understanding of God’s order and purpose for humanity and the cosmos is the result of a faith purpose for humanity and the cosmos is the result of a faith that accepts certain truths based on the Biblical witness of that accepts certain truths based on the Biblical witness of the canonical books. In the creation account, God creates the canonical books. In the creation account, God creates the world and all that is in it. Then God makes man as the world and all that is in it. Then God makes man as

276 276 described by this passage from Genesis 1:26-27: “Then described by this passage from Genesis 1:26-27: “Then God said: God said: ‘Let us make man in our image, in our likeness, and ‘Let us make man in our image, in our likeness, and let them rule over the fish of the sea and the birds of let them rule over the fish of the sea and the birds of the air, over the livestock, over all the earth, and over all the air, over the livestock, over all the earth, and over all the creatures that move along the ground.’ So God created the creatures that move along the ground.’ So God created man in his own image, in the image of God he created him; man in his own image, in the image of God he created him; male and female he created them.” male and female he created them.”

From the creation account, it is implied that God’s From the creation account, it is implied that God’s order is good, with humanity over all of the worldly creatures order is good, with humanity over all of the worldly creatures and structures. In this state, there is no social injustice. Yet, and structures. In this state, there is no social injustice. Yet, only a few chapters after the creation account the order of only a few chapters after the creation account the order of the cosmos is upset through evil and sin. Instead of the per- the cosmos is upset through evil and sin. Instead of the per- fectly ordered and just society, “cosmos [now] represents fectly ordered and just society, “cosmos [now] represents the twisted values which threatened the genuine human the twisted values which threatened the genuine human life.” life.” It is from inside of this twisted world order that mod- It is from inside of this twisted world order that modern day Christians dwell. It is here that the gospel of Jesus ern day Christians dwell. It is here that the gospel of Jesus Christ reaches to people with grace, love, and justice. For Christ reaches to people with grace, love, and justice. For this reason, Christians look to Jesus in faith. Christians are this reason, Christians look to Jesus in faith. Christians are taught that Christ represents God’s good order. Believing in taught that Christ represents God’s good order. Believing in Jesus Christ’s place as Lord and Savior, Christians look to Jesus Christ’s place as Lord and Savior, Christians look to Jesus’ life and ministry as the ethical standards and exam- Jesus’ life and ministry as the ethical standards and example by which to live and order personal lives by. Jesus’ life ple by which to live and order personal lives by. Jesus’ life was a life characterized by another worldly example, which was a life characterized by another worldly example, which can be followed. Jesus’ ministry was to the sinners, to the can be followed. Jesus’ ministry was to the sinners, to the outcasts, to the oppressed of society. Jesus broke common outcasts, to the oppressed of society. Jesus broke common Jewish law in the interests of those less accepted, less for- Jewish law in the interests of those less accepted, less for- tunate. Jesus proclaimed the kingdom of God. In His teach- tunate. Jesus proclaimed the kingdom of God. In His teachings taken from Matthew chapter five, the kingdom is where ings taken from Matthew chapter five, the kingdom is where those who are blessed are the poor in spirit, those who those who are blessed are the poor in spirit, those who mourn, the meek, those who hunger and thirst for righteous- mourn, the meek, those who hunger and thirst for righteousness, the merciful, the pure in heart, the peacemakers, and ness, the merciful, the pure in heart, the peacemakers, and those who are persecuted because of righteousness. Jesus those who are persecuted because of righteousness. Jesus

277 277 also taught His followers to pray for their enemies and to also taught His followers to pray for their enemies and to love their neighbors. These are not the standard teachings love their neighbors. These are not the standard teachings of the world, and yet they are the Christian models for living of the world, and yet they are the Christian models for living a faithful life in the Spirit. a faithful life in the Spirit. The teachings of Jesus are similar to the ethical be- The teachings of Jesus are similar to the ethical behaviors upheld by the laws of the United States govern- haviors upheld by the laws of the United States government. In American history, racial injustice is seen through ment. In American history, racial injustice is seen through the societal institution of slavery. This lack of legal social the societal institution of slavery. This lack of legal social justice lead to the establishment of laws to help correct the justice lead to the establishment of laws to help correct the inferiority associated with people of different races, primarily inferiority associated with people of different races, primarily of African decent. Some of the laws, which on the surface of African decent. Some of the laws, which on the surface indicate social justice, are contained in Amendments XIII indicate social justice, are contained in Amendments XIII and XIV of the Constitution of the United States of America. and XIV of the Constitution of the United States of America. They are: They are: Amendment XIII, (Ratified in 1865) “Section 1. Nei- Amendment XIII, (Ratified in 1865) “Section 1. Nei- ther slavery nor involuntary servitude, except as a punish- ther slavery nor involuntary servitude, except as a punishment for crime whereof the party shall have been duly con- ment for crime whereof the party shall have been duly convicted, shall exist within the United States, or any place victed, shall exist within the United States, or any place subject to their jurisdiction.” subject to their jurisdiction.” Amendment XIV, (Ratified in 1868) “Section 1. All Amendment XIV, (Ratified in 1868) “Section 1. All persons born or Naturalized in the United States, and sub- persons born or Naturalized in the United States, and subject to the jurisdiction thereof, are citizens of the United ject to the jurisdiction thereof, are citizens of the United States and of the State wherein they States and of the State wherein they reside. No State shall make or enforce any law which shall reside. No State shall make or enforce any law which shall abridge the privileges or immunities of citizens of the United abridge the privileges or immunities of citizens of the United States; nor shall any State deprive any person of life, liberty, States; nor shall any State deprive any person of life, liberty, or property, without due process of law; nor deny to any or property, without due process of law; nor deny to any person within its jurisdiction the equal protection of the person within its jurisdiction the equal protection of the laws…” laws…” These two Amendments would seem to imply social These two Amendments would seem to imply social justice exists, but in fact they reflect society’s hierarchy, not justice exists, but in fact they reflect society’s hierarchy, not a just social order. The laws in a sense grant equality to all, a just social order. The laws in a sense grant equality to all, and even so the reality is what continues is separate but and even so the reality is what continues is separate but equal, meaning Blacks and whites have the same privileges equal, meaning Blacks and whites have the same privileges available, but they are segregated. Segregation was in available, but they are segregated. Segregation was in

278 278 theory equal, but in practice racist, unequal, and usually theory equal, but in practice racist, unequal, and usually treated Blacks as inferior. Civil rights activists align with Je- treated Blacks as inferior. Civil rights activists align with Je- sus’ challenge to support the oppressed, the hopeless, and sus’ challenge to support the oppressed, the hopeless, and the helpless. Laws passed as the result of the Civil Rights the helpless. Laws passed as the result of the Civil Rights movement are meant to equal the societal structural order movement are meant to equal the societal structural order in relation to minority groups. In theory, these laws should in relation to minority groups. In theory, these laws should provide for equal opportunities for equal treatment of all provide for equal opportunities for equal treatment of all races within the legal structure of the United States. This races within the legal structure of the United States. This would be a practical application of Christian ethics that would be a practical application of Christian ethics that could be seen as having taken control of the injustice in the could be seen as having taken control of the injustice in the disordered cosmos in order to create a just society. The re- disordered cosmos in order to create a just society. The reality, however, is that these laws granting equality do not ality, however, is that these laws granting equality do not have precedence in the practice of the structures and insti- have precedence in the practice of the structures and institutions created to ensure that law is carried out in an orderly tutions created to ensure that law is carried out in an orderly methodology. Amendment IV of the United States Constitu- methodology. Amendment IV of the United States Constitu- tion orders that: tion orders that: “The right of the people to be secure in “The right of the people to be secure in their persons, houses, papers, and effects, their persons, houses, papers, and effects, against unreasonable searches and seizures, against unreasonable searches and seizures, shall not be violated, and no Warrants shall is- shall not be violated, and no Warrants shall issue, but upon probable cause, supported by sue, but upon probable cause, supported by Oath or affirmation, and particularly describing Oath or affirmation, and particularly describing the place to be searched, and the persons or the place to be searched, and the persons or things to be seized.” things to be seized.”

If followed by law enforcement agencies, this If followed by law enforcement agencies, this Amendment should protect all U.S. citizens from unlawful Amendment should protect all U.S. citizens from unlawful practices towards them and their families. Studies of actual practices towards them and their families. Studies of actual police records indicate that power is often misused against police records indicate that power is often misused against minority groups because of racial appearance and sup- minority groups because of racial appearance and supposed tendencies. Investigations of police practices indi- posed tendencies. Investigations of police practices indicates, “police abuse remains one of the most serious and cates, “police abuse remains one of the most serious and divisive human rights violations in the United States. The divisive human rights violations in the United States. The excessive use of force by police officers, including unjusti- excessive use of force by police officers, including unjustified shootings, sever beatings, fatal chokings, and rough fied shootings, sever beatings, fatal chokings, and rough

279 279 treatment persist because overwhelming barriers to ac- treatment persist because overwhelming barriers to accountability make it possible for officers who commit human countability make it possible for officers who commit human rights violations to escape due punishment and often to re- rights violations to escape due punishment and often to repeat their offences” peat their offences” (http://www.hrw.org/hrw/reports 98/police/uspo14.htm.) (http://www.hrw.org/hrw/reports 98/police/uspo14.htm.)

Studies have documented increased offences to- Studies have documented increased offences towards Blacks and other minority groups by police in re- wards Blacks and other minority groups by police in re- questing information, sweep-searches on housing develop- questing information, sweep-searches on housing developments, sobriety checkpoints, random stops, airport check- ments, sobriety checkpoints, random stops, airport checkpoints, and drug testing. points, and drug testing. This otherwise unjustifiable violence is permitted to This otherwise unjustifiable violence is permitted to go on reported by the officers as necessary or as in self- go on reported by the officers as necessary or as in self- defense and therefore can be repeated frequently by the defense and therefore can be repeated frequently by the perpetrators who act out of violence, power abuse, and ra- perpetrators who act out of violence, power abuse, and racism. cism. Police officers are not the only ones guilty of discrimi- Police officers are not the only ones guilty of discrimi- natory crime. Hate crimes have a long history in the United natory crime. Hate crimes have a long history in the United States that continue into the present. According to the U.S. States that continue into the present. According to the U.S. Department of justice, FBI statistics from 1998, there were Department of justice, FBI statistics from 1998, there were 8,759 bias-motivated criminal incidents reported to the FBI 8,759 bias-motivated criminal incidents reported to the FBI (http://wwwfbi.gov/presrm/pressrel/98archhives/hate.htm). (http://wwwfbi.gov/presrm/pressrel/98archhives/hate.htm).

Unethical social injustices found in society also in- Unethical social injustices found in society also invade the court system of the United States of America. vade the court system of the United States of America. Judges and juries have been guilty of allowing personal bi- Judges and juries have been guilty of allowing personal biases to influence their decisions. Disproportionate statistics ases to influence their decisions. Disproportionate statistics reinforce this theory. Even though the courts are to be im- reinforce this theory. Even though the courts are to be im- partial, they are not immune to the opinions of surrounding partial, they are not immune to the opinions of surrounding society. society. The racial injustice that has been reported in the po- The racial injustice that has been reported in the police force and the courtroom penetrates the prison system lice force and the courtroom penetrates the prison system as well. According to Andrew Hacker’s given statistics and as well. According to Andrew Hacker’s given statistics and figures presented in his book Two Nations: Black and figures presented in his book Two Nations: Black and White, Separate, Hostile, Unequal, a disproportionate White, Separate, Hostile, Unequal, a disproportionate

280 280 number of Blacks and other minority groups end up in U.S. number of Blacks and other minority groups end up in U.S. prisons. Then he wonders, I quote: “Is it because they com- prisons. Then he wonders, I quote: “Is it because they commit more crimes? Is it because they receive harsher penal- mit more crimes? Is it because they receive harsher penal- ties through the actions of police and court systems? So ties through the actions of police and court systems? So long as we use imprisonment as a punishment, there will be long as we use imprisonment as a punishment, there will be debates over who deserves to be locked away. One reason debates over who deserves to be locked away. One reason we put men and women behind bars is to protect society: if we put men and women behind bars is to protect society: if not incarcerated, they might continue preying on the rest of not incarcerated, they might continue preying on the rest of us. Also, we may feel that their offences were so serious us. Also, we may feel that their offences were so serious that only some years in a cell will impress upon them the that only some years in a cell will impress upon them the gravity of their acts. Nor are these the only reasons. We gravity of their acts. Nor are these the only reasons. We also imprison people as expressions of outrage and re- also imprison people as expressions of outrage and revenge.” venge.”

In conclusion, it is not enough to state the problem In conclusion, it is not enough to state the problem within the political justice network; it is also necessary to within the political justice network; it is also necessary to propose an ethical example to work towards. Four things to propose an ethical example to work towards. Four things to consider are goals, motives, means, and consequences. consider are goals, motives, means, and consequences. The goal is to have Biblical and political justice become one, The goal is to have Biblical and political justice become one, not only in theory but also in practice. The motive for action not only in theory but also in practice. The motive for action is that in a society where Biblical and political values align is that in a society where Biblical and political values align and are practiced, there would be no social injustice, since and are practiced, there would be no social injustice, since Christ crosses societal boundaries. Christ crosses societal boundaries. What are the means by which these goals can be What are the means by which these goals can be achieved? There are many, but the major means is through achieved? There are many, but the major means is through racial reconciliation, which will be the focus of the following racial reconciliation, which will be the focus of the following section of this paper. The benefits of action on behalf of so- section of this paper. The benefits of action on behalf of social justice for all people within the justice network of the cial justice for all people within the justice network of the United States would lead to a more equal society, where United States would lead to a more equal society, where human life is valued as life, not as the result of skin color. human life is valued as life, not as the result of skin color. Thus, the following observations may be useful and help to Thus, the following observations may be useful and help to strengthen our efforts for a wishful and healthier society. It strengthen our efforts for a wishful and healthier society. It is more than an affirmative awareness when we attest and is more than an affirmative awareness when we attest and admit that as humans we are created in “the image of God” admit that as humans we are created in “the image of God” and “in his likeness.” This not only gives us privileges but and “in his likeness.” This not only gives us privileges but

281 281 also charges and puts us in front of duties and responsibili- also charges and puts us in front of duties and responsibilities toward God and each other. In the midst of racial diver- ties toward God and each other. In the midst of racial diver- sities and distinct cultural ethnicities and twisted values, our sities and distinct cultural ethnicities and twisted values, our attitude as ordinary citizens, pastors or public servants and attitude as ordinary citizens, pastors or public servants and statesmen should reflect one of the most basic teachings of statesmen should reflect one of the most basic teachings of our Lord; “Do for others, what you want them to do for you.” our Lord; “Do for others, what you want them to do for you.” If we want to be respected and treated fairly and equally, we If we want to be respected and treated fairly and equally, we must show the same respect and treatment to others, in- must show the same respect and treatment to others, including those who are not necessarily like us, but they are cluding those who are not necessarily like us, but they are created in our likeness, the likeness of God. From this equal created in our likeness, the likeness of God. From this equal basis, having common ground, “God’s likeness,” His image basis, having common ground, “God’s likeness,” His image within each and every human being as God-created hu- within each and every human being as God-created humans, we must take under consideration and try to under- mans, we must take under consideration and try to understand their needs, hopes, dreams and aspirations through stand their needs, hopes, dreams and aspirations through their eyes. Their humanness is that they happened to be their eyes. Their humanness is that they happened to be “created” that way, and happened to manifest and express “created” that way, and happened to manifest and express his/their humanness in different ways and traditions, distinct his/their humanness in different ways and traditions, distinct from ours; values even we may not share but still they re- from ours; values even we may not share but still they remain and are considered values. main and are considered values.

