DOCUMENT RESUME

ED 130 937 SO 009 511 AUTHOR Chilcott, John H., Ed. TITLE Council on Anthropology and Education Quarterly, Vol. VII, No. 3, August 1976. Special Issue: Research Dimensions of Anthropology and Education. INSTITUTION Council on Anthropology and Education, Washington, D.C. PUB DATE Aug 76 NOTE 53p.; For related documents, see SO 009 509 and 510 AVAILABLE FROMCouncil on Anthropology and Education, 1703 New Hampshire Avenua NW, Washington, D.C. 20009 ($1.00)

EDRS PRICE MF-$0.83 HC-$3.50 Plus Postage. DESCRIPTORS *Anthropology; Cultural Factors; *Educational Anthropology; Educational Policy; Educational Research; Elementary Secondary Education; Ethnology; Evaluation Methods; Evaluation Needs; *Financial Support; Government Role; Higher Education; Prediction; Relevance (Education) ;*Research Methodology; *Research Opportunities; Research Skills; School Role; Social Science Research

ABSTRACT The collection of papers focuses on the future of research in anthropology and education. Intended as an exploration of the relationship between funding agencies and the individual anthropological researcher, the articles generally question the degree of control which the anthropologist can exert on research. The basic premise of the papers is that anthropology possesses a methodology and a conceptual framework which can contribute to a better understanding of the cultural process of education within a society. The first two papers explore the political considerations of research by investigating federal-agency programs and by measuring the involvement of anthropologists in federally contracted evaluation. The third paper discusses the relationship between educational policy and anthropological fieldwork and concludes that policy makers might be more receptive to research if it is related directly to the premises of a particular policy. The research methodology that has developed in the field is discussed in the last paper. Its author relates that the conceptual framework of educational anthropology possesses a comparative orientation, places a high value on situational variables, and valuesintensive field study. Professional news, college teaching information, and a bibliography of recent works are included. (Author/DB)

Documents acquired by ERIC include many informal unpublished materials notavailable from other sources. ERIC makes every effort to obtain the best copy available. Nevertheless, items of marginal reproducibility are often encountered and this affects the quality of the microfiche and hardcopy reproductions ERIC makes available via the ERIC Document Reproduction Service (EDRS). EDRS is not responsible for the quality of the original document. Reproductions supplied by EDRS are the best that can be made from the original. ANTHROPOLOGY and EDUCATION QUARTERLY

ol. IL No. 3 August 1976

Special ksue

U S. DEPARTMENT OF HEALTH. RESEARCH DIMENSIONS OF ANTHROPOLOGY AND EDUCATION PERM:1;SIONTo REPRODUCE THIS COPY EDUCATION &WELFARE RIGHTF IF MATERIAL HAS BEEN GRANTED BY NATIONAL INSTITUTE OF EDUCATION THIS DOCUMENT HAS BEEN REPRO Jonni 14. Chileott DUCED EXACTL Y AS RECEIVED F ROM THE PERSON OR ORGANIZATION ORIGIN INTIUMUCTION TO ERIC AND ORGANIZATIONS OPERATING AT ING IT POINTS OF VIEW OR OPINIONS STATED DO NOT NECESSARILY REPRE UNDER AGREEMENTS WITH THE NATIONAL IN. SENT OFFICIAL NATIONAL INSTITUTE OF STITUTE OF EDUCATIONFURTHER REPRO- EDUCATION PO;ITION OR POLICY DuCTION OUTSIDE THEERIC SYSTEM RE. OUINES PERMISSION OF THE COPYRIGHT John II. Chikott OWNER N- Th. collection of papers in this issue of theQuarterly fabricating educational poliey. Ownr exists a political reN attempts tofoclin, oll th future of research n anthro- dimension a, well a, a methodological dimension with Ch pologyand education rather than mipar.! accomplish- which the researcher needs to contend, C) Invnts. The basic assumption of these papers isthat r`r\ anthropology as a ,ciein:e possesse, a methodology and a 'Fhe sequencing of the papers ha, been designed so as conceptual framework which when applied to the stud% to move the readr frontpolitical considerations of process of education in a society. ran of the l'ulII rid researrh toward uhrthmlological cousideratimis aryl pre- provide a singular contributilln to a {setter understanding scriptions. This j.III of the Quarterly i. also ,equeneed th.at eultural process. and that to accomplish thi, goal. to pro% Ole an introlhietion to a forthcoming produetion need to master the method, and content of on anthropologicalperspertives of qualitative versus the seholarly discipline of anthropolokry. I iesearch ill eduration to be niadc available to the C.\ E membership before the end of the year. \Inch of the dialogue within these papers is directed atthe relationships whirl, exist between the funding agncies and the anthropologist a, the individualre- Notes ;randier, partirularly with reference to the degree of rontrol which the anthropologist. l.ither a, an individual I. For a discussion of the need for researchers to .be or collectively. ran exert within the research arena.41w trained withinsa discipline. :WV Harold Howe II. *Educa- dialogue also suggests that since much of anthropological tionli,earch The Promise and the PrIddem. 5:6 research within education Inas ultimately be directed at Educational Researcher '2, Joffe1976.

REPORT OE T I IE ELECMONS COMMITTEE

Ballots received 550 Ilc Ekct lot IS Coin II lilt ec 1:011V r WA WI Ij1Ille 1975 Unsigned idiots not tisable 9 for the purpose of counting the ballots recti,...! for the Total (Isable kdlots 51.9 1975 dection o 1 4dficers. We certify the following as the For President results of our tabulation. 1./ell II. 1.1yines 390 Ilenry TI)rrys-Trueba 156 Glenn Ilendricks. (lairpeNon Blank 3 Marion Dobbert For Board of DirectorsMember David Zander Henry G. Burger Elections Committee St. Clair Drake Blank

2 Editor John IL Chilcott Department of,4 PT I hropo logy UniversityofArizona Tucson AZ 85 721 Editorial Board

Estelle Fuchs (1976) Hunter College

Curt Ledford (1977) Makah Tribal Council

Richard Warren (1976) University of Kentucky TABLE OF CONTENTS Henry Burger (1977) University of Missouri Introduetion, John II. Chileott Kansas City AnthropologyandEducational Re Richard Hovey (1977) search: A ReportonFederal University of Nevada Agency Programs,FrancesA.J. Ianni 3 Henry Torres-Trueba (1977) University of Illinois The Involvement of Anthropologists in Contract Evaluations: The Federal Charles T. Weaver (1978) Perspective,Raymond T. Coward 12 SUNY, Potsdarn Ethnography and Educational Policy: Frank Salarnone (1978) L(we and Nlarriage or Strange Bed- St. Johns University fellows?Robert B. Everhart I 7 Publications Staff, University of Arizona On the Ethnographic Process in An- thropology and Educati(ni,Allan F. Managing Editor Burns *)5 Larry Thompson Rex Hutchins Ron Mertz President's Report 34 Fred Smith Elizabeth Phillips Susan Ciolek-Torrello Kathy Yoder TheCAE Quarterly 1973-76: The Life TYpography Cycle of An Editor. John II. Chil- Lynne M. Harris cott :16 The Council on Anthropology and Educa- Teaching Anthropology at the College tion QUARTERLY. Copyright ©1976. Level 38 Published four times a year (Feb., May, Aug., Nov.), distributed to members of the Council with membership. Singara 46 Individual membership $7.50 a year (ineludes $4 for subscription to the Quarterly). Library subscriptions £10 Professional News 48 a year. Single copies, when available, $1 each. Send communication on membership to: Publications 50 Council on Anthropology and Education 1703 New Hampshire Avenue NW Washington DC 20009 Affiliated withtheAmerican Anthropological Association. All rights reserved. Manufactured in USA. Second-class postage paid at Washington DC

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3 ANTHROPOLOGY AND EDUCATIONAL RESEARCH: A REPORT ON FEDERAL AGENCY PROGRAMS, POLICIES AND ISSUES'

Francis A. J. lanni Horace Mann Institute, Columbia University

Overthelastdecadetherehas been asteadily government agenries which have a concern with culti- increasing interest among educators in anthropology and vation in all attempt to uncover what place anthroH- partieularly in do use of field method:: in educational ogy holds in their research programs, what issues and research. 'Co a ronsiderable ex tent, this interest grew mit problems seem to have emerged or are impemling in this of the RightsArt of 1964 Which pushededucation. experience, and what they see as potential applications and consequently the research whirli ir&rins it, into a or anthropology in their mandated areas ot concern. In eoneern with euhural as well as individual differences. presenting some of the results of these intervitws in this To some extrlit,itwas the result of dissatisfaution report, we have first chosen to describe the current among ediwational research clients who tended to see :tatus of anthropology in a number of educational or traditional edurational researrh paradigms as abstrac- educatimi-relatcd research programs in the federal gov- tions from the reality of the everyday life of schools. ernment. and then to describe what the iodic). issues This interest also resulted, Imwever, from the growing ,.eeintoInt% We also eleeted to deal with die rea of :.ophistiration of ediwational reseamhers themselves as evaluatimi as separate from researeh both Imeause we they began to explore methodologies other than those feel it presents different issues and because itis plaeing which developed during eduration's long and ITICe111011r. more urgent and widespread demands ni the discipline. relationship with psychology. This new interest. how- \\ liil ,. we have characterized the interest of educators ever, i not without problems. The demands whirli an illnthropology as a fairly7., rent origin. there was heir,placed on anthropology by educators are major sonle interestin anthropologv for a number of years. one, and in many rant'S they ilwhidr vxpertatioll, The NationalI b.lenseEduration ct of958.-for 1,.1.1,111,uhltiml and edlivathmal lam)whiell are example, brought eonsiderable interest in area studies as unrealistic. Oen the current level of development of a means 4)f preparing studentas area ,pecialists.Itis anthropological invudvement in educational researell. At interesting. however, that this had to be justified to the the same time. the reeeney of educational interest in Congress a. parta thv -cold war.' preparathms for alithropolo!. and the long tradition a dominance over militarydefense.Ilistorivally,aidto education, and educational researeli by' edueational psychologists has consequently funding for research intended to improve produred a research and development clituate which is education. has always had to he "0:;tegorized. Ulm not oriented to die style and pace of ethnogrphi raditioniaICongressionaldistasteforgeneralaid to ,tudies.Finally,therelativereceney of interestin duration has !wen reflectedin the reed to present educational reseanli by anthropologists has not allowed researehprogramsin very specific, problem-oriented sufficient time for systematie development of theory packa;!es. TIc!,, when the Cooperative Research Act of and methods in educational anthropology itself. I96.1,the "discretionary." researchprogram out of Despite problems atol a number of less obvious wind,allsubsequent Office of Education (OE). and eines,interestin anthropology continues to grow in National Instb:rte uif adorn (NIE) research piograms education :out as a result windier ot important policy have grown, was first established, three-fourths of its questions for both educators and anthropologists are available monies were ear-marked by the Congress for now emerging. Whileitis customary to pose these research on the education of iite mentally retarded. In questions -in terms of research programs, they actually the mid-1960s. however, the OE decided to Iry some fall at every step of the research-decision making-Hicy new "focused" research programs, largely as a result of formillatbm-implementathin and evaluation continuum, the tact that the then-new National Science Foundation whiell is the basis for educational innovation and ehange. (NSF) was making considerable progress in the area of Thus, the uses to which anthropologival data will be put. curriculum development (annul ittraeting considerable the means by which it will be assessed and evaluated. the Congressional notice as a result) while the OE was doing effects it may have on education and on sovial policy, little more than dispensing money along formula grant, andthe results ofallof this on Alm discipline of non-discretionary lines. Again. because of its concern for anthropology itself are of equal importance. Guil.,Tessional suspicion of general aid, however, the new Early in the spring of I 97 f,V) interviewed a number programs liad to be constructed annind categorical areas of program specialists and managers in varimis federal' of educational concern. One of these was railed "Project

3 Si.ii.il St udi, ;mil had the ;II owed purpose 1)1 improt - iLi 01'4 uhivil'hitir.\ n understanding of rcscarch Mg the tcachitn) of social "Indies in the public schools. methodologies commold) ettiplo)ed b) ;I:ithropologists l'ialerthisrithrie. asmallresearch program on the and their rationalc, the t) pc, of result, thc)teld. and culture()I'schoolswit, funded1)) ()Es Cooperative the like. ,iinph cannot he a-smiled. In addition. anthro- Research Programill1 Mila,aOlean, iiiattraeting pologists tint,t fae the issue of the limit, Imposedon anthropologists to the shot) of education, itv..a, front their researchtu\their tentletic\ to %%oil. alone ratl.o.i thi, inotle,t beginning that current itrogranis iii11111 It the than intuituti.lluiiiu t,i111from the often itlios neratic OE and the N1E. which has taken met. most of the ()Es data pioduced. this means that ottlrelatit el)-mall call lor dealt %%ilk To &ill con-iderable research functions. hat e grown. (1ther agencies. sitelta, the National Institute of Health (NII 1) and the \SI.. depth with reti a single school. howiler. tt ill require (lit itling have come to an interest in cdlicatI(lnal anthropolog) by thetaskinto scteral component, andthe a different route resultiii y. from their intere,t in anthro- cooperation of aresearrht(.11.intheir completion. I L.spitt.theseprobl).-) pology as part of their mandated areas ofconcern rather ar. as.min)federal program than hat ing a firect concern with education. Ilene again admini,trator, arc uhuiltuuuuju ted in Ric p(),,ibihtirs the interestlit;inthropology and educationis both relating anthropologica! ..s..trch to their arious 'recent atttl itolistittet iti focus. \ fterabitof explanation of the sortof problem, EVell toda. .(ntlinpological involentent in federal anthropolo,dcal research can broach and the data it can /lc\ elou inan u,lliujuuitu cothusia,tit. educational res..areli program (damning i. morea matter of potential than realit). Dozens of diisions and offices Evaluat ion in at least six different agencies ha\ e I.\ pressed interest 111. 11,0 spent considerable time inter\ iewingprogram

in the possibilit) of anthropological 1)roposals convertu. specialists and managers at the I /1.: and the NWon the ing educational problems. Stone of these offices have growini interestinanthropology alining educational alreadyhinded anthropologiealresearch but not on evaluator,. ;dilation has become a major acti it) of all educatioii ..oth,rs have 1'1 MCITIII'd thriii:WIN vith edu- sovialrented)program,: within etimatioui .itpla)s a cational isstie, hut not from all anthropologicalperspec- leadingroleinresearchand'let elopincut arti dies. tie or inethodolte."),lull) a few (compared to the more 'on ernmental;1,.eiteit.,.thel'autgres,. ;1:1(1 tl en the telisil. in\ 10.leinclit in 1.(.alitation areas) Ita%I. actuall) public are concerned ii ttii educational acti it) and it, had proposal, from educational ;iitthropologiststip to ellectiveness.\s demands for good 1.aluation increase, thisthm.; a number ofthesehavebeenfunded. luoveven so does the impact of poor ei ;dilation. New Anthropologist, scent to hat e been iiiiititE.111) successful demands and concerns, both of the programs being iii formulating their proposal, and rather late in explor- et alluded andthe ageneies to whom 1.);iltiators are ing the ((overnmental luiuuiiiuug structun so that. in 197 1. responsible...have brought Anna the (.11-rent u hit...read the NIE (tio. ..-;otinct of funds) was ,Ititti.11 dissatisfaction with (last melhodolog). 'I he custoinar) with. a multitude of proposal, as a result of nnouncinga 11,r of quantitative data, for example. ma) proidt much peeial program to entourage nthropologists to iippl) useful information on student achiecment lint there is but found that it could 111:1(1 tml) a small fractionas a growingevidencethatitcan'tsuppl)satisfactor) result of drastic budget cuts. answers to many of the qualitatie questions of educa- 1.'orthisreport,we conductedinter\ iew,in .six tion toda). ItisIli) longer enough to sa) that Hunt\ agencies- the National Institute of I.:duration (N1E), the can't read; what is now being asked is wh) he can't and United States Office of Education (1.)E). the National \vital will make him learn. l:otindation (NSF). the Public Health Service lici.atist.of increasing dissatisfaction oer current (1-'1 ;111(1 the National Endowment, for the ..\rts and evaluation methods. two new attempts to refocus the theHumanities(N1.,A1 1)assources of educational more traditional types of evaluation.liae emerged, both anthropology funds.2 In brief on research programs, we with important implications for anthropolog). (hit. has found thata untidier of opportunities for developing been a swing from a fI).ed oti the individttal as liaison between' the federal res-arelt agencies and educa- learner to an ItldiStillut forl/&' ()II the program as the unit tionalanthropologist,stillexist.Indeed.thereare of evaluation. Earl) evaluation designs placed the major considerably more opportunities than there One exiOnidcs emphasis on psychometrictesting or ,toihent,. The of their utilization. \lost research applications in anthro- design was as simplistic as it was rational: if the goal of polog) and edlIcation now secIII tO iiidirceted to the the Pi-i)grain was to familiarize students with a specific NIE despite the low rate of return. To some extent, this hotly of information, then the best wa) Lii determine the is inevitable since most anthropologists have broad. basic success orfailure of the program was to testthose researchinterestsandthecurrentwatchword in student,.to see iftheyhad indeedaetptiredthat Washingtonis-applied.-..\lithropologistsin general information. So long as evaluation pla)ed a minor role in should explore a broader u unit' of federal agencies and education, largely restricted to ri..search dn. should exercise more effortlit hc kith ,pecilie and to Met 111/11 did not restlit probieitis. In the1 960s. how-

4 5 er.educationaleinisinnerisniIII,IIiiiI .1 (W0116111111 Alillinatite black hAok thr rile!4,1 a pro,raill which 1110%c111,11( ill aliiatiom methods no saidhi program developers. -Here is what %oil ha% c longer sufficed. Killion.- of dollars poured into riliiration done: here is What U'ilS wrong with it: if you ever do it programs for the cultiiralldepri% rd. Ghetto parents again. here are some sug...lestions which y oil might want that standard tests were culturally biased. Eller- to follow.- In new evaluation procedures. evaluators ti%rnes. of the tests in measuring 111'0,11%1111 slICI'VsS %ils were requiredto abandon the approach of scientifie challenged. major vonfrontation IIIII liiitill' detachment they had adopted and 'forinative- evalua- estingliouse Learning Corporation gme poor marks to tion became a part of the evaluation lexicon along with lily popular Ilead Start program because aeliir%rinent -sionmative- evaluation. Jiather than bring abo%l and testsindicatedlittle sHifirant sindent progress. The be mid the program, the evaluator was compelled to I lead Start program. then popular both in Congress and become a part of the program. Data were acquired at the iiiurban communities. remains popular toila. The side a a prOgraIll or in cooperation with it. challenge to the program presented Iithe Westinghouse Most ediu.ators and many educational researchers Corporation,intt b sharppubliccriticismof the agree that modern evaluatiou technology I.illa sorry compan 's evaluation standard,. tlirc%v current evalua- AMA% ,tiiiLendLii 111,1)1 itunder die rubric of tion techniques into the arena of public debate. For the .research-therebyforring uponit eanons of science firsttime. evaluation methodology %vas neriutiA ques- which arc in many cases no( applicable. Nlost evaluations tioned b peopl outside th profession. Evaluators were today are not research but rather ad hoe attempts to forced to shift vay from focus (ni the individual-as- provide some basis for describing and assessing programs learner and -program- evaluation became a major area and arcounting for expenditnres of fululs. Nlethods are of concerti.III order 1.11evaluate programs, obsenation almost indiscriminately pulled from a hat or, rather. was essential nd awilries liegon looking to ailthropol- from a number of hats.\Ie tIioiiof testing come from og) and -soft" sociology for techniques of field ob- psychology.techniquesfor program monitoring arc servation. borrowed from systems analysis techniques. methods of A second attempt to refocus I.% aluation dsigil also qualitativeanalysis anadopted from sociologv and rano. bout %%lien social reinediation programs began to anthropology.andallofthisishurriedlythrown cquire greal.quantities Soriai semice age:ivies together to make a bidders deadline. Despite the fact joined the ranks of the well-to-do. When the passing of that we persist in referring to evaluation as research, TitleI of the Eleinentar- and Secondary Education Act 11011y a Illyretillill;IllelaS Of sound research seem to ofI 965 brought the sudden investment of one billion operate here. There is no theory to inform methodology, dollars into education in the inner eity, (ongress became there in ill methodological development, (.1).1cl:riled over how the money would be spent. It was thenis no systematir applivation of Methods, and. the attachment of an evaluation requirement to the perhaps most important, there is no system by which l'irillentar%and Secondary Education Art which led whatis learned in one evaluation informs the next both to the rapid growth of evaluation and evaluation evaluator. ageneies and to one of its clirrent characteristics as a The primary reason for the discrepancy between financial monitoring attached to any grant, evaluationmeans and ends stems fromedit( ation's award, or contract which proposes to Kintner change in failures to develop a consistent evah ation methodology. education.I3CCIIIISeSO much of the new money in Traditionaltechniqueshavebeenformed within a education and in educational research was pumped into framework culled directly from the various behavioral urban (mid primarily urban ghetto) areas, questions of sciences. The reality of education, however. may diverge the effects of vulture, sub-cilltitre, race, ethnicity. and a sharply from the abstracted systems of the behavioral variety of other features of the community now became disciplines. And inetlunls are normally adopted without extniiwly inqmdmit.Ilirestablishedproceillires of reference to digit:supporting concepts or theory. close experimental control, control groups. and other The dangers of methmhdogival transplant are not features of the logir-drillietive process began to .falter as immediately obvious to most educators. Faced with an these new concerns emerged. (learl,. the laboratory- evaluation requirement. educators turn to hehavittral oriented style of research %vhicli was part of the tradition scientists for a scheme which will allow them to assess of educational researeli was not satisfactoryfor the their program. Yet, because behavioral scientists deal evaluation of either ethnic studies programs or affective withspecified conditions, their methods are usually programs of Agahl anthropology, whieli had applicable only where i:ertain ronditions can be repro- always linen concerned with these issues, provided a duced. Such closed system models also must deal with a potential source of methodology.. discrete moldier of selected variables. While such models Not all of the pressures for change, however, came are appropriate-to the study of some educational ..sites, Iron; ontsitle.Withinediivation.thenwas growing most eihicational programs which are designed oi pro- dissatisfaction with evalliation studies that resulted in a duce change require a more open, qualitative. g:aalt...tie