Diversity is a richness and a blessing. We should be Diversity is a richness and a blessing. We should be able to create and make all the good out of it. Different cul- able to create and make all the good out of it. Different cultures and values working in harmony and in unity may work tures and values working in harmony and in unity may work miracles. Cultural, racial differences and diverse identities miracles. Cultural, racial differences and diverse identities may enrich the life of the whole society and serve the whole may enrich the life of the whole society and serve the whole of mankind if we become aware of our august calling: to of mankind if we become aware of our august calling: to serve God, to serve the whole humankind on earth, to es- serve God, to serve the whole humankind on earth, to establish his kingdom of love, mutual respect, peace and hap- tablish his kingdom of love, mutual respect, peace and happiness. piness. In this section, we will discuss the need for racial rec- In this section, we will discuss the need for racial reconciliation in both Church and Society, as well as the re- onciliation in both Church and Society, as well as the requirements of reconciliation. We will begin with the Biblical quirements of reconciliation. We will begin with the Biblical basis for unity within the Church and the oneness of human- basis for unity within the Church and the oneness of humanity. Then we will examine racial segregation and racial ten- ity. Then we will examine racial segregation and racial tensions in churches. Racial reconciliation will be defined and sions in churches. Racial reconciliation will be defined and

282 282 the potential benefits of reconciliation for church and society the potential benefits of reconciliation for church and society will receive attention. will receive attention. While the Bible does not use the specific term “race,” While the Bible does not use the specific term “race,” there are many references to the “goyim” and “ethnoi” there are many references to the “goyim” and “ethnoi” meaning “nation” or “people.” Originally, “the whole world meaning “nation” or “people.” Originally, “the whole world had one language and a common speech” (Gen.11:1). had one language and a common speech” (Gen.11:1). When they started building the Tower of Babel, a project When they started building the Tower of Babel, a project whose goal was to “make a name for themselves and not whose goal was to “make a name for themselves and not be scattered over the face of the whole earth,” apparently be scattered over the face of the whole earth,” apparently due to their desire for fame and self-insured security, God due to their desire for fame and self-insured security, God decided to “confuse their language so they will not under- decided to “confuse their language so they will not understand each other”(11:7). The building project came to an stand each other”(11:7). The building project came to an abrupt halt since they could no longer communicate with abrupt halt since they could no longer communicate with each other and “God scattered them over the face of the each other and “God scattered them over the face of the whole earth” (11:9). The outflow of it was not just the incon- whole earth” (11:9). The outflow of it was not just the incon- venience of various languages, but also the establishment venience of various languages, but also the establishment of the cultural differences or the ethnicities that separate of the cultural differences or the ethnicities that separate peoples. peoples. At this point in the biblical narrative, God calls Abram At this point in the biblical narrative, God calls Abram to “leave [his] country, [his] people and [his] father’s house- to “leave [his] country, [his] people and [his] father’s household” and to go to the land God would show him (12:1). hold” and to go to the land God would show him (12:1). There is a sense in which God drew Abram out of his own There is a sense in which God drew Abram out of his own people group and created a brand new nation, the people of people group and created a brand new nation, the people of Israel. God told Abram that, “all peoples on earth will be Israel. God told Abram that, “all peoples on earth will be blessed through you” (12:3). God’s intention for His special blessed through you” (12:3). God’s intention for His special people was not for them to hoard all of His goodness for people was not for them to hoard all of His goodness for themselves, but to serve as conduits of His blessing to the themselves, but to serve as conduits of His blessing to the nations. nations. Of course, Israel did not always live up to its calling, Of course, Israel did not always live up to its calling, but God worked redemptively even in the midst of their un- but God worked redemptively even in the midst of their un- faithfulness. In Isaiah, we hear a renewed articulation of faithfulness. In Isaiah, we hear a renewed articulation of God’s concern for all the nations: “See, they will come from God’s concern for all the nations: “See, they will come from afar –some from north, some from the west, some from the afar –some from north, some from the west, some from the region of Sinim” (Isa.49:12). The New Jerusalem would be region of Sinim” (Isa.49:12). The New Jerusalem would be an international community with representatives from every an international community with representatives from every

283 283 existing ethnic group. existing ethnic group. The Israelites often had a difficult time embracing The Israelites often had a difficult time embracing God’s love for other nations. By the time Jesus came to God’s love for other nations. By the time Jesus came to earth, there were very deep rifts between the Jewish peo- earth, there were very deep rifts between the Jewish people, the Samaritans and the Gentiles. Jesus taught them to ple, the Samaritans and the Gentiles. Jesus taught them to love their enemies (Matt.5:44). He praises the great faith of love their enemies (Matt.5:44). He praises the great faith of a Canaanite woman (Matt.15:28). In His inaugural address, a Canaanite woman (Matt.15:28). In His inaugural address, He dared to point out God’s work among non-Israelites He dared to point out God’s work among non-Israelites through Elijah and Elisha (Lk.4:25-27). Instead of circum- through Elijah and Elisha (Lk.4:25-27). Instead of circum- venting Samaria, as most Jews would do on their way to venting Samaria, as most Jews would do on their way to Galilee from Jerusalem, Jesus went straight through Galilee from Jerusalem, Jesus went straight through Samaria and brought living water to the most marginalized Samaria and brought living water to the most marginalized of the marginalized (Jn.4:1-26). After His resurrection, He of the marginalized (Jn.4:1-26). After His resurrection, He commissioned the disciples to “go and make disciples of all commissioned the disciples to “go and make disciples of all nations” (Matt.28:19). nations” (Matt.28:19). The beginning of the Church in Acts is marked by a The beginning of the Church in Acts is marked by a cross-cultural, multi-ethnic theme. When the Holy Spirit cross-cultural, multi-ethnic theme. When the Holy Spirit anointed the Galilean disciples, they were enabled to speak anointed the Galilean disciples, they were enabled to speak in many different languages: “Parthians, Medes, and Elam- in many different languages: “Parthians, Medes, and Elam- ites; residents of Mesopotamia, Judea, (Armenia) and Cap- ites; residents of Mesopotamia, Judea, (Armenia) and Cap- padocia, Pontus and Asia, Phrygia and Pamphylia, Egypt padocia, Pontus and Asia, Phrygia and Pamphylia, Egypt and the parts of Libya near Cyrene; visitors from Rome; and the parts of Libya near Cyrene; visitors from Rome; Cretans and Arabs –hear them declaring the wonders of Cretans and Arabs –hear them declaring the wonders of God in our own tongues!” (Acts 2:9-11). Philip went to God in our own tongues!” (Acts 2:9-11). Philip went to Samaria (Acts 8:5) and later explained Isaiah 53 to an Samaria (Acts 8:5) and later explained Isaiah 53 to an Ethiopian eunuch. Peter’s ethnocentrism was challenged by Ethiopian eunuch. Peter’s ethnocentrism was challenged by God and he let God lead him to an Italian centurion’s house, God and he let God lead him to an Italian centurion’s house, once again enlarging the ethnic bounds of the Church. once again enlarging the ethnic bounds of the Church. When Paul addressed the men of Athens at Are- When Paul addressed the men of Athens at Are- opagus, he declared that “God has made from one blood opagus, he declared that “God has made from one blood every nation of men to dwell on all the face of the every nation of men to dwell on all the face of the earth” (Acts 17:26). Paul eventually developed a theology earth” (Acts 17:26). Paul eventually developed a theology reflecting the wide scope of God’s work in Christ. reflecting the wide scope of God’s work in Christ. “Christ is the image of the invisible God…He is “Christ is the image of the invisible God…He is before all things, and in Him all things hold before all things, and in Him all things hold

284 284 together. And He is the head of the body, the together. And He is the head of the body, the church church …For it pleased God to have all His fullness …For it pleased God to have all His fullness dwell in Him, and through Him to reconcile to dwell in Him, and through Him to reconcile to Himself all things in heaven, by making peace Himself all things in heaven, by making peace through His blood, shed on the cross”(Col.1:15- through His blood, shed on the cross”(Col.1:15- 20). 20). He continues with “Here there is no Greek or Jew, cir- He continues with “Here there is no Greek or Jew, cir- cumcised or uncircumcised, barbarian, Scythian, slave or cumcised or uncircumcised, barbarian, Scythian, slave or free, but Christ is all, and is in all” (Col.3:11). In Christ all free, but Christ is all, and is in all” (Col.3:11). In Christ all human-devised differences are leveled and there is no hier- human-devised differences are leveled and there is no hierarchy. Again, in his letter to the Galatians, “You are all sons archy. Again, in his letter to the Galatians, “You are all sons of God through faith in Christ Jesus, for all of you who were of God through faith in Christ Jesus, for all of you who were baptized into Christ have clothed yourselves with Christ. baptized into Christ have clothed yourselves with Christ. There is neither Jew or Greek, slave nor free, male nor fe- There is neither Jew or Greek, slave nor free, male nor female, for you are all one in Christ Jesus” (Col. 3:26-28). male, for you are all one in Christ Jesus” (Col. 3:26-28). Paul develops not only theological insights for the Church, Paul develops not only theological insights for the Church, but ethical principles as well: but ethical principles as well: “Therefore, as God’s chosen people, holy and “Therefore, as God’s chosen people, holy and dearly loved, clothe yourselves with compas- dearly loved, clothe yourselves with compassion, kindness, humility, gentleness and pa- sion, kindness, humility, gentleness and patience. Bear with each other and forgive tience. Bear with each other and forgive whatever grievances you may have against whatever grievances you may have against one another. Forgive as the Lord forgave you. one another. Forgive as the Lord forgave you. And over all these virtues put on love, which And over all these virtues put on love, which binds them all together in perfect unity. Let the binds them all together in perfect unity. Let the peace of Christ rule in your hearts, since as peace of Christ rule in your hearts, since as members of one body you were called to members of one body you were called to peace” (Col.3:11-15). peace” (Col.3:11-15).

In our efforts toward building unity in the fragmented In our efforts toward building unity in the fragmented Body of Christ, we can gain a great deal by practicing these Body of Christ, we can gain a great deal by practicing these Pauline principles. Furthermore, Paul provides a visional fo- Pauline principles. Furthermore, Paul provides a visional focus for the Church: cus for the Church: “For Christ’s love compels us, because we are “For Christ’s love compels us, because we are

285 285 convinced that One died for all, and therefore convinced that One died for all, and therefore all died. And He died for all, that those who live all died. And He died for all, that those who live should no longer live for themselves but for should no longer live for themselves but for Him who died for them and was raised again. Him who died for them and was raised again. So from now on, we regard no one from a So from now on, we regard no one from a worldly point of view… All this is from God, who worldly point of view… All this is from God, who reconciled us to Himself through Christ and reconciled us to Himself through Christ and gave us the ministry of reconciliation” (2 gave us the ministry of reconciliation” (2 Cor.5:14-18). Cor.5:14-18).

Although the Bible contains a central theme of the Although the Bible contains a central theme of the unity of humanity and the potential for reconciliation through unity of humanity and the potential for reconciliation through the transformative power of Christ, the Church has not al- the transformative power of Christ, the Church has not always reflected this standard. In the United States, churches ways reflected this standard. In the United States, churches have a long history of segregation. have a long history of segregation.

Martin Luther King, Jr. prophetically spoke out Martin Luther King, Jr. prophetically spoke out against such segregation: against such segregation: “The judgment of God is upon the church. The church “The judgment of God is upon the church. The church has a schism in its soul… It will be one of the tragedies has a schism in its soul… It will be one of the tragedies of Christian history if future historians record that… the of Christian history if future historians record that… the church was of the greatest bulwarks of white supremacy.” church was of the greatest bulwarks of white supremacy.”

H. Reinhold Niebuhr studied the division of denomi- H. Reinhold Niebuhr studied the division of denominations along class lines and noted that there was clear evi- nations along class lines and noted that there was clear evidence that the middle class gravitated to certain denomina- dence that the middle class gravitated to certain denominations, while the wealthy and poor would predominate others. tions, while the wealthy and poor would predominate others. Because racism has definite economic realities, segregation Because racism has definite economic realities, segregation is further amplified. is further amplified. If a white church continued to operate in the city, it is If a white church continued to operate in the city, it is rare that they would welcome other ethnic groups or make rare that they would welcome other ethnic groups or make an effort to reach out to them. The rift that divides whites an effort to reach out to them. The rift that divides whites and Blacks or other minorities in the United States is deep, and Blacks or other minorities in the United States is deep, sometimes bloody and painful. sometimes bloody and painful. When we get a new job, a question does not arise as When we get a new job, a question does not arise as

286 286 to whether we merited the position or whether affirmative to whether we merited the position or whether affirmative action required the hiring of a minority. Lebacqz Karen, in action required the hiring of a minority. Lebacqz Karen, in his book Justice in an Unjust World contends that we have his book Justice in an Unjust World contends that we have a responsibility to correct social structures, to seek to under- a responsibility to correct social structures, to seek to understand the world from the viewpoint of the poor, and to act in stand the world from the viewpoint of the poor, and to act in solidarity with the oppressed for justice begins in responsi- solidarity with the oppressed for justice begins in responsibility. As Christians, we are called to develop true bility. As Christians, we are called to develop true friendships and partnerships. Relationships involve a great friendships and partnerships. Relationships involve a great deal of listening, hearing, seeking ways to build trust, work- deal of listening, hearing, seeking ways to build trust, working cooperatively, giving and receiving to each other. Rec- ing cooperatively, giving and receiving to each other. Rec- onciliation also means sharing our resources and seeking onciliation also means sharing our resources and seeking justice for our brothers and sisters and building relational justice for our brothers and sisters and building relational bridges with other ethnic groups. Integration does not nec- bridges with other ethnic groups. Integration does not necessarily mean assimilation. However, the Bible calls us to essarily mean assimilation. However, the Bible calls us to seek justice as well. seek justice as well. “I hate, I despise your religious feasts; I “I hate, I despise your religious feasts; I cannot stand your assemblies… cannot stand your assemblies… Away with the noise of your songs! I will Away with the noise of your songs! I will not listen to the music of your harps. But let not listen to the music of your harps. But let justice roll on like a river, righteousness like a justice roll on like a river, righteousness like a mighty stream!” (Amos5:21-24). “He has shown mighty stream!” (Amos5:21-24). “He has shown you, O man, what is good. And what does the you, O man, what is good. And what does the Lord require of you? To act justly and to love Lord require of you? To act justly and to love mercy and to walk humbly with your mercy and to walk humbly with your God” (Micah 6:8). God” (Micah 6:8).

Hence, as Christians, our job is to struggle along with Hence, as Christians, our job is to struggle along with everybody else and collaborate with them in seeking a solu- everybody else and collaborate with them in seeking a solution to common problems, which are entirely new and tion to common problems, which are entirely new and strange to us all. The challenges of learning to work coop- strange to us all. The challenges of learning to work cooperatively would lead us to pray more fervently for God’s em- eratively would lead us to pray more fervently for God’s em- powerment, and recognize that the only true healing avail- powerment, and recognize that the only true healing available is not of human origin, but in the Cross of Christ. able is not of human origin, but in the Cross of Christ. The opportunities for true racial reconciliation abound The opportunities for true racial reconciliation abound in our society, as do the challenges of developing deep in our society, as do the challenges of developing deep

287 287 relationships with other ethnic groups and working for institutional changes that will benefit those who are marginalized. Dietrich Bonhoeffer understood how central Christ was to true relationship with other human beings. Whenever we endeavor to seek reconciliation with those who are es- tranged from us, we should keep these thoughts in mind: “Without Christ we should not know God, we could not call upon Him, nor come to Him. But without Christ, we also would not know our brother, nor could we come to Him. The way is blocked by our own ego. Christ opened up the way to God and our brother” (Bonhoeffer, Life Together).

With Christ, let us embrace the challenges and opportunities of racial reconciliation, remembering to go through the way that Christ has opened for us. We can begin by entering into dialogue and developing friendships with people from other ethnic groups. This will help in reducing the es- trangement, absence of conversation, silence and suspicion of others which governs our societal life.

288 BIBLIOGRAPHY BIBLIOGRAPHY

Bonhoeffer, Dietrich. Life together. Bonhoeffer, Dietrich. Life together. Catholic Encyclopedia: Human Race Catholic Encyclopedia: Human Race (www.knight.org/advent/cathen/12620b.htm). (www.knight.org/advent/cathen/12620b.htm). Cohen, Carl. (1995). Naked racial preference: the case Cohen, Carl. (1995). Naked racial preference: the case against affirmative action. against affirmative action. Rosenbloom, David H. and O’Leary, Rosemary. (1997). Rosenbloom, David H. and O’Leary, Rosemary. (1997). Public administration and law. ( 2nd ed.). Public administration and law. ( 2nd ed.). Hacker, Andrew. (1992). Two nations black and white, Hacker, Andrew. (1992). Two nations black and white, separate, hostile, unequal. New York. separate, hostile, unequal. New York. Hayford, Jack W. and Davies, Susan E. ed.. (1998). Hayford, Jack W. and Davies, Susan E. ed.. (1998). “Confessing what separates us” in ending racism in “Confessing what separates us” in ending racism in the church. the church. Abraham, Henry J. (1982). Freedom and the court: civil Abraham, Henry J. (1982). Freedom and the court: civil rights and liberties in the United States. rights and liberties in the United States. Lebacqz, Karen. (1987). Justice in an unjust world. Lebacqz, Karen. (1987). Justice in an unjust world. King, Martin Luther, Jr. (1998). As quoted in E. Hammond King, Martin Luther, Jr. (1998). As quoted in E. Hammond Oglesby’s. O Lord move this mountain: racism and Oglesby’s. O Lord move this mountain: racism and Christian ethics. Christian ethics. Matsuoka, Fumitaka. (1998). The color of faith: building Matsuoka, Fumitaka. (1998). The color of faith: building community in a multiracial society. community in a multiracial society. Merton, Thomas. (1995). “Religion and race in the United Merton, Thomas. (1995). “Religion and race in the United States” from passion for peace. States” from passion for peace. Mott, Stephen Charles.(1982). Biblical ethics and social Mott, Stephen Charles.(1982). Biblical ethics and social change. change. West, Cornel. (1982). Prophesy deliverance! West, Cornel. (1982). Prophesy deliverance!