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6 framework. Thus, while most current methods of gather- Educators, on the other hand, must work iiithe real ing, recording nd analyzing educational data are based world, where they must recoollize a number of variables on experimental models and require statistical-quantita- in dm situation. Realistically, therei lilt analytic or tivemeasnrements, most educational encounters are conceptual framework which is Peculiarly developed for oon-experimental (thatis,they are goal-specific oper- education, and so no framework for evaluation. Thus, ationalfield engagements), and existing methodoloavr. when we should be asking for per-sper Lives front the yiel;ts little insight into the nature of these enconnters. behavioral sciences within which to frame questions 'file problem is further complicated because while they growing out of behavioral encounters in education, we are told to control certain variables to see what haprns ask for answers nd the comfort of borrowing and to others, the educators task is to manipulate variables adapting conceptual nd analytic framework within to achieve multiple objectives: some of these objectives which to fit thest answers. are more important than others, and some may conflict with others. As of now, they have no way of arraying Allof thisthe movement fromindividualto a these objectives and evaluating differential effects by program-based focus for evaluation: the concern with manipulating combinations of variables. Nor do they tplalitative rather than exclusively quantitative assess- ment techniques: the impinging of culture, ethnicity, haveasystematicprocedureto assess. the costs of accomplishing various effects. There is a growing tend- and community on educational programming: and the ency to turn to anthropology for guidance in developing need to observe all of this in a field settinghas been sound program evalitathui. pushing evaluators away from educational research's traditionallyincestuous relationship with psychology It would be tempting to sn St that anthropology towards some active courting of anthropology as a does provide a coherent set of methods and a theoretical possible source for evaluative technology. ln me respect. base out of which educational evaluation might develop educators' problems are comparable to those confront- a- consistent conceptual framework nd methodology. ing anthropologists. They. too. must observe, record, and Such is not the ease. It would be even more comfortable analyze behavior ill the field, not in a laboratory setting. to suggest that evaluators could look to psychology for Through the development of a conceptual model and testing, systems analysis for monitoring, anthropolog-y correspondent methodology, anthropologists have for field researchbut this woilld more prob- aehicvud considerable precisionin anatural environ- lems than it would solve, hi the first place, the task of ment. (..her the last several )'ears, this similarit) of field examining. defining, and redefining the institutional strategy has led to inereasing interest in what has eome setting in education should hetin;principle responsi- tobe calledthe anthropological method or. more bility of the craft itself, and so it should not be assianed frequently, anthropological approaches' to evaluation, to some outside agency or group, no matter how willing While the phrase antlimpological approach" con- they are to assume it and how unwilling educators are to jures up a nice image of evaluators as resident ethnog- attemptit. Second, there are no existing r. lained raphers describing the culture of the systems they study, methods growing out of specific theories throl,a which itis not only inaccurate but is dysfunctional because it evaluators can approaell the task of evaluation with perpetuates a number of grhwing misuses, In the first assorance of success. There is no theoretical pattern for place. tlic anthropohigieal approach" luis come to mean observation and analysis in an) of the existing research specifically the IISV Of participant observers, in a strategies of the behavioral or social sciences which fits simplisticequationwhichsays nothing about lmw evaluationneeds.Nothing emerges soclearlyfrom participant observers are used. Participant observation IA inter-disciplinary"' researeh ventures as the obvious faet an important research style in anthropology (as it is in a that each discipline of the behavioral and social sciences number of other social sciences) but within fliat style it has builtits own conceptual framework and culture. is necesary to develop skills in the use of techniques. Each is characterized by preferred ways of looking at :Clost of the evaluations we have Seen wIlkh propo:e to and into the world, These preferences are not superficial: use participant observation usually stress the observation they characterize the kinds of questions asked, the ways to the exclusion of the participant role, and in many in which answers re interpreted and presented. Each casesthereisno clear definition of whatishieing discipline has its own patois, a mixture of generalized observed and. inure important, how it is to be observed, meanings from the social sciences, and its own peculiar lum it is to be recorded, and to what end this is all being and sometimes precious jargon. done, The use of untrained participant observe rs, who Again, there are fundamental differences between the have no grounding in theory awl who havV not learned analytic frameworks of the Itt7lurvioral scientist ame the' the difference between looking at and looking for. has educator. 'rypieally, behavioral scientists rc interested created prob!.4ns in the field as well..School teachers in a discretenumber of alwts of the empirical and community residents have also created their own phenomenontheyarestudying.and sotheydeal conspiracy" theory of evaluation. More and more, abstractly and selectively with a small set of variables. teachers and community people are viewing evaluation

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7 as a deviee for maintaining the system as it now exists. from soriology as well as anthropology those pieces of Evaluation I. dime, in this view. to inform educational technique.alongwiththeirsupportiveconceptual decision-makers so that they ean uppress any moves for frames.;hichaeibestsuitedto extracttherieb change. When tearhers are evaluated, like anyone else descriptive data whichthey can supply for use by who was ever evaluated, they naturally heroine un- derision makers. The reasons are summed up in the comfortable.Itis easy to assuage this diseomfort by following passage: eriticizing evaluators. When. participant observers who don't really seem to know what they are doing appear Anthropologists experience the priwesses. strw...- on the seem., the teaeliers' attitude is exacerbated and tural variety. and problematic aspeets of teaehing their criticism is fueled. and learning by hitensive. first-hand observation of Filially, most of what we have said earlier in this what goesbn i,u schools and inless fOrmal situations of instruction. Yet few anthropologists report about the vonfusion between behavioral :.:eience otherwise identify with .schools. There are school research 'asavalue-free style of data gathering and psychohigists. a growing number of schoot is. even more true in evaluation which is.of analysis ogists. but no schmil anthropologists. The demand. necessity., value judging. While anthropologists are inter- and possiblythe fashion.for anthropological estediiithe srientifie study of values_ they set great knowledge and insight in American schools shows store by the fact that they Anal their analytic skills as no sign of slacking; yet most anthropologists are free of judgmental bias.In addition, while anthropo- contenttoletthe popular conception of what logical terimiques appear atfirstblusil to be almost anthropology is, hole it is done. and what it has to simplistic (as one rurricillum specialist told us "I have say stand. Education. formal and informal. is the been losing the anthropological technique for yearsI chief medium of the transmitted behaviors anthro- always Visit my schools"). they arc closelytiedto pologists call culture." the fundamental idea of conceptual frameworks which inform the methodology' the disciplirm Yet 'whale* little is anthropologi- cally known of Amurican public schooling. such and are inuell more difficultto master than survey related phenomena as street iwadernies.and the research or questionnaire approach hecons'e they are extent to whirh cultural assumptions and cultur- much less striletured li of this is to underscore our ally defined expectatimis bias the American teach- major point thatfield research techniques hold great ing and learning experienee. potential for use in evaluation but that this should not These apparent...contradictions derive from. first. 14 . contused with anthropology. Field work techniques the tradition& insistenco of anthropologists on are used broadly in anthropology as well as in soeiology. research in societies other than our own: seeond. and in both ea seS they are related to thew% and cannot the numerical scarcity of anthropologists: and. be used apart from thlt theory. third. frison conventional attitudes-of the profes- ()iie of the major reasons wk field researell tech- sion that consider the practical effects of anthro- pology to be secondary to its theoretical aikarwe. !Millenare so attractive to edneational evaluatorsis .crious and sustained application of the discipline because they allow for the gathering of vast amounts of tothe human opportunities and dilemmas of deseriptive datd about the sellouts. the pernomtel and teaching and learning is anathema to most anthro- students and the community. Unfortunately. this very pologists. Much impetuis for including anthropol- richness sometimes destroys the utilityof the data ogy and anthropologicalperspectivesinour because thereis ) much, quantitativei y. and qualita- soh 00 IS Com es not from the profession of anthro- tively. that it eannot be used. What we have said earlier pology but from interested public (and private) aboutthe need for a eoncoptual framework within school personne1.3 .whirlito deelop astrategyfor field evahlationis particularly pertinent at this level. All of this sustains a fairly delicate balance between Thereisalsoa reluctance oilthe part of many anthropology and rvaluathm, as it does with educational anthropologists to heroine involved in educational eval- researeh at this point. Again. there is growing interest iui uation,partirularly when. asSolon Kimballmire "field researrh." "ethnographic apprimehes," "the anthro- pi united out. eduational research itself is often used as a pological approach," and a number of other intrusions guise for attempts at edneatimial rebirm. of anthropology into educational rilsearch and evalua- gists.especially since the Camelpt :Affair,are skittish tion: the growth seems destined to continue nudes, some Aiolit involvement in governmental reform programs and group or groups within the prolessimi derides to attend the spectre of Dr. Strangelove hangs heavy in the field. to the growth and nurture of the field. In summary, then, we are suggesting that the rubrie "authropologieal.approach," while an attractive one, is Poliey Questions and Issues neither accurate nor prodlictive in describing Ow appli- cation of fieldwork techniques to educational evalua- The i,surs whichhave already liven presented .1-artier tion. and that it becomes an important task to borrow hithisreport. andothers which developedas we

7 discussed the interview,. present sonic important policy inquiryis thatit describes "natural- environments and questions whit should be discussed :Ind. we hope. ground-level bellaior. Thus, the deseriptive :ictiity tt resol ell at '('lilthlluilit if the ronsiderible promise wlin.li :inthropology should concern what people are observed educators see in closer contacts \kith anthropologists are to do, not simply what people say the- are tor to be realized. In Cr.r.eiler, TIC:411)W, are: ( I ) what they claim ought to be done. Certainly it would be the appropriateness of anthropologyfor the study of difficult to argue that anthropology is not a.diseiplitie ut education,(.2) the relationship beim ern anthropology ronsiderable worth to the study of education. Pout. given :Ind social porn iii education.iii,i (I) who speaks for thecurrentproblem-solving emphasis in educational iiiL lin opology resean.h, there is some question as to whether anthro- pology's preferred style of the solitary field worker who The Appropriateness of Anthropology performs Stepiiithe researchprioressas an for the Study of Edneation individual and its resistance to large-seale team research