289 289 WAR, PEACE AND PEACEMAKING WAR, PEACE AND PEACEMAKING

BIBLICAL HISTORICAL PERSPECTIVES BIBLICAL HISTORICAL PERSPECTIVES Funk and Wagnall’s Standard College Dictionary de- Funk and Wagnall’s Standard College Dictionary defines war as an armed conflict carried on between nations fines war as an armed conflict carried on between nations or states, or between different parties in the same state. It’s or states, or between different parties in the same state. It’s any act or state of hostility; enmity also, a contest or conflict. any act or state of hostility; enmity also, a contest or conflict. According to Encarta 98 Encyclopedia, “war” is defined as According to Encarta 98 Encyclopedia, “war” is defined as armed conflict between two or more governments or states. armed conflict between two or more governments or states. It goes on to say, “When such conflicts assume global pro- It goes on to say, “When such conflicts assume global proportions, they are known as world wars. Between different portions, they are known as world wars. Between different parts or factions of the same nation is called civil war.” parts or factions of the same nation is called civil war.” Battles, wars and images of God as a warrior are Battles, wars and images of God as a warrior are pervasive in the Old Testament. Some say that, in examin- pervasive in the Old Testament. Some say that, in examining major themes in the Bible, “God as ‘Divine Warrior’ is ing major themes in the Bible, “God as ‘Divine Warrior’ is the most common.” If we were raised in the Armenian Chris- the most common.” If we were raised in the Armenian Chris- tian tradition, we are then familiar with hymns such as tian tradition, we are then familiar with hymns such as “Vartanians,” “Holy Cross Invincible Weapon” and as Ameri- “Vartanians,” “Holy Cross Invincible Weapon” and as Ameri- can Christians “Onward, Christian Soldiers” or “Battle Hymn can Christians “Onward, Christian Soldiers” or “Battle Hymn of the Republic.” Equally as common are the Old Testament of the Republic.” Equally as common are the Old Testament passages of scripture that refer to God as a participant in passages of scripture that refer to God as a participant in battle. The first example of this can be found in Exodus battle. The first example of this can be found in Exodus 15:1-3: 15:1-3: “I will sing to the Lord, for He has tri- “I will sing to the Lord, for He has tri- umphed gloriously. Horse and rider He has umphed gloriously. Horse and rider He has thrown into the sea. The Lord is my strength thrown into the sea. The Lord is my strength and my might; and He has become my salva- and my might; and He has become my salvation; this is my God, and I will praise Him, my tion; this is my God, and I will praise Him, my father’s God, and I will exalt Him. The Lord is a father’s God, and I will exalt Him. The Lord is a warrior; the Lord is His name.” warrior; the Lord is His name.” It seems that all of life in ancient Israel was religious. It seems that all of life in ancient Israel was religious. All of life was related to God. God was present in the spiri- All of life was related to God. God was present in the spiritual preparation for war, the march to battle and the praises tual preparation for war, the march to battle and the praises at the end of the battle. Also, whatever was gained in the at the end of the battle. Also, whatever was gained in the battle belonged to God. There was little question as to battle belonged to God. There was little question as to

290 290 whether or not one should participate in war. It was ex- whether or not one should participate in war. It was expected, and if one were to be in contact with God, one had pected, and if one were to be in contact with God, one had to fight the battles that Yahweh had initiated. to fight the battles that Yahweh had initiated. In the New Testament, we are given the imagery of In the New Testament, we are given the imagery of the Christian as soldier. II Timothy 2:3 states “Share in suf- the Christian as soldier. II Timothy 2:3 states “Share in suffering like a good soldier of Christ Jesus.” Ephesians 6:11 fering like a good soldier of Christ Jesus.” Ephesians 6:11 tells us to “put on the whole armor of God.” In the New Tes- tells us to “put on the whole armor of God.” In the New Tes- tament the militarism seems to shift to a “defensive” stance tament the militarism seems to shift to a “defensive” stance against temptation and hardship. The only “offensive” against temptation and hardship. The only “offensive” weapon is mentioned in Ephesians 6:17, the “sword of the weapon is mentioned in Ephesians 6:17, the “sword of the Spirit, the Word of God.” The attack is a missionary one in Spirit, the Word of God.” The attack is a missionary one in which Christians are called to spread the gospel. Gone are which Christians are called to spread the gospel. Gone are the tales of battle and warfare. the tales of battle and warfare. In the Old Testament, we saw evidence of the mighty In the Old Testament, we saw evidence of the mighty hand of God and in the New Testament we are presented hand of God and in the New Testament we are presented with a different example of the power of God. That is, with a different example of the power of God. That is, of Christ as the victor through the use of “right” not of Christ as the victor through the use of “right” not “might” (Charles Sherlock, ‘The God Who Fights’). In other “might” (Charles Sherlock, ‘The God Who Fights’). In other words, the Old Testament’s Yahweh the Warrior is trans- words, the Old Testament’s Yahweh the Warrior is transformed to the New Testament’s Christ as Prince of Peace. formed to the New Testament’s Christ as Prince of Peace. This would provide the basis for the belief that God under- This would provide the basis for the belief that God understands both sides of conflict. God knows the results of both stands both sides of conflict. God knows the results of both victory and defeat. victory and defeat.

IMPLICATIONS FOR CHRISTIAN LIVING IMPLICATIONS FOR CHRISTIAN LIVING How does the above discussion impact our lives? Do How does the above discussion impact our lives? Do the above notions impact Christian perspectives on war? the above notions impact Christian perspectives on war? Many people discuss war as if it is entirely separate from Many people discuss war as if it is entirely separate from God. They regard only the human angle. That is why to God. They regard only the human angle. That is why to those, war is seen as a human problem. Another response those, war is seen as a human problem. Another response to the notions of war comes from the work of reconciling our to the notions of war comes from the work of reconciling our beliefs in God with the fact that God allows war. Here, Lloyd beliefs in God with the fact that God allows war. Here, Lloyd -Jones identifies three main groups that ask the question, -Jones identifies three main groups that ask the question, “Why does God allow war?”: “Why does God allow war?”: a) Those who want proof that God does not exist a) Those who want proof that God does not exist or at least proof that God is not a God of love. or at least proof that God is not a God of love.

291 291 b) Those to which the question is entirely a per- b) Those to which the question is entirely a personal one in response to their own relationship sonal one in response to their own relationship with God. They dissociate themselves from a with God. They dissociate themselves from a God who has any interest in the world. God who has any interest in the world. c) Those who ask, if God is a God of love, how can c) Those who ask, if God is a God of love, how can God allow war? God allow war?

All of these seem to be justifiable responses to the All of these seem to be justifiable responses to the seemingly endless atrocities that go along with war. The seemingly endless atrocities that go along with war. The above illustrates the ways in which we as Christians either above illustrates the ways in which we as Christians either contribute or decide not to contribute to the issues facing contribute or decide not to contribute to the issues facing the world today. The issues are the same today. It is the the world today. The issues are the same today. It is the work of reconciling the warrior God of the Old Testament work of reconciling the warrior God of the Old Testament with the Prince of Peace (Christ) in the New Testament. with the Prince of Peace (Christ) in the New Testament. What motivates people to participate or not partici- What motivates people to participate or not participate? What causes us to have one response more than an- pate? What causes us to have one response more than another? We have already determined that the images of war other? We have already determined that the images of war and models of Christ’s actions that we identified from the and models of Christ’s actions that we identified from the Old and New Testaments help shape our perspectives of Old and New Testaments help shape our perspectives of war. We have also determined that God can be present in war. We have also determined that God can be present in either example. Historically, wars have been waged in de- either example. Historically, wars have been waged in defense of Christianity or to spread Christianity, both in the fense of Christianity or to spread Christianity, both in the name of God. There is usually a factor of territory or land name of God. There is usually a factor of territory or land rights, there are economic gains or losses to defend, there rights, there are economic gains or losses to defend, there are products that one either needs or has to offer, there is are products that one either needs or has to offer, there is typically the factor of ethnicity or race, and finally there are typically the factor of ethnicity or race, and finally there are often differing religious beliefs. often differing religious beliefs. These factors make the business of war very compli- These factors make the business of war very complicated. Due to the number of issues involved, people can be- cated. Due to the number of issues involved, people can become impassioned about one issue and totally ignore other come impassioned about one issue and totally ignore other issues. Civil or religious wars are about political or eco- issues. Civil or religious wars are about political or economic gains. They are about either to control their territory nomic gains. They are about either to control their territory or ideology, or about to defend their rights of promoting a or ideology, or about to defend their rights of promoting a superior race and using people as slaves. superior race and using people as slaves.

In conflicts between nations or neighbors, there are In conflicts between nations or neighbors, there are

292 292 different levels of participation. First there is the decision not different levels of participation. First there is the decision not to become involved. This could be seen as an action as well to become involved. This could be seen as an action as well as apathy. Do we decide to not act with the hopes that our as apathy. Do we decide to not act with the hopes that our lack of action will be noticed and provide an example for lack of action will be noticed and provide an example for others to emulate? Or is our lack of participation indicative others to emulate? Or is our lack of participation indicative of our lack of concern for others and our own self-seeking? of our lack of concern for others and our own self-seeking? The second level of participation may be on a verbal level. The second level of participation may be on a verbal level. Shouting at the neighbors, writing letters to the editor of Shouting at the neighbors, writing letters to the editor of newspapers, writing to our leaders can all be examples of a newspapers, writing to our leaders can all be examples of a more active participation in conflict. Thirdly, we may begin more active participation in conflict. Thirdly, we may begin to build fences, erect walls, and place grates on our win- to build fences, erect walls, and place grates on our win- dows all in an effort to keep safe what we have claimed as dows all in an effort to keep safe what we have claimed as our own. Fourthly, we can boycott products; hoard products our own. Fourthly, we can boycott products; hoard products that we do have access to, or refuse to export our re- that we do have access to, or refuse to export our resources. As our fifth response, we could begin building sources. As our fifth response, we could begin building weapons and stockpiling weapons. Next, we could begin weapons and stockpiling weapons. Next, we could begin limiting our travel, pulling “our people” out of foreign lands, limiting our travel, pulling “our people” out of foreign lands, or we could begin limiting immigration. The seventh level or we could begin limiting immigration. The seventh level may be deploying peacekeeping troops or participating in may be deploying peacekeeping troops or participating in policing actions. And lastly we could participate in combat, policing actions. And lastly we could participate in combat, bombing or nuclear war. In any case, usually people justify bombing or nuclear war. In any case, usually people justify their actions and level of participation in relation to their val- their actions and level of participation in relation to their values and often on their religious understanding and bias. ues and often on their religious understanding and bias. So, how does one resolve the issue of Christian eth- So, how does one resolve the issue of Christian ethics if/when one is in the military? Some people believe that ics if/when one is in the military? Some people believe that military life is a “calling” not just a job or a career. There is military life is a “calling” not just a job or a career. There is the belief that a person becomes identified with his work the belief that a person becomes identified with his work and that his personality develops in relation to that work. and that his personality develops in relation to that work. The moral virtues of a military officer have been identified The moral virtues of a military officer have been identified as “loyalty, obedience, courage, selflessness, and integrity”. as “loyalty, obedience, courage, selflessness, and integrity”. Some may argue that these moral values are similar to Some may argue that these moral values are similar to those that Christians are called to uphold in daily life. those that Christians are called to uphold in daily life. Again, let’s raise the issue or conflict that may occur Again, let’s raise the issue or conflict that may occur in the Christian man or woman who is being groomed for in the Christian man or woman who is being groomed for this military “call.” Should we be surprised at the concern in this military “call.” Should we be surprised at the concern in

293 293 the military over the discovery of hate groups? This may not the military over the discovery of hate groups? This may not be likely, especially when members are trained in the most be likely, especially when members are trained in the most effective means of destroying the “enemy.” The question effective means of destroying the “enemy.” The question arises as to who the enemy is and who identifies them as arises as to who the enemy is and who identifies them as the enemy. the enemy.

JUST WAR JUST WAR In the early centuries of the Christian church, follow- In the early centuries of the Christian church, followers of Jesus were essentially pacifists. They were excluded ers of Jesus were essentially pacifists. They were excluded from service in the army and warfare by the fact of being a from service in the army and warfare by the fact of being a Jewish sect, by their own motivation to avoid emperor wor- Jewish sect, by their own motivation to avoid emperor worship, by a sense of a transcending loyalty to a heavenly and ship, by a sense of a transcending loyalty to a heavenly and apocalyptic kingdom, and by the call to love their enemies. apocalyptic kingdom, and by the call to love their enemies. Apart from Peter’s centurion in the book of acts, the first Apart from Peter’s centurion in the book of acts, the first known Christian soldiers fought under Marcus Aurelius in known Christian soldiers fought under Marcus Aurelius in 177 A.D. As Christianity became the dominant religion of 177 A.D. As Christianity became the dominant religion of the Roman Empire under Constantine, the “social location” the Roman Empire under Constantine, the “social location” of Christians changed and with it the understanding of their of Christians changed and with it the understanding of their calling. Paul Ramsey writes: calling. Paul Ramsey writes: “The basic strategy remained the same: responsible “The basic strategy remained the same: responsible love and service of one’s neighbors in the texture of the love and service of one’s neighbors in the texture of the common life… Christians simply came to see that the ser- common life… Christians simply came to see that the service of the real needs of all the men for whom Christ died vice of the real needs of all the men for whom Christ died required more than personal, witnessing action. It also re- required more than personal, witnessing action. It also required them to be involved in maintaining the organized so- quired them to be involved in maintaining the organized social and political life in which all men live. Non-resisting love cial and political life in which all men live. Non-resisting love had sometimes to resist evil.” had sometimes to resist evil.”

Given those changing circumstances (by 403 AD), Given those changing circumstances (by 403 AD), only Christians were in the military). It is not surprising that only Christians were in the military). It is not surprising that Augustine (influenced by Ambrose, his mentor, and, through Augustine (influenced by Ambrose, his mentor, and, through Ambrose, Cicero) became the first to delineate a just war Ambrose, Cicero) became the first to delineate a just war position in the west. While Augustine thought that one could position in the west. While Augustine thought that one could only use force to aid others, Aquinas added self-defense as only use force to aid others, Aquinas added self-defense as a possibility. The concept was fully developed as a system a possibility. The concept was fully developed as a system

294 294 by the Spanish scholastics, Francisco de Vitoria (d.1546) by the Spanish scholastics, Francisco de Vitoria (d.1546) and Francisco Suarez (d.1617) who added to the criteria of and Francisco Suarez (d.1617) who added to the criteria of just cause for war (jus ad bellum) criteria for just conduct of just cause for war (jus ad bellum) criteria for just conduct of war (jus in bello). Interest in the just war tradition has waxed war (jus in bello). Interest in the just war tradition has waxed and waned over time, but it is clear that in the second half of and waned over time, but it is clear that in the second half of the 20th century, nations declared war against each other the 20th century, nations declared war against each other and destroyed each other. The entire world was under the and destroyed each other. The entire world was under the terrible threat of nuclear cataclysm; “just war” has become terrible threat of nuclear cataclysm; “just war” has become an integral part of the discussions. an integral part of the discussions. There is no one agreed-upon list of just war criteria. There is no one agreed-upon list of just war criteria. Catholic Bishops of USA in their pastoral letter on war and Catholic Bishops of USA in their pastoral letter on war and peace, (1983), The Challenge of Peace: God’s Promise and peace, (1983), The Challenge of Peace: God’s Promise and Our Response” set forth a list of just war. According to the Our Response” set forth a list of just war. According to the bishops, to go to war, the situation must meet the following bishops, to go to war, the situation must meet the following criteria: criteria: 1. Just Cause: The aim is “to protect innocent life, to 1. Just Cause: The aim is “to protect innocent life, to preserve conditions for decent human existence and to preserve conditions for decent human existence and to secure basic human rights.” secure basic human rights.” 2. Competent Authority: It is “those with responsibil- 2. Competent Authority: It is “those with responsibility for public order, not… private individuals or groups.” ity for public order, not… private individuals or groups.” 3. Comparative Justice: The presumption is that, 3. Comparative Justice: The presumption is that, while both sides in a conflict assume that they have justice while both sides in a conflict assume that they have justice on their side, neither side is absolutely right, and the deci- on their side, neither side is absolutely right, and the decision to go to war should take that into conscious considera- sion to go to war should take that into conscious consideration. tion. 4. Right Intention: This is oriented toward the final 4. Right Intention: This is oriented toward the final outcome–peace, non-expansion of goals, a fair conclusion outcome–peace, non-expansion of goals, a fair conclusion to the conflict. to the conflict. 5. Last Resort: All alternatives are exhausted. 5. Last Resort: All alternatives are exhausted. 6. Probability of Success: This rules out futile ef- 6. Probability of Success: This rules out futile efforts. forts. 7. Proportionality: The costs and damages are to be 7. Proportionality: The costs and damages are to be commensurate with the good to be gained. commensurate with the good to be gained.

For the conduct of the war itself to be just, the For the conduct of the war itself to be just, the

295 295 following must be kept in mind: following must be kept in mind: 1. Proportionality: as above. 1. Proportionality: as above. 2. Discrimination: This principle prohibits direct 2. Discrimination: This principle prohibits direct attacks on non-combatants and non-military targets. attacks on non-combatants and non-military targets.

THE RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN JUST WAR AND THE RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN JUST WAR AND PACIFISM PACIFISM While just war thinking and pacifism are often consid- While just war thinking and pacifism are often considered in opposition to each other, in reality the two positions ered in opposition to each other, in reality the two positions grow out of a very similar understanding of how Christians grow out of a very similar understanding of how Christians are called to be and act in the world. The fundamental call is are called to be and act in the world. The fundamental call is to be a peacemaker. Peace cannot be identified simply with to be a peacemaker. Peace cannot be identified simply with the absence of war or the maintenance of a balance of the absence of war or the maintenance of a balance of power. It is rightly and appropriately called “an enterprise of power. It is rightly and appropriately called “an enterprise of justice” (Isa.32:7). Peace results from that harmony built justice” (Isa.32:7). Peace results from that harmony built into human society by its divine founder and actualized by into human society by its divine founder and actualized by men as they thirst after ever-greater justice. To a just war men as they thirst after ever-greater justice. To a just war thinker, it is this understanding of the link between peace thinker, it is this understanding of the link between peace and justice that impels him or her to view war as a possible and justice that impels him or her to view war as a possible means to that end. means to that end. Additionally, for the Christian, the underlying motive Additionally, for the Christian, the underlying motive of our behavior and our decision-making is to be love. We of our behavior and our decision-making is to be love. We find we are called to deserve the well being of our neighbor- find we are called to deserve the well being of our neighbor- friend and our neighbor-enemy and to a commitment to the friend and our neighbor-enemy and to a commitment to the restoration of right relationship among all three of us. The restoration of right relationship among all three of us. The answer to the question, “Am I my brother’s keeper?” seems answer to the question, “Am I my brother’s keeper?” seems to be “Yes.” If that is the case, and my actions can prevent to be “Yes.” If that is the case, and my actions can prevent or stop my “sibling’s” suffering, then I need to act. Once or stop my “sibling’s” suffering, then I need to act. Once again, both traditions would be in agreement on this point; again, both traditions would be in agreement on this point; the disjunction again comes at the inclusion of war and vio- the disjunction again comes at the inclusion of war and violence as a valid means to achieve that goal. lence as a valid means to achieve that goal. War is never viewed in the just war tradition as a mor- War is never viewed in the just war tradition as a morally clear alternative. For Augustine, for instance, “it is a ally clear alternative. For Augustine, for instance, “it is a lively sense of man’s common plight in wrongdoing and of lively sense of man’s common plight in wrongdoing and of the judgment of God that overarches the justified war.” For the judgment of God that overarches the justified war.” For