Ar, we !minted lilaearlyon.there is. a growing are valuable and, if tim t! craft of tendencyineducation to turnto anthropologyfor anthropologicalinquirymay appl eihirational research methodologies in both research and (. aluation. research, itis also true, how(ler. that a great deal of the Iiile this has, lot.eii most characteristic of the National anthropology of education still answers mostly to tin, Institute of duation, the several other :igViiC11%.v. profession of anthropology. Mail) anthropologists whose interviewed re also beginniin, to turn in that direction primary interest is the :intliropolo,y education still to the extent that they are developing an interest in have a nuaked Li'mitl,'mm,' iut:ISM'',theirwork as education.liiach raw. one senses there is :ilinost the nthropology: they have, in their VIM, a prior and lived expertation that' nthropolog\ will somehow provide a commitment tothe discipline and to whatever \kill researeli paradi,in which xvill erase the long tradition of advanre disciplinary interests, theoreticai or practical. ignoringtin- socialrontextof education.Inlarge This is. of course, an important and worthwhil, unit", measure.thisresultsfromthefartthat studies in C....laking.particularlysinerthe history of ediwathamal education have tended to1.)1.11 thr indiVidlial iiiinuation and, indeed,allrecent ttempts t social learner to the exclusion of social voiltext until the Ca\ reinediation indicate :',1) clearlythat when social action Rights Alovement forced such attention. lint even then programs do not grow out of nd re-inform some body ..dileationfailed to look at the social (organization of of theory . they seldom produre ny institutional change. education as natural setting for learning. and most If anthropology is to realize its value to (lineation, it organizational theory and methodology in eduration must lso apply its attention to questions of both theory (Ionics from a concern with administration and manage- iiLitLv in edlIcation. Most rescan 'a administrators ment nd so intersects with die soriological literature on really don't see any immediate iiLiliLv of anthropology formal organizational analysis. As a result. sehoolpeople to problem-solving (as vontrastedLu. proldrin-defining tend to question thefitbetween the formal analytie and probleni-duseribing) strategies in cduration. models displayed1.veducationalresearcl.....rs nd the To some extent, :his attitiide results from the nature socialrealitt own schools.And whatis of anthropological inquiry which is holistic, situational, operationally more important, they can't SCI! 111)W tliry descriptive,non-analytic,andgenerallydesignedto can get from their "herr" to the organiutional analyst's resultina statement of sy.itein eliaracteristi, s rather "there:" many art: not certain they would want to make than (of the inevitable associatium of the elements within that trip. 'Ellis is, \yr think. one of the major reason:, for thesystem.Eventually we produce atypology of the growing anuement to apply the technitines and systemsandanygeneralizations whiell can inform to ,-.:bicational conceptual method. a anthropology practice are dependent upon the ability to identify the . researell. We hope this ileW look may (and probably van) operational system with one of the model system types.- provide better data on how schods actually function, as Schoolpeople, socialized in schools of education to a well as serving as a tool for developing models for change tradition(ofeducationalresearchwhieli was highly in educational systems that earlier methods could not analytic and which purported to present interrelation- provide. ships annuli.; elements of a system which were concep- Nonetheless, despite this new interest. conventional tually independent of any given situation, want state- research and evaluation procedures in education con- ments of law-like regularities from research. Thins, when tinuetoexploitarbitraryenvironments,statistical ethnographic aeconnts of schools are presented to urban measures. and "problems- in seeking information (often school principal:, they cannot (and probably should not) basic) about what goes on in educational encounters and proceed to inalo; operational changes in their schools inbuilding knowledge of rdecational processes and based upon these data. \lost .educational administrators structures.Anthropologydoesoffer aconsiderable still regard anthropological studies of school.', as insight- expertisetotraditionaleducationalresearchinthis fulempathetic descriptions which they do not trust Jegar(l. One distinetiozi often made for anthropological because they arn so miderstamlable: inevitably, they 2;u tii.Itt.(onletthe :,oul:1) Iv:Idler.% for From our interviews, %vti see four major issues related .hissroom ust . the problem is not just question of hi the q.;tistion of anthropology's adequacy as a source introducing anthropological methods or perspectives in for method and theory in educational nese:mill: educational researvh. but of convincing both frsIbilITII iIIIIIIIIIIstraturs and other educational researchers that (1 ) Are the needs of educational research. which atithropologit'al research ;Ind its interpretation and vali- todaygenerallywant a productrather than dation operate within a different but equally reliable :mil knowledgu. sell cil with a high-risk. low- ield valid climate frinii other dplines venture resulting in !HMV II!, potheses raised than resolved. a characteristie of most good ethno- \IIofthissuggeststhatthecurrentlisaiiiii graphic studies.! anthropology hy tidily:lbws. and particillarlitt educa- (2) Coliversel), would the process of adaptat.ion tit tion:4 researell, does tiot meet real test of ailemlac): governmental nerds he disruptive to the healthy isthere a clearldenoted area of interest and compe- growth and nurture of what is still a developing tence within educational research whirli is subject to rontrol b)alithropoloiiists'f (Mr atIsWrf IS II0for a (3) Would 't be possible (and ,(c, develop number of reasons which we delimit later in this report. within educational research u Iv, and mong For now. it suffices to say that anthropologists are still government program inan:t Appreciation of involvedineduration;isin(hividuals, nd usuallya.- the essential unity of a 1.hr, consultants on major research andcaluation projects.' distinctfromotherdi. eives--so thatthere GO% trhtuutitit agencies explain this hv citing the indi%itl- might be a genuine .;option and adaptation- nalistic styli, o anthropologists (our experience is that rather than the present piecemeal borrowing not mil:, 1i r t work alone. the are (1) Isitpossible to mesh Lit individualistic, highly aclualldisruptive if von mix them with other social personalized st)le of anthropologists with the seientiststirelliicators-)billthatteam researchis growing tendency to develop large-scale. multi- impossibly in anthropology (we seldom ask more than .disciplinary team research and evaluation venturts one anthropologisttlwork on a projeet bruatisti tItt ill educa hoe seldom agree with each other").

A:ertainly some of the reservations of researell admin- What is the Relationship between Anthropology istrators about tilttt.0 of anthropolog) (and of anthro- and Social Policy Questions in Education? pologists) iii viltIcational n search are realistic. Our own FrOlIl our interviews and from prior experience, it experience in train research. for example. convinces iis became obvious that policy research is not only a major that if the old wilt on-- the problems encounl ,-d in tram interest among government agencies but I. the most research increase homier; ll). %yid! the moldier of scien- productive and timely means of influencing vducatimtal tist, istrite, the problem:- seem to increase decision-making. \lost research inthis area has coinv geometrically when those scientists are anthropologists from monoinies and, more recently, sy-Avins analysis. and exponentially when thii.v. are anthropologists mixed teehniques, and isinevitably founded with other social scientists.liethat asitmay. the uttutituit IllodO, the basis of most policy rest...trek important ipiiistion uIlotit iiiittiu (We of the adequacy Yet much of the debate and many Of the policy of anthropological inquir for educational research but questionswhichenrrentlyproduee tensionsinthe how well research administrators and other educational educational system arc actually the result of unrecog- researchers comprehend both the perspective and the nized or, at least, unresolved conflicts itt values, Ole, methods of anthropolog). As we conducted inte:-views, thins about whether schools should be integrated or became convinced that what is essential is. to provide segregated by race, by religion, by social class, or by some eonsistvilt,Iuhuurnuut information to agencies on intelligence are obvious value questions. lint many other what anthropology is and isitt, and what the potential i'ssues s11(711 as the financing and organization of schools, of the fiehl is and isn't for educational resvareh. Not their management and staffing, and the delivery of onlyisthere atendency to overlook some of the ediwational prop-anis are less obviously but probably potential uses of anthropology, there is an even greater even more fundamentally grounded in value questions. tendency to rX1ut7C1. tit° !WWII too quickly in the form of Present approaches to policy study in education liave instant ethilogeaphies,t%vo-week training vourses for usually tended to ignore the question of values and their participant observers, and any number of other requests role in structuring policy questhms.....1u part, this results which indicate a lack of familiarity with the style and from 'the intellectual origins of ar-g, policy scientists, metimil of anthropology. liccause then I. not a consist- who have come fronieconomies, politicalscience, ent and coherent approach on our part, each awnicy systems analysis, or operatiims rest:arch backgrounds. deals separately and individually with anthropologists While the concept of "values" is present in some form in andwithothers who propose "an anthropological (..1, id: these areas, it dotis not have the y4111.1%114 Which approach." it does in anthropolog. -More importantly, there is no

9

1 0 traditionof research methodology designed to deal with which include information giveninthefieldin the and inform the concept in these neas, as there is in confidentialrelationship which fichlworkers establish anthropology.Ineachof theseareas (butnotin with the people they are studying. Some of the materials anthropology),thereisarealor as,sumedlack .of arenotonly highlypersonal,theyarepotentially precision in dealing with qualitative issues such as values, damaging or at least embarrai:sing to,. the people under so current policy analysislias tended todevelop out of a study. Itis impossible, of course. to give anonymity to qn:mtitative inethodolog. Neither arethe clients of the principal of a school, to a teacher who is so fully policy studies in education particularly attuned to the described in field notes that pseudonyms are preposter- kindsof feedback theyarelikelyto obtainfrom oils, or to) student activities which contravene school qualitative anthropological inquiry. As a result, there has niles or even violate the law. The specific problem for been virtually no involvement of anthropokigistsiii the Experimental Sclumls Program involves the etinfi- policy research, and there is even an implicit assumpti Hi dentiality of field notes. Should allfield notes from in most agencies that since anthropology is deseripti Experimental Schools Evaluations become part of a rather than analytic," there is no potential role for the general data bank, available to all researchers in the same anthropologist. It will be necessary for antImpologists manner as results from more traditional educational to convince government agencies and the public of our research? Can anthropologists (citing Section 51:370 relevance and usefulness so that other federal project [ I949 or subsequent sections ofthe NlarchI 9(j7' administrators will learn not to make the statement one Statement of Ethics of the American Anthropological did during our interviews: I don't think we would Association) refuse to turn over raw field notes (are have much use fin- anthropologists. YOU see, our office is these the same as the educational psychologist's olaia") concerned with matters of public policy." Two import- to the government agency supporting their research? The ant issues emerged in our interviews: questions stretch out beyond these, particularly when one remendiers how paranoid many of us are about (I) Are there important contributions which anthro- letting anyone see our field notes. Tb n. point of this poloa can make to policy research (a rhetorical anecdote isthat, while similar questions dealing with question, obviously),, and what is the best mech- anism for furthering anthropological involvement research by educational psychologit.:would automatic- in this important area? ally be referred by the agency to (lie American Educa- (2) Other than involvement in research, are there tional Research Association, there is some question as to other means of insuring that anthropological who speaks for the sub-discipline of anthropology and concerns nd interests are represented in policy- education. There arc at least five organizations that we and decision-making in education? know of which might lay some claim to representation here: The American Anthropological Association,its Who Speaks for Anthropology? component Council on Anthropology and Education, Finally,thereisthe question of who speaks for the Division of the American Educational Research educational anthropology. Phrased dit.ferently, thispies- Association,theNational Academy of Education's lion asks to whom government agencies will turn in Committee oui Anthropology and Education, and. l'011- makingthekindsofpolicydecisionswliiehimust ceivably, the Society for Applied Anthropology as well. inevitably affect research related to anthropology and This is not a questiont of jurisdiction, but one of the lack education. To give some ...tint, a how important this of a clear voice in speaking to and with government question is, some experienres during our interviews are agencies on matters affecting anthropological research indicative of the problems presented by the distinct 'related to education. nature of anthropological inquiry. During the course of While such questions as research ethics a oi d standards interviewing staff members of the Experimental Schools are important, there are other issues here as well. There Program at the National Institute of Education, we were is still some feeling in government agencies tliat anthro- asked for some helpiiithinkim through a problem pologists who have made major commitments to educa- which had arisen there and which i certain to arise tion are somehow less thanfirst-rate. This attitude, elsewhere. The Experimental Schools Program been characteristic of the earlier attitudes toward educational actively courting anthropologists to work on its evalua- psycholog and educational sociology, stems partly from tion programs and, in fact, probably has more anthro- the common thrust Of government agenciesto get pdogists under contract than any other agency involved beyond the current level of research in an area by luring in educational change programs. As part of the evalua- in "the best minds" in the field. Realistically, however, tion studies, a number of field workers are gathering itis also present because there is as yet 110 established in-depth ethnographic materials on schools. their com- field of anthropology in education as there now is in munities, pupils, teachers, and, in some cases, on the educational psycholoa and educational sociology. One evaluators themselves. TIlese data arc typical of what of the usual arguments for the development of such fieldworkers usually gather:highly persomal accounts sub-disciplines is the inadequacy of exi.ting disciplines

10 to deal %vith the complex of problems, the nuances of which might be cited but these appear to lis to hi. the interpretations. :Intltheutilityofimpletneutation most important ones which emerged during the inter- schemes in some iltimain limnan 19.11m Mr. (ertain)) VieWs. Like all issues, the) lead to it number of possible this can be demonstrated to be true of tlic area of courses of action for retilediation. 1'1'11111 1/11r intervievs ittithropolog) and education. But wt. %void)l argue that iind subsquent discussion., %vt. concludedthatthe the ileVelopment coherent sub-disciplilit of educa- sooner sueli issues alidi'sctis-sed and recommendations tional antliropolog)stilirequires:(I)the prior ilcei- de% chipell It) the (All for stunt. action, the sooner some opIllentof a conceptual framework outof vhich vonsistent development within government agencies. vis- problems can be identified and questions posed; (2) once a-% isthe andiropolinrical stud) of education illtake the-r problems and questions lime been phrased. there Have. Leftto their own tleices. government .ttlininis- must be some consistent itirthodolo!,) inethodolo!rit trators. with the hest of intentions. %rill continue to deal are compatible these questions and which are piecemeal with the field. capable of producin!, the kinds of data which can inform Isttmvled,..e gelyration and deeision-makim, ill that area spernilization:(:))thatonce die knowledge and subsequent puhr FM*111111:16(111, art into oper- Notes ational Stnage. n./1111' n11111111' 141 appraisal niti accompan) I. in all allridgeil %erni1/11 1/1. a report prepared for them %vhich promises to re-itiform research and theor) iii the I Mumilittee \lithropolo) and Education of The to dialarea:and.final!),(4)since we subscribe National \cadent). of Education, Cran,,lackson Calhoun licilfielirs notion that the real hallmark of all al'adelllie and Elizabeth Itetiss-laitili assisted ill gathering informa- i dialitIlan itn 1/WII 111) t111/1))* and kinship tion from federal agenvies. strut titre. that some pro% fOr the n\ Artnatir training 2.Inthe original (Ts:ion of this report.specific lititt.vper,onnelliean integralpart of the merall program concerns, funding patterns. and research inter- scheme. ests in 1.111.11 agency %very detailed hen' huh 1111V1'11°1'11 mvii experience. reinfori '' d !iv :'athering data for excluded from this %ersion due to limitations of space. 3, Vrancis A..1, this report. I. that111/111'111 thene conditions prevail hi lanni and Edward Storey. Cultural alithropolo,,) and education toda). a restilt. encount- Relevanre and Edurational Isxues: Reailingx in .inthr6- between anthropology and educational research tend pology and Eduration, lit)simcI Attie, Brown, I 973. to be episodir and Iii!,111). situational. Despite the fact that there has been a consistent 111.'14)4)1111.m over the la.-tfew)1.ars of etlinte,raphic. materials on schools. thcri. is 111111 accumulation of kliovletbre since each ile%% sold) profits little from prelimis studies. The issue then is one of developing the,field both conceptually and ill tVrIlln til111'\V ntlltli'lltn. There are still. as far as wt. kntov. only tvo institutions (h.:tellers (iollegt. an)1 Stanford) 11)1'1.111) ANT111{( )14)1.0(.;1..[NffliNS1111' whichofferformalprogramsinanthropology and .V1. [NI VI...USITY (IF S01-111 Fi..01111):\ ethicatitni. With grant from the National Institute of Mental

Isvo major issues require statement here: . 1 lealth. the Valiversity of South l'Iorida. "rattipa_ recently instituted all internship project as a part of its master's (I) it111/Sni1111' 1/1"entaIllinll n1/1111' Inelln program in anthropoli igy. The purpose of the projeet for voncern %rilli the field of anthro- to develop internships as a method of training applied pology and education %din It can deal atithorita- anthropologists to work ill mental health and related ti% el).%vitlithe important Indic) 11111 research fields.he NI \ 111 grant provides stipends for students questions beginning to arise and in vItich anthro- during the periods of internship (usually %vit.11a local polo,* 'silitt reststilit)be quite different from ntinian service agency or instittition) and thesis prepara- other disciplines.! tion in the urban and medical areas of the Anthropology (2) \re there means li) hich licv program thrusts Department's ALA program focusing °lathe applications lellmvship and trailiceship funds. career scientist runil,, and other means of non-project funding-- of anthropology. The project director is Alvin W. Wolfe, can Ile enIalllinlled ill government hIg)'Iu)i)-ill order Coordinator of Internships for the department. ()hluer givt.II)(III.ileW livid of anthropology and favulty members include Nlichael V. Atigrosilm, Adult education the smile opportunities for systematic Shiloh, and Curtis W. Wieliker (medical). and (.:ill)erl th.%clopinent enjoyed liv more established disri- 1Xilshiler,j. Jerome Smith,Patrivia Waterman, and phut., ill the pitst Al. Wulff (urban). Gilbert Kushner is department chairperson. and Ailon Shilohis dirertor of .gratlitate There are.1/Icourse, ail) number of other issIles studies.

11

1 2 TIIE INVOLVEMENT OF ANTHROPOLOGISTS IN CONTRACT EVALUATIONS: THE FEDERAL PERSPECTIVE'

Raymond T. Coward Purdue University

Participation infederal!) contracted ev'altiation r- sponsoring genc) asthe major audienrefor their__ searchis. by definition. a unique experience for most efforts.projects usuall)employing persons vvithless aca(emie:ill) Ittisedsouialscientists.2Bernstein aml tub:weed licgreen. aml projeets that are Icss like!)to Freeman (1975).in an extensive review (of federally evaluate itrograms guidedlo)some theoretical frame- sponsored evaluations for fisralear 1970. noted that WItrk. onlv :3 of the awards for evaluation studies went to Given this characterization ()I' the dieliotomv existing personsittuniversities or universit)-affiliated centers. inf(deral ev :dilation studies_il not surprising that Furthermore. these authors r(ported that of the awards tlu)sefey).tteadentirt)i)es %%Itohave wandered.liv

14) tiniversitv-affiliated sch(llars.(onlyIt; were 41)11- chance or II) rimier, into the world luf large-scale federal tray as opposedtogrants. The binding patterns rontraet research aml evaluation have expressed concern describedlivliernsteilland Freeman tooted thatas about eltirif) ing their roles (Everhart. 1975): some have budget size inereased.the percentage of awards tlittt even expressed a measure ()I' -cultural shock- (Nelson. %very contracts increased. and the number of totivt.rsit) - (;i:11111(qt:1 and Itundin. 1971). based scholars involved decreased (see Table I ). Indeed. this dichoilint) between academics and

prenctirs ma) tub tiseltd ill placing 1il1T71)1'4'11% r - difficollie, correollfacing nthropologiA- parti- Table 1 cipating in federal educational evaluations. !respite lite BUDGET SIZE AS A FUNCTION OF boom inev :dilationtechnologyinthe1900, the TYPE OF AWARD tangible results of evaluation studies hall fallen far short Budget Contract Grant of the expectations of praelitioners. researchers. and polic)-inakers. 11 the heart of much of the criticism was

S10,000-.N.IH1) 27. ri 72.(Yi (.13) a rejection of the simplistic input-output evaluation (n59) models in vogue at that point. Reformists callcd for a greater illumination of variables that describe the -pro- 550.MM-99,000 35,1",(20) 01.9'4(37) cess- of education instead of only the -outcome- of (tt57) education. The methods ettipl())(bilIt) anthrop(dogists seemed to hold tint the promise of that illumination. S100.000-119.000 11.7"4(21) 55.3`;(2(i) Federal agencies proposed that an increased tinderstand- (1117) ingofthec(mtex of instructionw (oddassistin interpretingthe impactorlarkof impact. of the S150.000 i 00.3;(-11) (1.7';(19) innovative educational programs they %very sponsoring. (11(11)1 Unfortunate!). when federal agetirics.ittthe earl) 1970' sought anthropologists experienced in educational llortero eases //nulled tweau,e of lack of informalion. research. and at least familiar with the world of federal!) Note: X223.01.p.001 contracted evaluation. they found an almost complete void. The pord prospeetivr anthropologists %vas almost liernstein and Freeman chararterizedtvv() types of exclusively based in universities. Those 'few 'who could individuals involvedinleilcrall) sponsored evalualitm be attracted to join Audi "ttevv, breed- entrepreneurial

studies. They %very: (I)Araderilies characterized by effortssoonfound (hatthe)were ill-equipped and university-based acatlentivians avvarded grants.. projet ts ill-prepared by their academie experience for the realities vvith small budgets and extended times (lasting (%V° y ears of federally contracted evaltiatimi.3.Nfter a relatively or more), staff members who define the thajor audicitee short period of participation. this frustration inevitabl) of their efforts as academie. :Ind projects guided liv some Ird both partners inthe relationship (antltrt tpologists formal theoretival framework: and (2) Entrepreneur.: and fe(1eral officials) to question the ilegrit tf congru- characterize(lI))profit-making corporations avvarded ence between the traditional frill-rid p;:tlerns of conduct- rontrarts.projerts%vitti large budgets but relatively int!, evaluative research and the principles. premises. nd shorter lime spans, staff members Idiot perceive diem- traditions of the discipline of anthropolog). selves as serving the government and thus defining the Everhart (1975) has urged modificatiou of traditional