296 296 the Christian, war in itself is a wrong, and to engage in it is the Christian, war in itself is a wrong, and to engage in it is sinful. Those who find themselves, in the end, deciding that sinful. Those who find themselves, in the end, deciding that there are greater evils than war, cannot forget that their there are greater evils than war, cannot forget that their choice to fight, in a profound sense, cannot be right. It may choice to fight, in a profound sense, cannot be right. It may seem to be the best choice possible, but it is not good. Both seem to be the best choice possible, but it is not good. Both the just war thinker and the pacifist find themselves in com- the just war thinker and the pacifist find themselves in complete agreement on this point. plete agreement on this point. It is in the tension of the relationship between the It is in the tension of the relationship between the kingdom of God and history that the split comes between kingdom of God and history that the split comes between pacifists and just war thinkers. In the already but not yet of pacifists and just war thinkers. In the already but not yet of Christian existence, members of the church choose different Christian existence, members of the church choose different paths to move toward the realization of the kingdom in his- paths to move toward the realization of the kingdom in history. Those who find themselves in the just war tradition see tory. Those who find themselves in the just war tradition see no other option but to use force. But that is the tension: is it no other option but to use force. But that is the tension: is it right to do wrong to do right? right to do wrong to do right? The Bible is not as much help in this. No one can The Bible is not as much help in this. No one can read the Old Testament without discovering war to be part read the Old Testament without discovering war to be part of God’s arsenal both for judgment and for justice. God of God’s arsenal both for judgment and for justice. God commands war, in fact annihilates (Jericho, Joshua 6). God commands war, in fact annihilates (Jericho, Joshua 6). God fights on behalf of the Israelites (Deborah, Jush.4). Many of fights on behalf of the Israelites (Deborah, Jush.4). Many of the psalms seem to revel in war and in God as the Lord of the psalms seem to revel in war and in God as the Lord of hosts (Ps.68). It is worth noting, however, that war was con- hosts (Ps.68). It is worth noting, however, that war was considered to be under God’s control and to take place at sidered to be under God’s control and to take place at God’s behest. It was not something that the community de- God’s behest. It was not something that the community decided to do on its own. The understanding of peace in the cided to do on its own. The understanding of peace in the Old Testament is also worth noting. The emphasis was not Old Testament is also worth noting. The emphasis was not on the individual’s personal peace, but on the shalom of the on the individual’s personal peace, but on the shalom of the community and the whole creation. It was fundamentally a community and the whole creation. It was fundamentally a gift of God, not something that humans could accomplish, gift of God, not something that humans could accomplish, and its final fulfillment was messianic and eschatological. In and its final fulfillment was messianic and eschatological. In the New Testament, Paul discusses rules as God’s sword- the New Testament, Paul discusses rules as God’s sword- bearing servants (Rom.13:1-7). Jesus certainly used force bearing servants (Rom.13:1-7). Jesus certainly used force in the temple (Lk.19:45-46). Martial imagery is used in the in the temple (Lk.19:45-46). Martial imagery is used in the parables (Lk.14:31-33) and in terms of preparedness parables (Lk.14:31-33) and in terms of preparedness (Eph.6:10-17). “Real war” shows up in the image of the (Eph.6:10-17). “Real war” shows up in the image of the

297 297 great eschatological battle that establishes God’s justice and God’s victory over evil (Revelation). In other words, war does not seem to be completely out of the question. On the other hand, Jesus says in no uncertain terms, “Love your enemies” (Matt.5:44) and “Turn the other cheek”(Matt.5:39). He tells Pilate that there will be no fighting by His disciples because His “kingdom is not of this world” (John 18:36). His was a ministry of reconciliation, and that task was passed on to His followers (2 Cor.5:19-20). And, above all, He modeled a refusal to use tactics of violence in the face of violence as He went to His death.

WHAT IS A CHRISTIAN TO DO? From the beginning, Christians have endeavored to follow Jesus in His task of reconciliation under the command of love. As the circumstances in which love, the imperative of the Gospel and that calling is worked out have changed, so do the means of accomplishing it. Discussing and struggling to discern how to act in faithful love seems to be, for the Christian, the essential task of ethics. The development of the just war tradition over time has taken place for the most part during those times in which changing circumstances have called for a re-evaluation of the Christian task. St. Augustine’s reflections came at the time when Christians ceased being a politically powerless minority community and became the dominant culture. The next major explications of and developments in the tradition (jus in bello) came at the time of the Reformation, Counter Refor- mation, and the European global conquest. It was a time of massive change in social, political and religious structures. By the time of the twentieth century, the ways in which wars were fought had changed dramatically from Augustine’s or even Suarez’s time. For instance, with the rise of democra- cies and industrialized systems of production and national systems of infrastructure, it has become harder to separate

298 noncombatants from combatants. The technology of noncombatants from combatants. The technology of warfare has changed radically in terms of its destructive- warfare has changed radically in terms of its destructive- ness; we are faced with biological, chemical, and nuclear ness; we are faced with biological, chemical, and nuclear weapons of terrifying capacity. In many ways, war has lost weapons of terrifying capacity. In many ways, war has lost whatever internal constraints it had. The twentieth century, whatever internal constraints it had. The twentieth century, especially since World War II, has seen resurgence in the especially since World War II, has seen resurgence in the discussion of how to wage war justly in an effort to define discussion of how to wage war justly in an effort to define limits that are no longer there within nature of warfare itself. limits that are no longer there within nature of warfare itself. I would like to suggest that our current situation –post I would like to suggest that our current situation –post –Cold War, rampant ethnic violence, and weapons of mass –Cold War, rampant ethnic violence, and weapons of mass destruction –calls for another reevaluation by Christians of destruction –calls for another reevaluation by Christians of their place and witness. Has the time come when the con- their place and witness. Has the time come when the concepts of just war no longer accomplish the purpose, for cepts of just war no longer accomplish the purpose, for Christians, of fulfilling the law of love? Is it time to return to Christians, of fulfilling the law of love? Is it time to return to the principles of radical non-violence that characterize Je- the principles of radical non-violence that characterize Je- sus’ call? Violence never leads to forgiveness between es- sus’ call? Violence never leads to forgiveness between es- tranged people; it leads to revenge. Violence is pandemic in tranged people; it leads to revenge. Violence is pandemic in our world from the personal level of domestic abuse to the our world from the personal level of domestic abuse to the national level of ethnic cleansing. Our world needs people national level of ethnic cleansing. Our world needs people who are willing to model the costly refusal of the cross of who are willing to model the costly refusal of the cross of Christ. Christ. Assured of God’s justice and undergirded by God’s Assured of God’s justice and undergirded by God’s presence, we are able to break the cycle of violence by re- presence, we are able to break the cycle of violence by re- fusing to be caught in the automatism of revenge. fusing to be caught in the automatism of revenge.

PACIFISM PACIFISM In 1932, in a series of articles in The Christian Cen- In 1932, in a series of articles in The Christian Cen- tury, the Neibuhr brothers, Reinhold and H. Richard, dis- tury, the Neibuhr brothers, Reinhold and H. Richard, discussed pacifism, and ultimate views of history, and how cussed pacifism, and ultimate views of history, and how those views shape Christian interaction in the world. H. those views shape Christian interaction in the world. H. Richard Niebuhr, in his book Christ and Culture, makes Richard Niebuhr, in his book Christ and Culture, makes some astute observations that Christ is the redeemer and some astute observations that Christ is the redeemer and transformer of culture. His position is one of nonviolence transformer of culture. His position is one of nonviolence and he believes that the universe slowly bending towards a and he believes that the universe slowly bending towards a somewhat utopian end, under the guidance of divine somewhat utopian end, under the guidance of divine

299 299 providence. History is a gradual unfolding of that eschatological reality. It isn’t “a perennial tragedy but a road to fulfillment.” Thus, one needs to act slowly and carefully, rejecting violent means in favor of introspection and repentance, remaining in continuity with the character of the unfolding eschaton. On the other hand, his brother Reinhold holds true to his Christian realism, seeing the choice of lesser evils as the chief social good that Christians can accomplish. An alternative, which could almost be looked as a synthesis of the Niebuhrs’ views, can be found in the theology of John Howard Yoder. In Yoder we find the possibility of nation states or society at large living out the radical love imperative of the Gospel. Yet we also find in Yoder the belief that there is, however, a polis (church community), capable of living out to some degree, that same love imperative. It is there that the eschatological vision of the gospel can be lived out. While Yoder doesn’t proffer two ethics, one for state and one for Christians acting separately from that state, he does realize that an unregenerate state will not be able to fully live out the ethic of the Gospel. That work of grace can only occur corporately through the body of Christ. Thus, while much of history may at times seem like a “perennial tragedy,” one can rest assured that God is working out God’s purposes through a remnant people. This peculiar remnant, known as the church, lives out the values of the eschaton in the present age, realizing that God’s eschatological work will happen in the form of the consummation. Dale Allison’s observations concerning Jesus’ ethics as found in the Ser- mon on the Mount are worth pondering here: “How then does the eschatological future impinge upon Jesus’ words? The Sermon may address ordinary circumstances, but it sees all through the eyes of eternity. It does not so much look forward, from the present to the consummation,

300 as it looks backwards, from the consummation to the present. The Sermon presents the perfect, unadulterated will of God, the will of God in its nakedness, because it proclaims the will of God as it should be lived in the kingdom, when God’s will is done on earth as it is in heaven.”

Thus, Christian ethics does not become a program for changing the world, as much as a foretaste of a changed world to come. Yoder’s form of Christian pacifism is largely based on his Christology. Christian discipleship for Yoder is becoming and imitating Christ. In the nonresistant love that ultimately drives Jesus to the cross, we see clearly how God deals with evil. However, the work on Calvary was vindicated, as can be seen in the resurrection and in Christ’s exaltation. Through Christ’s sacrificial act, ultimate victory over the principalities and the powers of this world is won. For Yoder, nonviolence is not a simplistic moral maxim. Rather, it is simply discipleship. It is not a matter of “thou shall not” as much as it is a matter of “as he is, so we are in this world.” But how does the Christian, in pursuing an eschatological form of discipleship characterized by nonviolence, avoid complicity with evil? After all, hasn’t God been com- plicit with sinners, not rendering instant judgment and damnation. And isn’t God all the more culpable for allowing the death of the one true Innocent? God’s created order allows human beings to sin against God and each other. Yet God allows this without crushing and punishing the rebel under His own rebellion. God’s plan for redemption ultimately costs God’s own blood and sacrifice. Far from complicity, we tend to describe redemptive history with words like patience and providence. How can one possibly understand this commitment to nonviolence and interact meaningfully with the modern world, yet at the same time, knowing well that it is not

301 possible to live a Gospel ethic of love on a political or social level. Rather, the good is served in this present age through democratic means. Thus, democracy becomes the greatest good that can be accomplished socially through checks and balances in a system of government of competing egoisms, making possible men’s rational and moral capacities. Christ does not just empower the church and society to live out the ethics of the Gospel, rather, this becomes possible by gradual means for the whole of culture, at least when it takes on the form of the liberal nation state. Chris- tian ethics can no longer simply ask what God wants of human beings. For now, Christians are responsible to act in the world in a just and merciful fashion. How then do Christians, committed to an eschatological understanding of discipleship exercise their responsibility in the modern liberal nation state? Romans 13 clearly affirms that the state exists under Christ’s lordship. Thus, the church’s responsibility is to call the state to legitimacy, recognizing that God ordains its existence. This does not equate to the church assuming the state’s function. It must be understood that the state’s function is that of balancing competing egoisms. The state exists in this manner under Christ’s lordship that the Church may exercise its function, that of being the eschatological community of witness that proclaims the good news of God’s victory in Jesus Christ. Thus the unregenerate state is not capable of accomplishing the church’s function, nor is the church viewed in light of a serious eschatological vision capable of performing the job of the state. Both exist in tension, under Christ’s lordship. Three models of church, conversionist, activist and confessionist, seek to transform society. The confessing church finds its identity, not in the redemption of individuals (conversionist church) or the reformation of society (activistic church), but in the worship of Christ in all things.

302 The confessing church, like its conversionist counterpart calls individuals to repentance, but their conversion involves a journey where one is “baptismally grafted” into a new people. This people, or polis, is an alternative counterculture, nonviolent, cares for the poor, is truthful, and is willing to be persecuted even martyred for righteousness’ sake as part of its proclamation of the Gospel, showing what a polis can be through the infusion of the Holy Spirit. This group stands in stark contrast to the activistic church, which embraces the culture with a few qualifications. The confessing church can partner with the secular world in confronting injustice and oppression, but it does so not on the world’s terms, but as part of its proclamatory function and identity, bearing an eschatological witness to the world.

It is only in the context of this confessing church that pacifism makes sense. It is not pragmatic. It will not tend to make the world a less violent place to live. In fact, it could do just the opposite, because in many instances, it will lead to the martyrdom of the faithful. The only way it can thus be lived out is if one believes that the story of the Resurrection, and the eschatological victory it brings, is not a fanciful tale, but a true story, one on which the confessing community stakes its very life.

PEACEMAKING “The followers of Christ have been called to peace… And they must not only have peace but make it. And to that end they renounce all violence and tumult. In the cause of Christ, nothing is to be gained by such methods… His disciples keep the peace by choosing to endure suffering themselves rather than inflict it on others. They maintain fellowship where others would break it off. They renounce hatred and wrong. In so doing, they overcome evil with good, and establish the peace of God in the midst of a world of war and hate.”

303 In the realm of peacemaking, according to Dietrich Bonhoeffer, one must first have peace in order to make peace. If one is a follower of Christ, then leading a Christ- like life is necessary in the peacemaking process. In order to be a peacemaker, one needs to have peace within oneself. We cannot “walk the talk” of a peacemaker if we have hate and violent thoughts within us. Our actions must follow through with what our minds and hearts are thinking and feeling. This entails the development of our minds in such a way that the sentiment of our hearts will correspond with our actions. For Christian peacemakers, we have access to the Holy Scriptures which guide our lives in thought, word, and deed. St. Paul writes in Romans 12:2: “Do not be con- formed to this world but be transformed by the renewal of your mind that you may prove what is the will of God; what is good and acceptable and perfect.” It is not just our physical beings that need to adhere to the call of transformation, but more importantly, our spiritual and mental processes. In our baptism, we are reborn children of God who live by the free gift of grace from the God who shows us our sinfulness and yet, in love, continuously works at enabling us to become all that he intended for us to be. Psalm 34:14 instructs us “to depart from evil, and do good; seek peace, and pursue it.” In the Old Testament, God spoke through the prophets, demanding human beings to shed their old skin and become new people –and we know that God was fiercely resisted. It is through our minds that we learn of God’s un- ceasing, saving activity resulting in the sending of Jesus Christ in His plan to save us. Through our minds, we recognize the radical nature of the gospel, and then we humbly grasp the vision of human life as God intended it to be. This is the transformation of our whole being that Paul talks about in Romans 12:2. Furthermore, in our baptism, we receive the gift of the Holy Spirit, which is the creative power of Christ working

304 in the transformation process. The Holy Spirit is the very light of love and peace that permeates our lives even in times of darkness and pain. As peacemakers, looking at ourselves, we pray that our deepest desire and goal should be to allow ourselves to become transformed, even possessed, by the continual renewal of our minds by this Holy Spirit of love. Therefore, it follows, that as we study and learn how to be more Christ-like, our attempts at peacemaking should be representative of Christ. So we turn to the best teacher we have –Jesus Christ- to give us examples of right thinking, right feeling and even right actions in relating to others. When studying the teachings of Jesus, one realizes that in looking at the Beatitudes, ironically, the peacemakers are not even promised peace. No, for their peacemaking efforts they are to be called “children of God” (Matt.5:9). That makes us brothers and sisters of one another. In the basic web of life, the family looks out and cares for each other. This is where the peacemaker as an individual reaches out to participate in God’s plan for all humankind. In Jesus’ teaching from the Sermon on the Mount, both Matthew and Luke portray Jesus teaching crowds of people and not just His disciples. Peacemaking is a task –a definite piece of the life puzzle that we are all called to participate in as Christ’s followers. When we do not act upon our call, then Jesus claims we will be like the foolish man who built his house on sand and our lives fall apart before our very eyes (Matt.7:26). Even the Holy Spirit within us pleads with us to actively share Christ’s peace in the world in which we live. The Sermon on the Mount is not about human striving toward high ideals but about God’s transforming initiative to deliver us from the vicious cycles in which we get stuck. Peacemaking according to Jesus’ words means our taking positive action to see the world with Christ-like eyes. We need to pay attention to the injustices of economic suffering and the indifference to human beings’ rights as we strive

305 to imitate God’s initiatives.

PEACEMAKING WITHIN THE COMMUNITY The task of all Christians is to call people to a change of heart and mind as Jesus showed us. We, like Jonah, are to be cast out into the darkness of the world to bring light and peace to those who live in an oppressive, dismal world. And Jesus reminded His followers that there is no peace to be had without justice. In Matthew 6:33, Jesus pleads with us to seek first God’s kingdom and His righteousness (His justice) before we seek anything else, and then all other things will come to us as well. “True justice is the harvest reaped by peace-makers from seeds sown in a spirit of peace” (James 3:18). So the peacemaker needs to know the meaning of peace in order to ‘sow’ peace. A document from the World Council of Churches states: “The word Shalom (peace), as it is used in the Bible, expresses the wholeness of full human life in a community of mutual sharing and affirmation. It includes prosperity, happiness, respect among friends and all that belongs to personal fulfillment. For a community, it means the flowering of its common life in all respects. As such, it is a dynamic concept which demands an ever new realization in new personal and social situations. Peace is, therefore, inseparable from the achievement of justice in human life, provided that justice is understood not as the administration of a set system of laws but the activity of God, raising up the poor and the outcast, vindicating the victims of oppression and saving people from their sins for new life with each other and with Him.”