12

1 3 federal tratit it imtractI.% ablation,,i)a,(I) Forthebasicresearcher,Sr ienceisan open accommodateilly-16.111%vork- orientation of antliro- enterpriAe. There are no intrinsic reasons for the poltwi,t, and .1161 lit IS. 111111.1!II, good advice. completion of a study at any particular deadline, \,ill-prypareda,anthropologint, wen" for federal and the dictum -until proven otherwise" is always at least implied. For the polUy maker, there are thefederalagencic,particidarly specified times when fUndamental decisions will be edocatilinalre,carch ;lied dilelopmentones. were math. and the decisions made then will become the equally ill-prepareil to interact with and understand the basis for more detailyg decisions. The policy per,pcctive. Though the Everhart pro- researcher m listsChedll lehis research so as to pu,a1 ha, merit. lliery..are ileverthele,s real limitations to produce conclusions by that point...For the basic the amount of Ivini.ification federal agenvie, van tolerate researcher to conclude that the data at hand are nd ,till remain alie inIlly volatile political matrix of toothintowarrant cc,nclusionsisboth fully \1:1,11ington. legitimate and in line with self interest.. Yor the policy researcher to reach such a conclusion unless '1'he ResponsilUlities of Federal Agencies the data are extremely poor, is an abrogation of The uniqueness impo,ed on evaluation ,tudie, spon- h isresimnsibility. ,ored by federal mimics i,. fur thy most part_ a fli fir liM1 Lastly . is clear that, within thy federal Arneture, lirthe re.pon,ibilitir, :ls,igned to the federal agetwic,. programs operate in CUIlniatli1'0111priiii011 With Valli There are three main elements directly related to die alwr, particularly for fiscal resources. Contract evalua- ilahlation (I ) lit fos(er socially relevant re,rarch tion effrrts are often initiatedto generate data for and development program,: (2) to provhle timely input making decisions about the relative Of 1'1)111110111g fur policy-maker,: and (3) to maximize the return, ill progranl. With fi,calre,unrce, availableto efforts conillieted with limited 11,eal re,inirces, addre,s a virtually unlimited array of novial conerril,, repre,ent the formal -charter- of govern- policy maker, expect gencies to provide evaluative data ment agencie,. Collectively. they form the framework to on program effectiveness for use in making derision, to which 'agencie, are held accountable. To remain polit- maximize return, on federal ins entmen(s. Charged with the,v re,ponsibilitie,. federal agencies. icallyworkable, federal agencies have very little flexi- who have considerable latitude :intlflexibilityinthis bilityto make eumpromi,e, which would be in direct vonflict with them. In the real world of federal re,earcli area, then ,eek eSalualiun efforts :Ind strategie, ronsi,t- and development. tlic,c re,pon,ibilitie, are von,tautl) ent with these mandate,. The plea. by Everhart (1975) for modification, in tempered fliirtuation, a, well a, by inter- agency ri%alry. Ne%erthele,,. they do repre,ent lia,ic traditionaltrderal operating practices are rein.unable whichallre,earch and developini mit only to the extent they don) %iodate thc,..c 1 ,u,pert that major modifieations will probably not effort, 111. judged. occur; thi, may mean thatif the n1416(111,1,41 between Probablythe ch.art.,1 Congre,sional commiion lit anthropologi,t, :oldfederalageneie, It. 1.1 the federal human re,oliree ,ector %va, the mandate to liMdifiCat %1 in byrequiredinmane traditional re,earchand evaniation'Indies with,ocial alithropologival re,rarell technique,. policy The recent financial trauma, exper- ,ligge,tthatthe of federal ienced by the of I.:due:Ilion clearlY agencie, are intrin,ieally incongruent with the anthropo- iiuiiieait' that Congre,, requiring federal m,emicie, to logical re,earch mode. sugge,t that compromi,e explicate their ,ocial relevancy (Holcomb. 197 1). Etzi- and acrommodatim, will ,alvagr the relation,Ilip and oni ( 1 971 ) emplia,izell thatpo..cy re...vault, in contra,t produce a producti%e partnership. liefore any modifica- it) Itd-iC research. i,: tion,:iremade,eitherby federalofficial,or by nthropologi,l,. the degree of congruence between the much less abstract, much more closely tied to federalagencies"re,pon,ibilitirsandtheprinciples, particular actions to be anderluken_or_uvoided premi,r,, and tradition, of anthropology nerds to be bile basic research aims chiefly to uncover troth, policy reSearch seeks to aid in MP solution, of examined. fundamental problems and in the advancement of major programs. Congrnence Bet wem Federal Responsibilities and Educational Anthropologists The ,i.eond clear re,pon,ibility of federal agencie, timelyinput fur policy maker,. Evallialke The federal re,pon,illility re,earell and data pre,riited after a pohe decision has been made call ileYelopinclit effort, ,ocial policy implication, ha, have little impact on the decision. Etzioni (1971 ) led to an illerea,ed reliance .tni awarding contract,. luu 111, einplia,izeil the difference between ba,ic re,earch Ariking coldra,thithe r1uull tlicleder:II ellterfiri,e, and re,earch ronducted in the federal ewctor: goyerninent define, the problem to 111explored. not the

13

1 4 researcher. For social scientists aecustomed to doing tillICS Of policy-makers simply may not have the luxury research in academic settings where scholars are given of waiting until the anthropologist has been able to bring wide-ranging autonomy iii defining research problems. the fieldwork to a dose. Agencies place themselves in tiffs strategyis often a "hard pill to swallow." Since highly vulnerable positions in the federal climate if they most, if not all, of the anthropologists now participating sponsor .evaluative research efforts which are unable to iiieducatinal contract evaluations areformerin.a- provide data under the ronstraints imposed by policy drinks. using the phraseology of Bernstein and Freeman deadlines, Pragmatists in the research community have (1975),itmay be difficultfor them to accept this been willing to provide.less-than-perfect data rather than numlas operandi. allowthedecision-making process hi continue ina Furthermore, this funding pattern may indeed be in factual vaellillill.I tis Still unclear, however. because of basic conflict with the traditional anthropologiral ap- therelativelyshorttime anthropologistshave been proach to research. Everhart (1975) has amply charm- engaged in such research. whether anthropologists can terizedtheconflictasthedifferenve betweenthe accommodatethisfactoflifeandart.willingto "making" :mild the "taking" of the problem. That is. it is compromise the ideal. Federal wrelicirs can modify their generally accepted that anthr4ip4ilogist:4 enter the field traditional adherence to report dates specifiedfar in void of pre-selected problems and. therefore, "make" advance: however. the have verylittle flexibility to the problem as it emerges in the field. Jackson (1971) provide open-endedtimeswith no vonsideration of notedthat a distinctivefeature of anthropological policy-making requirements. research Filially,itis the responsibility of federal agencies to the absence of formal.hypotheses as guides to the sponsorevaluative researchstudies which liclp inquiry, Typically. the person conducting a natur- determine the effectiveness of various program!: alisticstudy does not startwith an elaborate peting for limited fiscal resources, hi essence, the entire theory from which he has deduced hypotheses evaluation network %vas created to maximize the returns Hutt are then to be tested. instead, at least in the of federal investments. The ability of the early stages of his work. he lends to meander, tyro:tell to contribute to this responsibilit has not looking about the selt(wl setting with a nalue ey('. been demonstrated. Indeed, proponents offield letting the natural flax of events guide his vision. vet studies have noted that the strength of anthropology's ln short, he follows his nose. approachisinits problem-generating aspects, notin The federal government's attraction :it the contract program verifivation. lannaertme (1975) proposed that: system was. in part. a step toward increased aecount- The field study by itsvery nature cannot be ability. That is. federal agencies wanted the abilitLii adequate for verificational research, lts strength. specify where the researcher's nose should go before the instead, lies in the irv in which its cluiracteristic research started, The contract allegedly increased the researchprocess.thereiterativ..cycle of data probabilitythatthe finalproduct would have sorial collection and analysis throughoutthe.;tudy. implirations and notbe just another esoteric resultsinidentq'ying,elarifving and restating rontribution to sonic :distract discipline's literature. If problems oftenas conceptual hypotheses for anthropological fieldworkis most :1111)1k:dile to gener- future cerifivational studies. ating problems. as suggested b F.verluirt (N75), then oneinevitablquestionsthe degree of congruence It isnotclear,atthispoint, eactlYifftw betweenthatapproaeliandthefederal s steinof problem-generating strength of anthropological and so- contract evaltiation. ciologicalfieldwork can aidintlahiating competing The second responsibilit.timeliness, has been a programs. Campbell (iii Salasin, 1973) noted the lack of partieularlyfrustrating experience for anthropologists good examples of using qualitative approaches iiieval4. invol%ell in federal contract evaluations:1 .\11 ilahlation nation research (the two studies he does mention efforts,regardless of their approach, have maximum conducted by asociologist and a professor of law influence only when die pro% ide data consistent with neither deal,, with education). There does not tAist tin decision-inaking deadlines, thetaskof meeting explicitstatementof justhow the anthropological pre-specifiedtimes maybe particularlydifficultfor perspectivewillcontribute to evaluation. lannavvone anthropologists. gi% en their considerable immersion iii (.1975) and Nelson and Giannot la (1971) ad%anerd the the field. the t) pc and ipitintit) dida vollecled. and notions of fieldwork providing "richness" of data, a theirtypical modes of zing data.indeed. Wax contextual backdrop for quantitative data. and a field- (1971) stated in her book on fieldwork that "itis a grounded set of hypotheses to be cross-checked with horrid but inescapable fact thatit usually takes moo, other evaluative data. All these arc creditable proposals tittiv to organize, write and present material well than it for increasing the quality of any research effort. but do takes to gather. theyleadtoevaluative statements? Thetraditional l'edcral ageneirs attempting to comply with the fixed anthropological perspective is to describe what is. and

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1 5 not to make judgments about what should be. Jackson which might be employed if the purpose were ninter. (1974) noted dial anthropological studies: standing :Ite education process per se." Whether the techniques of anthropological research do not priwhle answers as much as they delineate are applicable to evaluation studies is:still undetermined. the conceptual framework within whirls the search Wolcott (1975) has taken im a long way in defining, for answers must take plare. In this sense they aie more elosely akinto critical treatises than to from the fieldworker's perspective, the criteria necessary manuals of style. In short, they reveal in concrete for creating a milieu in which.anthropologists can work. terms what has been done. It is lep to the reader linpliett in Wolcott's criteria, and stated more txplicitiv to dedure what he, in his setting, must do. byEverhart (1975),is Mc nerd for reform of the manner in which federal agencies conduct evaluations. Ja(7kson would have researchers just present data: i.e., 'Fhis plea for reform is not new mid has been expressed deseribethe situation and then allow the reader to by others (Bernstein and Freeman, 1975: Wholey et al., deduce what must be dOI11'. Tradithffild definitions 'of 197(1: 1971), lieformists must realize, how- evaluation have placed far more responsibility on the ever, that there are certain systemic charaCteristics that evaluative researcher. For exaniple, Atkin (1972) stated constrain the ability of federal agencies to modif) their that "the evaluator's role requires that he make judg- modus operandi. Nlost notably, because they are wholly ment, about the relative worth of various rourses iii dependent on Congress for financial support, the agen- a)7tion." The ability of anthropologists to assume this cies must comply with vermin responsibilities mandated judgmental responsibility within educational evaluations by the political matrix in which the) exist. TO violate or has not been demonstrated. Furthermore, if the respon- ignoretheseresponsibilitiesispoliticalsuicide and sibihtv of making jildgments about tlw relative worth (if certain destrnethol. various programs is not congruent with the canons of Federal agencies atpresent have some latitude to anthropology, then anthropologists need to seriously change their operating procedures without violating their reconsidertheir involvementinfederally vontracted mandatedrespousilsilities.Th,:r changes should evaluations.' instimtedtofacilitatethe potential contribution of varions methodologiral techniques. Nevertheless, (It the Summary point %viler) federalagencies have made maximum effortsLi) compromise,itma\ stillbe liecess«ryfor The piirpose of this paper is not to advocate the use anthropologists to assess. whether their continued involve- iii (plantitative versus qualitative methods. (onfliets over in ofresearchwillso the Ilse of hard'. data or soft data are irrelevant. ment thisparticulartype compromise the ideals and norms of their discipline as to [lather. this paper attempts to critically assess the degree make it unacceptable, of congruence between the anthropologiral perspective and the responsibilities inherent in a narrowly defined type of rescarellfederally rontraeted evaluation. The Notes issue. therefore. becomes that of determining the effect- i% eness of a partividar inethodologival approaeli (anthro- 1. Portions of this paper were presented at a sympo- pologivalfieldwork) toaparticular t plof research sium sponsored bythe Comwil on .Anthropology and (federal contract evaluations). Nlaii years ago), Homan, Education at the 1975 Annual Meetings of the American (1949) expressed a very pragnratie perspective on this Anthropological Assoriation, San Franeisco, December issue. lie said: 1975.I wish to thank Drs. John Singleton, Hal Nelson, and James 11. Wat:ani for their insightful comment:, on a People who write about methodology often forget preliminary version of this paper. that itis a matter of strategy, not of morals. They 2. A distinction between the federal s stem of award- areneither good nor bad methods, but only ing rontracts (as opposed to grants)I. crucial to the methods that are inure or less effective under theme of thispresentation.Bernstein and Freeman partividar circumstances. (1975) noted Mat eontracts are provided when an agency, either on The qualitative field approach has reileatedly demon. its own or beeause of executive or legislative straw)! its ability (o contribute to ()lir understanding of instructions and influenre. deems it important to undertake a piere sif researrh. Under the contract social phenomenon. Indeed_ this method has demon- system, the general ruleisthat the ageney... strated its iiLiiiLby illuminating the complexities of the draws up a set of project specifications which state edlicationalprocess through the works of Smith 'and . in earring detail the researeh they wish to accom- Keith (1971). Cusick (1973), Barth -(1972), Jackson plish and thus will support. (1968). and Rist (197(). However. Atkin (1972) pre. contract s stem provides less latitude for change vionsl noted thal evaluative research may lieressitale and spontalivit%during the course ()I' the evaluation quite different methodologies and analyses than efforts Iwcanse Me research activities have been specified

15

1 6 in the contract. Contracts ids') mplire considerably more Nelson.11., F. Giannotta and S.C.1.undin. Multi- continuous federal monitoring to insure that the con- disciplinary Evaluation of Edwational Innovations: tractor is complying with tin terms of the contract and An Anthropological Perspective. Palter presented at to insure that the goal of the evaluativeresearch as the annual meeting of thy .American Educational defined by the stionsoring agency will be accomplished. .Rescarch Association, Chicago, April 1974. Bernstein and Freeman (1975) described basic differ- Kist, R. C. The Urban School: .4 Factory for Failure. ences in the contract .system and the grant system, which Cambritke: miT Press, 1973. included (I) the process whereby the researchis ini- Salasill, S. "Exrrimentation Revisited A Conversation tiated, (2) the process of reviewing itroposals, (3) the with Donald T. Campbell." 1:3 Evaluation 7. 1973, monitoring provess, and (4) the implementation process, Singleton,J. Personalconununication, 3 December :3, Using the characterization of Bernstein and Free- 1975. man (1975), federal ageiwies found tlmt anthropologists Smith, L.NI. and P.NI. Keith. .4natomy of an Educa- are trained to function (and accustomed to function) as tional Innovation. New York: Wiky, 1971. academies and not as entrepreneurs. Wax, R.I I.Doing Fieldwork: Warnings and Advice, 4. It should Ite noted that ethnographic description Chicago: Univ. of Chicago, 1971. wastheprimary mode of anthropologicalresearch Wholey. J. et al, Federal Evaluation Policy. Washington sponsored by the Experimental Schools Program of the D.C.: The Urban Institute, 1970. NationalInstituteofEducation. Undoubtedh ,this Williams, W. The Capacity of Social Scienae Organiza- biases certain perspectives presented here. Fi'Pr-ex'ampk tions to Perform Large-Scale Evaluative Research. Singleton (1975) noted that the ese of certain other Seattle: Institute of Governmental Research, I. of anthropologicalresearchtechniques\\ 'add pose no Washington, %4tril 1971. particulardifficulties inrelationship tothe issue of Wolcott, II. F. "Criteria for an Ethnographic Approach timeliness. to Research in Schools." 34:2 Human Organization 111,1975.

R eferences

Alkin,NI.C. 'Evaltiation Theory Development." In Rossi and Williams (eds.) Evaluating Social Programs: Theory, Practice and Politics, New York: Seminar Press. 1972. Barth. R. S. Open Education and the American School. New York: Agathon Press. 1972. Bernstein.I.N. and11. E.Freeman. Academic and SUBSCHIITION INVITATION Entrepreneurial Research: The Consequences of Di- versity in Federal Evaluation Studies. New York: You are imited to subscribe to it seholarly publica- Russell Sage Fomulation. 1975. tion devoted to research related to education in Papua, Inside High School. New York: Holt. Cusick.P.A. New Guinea. The Journal of Educationis puldished Rinehart X Winston, 197:3. twice yearly, Articles from past issues bay,. included: Etzbuti, %N. "Policy Research,- (, Imerican Soriolorrst 8, "llic New Guinea Performance Scale and its Uses," I. G. 1971. Ord, September 1965 "Anthropology and Education.- Everhart.R. 13. "Problems of Doing Firldwork Educational Eyaluatitm, 342 Hunum Organization NI, \lead. June 1068; "Goal Selection, Sclidetermitia. 205, 1975. tion and Tillie: Learning the Trobriand Identity." loleomb, II. "Tell Congress Results of Research." 7:313 N1cNamara, February 1970: "Science, EtImoscience and Education Daily4.I 971 Education." H.N.11. Hubner, Februar\ 1971: "The Va- !humans. G.. C. "The Strategy-ill:industrial Sockdogy." lidity of Bruner's Concept of Nlodes of Representation 5.11 mer. J. of Sociology 330, 1949. of Reality with a Sample of P,N.G. Children." NI. H. lannaccoue. I. "The Field tud\ ill Educational Policy Kelly, October 1971: "If Your Child Goes to School Ile Research.- 7:3 Ethwation and Urban .Society 220, Will Get Tongue-Tied." A.Isoiamo, October 1972: 1975. "Ihvergent Thinking and Gniservatisin.- J. Jones and J. Jackson.P. W. Life in Classrooms. New York: Ilolt, Shealime 197:3 and "Swill! Relations in a Palma New Rinehart Witt...ton, 1968. ,Jackson.P.W.-NaturalisticStudies of Schools and Guinea Primary School.- R. Smith, October 1975, A Classrooms: One Reader's Digest." In Sciltkovirk and snbscription11):4S SBMO. Send your cheekto The hiller (eds.) Educational Evaluation: Analysis and Editor, Journal of Education, P,O. Box 2051, Kone- Responsihility. Berkeley: Mel:mein-an. 1971. (lotto, Papua, New Guinea. Nelson. 11. and F. Giannolla. Research Methodology in Alternative Education Settings: The MET Plan. Min- neapolis: Educational Services Group, 1971.

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1 7 ETHNOGRAPIIY AND EDUCATIONAL POLICY: LOVE AND MARRIAGE OR STRANGE BEDFELLOWS?'

Robert B. Everhart Northwest Regional Educational Laboratory Tacoma. Washington

For the past four years I have lived ill, worked in, and about prosecution of the war with the Japaneseand studied' one school district in the state of Washington. helped determine surrender and occupation! terms.Of sociologists olofield- Daily I have interacted with my neighbors, teachers, rourse, many anthropologists and administrators, and especially with students, a routine work related to poliey issues, or which rolf:d IM, applied whichhastotally immersed me in a microcosm of topill& policy, but the direct utilization of snch American .sdiooling. Working under the auspices of a research to shape or reform public policy is, unfortu- policy ederally -sponsored Ex perimentalSchools Program nately, too rare. At best, we have the making of (ESP) has made this r:tIjourn worthwhile beeause Ihave with an ex post facto rationalization for it tied to a been able to monitor continually the heartbeat of not selective search of relevant literature: at worst, we have onlytheactorsinthelocalsetting butalsothe policy being made with no direct effort to use anthro- mysterionis and sometimes elusive pulse of officials in pology (or any other discipline,for that matter) to IIEW/NIE, who have been carrying out what was oiler inform the In dicy-makers. heralded as a major new conicept in federal educational I propose to explore why SO link of what ethnog- raphers have done is used in making educational policy. While doing a study of . student lifein junior high In order to discus.; this topic,I think it would be first ,whool kas well as performing innumerable other chores useful to review some major characteristics of ethnog- that at- part of working on an evaluation team), I kept a raphy as they apply to policy issues and policy formula- notefileon what the experienres of fieldworkers tion).Ilaving disrimsed these points,I'llnext review evaluating an educathulal programreveal about the ethnography and its utility from the perspective of how relationship between fieldwork and educational policy. public (educational) poliey is made. I'll also discuss the

All the while, I Imve been waiting for the exuse LII defensibility(orlackthereof) of a verypessimistic compose thesethoughts: when I was asked Of my picture of what ethnography can offer. Much as w'd interest in presenting a paper on this topic,I was, of like to think otherwise, ethnographers aren't always the conrse, delighted to accept. guys in white lulls, and I'll point out theresponsibilities paper addresses the relationship betweenethnog- they must consider if their work is to have an impact raphy and educational policy.I have ehosen that topic beyond that of the readers of esoteric jonsrnals. for a very straightforward reason: these are the areas I'll offer some thoughts on reconciliation. closestto my work.2 The applicability of the paper

could.I51111111, j11.t a:, easily pertain to ethnology, life Some Critical Elements of histories, case stildies, or ethnosemantirs as 10 medical. the Ethnographic Approach mental health, enviroiAnental, or transportation policy. The specific applicability', be it some omit of a vulture or Numerous elements are pertinent it) conducting an a variety of institutional settings, is notimportant. What ethnography in any setting, be it remote Java or the is important are the techniques of anthropological and local school around the corner. These elements tend to sociological fieldwork as they have'applicability to and differentiate ethnography from other modes of research. inform major inliVS of public policy. Thefirstofthesedistinguishingelements revolves In addressing the wider i,sue of the interface betwrcen around the definition of the problem jo b investigated. policy. and anthropologkal fieldwork, we have to admit Noll all ethnographers are anxious to outline in program- that the direct contribution of fieldwork enterprises lo matic fashion their "research design," hypotheses to be /milky making has heen spotty, indeed, though notable tested, or samples to be drawn, nor do allof them exceptions exist. The Cornell-1'4.os project, begun inthe conceptualizetheir study by the standard scientific early1950, under thedirection of thelairAllan hierawhy of theoretical, conceptual. and operational llomberg, attempted to apply knowledge about com- issues. This is not due to laziness or lack of adequate munity change and modernization to developmentwork training ill graduate school, but rather to the :;implc fart IIIa pwvionsly impoverished areaof Peru. The even that ethnographers, unlike most sociologists, politicJ earlier work of11exanoler Leighton] and others in the scientists, or psychologists, prefer to decide after rather Office of War Information added valuable information than before the faet which researchable problem war