Hence we understand peace as the true end to the purposes of God for not only the individual, but for the community as well. Our Christianity is more than Baptism and the Lord’s Supper, sacraments or religious celebrations. It is

306 a lifestyle and a faith to be embraced each new day. I Corin- thians 10:24 states, “Let no one seek his own good, but the good of his neighbor.” And in I Corinthians 11:1, Paul gives his imperative to “Be imitators of Him, as he is of Christ.” Paul stresses that we are connected to the gospel of the cross and to one another. Therefore, self-sacrifice for the other is not just an option; it is an integral part of our Chris- tian experience. In the definition given above for peace, the fulfillment of God’s command for human justice must be dependent on those of us who earnestly try to follow in Christ’s way. In the community of believers we are constantly striving to balance our rights with the needs of others. We are called to make decisions concerning complex issues, such as war, racism, abortion, sexual orientation, and whatever lies ahead of us. Paul points out to us, as imitators of Christ, that since we are members of a universal body (I Cor.12:12- 31), our decisions profoundly affect each other. Our actions as a wealthy country or a small caring community profoundly affect our neighbors near and far. Jesus’ truth reminds us that we cannot live in isolation from each other. As Jesus’ disciples we are urged to model relationships and establish communities of peace that look and even behave differently from the world around us. Jesus preached that the reign of God is near. That reign includes the challenge to overcome whatever op- presses people and whatever keeps them from perceiving and participating in God’s work of mercy, justice, wholeness and peace. Peacemaking in the community is not exactly an easy challenge that Jesus puts before us. Luke draws a picture of Jesus as the prophet of the end times. He is the bearer of God’s restoration. Jesus announces the fulfillment of the scripture when He reads from Isaiah in Luke 4:18, “The Spirit of the Lord is upon me, because He has anointed me to bring good news to the poor. He has sent me to proclaim release to the captives and recovery of sight

307 to the blind, to let the oppressed go free.” In many of His works, Jesus is put into conflict with the ruling authorities. Christ was seen as a challenge to the power of the authorities and doing God’s will even today is in conflict with the ways of the world. “If anyone is in Christ, he is a new creation; the old has passed away, behold, the new has come”(2 Cor.5:17). The apostle Paul sees the work of God in the redemption of the world in Jesus Christ and in the establishment of the church. He sees righteousness, justice and even peacemaking as gifts from God and as what God does to and for us. Our response, or our imperative, to these gifts is our faith and trust in God. It was St. Peter who reminded us of our calling as new creations in Christ in 1Peter 2:9: “But you are a chosen race, a royal priesthood, a holy nation, God’s own people, that you may declare the wonderful deeds of Him who called you out of darkness into His marvelous light.” The church is to be the community in which, through its behavior and its mission, the avant-garde of the society that will be the fulfillment of all hope…

PEACEMAKING WITHIN THE WORLD “Having the eyes of your hearts enlightened, that you may know what is the hope to which He has called you, what are the riches of His glorious inheritance in the saints, and what is the immeasurable greatness of His power in us who believe, according to the working of His great might which He accomplished in Christ when He raised Him from the dead and made Him sit at His right hand in the heavenly places; far above all rule and authority and power and dominion, and above every name that is named, not only in this age but also in that which is to come; and He has put all things under His feet and has made Him the head over all things for the church, which is His body, the fullness of Him who fills all in all” (Eph.1:18-23). Paul is not distinctly speaking here of peacemaking but rather about the power of the love of God that is shown

308 through the Holy Spirit. When dealing with a world that seems only to have a vision of violence and injustice, these words of Paul should speak a truth that should make our ears sing. As Christians living in such a world of social injustice, poverty and hunger, these verses of scripture tell us that we can count on the spirit of God to create a new vision of life. We are a called people of God, and that means we rely on our faith to enable us to act as peacemakers, even in threat of war and oppression. Ephesians states that Je- sus has been placed higher than any earthly authority, and He is superior even over the supernatural powers. How ironic that God sent His only Son to be born in a lowly stable and then exalted Him as the all powerful Prince of Peace. It is through the church that God’s creative acts of redemption and reconciliation take place in the world. Through the church’s growth in grace and mission, God’s conquest of peace in the world may come to be.

Stephen Charles Mott, in his book Biblical Ethics and Social Change, agrees to this and states: “By being built up in love, the Church, directed and nourished by its Lord and head, bears witness to the reign of Christ, the defeat of the powers and the return of man’s world to God’s order. With us growing stronger, it proclaims all this to the world and summons men to accept Christ’s rule. It widens its influence and sphere of action in the cosmos. It forces back the cosmic powers and takes their sphere of activity away from them.”

The more the Church hears the message of the gospel of Christ, the more likely Christians living together in community will be able to perceive that peacemaking includes the wholeness of God’s creation. The act of peacemaking is a step-by-step process beginning in the small community church and building into a regional, mutual

309 shared responsibility. From there, our vision must be focused on the world. The reconciliation of the whole creation through Christ is regarded as the justification of all God’s creatures who have lost their freedom to live as beings created in the image of God. The reconciliation of human beings with God and their reconciliation among one another are accomplished for us through the blood of Jesus Christ. Our efforts to live in peace with one another depend on our openness to God’s healing grace and the Holy Spirit’s power working through us. In order to be peacemakers around the world, we need to seek wholeness for the lives of those most vulnerable within our own backyards. How- ever, we must also take a stand for those whose lives are threatened wherever they may be in God’s creation. Peace- making is a lifetime process and it requires the church universal working together to bring it about.

As has already been stated, peacemaking efforts help to fulfill our call as Christ’s disciples. In this way, we prepare the world for the divine reign of God where true human justice, love and peace exist. It is amid the conflicts and violence of our modern world where so much individualism persists that the Church must step in with Christ-like initiatives to create peaceable avenues for change. We can take inspiration from the early Christian communities where Paul called upon the people in Corinth to pursue peace and bless those who were persecuting them, never repaying someone evil for evil, but overcome evil with good (Rom.12:14;17;21). A world marked by true respect for the life, dignity, and rights of the human person will be a world at peace. As we seek to bring forth a full reign of God, we need to build bridges of understanding and respect between cultures and nations. Christ came in love. With love, dominion can no longer be a power play that disregards others. To care for the other, we must make an intentional effort to see beyond

310 our self-interest. God’s model of peace is not meant to give permission to beat down or overpower another individual or group of people to satisfy greed or personal whim. Our peacemaking attempts will depend on the risks and initiatives that we are willing to make as individuals, communities, and nations as sacrifices are made to insure justice and dignity for all. Jesus came with authority over all of creation, but He modeled a life of servanthood. As peacemakers, our call is to act as servants on behalf of the Crea- tor. We are the presence and the agents of the Reign of God. Jesus prepared His apostles to be His church, but He also prepared His church to be apostolic. They were a community, and they had work to do in the world. They were a small and seemingly insignificant group, but they were called the Light of the world.

THE CHURCH’S VIEW ON PEACEMAKING AND NONVIOLENCE People of faith have come to realize that for peace to be lasting or existent at all, there must be justice. Locally or globally, peace without justice is inseparable. “Make plain the vision” (Habakkuk 2:2). It is only fitting that people of faith offer a glimpse of the kind of world God would have us live –a world where righteousness prevails in our homes, our communities, and our world. Although Habakkuk stood high on a hill to see God’s vision across the sky, he seemed to realize that he would have to come down from that hill and get involved, and yes, even get his hands dirty to bring about the peace and justice of God’s vision. “Peacemaking is not an optional commitment. It is a requirement of our faith. We are called to be peacemakers, not by some movement of the moment, but by our Lord Jesus.” From the voices of the Old Testament prophets to our Lord Jesus Christ to our modern times, when we have heard the voice of Gandhi, the Pope, Martin Luther King, Jr. and scores of

311 other peacemaking groups, all demand efforts of love and mission toward peace.

On November 10, 1998, the United Nations responded to an appeal sponsored by every living Nobel Peace Prize Laureate to proclaim the year 2000 to be the “Year for the Culture of Peace” and the years 2001-2010 to be the “International Decade for a Culture of Peace and Nonviolence for the Children of the World.”

The Fellowship of Reconciliation has initiated a Peo- ple’s Campaign for Nonviolence to not only oppose military violence, but also bring an end to racial and economic injustice as well. They believe their work for disarmament and eliminating racial and economic injustice in the world will be the cornerstone in the building of the kingdom of God. The kingdom of God does not come in one dramatic event at some time in the future. Rather it is coming in the present in our acts of love, care and deeds to eliminate suffering, oppression and hostility. Truly, the God of Peace calls us, in the prophetic spirit of Isaiah, to beat our swords into plow- shares and to study war no more (Isa.2:4). The Church is faithful to Christ when it is engaged in peacemaking. The Church is obedient to Christ when it nurtures and equips God’s people as peacemakers. The Church reaffirms that God is sovereign in world affairs and that Jesus Christ is central to all peacemaking activities.

Challenge of Peace made by Pope John Paul II (1982), in his World Day of Peace message the Holy Father states: “Peace cannot be built by the power of rulers alone. Peace can be firmly constructed only if it corresponds to the resolute determination of all people of good will. Rulers must be supported and enlightened by a public opinion that encourages them or, where necessary, expresses

312 disapproval.”

In just peacemaking decisions, military intervention for humanitarian purposes in situations of massive suffering and/or violations of human rights must follow a set of criteria to guide them in response where no other means will work. The Church must prefer and seek nonviolent means for conflict resolution and social change. The Church calls upon the United Nations to enhance its instruments/capacities for nonviolent conflict resolution through negotiation, mediation, and arbitration and to be sure that all voices are heard. Each and every Christian believer is called to be a peacemaker as he/she goes through his/her daily steps in this life. As Christians we are constantly challenged to speak kind words and think only as Christ would have us think as our minds are continually renewed by God’s divine Word. Because we hope in the risen Christ, we hope for all the fullness of life that is God’s will for us all.

313 BIBLIOGRAPHY BIBLIOGRAPHY

Allison, Dale C. (1992). The Sermon on the Mount: inspir- Allison, Dale C. (1992). The Sermon on the Mount: inspiring the moral imagination. ing the moral imagination. Bonhoeffer, Dietrich. (1999). The cost of discipleship. Bonhoeffer, Dietrich. (1999). The cost of discipleship. Chandy, K.K. (1990). A quest for community and dynamic Chandy, K.K. (1990). A quest for community and dynamic non-violence. non-violence. Fellowship of reconciliation. (1999). www.nonviolence.org Fellowship of reconciliation. (1999). www.nonviolence.org Hauerwas, Stanley, & Willimon, William H. (1989). Resident Hauerwas, Stanley, & Willimon, William H. (1989). Resident aliens. aliens. Longman III, Trumpery, & Reid, Daniel G. (1995). God is a Longman III, Trumpery, & Reid, Daniel G. (1995). God is a warrior. warrior. Mott, Stephen Charles. (1982). Biblical ethics and social Mott, Stephen Charles. (1982). Biblical ethics and social change. change. National Conference of Catholic Bishops. (1993). The chal- National Conference of Catholic Bishops. (1993). The challenge of peace. lenge of peace. Niebuhr, H. Richard. ((1932, April 6). The Only Way into the Niebuhr, H. Richard. ((1932, April 6). The Only Way into the Kingdom of God. TheChristian Century. Kingdom of God. TheChristian Century. Paul II, John. (1982). World Day of Peace Message. Paul II, John. (1982). World Day of Peace Message. Paul Ramsey. (1969). War and the Christian conscience: Paul Ramsey. (1969). War and the Christian conscience: how shall modern war be conducted justly? how shall modern war be conducted justly? Regan, Richard J. (196). Just war: principles and causes. Regan, Richard J. (196). Just war: principles and causes. Sherlock, Charles. (1993). The God who fights. Sherlock, Charles. (1993). The God who fights. Stassen, Glen H. (1992). Just peacemaking. Stassen, Glen H. (1992). Just peacemaking. Funk and Wagnall’s Standard College Dictionary. (1973). Funk and Wagnall’s Standard College Dictionary. (1973). War (Definition 1 and 2). (4th ed.). War (Definition 1 and 2). (4th ed.). Yoder, John Howard. (1954). Peace without eschatology? Yoder, John Howard. (1954). Peace without eschatology? Yoder, John Howard. (1964).The Christian witness to the Yoder, John Howard. (1964).The Christian witness to the state. state. Zacher, Stephan. (1990). East Germany. WCC’s justice, Zacher, Stephan. (1990). East Germany. WCC’s justice, peace and the integrity of creation. peace and the integrity of creation.

314 314 THE NOTION OF DEATH THE NOTION OF DEATH IN THE IN THE THEOLOGY OF CHRISTIAN THOUGHT THEOLOGY OF CHRISTIAN THOUGHT

INTERPRETATIONS OF DEATH INTERPRETATIONS OF DEATH The confrontation of death gives the most positive re- The confrontation of death gives the most positive reality to life itself. Death is the one fact of life which is abso- ality to life itself. Death is the one fact of life which is absolute, and each hour of our life is an absolute quality. Death lute, and each hour of our life is an absolute quality. Death is the unknown, the impenetrable mystery. A man feels un- is the unknown, the impenetrable mystery. A man feels un- comfortable, vulnerable, in the face of so awesome an en- comfortable, vulnerable, in the face of so awesome an enemy who shows no partiality for age, wealth or position. For emy who shows no partiality for age, wealth or position. For some people, death may represent helplessness, or separa- some people, death may represent helplessness, or separation from others; other persons see death as a way of unit- tion from others; other persons see death as a way of uniting or reuniting with someone else. Death may also repre- ing or reuniting with someone else. Death may also represent loss of self-control, loss of identity, loss of bodily con- sent loss of self-control, loss of identity, loss of bodily contact and integrity. The main reaction to the idea of one’s tact and integrity. The main reaction to the idea of one’s own death is denial. City people are least familiar with own death is denial. City people are least familiar with death. The rural person, in close contact with the cycle of death. The rural person, in close contact with the cycle of nature is quicker to accept death as a fact of life. The nature is quicker to accept death as a fact of life. The American culture has attempted to disguise death and can American culture has attempted to disguise death and can no longer look at it with honesty. It is somehow the last no longer look at it with honesty. It is somehow the last great taboo. A few generations ago, death and mourning great taboo. A few generations ago, death and mourning were familiar household events, and still are in some East- were familiar household events, and still are in some East- ern European, Asia and Middle Eastern countries; in the ern European, Asia and Middle Eastern countries; in the same bed where children were born, their parents died. same bed where children were born, their parents died. Western culture has created “hidden” or “invisible” death. As Western culture has created “hidden” or “invisible” death. As Western society has become increasingly technological, Western society has become increasingly technological, “death” has been taken out of the home and placed in the “death” has been taken out of the home and placed in the hospital, or in nursing homes, hospices, where strangers hospital, or in nursing homes, hospices, where strangers are paid to do the nursing formerly performed by the family. are paid to do the nursing formerly performed by the family. The progress of scientific knowledge has resulted in the re- The progress of scientific knowledge has resulted in the re- duction of humanity’s position to apparent insignificance in duction of humanity’s position to apparent insignificance in both the space-dimension and the time-dimension. Human both the space-dimension and the time-dimension. Human progress and modern scientific methods were the path that progress and modern scientific methods were the path that would lead to “salvation,” happiness through reason and would lead to “salvation,” happiness through reason and

315 315 technology. Science was to be mankind’s servant, set to work bettering the conditions of life. This dream has begun to shatter with the gradual realization that the discoveries of modern science, technology and even medicine, have not come without damaging effects: physical, psychological and spiritual. Medical science has become so successful that what people fear most is not sometimes death itself, but a slow death, locked behind hospital doors; death that prologs life but makes it a living hell. Francis Bacon wrote: “Men fear death as children fear to go in the dark; and as that natural fear in children is increased with tales, so is the other.” Death is one of the most shocking events in human life. Every time death touches our lives, it is a reminder of our frailty, of our temporary so- journ in this world. Man keeps himself from even thinking about death. Such thinking cannot help but be destructive to the personality. The Bible describes the human situation in such words as “to sit in darkness and the shadow of death” (Luke 1:79). It is an event which strikes man in his totality. When we die, all things and we ourselves come to an end. From the ideological point of view, death might be looked at as meaningless or as a “necessary part of the life process.” The Old Testament speaks of death as of the return of the spirit to God. In the book of Ecclesiastes 12:7, the author seeks to understand by the use of reason the meaning of human existence, the nature of life and death, and the good which man can find in life stating that life with its limitations is worth living. One must face facts, accept what cannot be changed, and enjoy whatever good things God permits for whenever God withdraws his life-giving power, man descends into his grave. “…Man goes to his eternal home, and the mourners go about the streets; before the silver cord is snapped, or the golden bowl is broken, or the pitcher is broken at the fountain, or the wheel broken at the cistern, and the dust returns to the earth as it

316 was, and the spirit returns to God who gave it. Vanity of vanities, all is vanity.” Every day, more than 7,000 Americans die. Seventy- five percent of those dying are without the support of a close circle of loved ones or religious faith. Patients with ter- minal illness, trusting white-coated gods in laboratories, still look to the messiah of technology for some kind of ultimate deliverance from death. Psychiatrists are now saying that death is the most important question of our time and that fear of death festers a variety of psychoses.

Facing death is too serious a matter. Doctors telling the truth in a sensible, non alarming way to a patient at the right time is probably their job, but they will want either the family or the patient to encourage them to do this. Patients who are dying, says, Dr. Elisabeth Ross, psychiatrist at Uni- versity of Chicago, want “to hear hope.” When hope is gone on earth, God the source of hope, is still there. He offers hope for eternity. Having all these thoughts in our mind, we can say that human life stands in a close relationship with death; death, so alien and yet so much a part of our lives. “Natural death,” says Jüngel, “is only in appearance an enemy; in reality it is a servant of life.” We might go so far as to assert that if it had not been for the early entrance of death, life itself might not have risen to its full potency, and in its best and fairer forms, it could not have continued to exist. Because of death, life develops, and the ministry of death is throughout a service for life, for the increasing fulfillment of life’s promise, and for the attainment of the greatest possible variety, richness, beauty, and universal harmony. Death may enter into life to help clear the way for a richer fulfillment of life’s promise, and it may operate as a benevolent principle of perfection. Life consists in “dying and becoming” (Jüngel, Eberhard, Death: The Riddle and The Mystery, pp.13-26).

317 THEOLOGICAL PERCEPTIVES ON DEATH Plato, called immortality a “terrible danger.” Socrates’ definition of death is “simply the release of the soul from the body.” For in Socrates’ view, the body is a hindrance to the soul as it seeks to acquire knowledge. Thus, “if we are ever to have pure knowledge of anything, we must get rid of the body and contemplate things by themselves with the soul itself.” True and full knowledge is impossible so long as the soul is joined to the body. Death therefore, is a happy event, a moment of fulfillment for the seeker after death. The presence of soul is necessary to give the body life; death comes from life and the soul is immortal, which after separation from the body, the guardian angel guides the separated soul on its journey to a suitable reward or punishment and speculates at length on the nature of the cosmos and the places in which souls may dwell. Death is therefore, no enemy, but a friend who releases the soul from the body; in other words, death is considered the cycle of life. And St. Augustine, in his Soliloquia asks himself the question: When you have learned that you are immortal, will that be enough for you?” To which he himself gives the remarkable answer: “It will be something great; but it is too little for me.” The argument of metaphysical materialism regards man as a part of the material cosmos. Consequently, death simply “abolishes” man as an individual. Hence, when the individual dies, he is extinguished, body and soul. All that happens, according to this view, is a “return” to the total material process of the universe. What lives on, or continues to survive, in Kant’s words, is “our human virtues”; “what we call the immortality of the soul is the existence and personality, continuing into infinity of the same rational being.” In creating Adam, God did not remain a Being for Himself but truly shared His creation. Hence, the created man possesses existence and essence from God, that

318 shares His existence, the very being of His soul is immortal and imperishable. The Second Adam-Christ died not because He had to but because He wanted to take a share in man’s earthly life and death. His death became the first reliable source and assurance for the immortality of our souls. Thomas Aquinas expresses his views in this matter of immortality, saying: “The angels and the human souls are imperishable because they are by nature capable of grasping truth, the reality of God.” Because the human soul is capable of apprehending truth, hence, with this act which by its essence goes beyond every conceivable material attachment and events but remains independent, therefore, it must also have and possess an independent existence of the body, that persists after the dissolution of the body and beyond death.

BIBLICAL REFLECTIONS ON DEATH: SCRIPTURAL PROBLEMS / DIFFICULTIES The view of the Old Testament is that life is the supreme good, a gift by God, meaningful only in relationship to Him, who is the fountain of life; He gives life and takes it again (Psalm 104:29). The person who is dying, -a blessing and honor after ripe old age, otherwise an untimely death- returns to the dust from which he was created. Hence, death marks the end of a man’s relationship to God. Primi- tive or biblical Christianity had no doctrine of the soul or immortality but a vision of an apocalypse in which, the dead having been raised and the living transformed. As Christian- ity moved out of its Palestinian and Judaic environment, Christian apologists were forced to come to terms with the Hellenistic worldview, which accepted immortality of the soul as an active, and purified existence after released from its corporal prison. With the Greek Church Fathers, the problem was crucial and its development was turbulent. What happens to man when he dies? According to Christian

319 teachings, death is good to the good, and evil to the evil. The disembodied spirits of the just are at rest; but those of the wicked suffer punishment till their bodies rise again, those of the just to life everlasting, and of the others to death eternal, which according to Augustine, is called “the second death.” However, the idea that the dead are judged according to their deeds is not originally Greek, though it had long been firmly established in Egypt. This notion later on was taken up by Christian thought. The prevailing opinion concerning death was regarded as the termination / dissolution of human existence, and was essentially meaningless, “like water spilt upon the ground that cannot be gathered up” (2 Sam.14:14). It involved a complete scattering of one’s vital power. Death was the spilling out of life. Hebrew thought unlike Christian never developed a notion of a soul or life-force which is separable from the historical man. The Greek notion seems to have been that immortality was earned through one’s contribution to the state and that the locus of immortality was in the collective memory of the state. The Hebrew understanding is at once more primitive and more organic. Personality and identity are terms which attach not to the person but to the people; thus, when one dies, personality and identity are not disrupted, for the people continues. The Old Testament man knows that he is not left to face death and the underworld/Sheol alone. He knows further that when he gets there, he will find himself face to face with the God who punishes him according to his deserts and thus delivers him up to death. He knows that, if there is a Helper and Deliverer, it can only be God. The Old Testament knows nothing of a renewal of man in a time after his death, of a continuation of his life, of resurrection, and therefore, of an eternal life. The saying in Psalm 16:10, “You shall not leave my soul in hell” in its original context refers to a deliverance from the danger of death, which is like hell. The

320 case is similar with Psalms 17:15; 27:13; 49:15, all of which are expressions of the decisive positive content of the Old Testament hope in the strength, goodness and righteousness of God. Even in Isaiah 26:19 and the great vision of Ezekiel 37:1-14, we have pictures of the promised renewal of Israel in history. Death and separation from God came because of sin (Rom.5:12), for it is when everything has become rela- tionless that love of God now creates new relationships. When all relationships have been broken, in order to bring life and death into a new relationship with one another, into a new relationship which merits the name “resurrection from the dead” God, through love shares the pain of death in Je- sus Christ as the event of salvation. The meaning of salvation according to Church Fathers is that God saves this life which we live; it involves the participation of this earthly, limited life in the life of God; the sharing of this temporally limited life in God’s eternity. For God is the ultimate presence in death, whether men succeed in testifying to Him or not. Neither life, nor death, nor the failure of Christians, will be able to separate men from the love of God. For Christian apologists, then, death is the separation of the spirit of a man from his body. God values both body and spirit. When a man dies, his spirit goes to be with God. Absent from the body; present with the Lord. The awful shock of death is that the body is there, but it is empty of the person who lived there. God’s redemption plan includes our bodies too. He redeems us spiritually so that we can be alive forever in His fellowship. He also redeems our bodies. “If the spirit of Him who raised Jesus from the dead dwells in you, He who raised Christ Jesus from the dead will give life to your mortal bodies also” (Romans 8:11). Also, in I Co- rinthians 15:35-58, Paul talks about the resurrection of the body. In Christ, God himself suffers what guilty man has to suffer. Jesus endured the wrath of God, and the death of man. He suffered in his place as the eternal punishment

321 which is the just lot of the enemies of God. Even in our death, He will be our gracious God because in death we will confront God. Therefore, the Christian apologists concluded, Christ is our hope, helper and deliverer, and we are objects of His love. In Him the promise of eternal life is really given. It is God who sends the angel of death (Exodus 12:23; II Samuel 24:16; Job 33:22), just as Satan continues his dark course only by God’s will and permission. His control over death is exercised for the sake of life and not for the sake of death. As the Creator, He affirms life and only life. “For whether we live, we live unto the Lord; and whether we die, we die unto the Lord: whether we live therefore, or die, we are the Lord’s” (Rom.14:8). Death is secretly very serious and sinister but not intrinsically dark and menacing. For of that frontier, where for good or evil, man must finally meet his God, his Creator, covenant- partner, Judge and Savior. Man, in Jesus Christ, hopes positively for the redemption of his this-sided finite and mortal existence. The biblical writings of the Old Testament have no theology of death or of an after life. Concerned with the destiny of a people in history, the writers of Scripture had little to say about the significance of the end of the individual’s historical existence and were not motivated to speculate about an extra historical survival. Any effort to understand the biblical view of the nature of death and man’s destiny must keep constantly in mind the resounding silence of the Bible on the subject in general and be tempered by a very careful interpretation of its few specific statements within their historical contexts. The Hebrew writers uniformly ap- proached the question of death in a manner quite different from those of the Greeks or Christian evangelists and apologists. In Jesus’ day, there was no uniform conception of what resurrection-life would be like. One of the concepts

322 was apocalyptic; the restoration and change of the physical body into “a spiritual body.” The expectation of restored physical existence is dramatically expressed in the story of the patriot Razis (II Macc.14:46), also in the writings of Paul, as mentioned above. In the New Testament, there is indeed no passage in the Synoptic Gospels in which Jesus discourses explicitly on the subject of death. Much of New Testament teaching concerning death developed from the apocalypticism of the Old Testament and the Apocrypha. Jesus maintained a careful tension between present and future. Jesus’ eschatology is unconcerned with speculation concerning the meaning of death or the future destiny of the person. Jesus and the Sadducees are agreed on one point: that human life is to be conceived as a unitive phenomenon in which the physical and that which animates the physical, the soul are inseparable; that body and soul are inseparable. At the time of His crucifixion Jesus showed both fear and terror in the face of suffering. Unlike Socrates, who faced death with triumphant composure, He took death as a terrible and serious thing. His ultimate appeal was to the will of God, and that same will was His only and bitter comfort. Jesus was concerned with life, with the quality of life expected by God of His people. To say that the dead shall be raised is to say that they will, as a part of the living heritage, participate in the life of the restored people and the new age which is about to begin. The earliest Christians stood with Apocalyptic and with Rabbinic Judaism in believing that there was to be “a resurrection”; which included judgment, defeat of Satan, punishment and reward. Although there was no uniformity in what was expected to happen, and not every apocalyptic writing or view hoped for resurrection, but characteristically, resurrection was the central scene of the eschatological end. Only then, when the disciples became convinced that

323 Jesus had been resurrected, they concluded the end of the old age and the beginning of the new had dawned. And with the help of Psalm 110, which sdays, “The Lord says to my Lord (Jesus): ‘Sit at my right hand, till I make your enemies your footstool,’” the early Christians said that the Messiah’s reign is not postponed but is already inaugurated in heaven and in the Church. Now for the New Testament, the Good News is the Messiah, the representative of the positive will of God who engages the posts of the underworld in victorious combat. By undergoing death in His person, Jesus provided a total and conclusive revelation of its character. It is the enemy, “the last enemy” (I Cor.15:26) of man, whom God, in the death of Jesus, declares to be conquered. Because Jesus, in dying, did not merely surrender Himself to that alienation from God, which according to the Old Testament was the climax of what man has to suffer as one who’s life is over, but in Jesus, God himself suffered what guilty man had to suffer. “God was in Christ reconciling the world to Him- self” (II Cor.5:19). In Christ, God, the Lord of death, has already put death behind and beneath us. In Him the promise of eternal life is really given. He is our gracious God, our hope, that through death we shall pass into life. In the Old Testament, death may be a powerful menace to man. But it is not an independent god of death confronting Yahweh. For as soon as it entered the world, it came under His dominion. Like all the other forces of chaos, the name of Yahweh is now filled out concretely by the saving event of Jesus. For it is Israel’s God who acts now in Je- sus, confirming in Him His covenant; that this mortal, earthly tabernacle, which is doomed to destruction, will be clothed with the building prepared by God. This mortal will be swallowed up in life (II Cor.5:1-4). It will then be eternal life in God and in fellowship with Him. The Old Testament never says that man with his temporal life will one day have a

324 share in the eternal life of God. The New Testament speaks of the saving event whose subject is Jesus. Yet, it also confirms what the Old Testament says. The New Testament agrees with the Old Testament that this lowly and finite creature, man, in his time is affirmed by the Most High God, and that the power of this affirmation is the secret of his beginning and end, his true help and deliverance in and from death. Death, in Paul’s view, is the “last” and greatest enemy of man, yet an enemy whose power derives from man’s own acts of sinfulness. The moment of death is, thus, one of obliteration or of self-obliteration but for the intervention of God in Christ, whose own resurrection and glorification constitutes man’s only hope of victory over death (I Cor.15:12-22). Death is then an event of awful serious- ness; Jesus’ own reaction to His impending death was not cowardly but absolutely realistic. And His own triumph is the assurance of man’s triumph. Those who die in Christ are, “asleep” awaiting the ultimate triumph at the resurrection with the rest of the people of God. Whereas the Judeo-Christians maintained the unity of the human being, the Greek philosophical tradition in general conceived of soul which might or must continue to exist after its separation from the body. Metaphysically speaking, immortality was a logical deduction for the Greek but an inconceivable construct for the Jews and primitive Chris- tians. The Greek hero killed on the battlefield, continued to exist in the memory of his city and thus to be granted immortality. Because of our participation in the Logos, even our body would have had immortality had not Adam fallen into sin. Though human nature is mortal, then, the fact of physical death is the consequence of sin. Death is the result of the break with God, who is the source of life. Being in opposition to the Creator, we are also in opposition to our fellow creatures, to the earth and to animals.

325 THEOLOGY OF DEATH IN CHRISTIAN THOUGHT St. Augustine distinguishes between death of the soul resulting from sin and physical death. The latter rests on the separation of the soul from the body, the former on the separation of God from the soul. The death of the soul through sin as a present state is not to be confused with the second death, which will separate the damned from eternity with God after the judgment. Death came because of sin (Rom.5:12). Death is a fact of life because sin is a fact of life. Both are the result of man’s choice. Given a free will, man chose to ignore his Creator, and in that decision he cut himself off from free access to God. He experienced spiritual death. Death and sin are not God’s fault. God works for the good of those who trust Him. In His mercy, He redeems these hard experiences and builds strength into the lives of those who are disciplined by them. Then, why does God allow death to strike down a father of five? If He does not prevent, then He asks us to look for a larger plan. “He became a human being so that by going through death as a man He might destroy him who had the power of death, that is, the devil; and might also free those who lived their whole lives in prey to the fear of death” (Heb.2:14,15; Heb.9:26-28; I Cor.15:20-26; II Cor.4:14-5:5). Man, a free rational being, receiving his existence entirely from outside, can never by himself make or effect a fundamental change to his state. It might be that man, before his creation as a pre-existing pure spirit/soul within or with God as co-existing and an inseparable part of the divine Soul, had become and was created human by the good will of God to give meaning and purpose to this God-created cosmos and take the work of creation to its completion, final destination, perfection and fulfillment. In giving man free will, might God’s intention have been good and that man was destined to be co-creator and immortal in this world? Man as a rational and free being, when he was separated

326 from God and put in a physical body, soon became aware of his God-like potentialities. He disobeyed and opposed the divine Ordinance and, only then became mortal and human? Now after the “fall,” man was changed from an immortal being, to a mortal man (Genesis 3). Therefore, now in his human body, the image, the spirit of God was tainted; he was no more a pure and perfect spirit, but now had a physical and mortal existence too with which he could sin more, disobey more and rebel. Man’s inclination to sin and disobedience deprived him from his original privileges, namely his immortality, now possible only through the Sec- ond Adam--Jesus Christ but only after going through his own physical death as the case was almost the same with the angels. In the theology of the Church Fathers, man’s punishment is compared with that of the angel in the first moment of his existence, in which he irrevocably decided for or against God and thus angels and evil spirits wait for their final judgment. Therefore, what the moment of testing is for angels, death is for the man (John of Damascus, Or- thodox Fathers, vol.2,p.24). In his book Against Heresies, Irenaeus, who became Bishop of Lyons in Gaul about 177 A.D., is attacking the platonic teachings of the transmigrations of souls. He argues that the soul continues to exist after it has been separated from the body but that it was created in order to ani- mate that same body. Its form existed only when it was united with the body. For the perfect man consists in the co- mingling and the union of the soul receiving the spirit of the Father, and the admixture of that fleshly nature which was molded after the image of God. In his death, it is the body mortal; but the soul is immortal. Salvation for Irenaeus was not a matter of release of the soul from the body to an incor- poreal state from which it may originally have come but of reunion of body and soul at the resurrection. Death is for him the beginning of an indeterminate or suspended state

327 for the soul which must last until the body is raised. Thus, the descent into hell is to Christ what the period between death and resurrection is to all other men. Jesus died physically as all men die; His body in the grave. His soul was “where the souls of the dead were.” When He rose, it was in the body, which showed the marks of His violent death, and in the same condition He ascended into heaven. The same must be the fate of Jesus’ followers, although the interim will be longer than three days. The work of Origen, in the first half of the third century, against Celsus, deals with the problem of life-death and resurrection. To Origen, life and death are only the limits of one fairly insignificant state of an eternal journey of the soul as it moves away from or back toward the Truth, from which it derived its being. The work of Christ is to show man the way to return to its original harmony and spirituality in communion with God. Even after death; separation of the spirit from the body, the soul continues its journey of purifi- cation, hopefully moving by stages toward the source of all being, God. The dialogue, On the Soul and the Resurrection, is Gregory of Nyssa’s most extended treatment of man’s ultimate destiny. Written about 380 A.D., Gregory had gone to visit his sister Macrina because he was deeply troubled by the death of their brother Basil, but he found his sister herself near death. In the presence of her friends, Macrina re- plies, “The soul is an essence created, and living, and intellectual, transmitting from itself to an organized and sentient body the power of living and of grasping objects of sense, as long as a natural constitution capable of this holds together.” The man is a microcosm “a little world in himself.” The soul is the divine element in man and must be considered immortal. Even after death, Gregory believes, that the soul and its body belong together and can never be free of each other. The soul must, therefore, always be with the

328 body even though it no longer vivifies it. Emotion is related to sensation and therefore to “brute creation,” and that the value of emotion depends on the use to which it is put by human will. When Gregory asks about Hades, he is told by Macrina that Hades is a “word for a place in which souls are said to be, and means nothing else but a transition to that unseen world of which we have no glimpse.” Since the soul is immortal, there is no way to localize its existence after death. The soul, Macrina continues, has the unique “power of recognition,” which, for example, an artist has for that which he has created; and therefore it cannot fail to recognize its body either when it is decayed or at the resurrection. Thus, there is a sense in which it may be said that the soul during the interim after death is still being drawn from evil to good. The good soul tends always toward the godhead, as though it were light drawn upward; but that which has been overly distracted by the life of the flesh tends toward the fleshly, as though it were heavy and pulled down. Finally, Gregory turns to the problem of resurrection, establishing the logical possibility of rejoining the soul and the body, treating the problem of evil and establishing the notion that the resurrection will occur when the perfect number of human souls has been attained. Answering her brother’s last objections, Macrina discusses the manner in which man is purged so that he can appear at Judgment in a state of incorruption.

Immortality is a source of consolation for the living as they contemplate death, but hope is primarily aimed at the time beyond temporality when the perfect number of souls will have been created and purged of all evil. Incorrupt man will dwell eternally in body and soul with God. Thus, Greg- ory rejects Plato’s notion of reincarnation, immediate judgment after death, and the ultimate separability of soul and body.

329 St. Augustine, around 420 A.D. in his reflections about death and after life, examining the matter states that “. . . sooner we begin to live in this dying body, we begin to move ceaselessly towards death; so that our whole life is nothing but a race towards death.” Then he explains and puts distinction between physical death “as separation of the soul from the body” and “second or spiritual death” as separation of the soul from God, whose destiny surely will be everlasting suffering, damnation and eternal fire. Then he exhorts that the time that intervenes between man’s death and the final resurrection, there is a secret shelter for his soul, as each is worthy of rest or affliction according to what it has merited while it lived in the body. After the resurrection, however, when the general Judgment has been held and finished, the boundary lines will be set for the two cities: the one of Christ, the other of the devil; one for the good, the other for the bad; both including angels and men. In the one group, there will be no will to sin, in the other, no power to sin, nor any further possibility of dying. The citizens of the first commonwealth will go on living truly and happily in life eternal. The second will go on, miserable in death eternal, with no power to die to it. The condition of both societies then will be fixed and endless. But in the first city, some will outrank others in bliss, and in the second, some will have a more tolerable burden of misery than others. Augustine accepts the cult of the martyrs as heroes of faith and Christian Church, and the practice of prayer for the dead but insists that the latter custom is meritorious only for the elect. He also insists that the vision of God is reserved until after the resurrection. Augustine is primarily concerned not with the individual in isolation but as a citizen of one of the unalterably and eternally opposed cities. The resurrection and judgment will stabilize the relationship of these and set eternally their

330 boundaries. That is to say that those who by grace have brought their sinful wills under subjection, will enjoy the vision of God, while the other division of humanity will suffer “death eternal.” This is the focal point of Augustine’s teaching about the post-mortem destiny of man. It has a judicial element, yet at the same time it becomes a marvel of grace that any man should be saved. Augustine does not need to draw dreadful pictures of hell-fire and torment for anyone who can appreciate the horror of this eternal “exile.” The genius of Augustine’s understanding death resides in its unique marriage of the Latin and Hebrew concerns for history and justice with the detachment of the philosophical approach with its metaphorical possibilities, and balance of these two elements. John Calvin’s “The Institutes of the Christian Religion” is a dialectical debate with his predecessors and contempo- raries. The fact that Augustine, after Paul, is Calvin’s most compatible theological colleague only ties him to one of the two chief strands of medieval theological thought. Calvin’s treatment of the problem of the after life begins with the consideration of purgatory and repentance. Calvin believes that repentance is the manner and the way in which faith works to reorient man’s life to God. Repentance is “regeneration, whose sole end is to restore in us the image of God that had been disfigured and obliterated through Adam’s transgressions.” The penitential system serves only to drive man to desperation, because it does not “teach man in his humility to give glory to God.” This is not to say that confession is not a vital element of Christian life and ecclesiastical discipline, but that scriptural and primitive practices have been perverted. It is the element of satisfaction in medieval theory which most distresses Calvin, for it is Christ who is the propitiation for the sins of the world. Thus, the whole system of indulgences and the doctrine of purgatory must be wiped out if the Church is to turn

331 to a proper understanding of repentance. The blood of Christ is the sole expiation, the sole purgation. So, for Cal- vin, the medieval doctrine of purgatory is a perversion of the tradition. It rests on a false, sacramentalized understanding of repentance and on the custom of prayers in memory of the dead. Calvin also discusses the nature of Christian life in the world, which is meditation on the “future life.” For Cal- vin, life in the world is “nothing but struggle” and longing for the only hope: “heavenly immortality.” If there is purgation, it is this present life. In comparison with the immortality to come, Calvin despises this life and longs to renounce it. Fi- nally, after outlining his doctrines of justification and elec- tion, Calvin treats the resurrection. He begins his analysis with an assertion of the vital importance of the biblical doctrine and an analysis of the nature of the body to be raised; there is a refutation of false speculations about the nature of the glorified body. At this juncture, Calvin inserts the passage previously quoted on the interim existence of the soul. It is not proper, he maintains, to “inquire too curiously concerning our souls’ intermediate state” –“Abraham’s bosom” is designation enough for the faithful. Calvin regards the state of the souls before the resurrection as an active one. And he describes the resurrection itself: the acceptance of the elect and the alienation of the wicked. Death is the beginning of eternity; a beginning through creation and an end in the final glorification of the whole creation before God. At the same time, death is the end of the biological life. Through death, the spiritual principle in man is freed from the confines of matter and corpo- real existence. In death, materiality is removed from man forever, and his spirituality comes into its own, achieving its pure existential level, independent of matter. The existence without death, that Christian hope expects, exhorts Karl Rahner, “is characterized not merely by fellowship with God but also by participation in the wholeness that flows from

332 God’s eternity.” Ludwig Feuerback, in his book The Essence of Christianity, translated by the English novelist George Eliot, declares that “Faith in the future life…is faith in the freedom of subjectivity from the limits of Nature; it is faith in the eternity and infinitude of personality; it is the faith of man in himself. And according to Samuel Becket, a novelist of Post-existentialism, “Time and death no longer stand over against life as its enemies, challenging it and giving it shape, but have become internalized in it to such a degree that they can no longer be regarded dissolved. To Existen- tialists, the gospels are full of talk about a kingdom of God, but always it is this world that is at the center of such talk. It is their understanding that, it was only later, when the King- dom seemed impossible of realization in this world, that it began to be spiritualized from the earthly setting. Today Naturalists dismiss the doctrine of the immortality of the soul. Existentialists have opposed the doctrine because it distracts a man from his most essential task as an authentic human being. Even modern biblical scholars have rejected the doctrine as they usually distinguish today between the primitive Christian hope of the resurrection of the body and the Hellenic-idealistic doctrine of the immortality of the soul. Modern thought about death has been shaped profoundly by the rising sense of the importance of individuality and the decline of the role of the Community. In modern urban society, most of us find little sense of community in the abstractions of our nationalities or religious affiliations.

According to the teachings of the Armenian Church, those who have died enter into a period of rest while awaiting our Lord’s glorious second coming at the end of time. But while separated from the Christian community, the souls that are at rest continue to be counted among the faithful, who “rest in the shadow of the church.” We therefore pray

333 for them, as we pray for all of our earthly cares. Essentially, our prayer for the dead is that they rest in peace, that the Lord forgive them all of their sins and find them worthy of eternal life in the Father’s kingdom when Christ comes again. Praying for the dead is a proclamation of our faith in Christ’s second coming, and our hope in the resurrection of the dead. When the Armenian Church prays regularly for the dead, we are reminded that this life is transient, and we are filled with hope because we believe that death is too. The Armenian Church believes that the deceased will be judged at the great tribunal of the Last Judgment for the life they have led on earth. Prayers for the dead, which are well attested from the Old Testament, and requiem services are based on an understanding derived from the Holy Scrip- tures and particularly from the New Testament. We believe that the faithful who are deceased are still the Lord’s: If we live to the Lord, and if we die, we die to the Lord; so then, whether we live or whether we die, we are the Lord’s. For to this end Christ died and lived again, that he might be Lord both of the dead and the living (Rom 14: 8-9). The faithful who are dead are merely asleep in Christ. This concept, which is in St. Paul’s epistles (1 Cor. 15; 1 Thes. 4 and 5), is one of the basic teachings of the Arme- nian Church, and the term ‘asleep’ in its past participial form [nunchetsyal] is used formally in reference to a deceased person. Like the faithful who are alive, the faithful who are deceased are a part of the corporate body of Christ and therefore of the Church. Those who are asleep in Christ and have reached the end of their earthly lives in the faith are referred to as the ‘first born’ or the Victorious Church. The Scripture evidence also suggests that those who are asleep in Christ pray for themselves and for us. That the souls of the deceased are conscious and concerned about

334 the living is best reflected in Christ’s story about poor Laza- rus and the rich man. The latter begs the patriarch Abraham to send someone to his five brothers still alive to warn them of what is in store for sinners (Luke 16). The indissoluble union of the living and the Victorious Church is also the basis for seeking the intercession of the saints before God. Asking a saint for his/her intercession merely means that we ask him/her to pray for us.

CONCLUDING THOUGHTS The best Christian teaching about death has always been teaching about life. Life in the world is ultimately the most important part of man’s existence. It assumes a fright- ening urgency and importance because the life of every man is a part of and contributes to the great historical drama of salvation. The recompense for right living in history is the goal of history, salvation, and the kingdom of God, or the eternal well-being of the soul. Christian theology and thought look to a transformed historical order. The meaning of death is to be found in life. It is what one does now that sets his judgment and gives him a place in a history, which runs from the beginning of time to its end. Death, then is “a threat” to the living only because it is the end of life. It is fraught with importance not only for the living individual but also for the entire species of which he is a member. Our age is apocalyptic. Man is capable in the ther- monuclear era of bringing upon himself the end of his worldly culture. Also, our contemporary society is confronted by other phenomena; men are demanding the freedom and equality which are inherent in the biblical doctrines and the doctrines of liberal democracy but which have always been denied through one sort or another. Whether one thinks of nations, or races, or of economic groups, there

335 is a confrontation between those who are the possessors of the benefits with the dispossessed. This conflict threatens the peace and security of the world and societies. The events of our times call urgently upon us to affirm that a radical Love of Life and the living constitutes the only chance for the survival of man and his cosmos, without denying the Love of God and the salvific Grace in Jesus Christ. Thus, every gesture of every man affects his own fate and the fate of all men. At this dawn of the 21st century, it is not possible to conceive of the future, but it is necessary to keep constantly in mind the yearning for a transformed society and the possibility of its achievement. We are to be alert, watchful, ready and always hopeful for the best to come. The experience of death has not changed dramatically since the dawn of human history. It is terrifying because it is either the end of everything, or it leads to the unknown. In theological language it portends salvation or damnation. To a large measure, death remains out of human control. Whether death is seen as natural a part of life or unnatural is still a problem to be solved. The early Chris- tians were divided over the question whether death was part of the original creation. Would our progenitors have died even if they had not disobeyed God? Or is immortality the primal natural state? To the Hebrews in biblical times, as we have seen, death was natural. Death was the normal end of life. When a human life, like a fruit, is full grown, it is har- vested, gathered to one’s people. We are like the grass that flourishes then dies. Our days are a fragile breath that will soon be over. In another understanding, life continues through the offspring into the next generation. It was the prophetic tradition that found the primal transgression as the root cause of human death. This strain in Hebrew thought became the basis of Paul’s and early Christian writers’

336 doctrine that death is the “sting” which is the just wage of sin. The essential Christian teaching that bears on death is centered in the death and resurrection of Christ. In Christ’s crucifixion, God has decisively conquered the powers and dominions of this world, especially the power of death. Early Christians believed, as did the Jews of the first century, that a universal bodily resurrection of the dead was forthcoming in the messianic age. The earliest Christian burial customs and tests, and the abandon with which first and second century disciples went to their deaths, exemplify in behavior their faith in bodily resurrection. It is clear that the apostolic community knew that Jesus, alive and powerful, was with them. They expected His imminent return, which would mark the final victory over the grave. Thus, there was watchful waiting and a call to be faithful unto death. Our reflections on the theology of death and eternal life could include these final thoughts: We fight with God against the power of death. We hope for a time in history when disease and untimely death will be overcome. We accept death as a part of life experience. We do not live under the dominion of death but live toward the promise of life. We trust the details to God and in life and death we are with God.

337 BIBLIOGRAPHY

Aquinas, Thomas. (1961). Summa theologica, Book I. Augustine. (1948). Soliloquia, Book II. (vol. I). Augustine. (1948). The City of God, Book XIII. (vol. II). Barth, Carl. (1960). Church dogmatics. Becket, Samuel. Proust. Calvin, John. Institutes, Book III. (vol. IV, IX, XXV). Gatch, Milton Mcc. (1969). Death. Gregory of Nyssa. (1892). On the soul and resurrection, in Nicene and Post-Nicene fathers. (Second Series, vol. V). ed. and trans. William More & Henry Austin Wil- son. John of Damascus. Orthodox fathers, vol. II. Jüngel, Eberhard. (1974). Death: The riddle and the mystery. Hunt, Gladys. (1971). The Christian way of death. Ironies. (1956). Against heresies: the ante-Nicene Fathers. (vol. I). Book V (vol. XXXI). Reprint of 1885 ed. Kant, Immanuel. (1920). Critique of practical reason. Mills, List O. ed. (1969). Perspectives on death. Pannenberg, Wolfhart (1994). Systematic theology. (vol. 2). Plato, Paul Friedlaender, ed., Hans Meyer Hoff, trans., Bollingen Series, LIII. (1958).Plato, Phaedo Rahner, Karl. (1961). On the theology of death. Stanley, Godman. (1959). The fathers of the Greek church. trans.

338 CREMATION vs. BURIAL Cremation Confusion IS CREMATION WRONG?

I. What Does The Bible Say About Cremation? II. When a Christian Dies: Is it all right to Cremate the Body? III. Cremation in The Armenian Church

I. What Does The Bible Say About Cremation? The Bible does not give any specific teaching about cremation. Bible-era practices are described in Unger’s Bi- ble Dictionary and The New International Dictionary of Christian Church as follows: “Internment in Bible times followed soon after death, as is evident in the narratives of the burial of Sarah (Genesis 23:1-20), Rachel (Genesis 35:19- 20). There are occurrences in the Old Testament of people being burned to death (1 Kings 16:18; 2 Kings 21:6) and of human bones being burned (2 Kings 23:16-20), but these are not examples of cremation. Cremation was not commonly practiced by the Israel- ites or by New Testament believers. In the cultures of Bible times, burial in a tomb, cave, or in the ground was the common way to bury a human body (Genesis 23:19; 35:19; 2 Chronicles 16:14; Matthew 27:60-66)”.

The Cremated of the Bible were considered “cursed”. a.- Cremation was a judgment pronounced upon the transgressor. For example: Achan committed the sin of taking the accursed spoil of the battle of Jericho. Achan punishment, which included his family, was being stoned to death and then cremated. His body was then burned as an example to deter others (Joshua 7:24-26). b.- Burning bones was considered a desecration. Apostate priests and men who practiced false worship at a

339 at a false altar would be burned by godly king Josiah as a curse (3 Kings 13:1-2, 2 Chron. 34:3-5, 4 Kings 23:15-20). c.- God pronounced judgment on Moab and the Moabites for the burning and destroying the corpse of the king of Edom. Fire had consumed his body with such intense heat that his bones turned to lime (Amos 6:9-10). d.- The Philistines have burned and mutilated the bodies of Samuel and Jonathan. Thus, they were cremated and their bones were buried (I Sam.31:8-13). In general, the practice of cremation was taken more as a punishment than honor in the Bible. Most people who were burned in the Biblical times were cursed. In biblical times, Cremation was the normal practice of Greeks and Romans. Hindus, with their doctrine of reincarnation, still practice cremation. The Ancient Egyptians, to preserve their dead indefinitely, mummified their dead.

II. When a Christian Dies: Is it all Right to Cremate The Body? Through history, Christians have preferred burial over cremation. They believe that their bodies would be ineligible for resurrection if they are cremated. Why have people been choosing cremation? It would appear that the overwhelming reason is, the economy. Also, another reason for the desire to cremate, instead of to bury, is the people’s lack of religious education, weak, and obscure knowledge of the church and people history. We also believe that we await bodily resurrection when we ultimately join with Christ in His kingdom. Why were Christians so concerned about proper burial of the body? Here are four reasons: 1) The body of every human was created by God, bore his image, and deserved to be treated with respect. 2) The Incarnation is when God uniquely hallowed human life, flesh, and bodily existence forever.

340 3) The Holy Spirit indwelt the bodies of believers, making them vessels of honor. 4) As Jesus himself was buried and raised bodily from the dead, so Christians believed that their burial was a witness to the resurrection yet to come. Of course, many martyrs were burned to death, but Christians believed God would bring them forth unimpaired at the resurrection. When Paul offered his body to be burned (1 Cor. 13:3), he was speaking of martyrdom, not cremation. When Jesus said, "Let the dead bury the dead," he was describing the cost of discipleship, not the cost or method of funerals (Matt. 8:22). "Earth to earth, ashes to ashes, dust to dust; in sure and certain hope of the resurrection unto eternal life, through our Lord Jesus Christ." The departure of our loved ones by reminding ourselves that we brought nothing into this world, and that we can carry nothing out. The bodies of Christians who died a thousand years ago have, by now, completely turned into dust. This will in no way prevent God from being able to resurrect their bodies. He created them in the first place; He will have no difficulty re-creating them. Cremation does nothing but “expedite” the process of turning a body into dust. God is equally able to raise a person’s remains that have been cremated as He, is the remains of a person who was not cremated.

III. Cremation in The Armenian Church The Armenian Church, like other Orthodox churches, has always practiced burial rather than cremation. The position of the Armenian Church in this matter is very clear. We do not believe in cremation under any circumstances, and will not offer any prayer or religious service over cremated remains. All funeral services must be in the presence of the body of the deceased for the following theological reasons.

341 a) In the Book of Genesis we learn that God “formed man of dust from the ground.”(Gen.2: 7). b) And when Adam and Eve disobeyed God by eating the forbidden fruit in paradise, God cursed them by saying; “By the sweat of your face you shall eat bread, till you return to the ground, for out of it you were taken; you are dust and to dust you shall return.” (Gen. 3:19) The Armenian translation of this verse “You were earth and to earth you shall return.” c) As our Church’s teachings strongly oppose cremation. Traditionally, to cremate the body is a dishonor. We believe that the body is a temple of the Holy Spirit, in His image, and in His likeness, created by God. The practice of burial fulfills the God’s judgment over Adam: “For out of earth were we mortals made, and unto the earth shall we return again.” (Genesis, 3:19). Therefore, according God’s command and biblical teachings, we should return to earth with our earthly bodies. Cremation is not the best way to show respect, after death, or turning away from the teaching of the Bible. The Church considers cremation to be the deliberate desecration and destruction of what God has created and ordained. The picture of the New Testament is that the dead are asleep, they will be raised from the dead, and they are alive to God. Man is the highest of God’s creation. As we live in Christ’s image, we are buried like Him, and live in the hope of Resurrection from death to eternal life. For Christians who die in wars, massacres, fires and are buried without a Christian burial, requiem services can be held. According to this principle, requiem services can also be held for people who are cremated or for those who donate their corpses to hospitals or scientific institutions. When an Armenian Christian dies, the Church provides three services; the first is at the house of the

342 deceased—presently done in the funeral home,—the second is done inside the sanctuary, and the third in the cemetery. If the family of the deceased wish to have the body cremated, they may do so after the church service, and the removal of the coffin from the church’s premises. Under no circumstance does the church allow the ashes to be brought to the church. Jesus was buried and was raised again. His body created by God came to this earth in human flesh. He received an incorruptible body, and so will we, if we believe in him. The Bible says ‘we shall also bear the image of the man of heaven’ (1 Corinthians 15:49). The Holy Spirit makes his dwelling within our body. Therefore, the body needs to be treated with respect. Cre- mating it, even after death, is not the best way to show that respect. The fire picture, in the Bible, symbolizes God’s wrath and judgment. Also, an image of fire is also connected to hell. This is not an image for funeral of believers. Burial is a much more beautiful picture, than cremation. At the resurrection, God will transform and change our corruptible earthly bodies. The Bible says that this body is ‘sown in dishonor’ and will be ‘raised in glory’. “It is the same way with the resurrection of the dead. Our earthly bodies are planted in the ground when we die, but they will be raised to live forever. Our bodies are buried in brokenness, but they will be raised in glory. They are buried in weakness, but they will be raised in strength. They are buried as natural human bodies, but they will be raised as spiritual bodies. For just as there are natural bodies, there are also spiritual bodies.” (1 Corin- thians 15:42-44). As Christians and believers, we await the Final Day, when Christ will call us out of the grave. We are buried facing East in a position of awaiting in hope, “When the sign of

343 the Son of Man (the Cross), will appear in the sky; and all the peoples of earth will weep as they see the Son of Man coming on the clouds of heaven with power and glory. The great trumpet will sound, and He will send out His angels to the four corners of the earth, and they will gather His chosen people from one end of the world to the other” (Matt. 24:30-31). “Our earthly bodies are planted in the ground when we die, but they will be raised to live forever.” (1 Cor. 15:42). Then it will be true: ‘Death is swallowed up in victory’(1 Corinthians 15:54).

Son of Man (the Cross), will appear in the sky; and all the peoples of earth will weep as they see the Son of Man coming on the clouds of heaven with power and glory. The great trumpet will sound, and He will send out His angels to the four corners of the earth, and they will gather His chosen people from one end of the world to the other” (Matt. 24:30-31).

344 FIVE HEAVENLY CROWNS What are the five heavenly crowns that believers can receive in Heaven?

There are five Heavenly Crowns mentioned in the New Testament, also known as the Five Crowns. In Chris- tian theology, individuals who are believers can receive the five crowns, after the Last Judgment. The Five Crowns are the Imperishable Crown, Crown of Rejoicing, Crown of Righteousness, Crown of Glory, and the Crown of Life.

1) The Imperishable or the Incorruptible Crown– “Do you not know that those who run in a race all run, but one receives the prize? Run in such a way that you may obtain it. And everyone who competes for the prize is temper- ate [disciplined] in all things. Now they do it to obtain a perishable crown, but we for Imperishable crown” (1 Corin- thians 9:24-25). This verse also implies that these people will also receive this crown for the sacrifices they were willing to make for God to successfully complete the call and mission God had called them to do. Basically run whatever race that God has set out for you and be the best you can be for God. They must be willing to make whatever sacrifices there may be to successfully complete God’s missions. “Therefore I run thus: not with uncertainty. Thus I fight: not as one who beats the air. But I discipline my body and bring it into subjection, lest, when I have preached to others, I myself should become disqualified. This is analogous to what Paul was saying about that wreath of leaves that was soon to turn brittle and fall apart. But not so the heavenly crown; faithful endurance wins a heavenly reward which is “an inheritance incorruptible and undefiled and that does not fade away, reserved in heaven for you”(I Cor. 9:

345 9: 26-27). The early writings by Paul of Tarsus, from the New Testament, the crown is imperishable. A person don’t need a symbol like the olive wreath “crown” to show your endurance of self-denial and perseverance in faith. This epistle, written by Paul, deems this crown "imperishable" in order "to contrast it with the temporal awards Paul's con- temporaries pursued". The olive wreath -the "crown" for competitors- was sure to wither away. The ever-enduring "endurance crown" is given for profound examples of self-denial and perseverance. It is therefore given to those individuals who demonstrate "self-denial and perseverance".

“Blessed be the God and Father of our Lord Jesus Christ, who according to His abundant mercy has begotten us again to a living hope through the resurrection of Jesus Christ from the dead, to an inheritance incorruptible and undefiled and that does not fade away, reserved in heaven for you, who are kept by the power of God through faith for salvation ready to be revealed in the last time”(1 Peter 1: 3-5). All things on this earth are subject to decay and will perish. Jesus urges us to not store our treasures on earth “where moth and rust destroy, and where thieves break in and steal” (Matthew 6:19-21).

“I declare to you, brothers and sisters, that flesh and blood cannot inherit the kingdom of God, nor does the perishable inherit the imperishable. Behold, I tell you a mystery: We shall not all sleep, but we shall all be changed— in a moment, in the twinkling of an eye, at the last trumpet. For the trumpet will sound, and the dead will be raised incorruptible, and we shall be changed. For this corruptible must put on incorruption, and this mortal must put on immortality. So when this corruptible has put on incorruption, and this mortal has put on immortality, then shall be brought to pass

346 pass the saying that is written: “Death is swallowed up in victory The sting of death is sin, and the strength of sin is the law. But thanks be to God, who gives us the victory through our Lord Jesus Christ” (1 Cor. 15: 50-57). When the Lord returns, He will judge believers for their works (Rom. 14:10; 1 Cor. 3:11-15; 4:5; 2 Co. 5:10). Everyone will be asked to give an account of the use he has made of the talents (Matt. 25:14-30), the pounds or minas (Luke 19:11-27), and the opportunities (Matt. 20:1-16) that have been entrusted to him. The day will declare whether a man has built of wood, hay, and straw or of gold, silver, and precious stones (1 Cor. 3:12). If of the former, his works will be burnt up, and yet he will be saved so as through fire (v. 15); if of the latter, he will receive a reward (v. 14). The incorruptible crown is also called the imperishable crown. This crown is given to believers who faithfully run the race, who crucify every selfish desire in the flesh and point men to Jesus. God calls some people to do things that will require some sacrifice in the way they will live and conduct their lives. Some people may be called to be a missionary in a far off and poor country. They will literally be working for almost nothing in earthly terms. They will have to sacrifice the money, possessions and life style they could have had, if they stayed home in their own country.

2) The Crown of Rejoicing. The apostle Paul in his letter to the Thessalonians reminds and questions saying: “For what is our hope, or joy, or crown of rejoicing? Is it not even you in the presence of our Lord Jesus Christ at His coming?” (1 Thessalonians 2:19). Also in his letter to the Philippians 4:4-7, commends to “rejoice always in the Lord” for all the bountiful blessings our gracious God has show- ered upon us. As Christians we have more in this life to rejoice about than anyone else. The crown of rejoicing will be our reward where “God

347 wipe away every tear . . . there shall be no more death, nor sorrow, nor crying. There shall be no more pain, for the former things have passed away” (Revelation 21:4). This crown is reserved for evangelists, missionaries, seekers of lost souls and those who bring the lost to Jesus to be saved. These do not seek glory for themselves, but consistently reflect God's glory and constantly give Him glory. The Crown of Rejoicing will be given to those who faithfully are witnesses to the saving grace of God and leads souls to Jesus. This crown has also been named the soul winner’s crown. It indicates here that God will be giving a crown to those who have witnessed to others and leading people to Christ. Telling others about the grace of God, telling others about Jesus, is the greatest thing that you can do for someone while here on this earth. When you help someone to be led to the Lord, you have just been used as a vessel of God. It says in the Bible, “You are witnesses, and God also, how devoutly and justly and blame- lessly we behaved ourselves among you who believe” (1 Thessalonians 2:10). God will judge you by your willingness and desire to be used by Him to witness to others, not necessarily on how many actually get saved, because we are to water and He gives the increase. Christians can be used by God to try to lead others to the Lord. God can fit opportunities for you in your life to witness and work for Him if you allow Him to. Some could be your unsaved friends, family members or co-workers, etc. The Bible says it good here, “For what is our hope, or joy, or crown of rejoicing? Are not even you in the presence of our Lord Jesus Christ at his coming?” (1 Thessalonians 2:19-20).

3)The Crown of Righteousness. This Crown is promised to "those who love and anticipate" the Second

348 Second Coming of Christ. These are the ones who live in the light of eternity and the expectation of Christ's imminent return. So motivated, they will not be among those who will experience shame at Christ's coming (1 John 2:28). The Crown is given strictly to all who are saved because all who love Jesus’ coming are saved. “Finally, there is laid up for me the crown of righteousness, which the Lord, the righteous Judge, will give to me on that Day, and not to me only but also to all who have loved His appearing.” (2 Timothy 4:8). We inherit this crown through the righteousness of Christ which is what gives us a right to it, and without which it cannot be obtained. Because it is obtained and possessed in a righteous way, and not by force and deceit as earthly crowns sometimes are, it is an everlasting crown, promised to all who love the Lord and eagerly wait for His return. Through our enduring the discouragements, persecutions, sufferings, or even death, we know assuredly our reward is with Christ in eternity (Philippians 3:20). This crown is not for those who depend upon their own sense of righteousness or of their own works. Such an attitude breeds only arrogance and pride, not a longing, a fervent desire to be with the Lord. The Crown of Right- eousness is mentioned in 2 Timothy 4:8, As we have seen, when the Lord returns, he will judge believers for their works (Rom. 14:10; 1 Cor. 3:11-15; 4:5; 2 Co. 5:10:). Everyone will be asked to give an account of the use he has made of the talents (Matt. 25:14-30), the pounds or minas (Luke 19:11-27), and the opportunities (Matt. 20:1- 16) that have been entrusted to him. This crown is given to those who have lived a good and righteous life for God while living down here on earth. If you are a believer you have been made righteous before God the Father as a result of Jesus dying on the cross for all of our sins. There are Christians who are righteous before God

349 the Father as a result of being saved, called Justification, through the blood of Jesus Christ; but they are not living righteous lives in their actions, words and behaviors, called Sanctification. Some people have two paths—one to follow God and the other is temptation. People try to balance these paths. Some believe in their hearts that this is the righteous way. The people’s Christian faith will guide them toward God’s path. It says in the Bible, “Finally, there is laid up for me the crown of righteousness, which the Lord, the righteous Judge, will give to me on that Day, and not to me only but also to all who have loved His appearing”(2 Timo- thy 4:8). 4) The Crown of Glory: This is the pastor’s crown and will be given to the ministers who faithfully spread the word of God. This probably could also include preachers, teachers, Sunday School teachers, missionaries and all those who teach the Word of God in their respective minis- tries. This crown may signify the importance and sacrifices of bringing up others into the ways of God. God wants those who are saved to grow and learn as much as they can about Him, His Son and His Holy Spirit and to do that he uses mature believers who are willing to each others. The Bible says, “The elders who are among you I exhort, I who am a fellow elder and a witness of the sufferings of Christ, and also a partaker of the glory that will be revealed: Shep- herd the flock of God which is among you, serving as over- seers, not by compulsion but willingly, not for dishonest gain but eagerly; 3 nor as being lords over those entrusted to you, but being examples to the flock; 4 and when the Chief Shepherd appears, you will receive the crown of glory that does not fade away”(1 Peter 5:1-4). God can use you to teach and shepherd others. God shows you the extreme importance that He is placing on those who teach and preach the word. Being willing to teach and educate others after they are saved is one of the greatest things you can do for

350 for them this side of heaven. Here is the exhortation, that we should always be working, using our gifts toward the edi- fication of the body.

5) The Crown of Life: “Do not fear any of those things which you are about to suffer. Indeed, the devil is about to throw some of you into prison, that you may be tested, and you will have tribulation ten days. Be faithful until death, and I will give you the crown of life” (Revelation 2:10). This crown is for all believers, but is especially dear to those who endure sufferings, who bravely confront persecution for Jesus, even to the point of death. In Scripture the word “life” is often used to show a relationship that is right with God. It was Jesus who said, “I have come that they may have life and that they may have it more abundantly” (John 10:10). Just as things such as air, food, and water are vital for our physical lives, Jesus provides us what is required for our spiritual lives. He is the One who provides “living water.” He is the “bread of life” (John 4:10). We know that our earthly lives will end. But we have the amazing promise that comes only to those who come to God through Jesus: “And this is the promise that He has promised us—eternal life” (1 John 2:25). James tells us that this crown of life is for all those who love God (James 1:12). The question then is how do we demonstrate our love for God? The apostle John answers this for us: “For this is the love of God, that we keep His commandments. And His commandments are not burdensome” (1 John 5:3-4). As His children we must keep His commandments, obeying Him, always remaining faithful. So, as we endure the inevitable trials, pains, heartaches, and tribulations—as long as we live—may we ever move forward, always “looking unto Je- sus, the author and finisher of our faith” (Hebrews 12:2) and receive the crown of life that awaits us.

351 This Crown is awarded to those who have endured suffering, those men and women who "gutted it out" through hardship and adversity. Jesus told the church in Smyrna: "Do not be afraid of what you are about to suffer. . . . Be faithful even to the point of death, and I will give you the crown of life." (James 1:12 & Revelation 2:10).

352 CONTENTS Title Page Introduction 7 Introduction 7 A Comparison of the Creation Account s A Comparison of the Creation Account s in Genesis 1 and 2 9 in Genesis 1 and 2 Baal’s Survival 25 Baal’s Survival Why Does God Allow Evil And Sufferin g? 34 Why Does God Allow Evil And Sufferin g? Education in Ancient Israel and Biblical Times 48 Education in Ancient Israel and Biblical Times The Mystery of Bethlehem 63 The Mystery of Bethlehem Lucan Parables 68 Lucan Parables Jesus Heals the Hemorrhaging Woman and Jesus Heals the Hemorrhaging Woman and Raises Jairus’ Daughter 90 Jesus’ Teaching on Prayer 93 Conditions of Discipleship 96 The Parable of the Dishonest Manager 99 The Last Supper/Passion Narrative 102103 103 Exhortation of Love 126127 127 Christian Religious Education 147148 148 Preaching From the Old Testament 171172 172 Armenian Spirituality 182183 183 Jesus Christ In The Scriptures And In The Nicene Creed 220221 221 Sexual Orientation 226227 227 Abortion 251252 252

353 Race, Diversity and Social Justice 277 War, Peace and Peacemaking 290 The Notion of Death in the Theology of Christian Thought 315 Cremation vs. Burial 339 Five Heavenly Crowns 345

354 ESSAYS ESSAYS ON BIBLICAL CONCEPTS AND SOCIAL ISSUES ON BIBLICAL CONCEPTS AND SOCIAL ISSUES

To order a copy or copies, To order a copy or copies, you may write, call or e-mail at you may write, call or e-mail at [email protected] [email protected]

Holy Cross Cathedral Holy Cross Cathedral 900 W. Lincoln Avenue 900 W. Lincoln Avenue Montebello, CA 90640 Montebello, CA 90640 (323) 727-1113 (323) 727-1113

You may receive this book with any donation. You may receive this book with any donation. Your contribution is highly appreciated Your contribution is highly appreciated to further and support our Christian Education to further and support our Christian Education Most Rev. Father Muron Aznikian after graduating from elementary school, he was accepted at the Armenian Theological Seminary in Antelias where he completed the eight year curriculum for celibate priesthood and ordained into the sacred order of the priesthood in 1980. In 1983 he received the degree of Vartabed, or doctor of the church. In 1988 Father Muron was assigned Dean of Holy Martyrs Armenian Apostolic Church in Encino. In 1990, he was assigned Dean of Holy Trinity Church in Fresno. During his tenure there, he administered to the various needs of the Fresno community, and in particular met the varying spiritual, religious, social, and educational demands of the parish with diligence and tireless service. Through his efforts, numerous programs were either established or enhanced. In 1995, Father Muron was elevated to the Rank of Supreme Archimandrite, Dzayrakouyn Vartabed, by then Prelate His Eminence Archbishop Datev Sarkissian. In 1998, His Holiness Aram I, Catholicos of the Great House of Cilicia, appointed him Spiritual Advisor of the Armenian Church Uni- versity Students Association and Superintendent of the Armenian Sun- day Schools. In addition, he taught English and Old Testament Back- grounds at the Theological Seminary in Bikfaya-Lebanon. At the encouragement of His Holiness, Father Muron attended the Pittsburgh Theological Seminary, and in 2000 obtained a Masters degree in Theology and Biblical Studies (STM). He then assigned Pas- tor of St. Illuminator’s Cathedral in Manhattan, New York, by His Emi- nence Arcbishop Oshagan Choloyan then Prelate of Eastern Prelacy. In August of 2005, by the request of His Eminence Archbishop Moushegh Mardirossian, Prelate of Western Prelacy, he was assigned to serve in the Western Prelacy. Starting from August 2013, Fr. Muron was appointed Dean of Holy Cross Cathedral in Montebello. Ca. Since his early childhood Fr. Muron has been interested in Ar- menian Literature. From his published books a poetry book; religion text books for kids; religious articles and works on various biblical, theological and ecclesiastical themes.