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1 8 rants. investigation in a particular setting. itt this semse, it is .11 complex gestalt shaped and formed from a variety; of is difficult for ethnographers to enter any one cultural pressures arting in myriad ways. so must the investiga- setting and sayin advance what they are going to tion of any research problem ascertain tlu .!degree to examine, or that th6y will examine only sibling rivalry of whichwide-rangingfactorscometobear onthat the Balinese or the effect of minkrnized cnrricithim on pritblein. secondary school children in America. hey findit Again, I found the necessity to trace relatimiships and equally impossible to predirt that they will use a certain It) Con trastperspectives important iii my work intilt, battery of interview questions or projective techniques school district. Working on an ethnographic.approach to togetatthisinformation, andthatfollowing the provide an account of janior high students,I was first collection of these data they will leave the research site satisfied with describing their life and perspeetives in and begin nalysis. Delineation before the fact presents school butt soon found I needed to account for the place difficulties because it makes the assumption that the of school in tlwir everyday life, Then I realized that WIC problem stated a priori in the fieldworker's (or funding cannotunderstand the students' viws of sehooling ageney's) mind is the problem which most dearly and unless one understands the view of others in One's role definitively describes and defines tlic es,enee or any one set-the teachers and administrators. Ii onsidered inelud- cultural setting. ingparentallifehistories but found thattoo time- Problems arise whan fieldworkers interaet with others consuming to carry out. not accoAomed to stall an open-ended approavh. Nly ,Attaining an expansive rather than a restrietive scope own wt..rk occurred under the aegis of a ftqleral project is naturally tied to the issne of problem definition. Au supporting"individualizediligrai.ctionin a school expansive scope prevents isolating variables for intensive distriet. s I was doin!r fieldwork ini junior high school, analysis: instead, it pre-supposcs that ethnographers will project officials continually pressed me for answers to investigate the degree to which actors are influential in the question of "how well is individualized instruction tapestry bing weaved. The research problem will then, operating'!" Nly initial response was to state that Inv inallprobability,be descrilwd and analyzedas a problem for investigatilm was "what is individualized complex rather than a simple issue, a point which leads instruction as students experience it'!' ,\sIeontiiiiird np to the third and last characteristie of the ethno- my fieldwork. Isoon saw even that question as too graphic account. focused and substituted instead the question. "what is An ethnographic aceount is meant to be a detailed the process of schooling as students exiaTiviire itr and rich chronicle of a given setting or sub-volturr. Ill thisis not to say that ethnographers go into a thin nellse, ittiitint describe enough to provide outside settimrwithin, tsome "foreshadowedproldems" to readers with-a SCilse of what it is like to be a 1111.11111er of examine, nor does it nay that they do not carry with the gronp being studied. Indeed, the information should them Milli tii mreptnal baggage from their diwipline. be rich enough and complex enough so that the reader There is no such thing as a tabula rasa. It does mean, on coldd act out a role in the setting being describednot (he other timid, that ethnographers "make" rather than unlike taking a script for a play and learning the lines, "take" the problem and that they enter the scene, as cues, and movements. Ethnographers. 'therefore, must Turnboll (1)72) says of his own work, with neither write what actnally happened and how people actually.. specific hopes nor any speoifU feurs. and this IVIIN perceived their larger environment, despite the fact that s U should be.It is%too easy toO. ipto a field such detail may appear, at first blush, to be exressive situation expecting or hoping to.find this or that. and commonplace. Ethnographers must describe the ,for invariably you prune mit having fruity! what coliiinonplave as it happens in Iln daily lives (if people, yon wanted. Selectivity ran do great things in and then expand that description by pointing out the blinding one lo a wider reality.I was interested significance of what has been described. Their task, as rather in a very general comparison between two itichardsou (1975) has so eloquently stated, is to tell hunting and gathering societies (Pygmies and Ik) in about people in the manner of an tide poet: totally different environments; it was more a fact finding mission than the testing of some theoret- As teller of the human story, the anthropologist ical /min I of view; ... cannot falsify what we are, lie seeks to find the full range of human variation, the cruelly, the Part of the reason for ethnographers deriving the magnificence, the love that is in us all and in all of research problem from the fieldrelates to a second our cultures:Butthe anthropologistisnot a characteristir of an ethnographie approach,that of passive recorder of human data; he searches for the scup.. Individuals using an ethnographic appmach at- hullUM Were I. tempt to east a wide net as they' piece together the complex inkrwraving of people, events. conditions, and Such detail and drama cannot be transmitted bstractly meanings interarting in a sperifir setting or sub-vulture. or ill summary. form but rather 1111Int 11)11%11, a, The% do this Iir!!ause of their belief that. just as life itself VOSSilltr, the affert of the human eondition.

18

1 9 .1will have occasion in the material below to return to not broad relationships. The former are seen as "nianip. thisdiscussion of an ethnographic aceolint's charac- ulable," the latter are not. Seeond, he points out that teristics. this stance is realistic in that legislators and administra- tors call select onlY within a small range of choices. In What Policy Makers Need and thissense,data are needed on the effectiveness of What Ethnography Provides clunices within these constraints although, as he goes on to admit, these data may by no means speak to the. Until recently, the subject of how policy research -most important problem" or arethe key to any should be ethiducted has beeiva topic talked around but complex set of pro dents. seldom frontally addressed.. Three years ago, however. In discussing why this is the case, Nhilhauser sheds James Gdemati (I 973) listedwhathe ealled "Ten :4inne light on the intricacies of niaking public policy and Principles of Pohey Research." Among the points which notes some constraints onitsoperation.Histhinl Colman made are: (I ) 'Him policy variables are those "given" is that legislative bills are not pieces of "national which are subject to policy manipulation. Those which life," but rather are discrete efforts which parallel lines are not manipulabl must be treated differently: (2) of committee, agency, and administrative jurisdiction Policy researrh should be defined within policy guide- and turf, a point reaffirmed by Merrow ( 1)74). If this is lines rather thanbeing defined hythe investigator the case, then the policy process will not be concerned himself: and (3) The ultimate pnoluct of any policy with far-reaching efforts but tather with the research niust be a social policy modified by research of informatimi to illuminate the treacherous path of° results. If these are fair characterizations of the criteria narrow legislativearts as they proceed through the for policyresearch, then we can nvision a scenario cminnittees of Cmigress. A fourth "given" venters on the depicting th ideal type and process of policy research sheer tininber of players who are involved in the federal such as: educationalpolicyprocess. There are multitudinous levels thrmigh which any pieee of legislatimi mus4 pass goverlintivnt agency is to make a choice 011 whether and, as Mulhauser points out, -no actor or organization to commit funds to edticational option -,A." which is a really 'owns' a problem but OMNI negotiate from the funding of selundsthrough a system of categorical outset the definition of the problem and the relevant grants, or option -11," which I. a system of mon actors to help in its solution." disbursed for general purposes with sehools determining how to spend it. The ,rovcrinlient calls for individuals Returning to the short scenario presented earlier, the and agencies 141 devise a research design meant to test conditions 1111111.10II141 bv both Coleman and Nhilhauser 'these options in a variety of settings. The research tram thrit, to have lic'en mot. Virst, policy makers rather concludes that while controls art tighter in the ease of than researchers defined the problem to be investigated. option \ expenses an reduced in option -11" dile to Srvotid, the problem as defined tits into what could be fewer administrative costs. Nlso. recipients approve of considered "manipulative variables," that is. factors that option -11" hecaustitgi% es them greater discretion to could reasonably he expected to lead to poliry action. Ilse the mone as influenced by local conditions. These Finuall , wt may assumethat information on these results are reported lo die government agency. ()whin conditions is such that all artors in the policy pnwess is ultimately chosen because it scents aceeptahle could be expected to lake a defensible and reasonable school administrators as a practical and sensible way of position On it to insure approval. Stoll choices within a having sonit say akin t how itione should be spent. It I. relatively narrow range permit the art of compromise also chosen because it avoid, the expansion of federal with neither the surrender of eritiral values nor the agencies 14, process and monitor grant. applications and necessity to :issnine a radical position. contracts. Research on the subject of choice between one of .A similar scenario for -good- policy research could two binding options would. in Coleman's and \lid- be developed by following the guidelines described by hanser's terms, be considered good policy researell,-and

(1 975) Itu an article dealing sperifically with given their terms there is no doubt that itfits the need theapplicabilityof ethnographytothe domain of to implement pnblic policy.Itignores, however, the rdlicatimialiiilui Nhilliatiseroutlinesfourbasic nisiderationof anyinformationtoinformpublic ens" of the policy nittkiii,process %%inch ctlint,g . policyto provide policy with a different direction or to raphers need tniniderstand as they :111111\' their %vork to force itIII consider Ike roots of educational issues rather current micial I'irstiu, echoes Coleman.:: cmirrni than justthe '1'hus.theprinciplesfor policy that what policy makers net.41 from any research I. the research as stated by Coleman and Nhilhauser an both -immediate identification of politically viable levers of narrow and parochial. What if option "II" is not more action.- Ile goes on to point out that the polic maker is. expeditions than option "A'"! What if neither of them is nsuallylooking for information ou some "mundane found lo make one bit of difference ill anything that comparisons among a restricted set of instruments'. and makes adifferent:v.! monies are funded from the

19

2 0 federal level three tly to the schools rather than by way set of athninistrators at federal, state, aml local levels" of a specific and definable program: how does this fit (Mulhauser, I975)issues supposedly crucial for educa- into the entire climate by which school districts make tional policy. decisions, nin schools, educate students? How does it The set:ond place ethnography runs into roadblocks relate to the ongoing dynamics of the administration and in the area of public policy deals witb Le- related area of organization of American schools? The type of policy seop. Not only do ethnographers prefer lo pursue their research we have been discussing will telllilittle about definition of the critical problem but, otict defined, they' those issues whereas an ethnographic study of a district wanttoinvestigatethebroadparametersof that centraloffice could not only inform policy makers problem. My own work on junior high youth has about funding options but, noire imptirtantly, describe followed in that direction, although it certainly is not as the culture of administrative offices a ml the role of fiscal holistic as that which might be done bv some colleagues management within that culture. who are more anthropologically oriented than I am. But I can speak from experience on the subject of my work is considered by some as "irrelevant" Itecause whetherpolicyresearch is broad or programmatic it doesn't focus directly on project goals and objectives. because some of my colleagues and I spent considerable My response is that while such objectives mean some- time evaluating a federal education project on this very thing to technocrats and policy officials themselves, they issue. Receiving severe criticism from our own parent have less weaning in the ongoing experiences of junior organization for not looking soldy at "outcome vari- Iligh students or even their teachers. ables" and for not basing our ntire five-year effort on ethimgritplik work tends to be dense and how every action had implications for project objectives, rich, posing a critical-problem flu- policy makers who we argued that the project had to be examined in its don't have linty to read such voluminous material. As we context, that is. as a "transplant" of sorts into the living have seen, policy work needs to be crisp and to the organism of the schooldistrict.l'his "illmninative" point. 'rhe color and emotions portrayed in an ethno- approach (Weiss, 1)66: Weiss an(I Rein, 1970) focuses graphic account are seen as excess baggage that gets in on how things work rather than simply how well they the way Of "the facts." are working. We attempted to examine a school district In reviewing what policy makers say they need front holistically,not onlyillterms of itsplaceinthe the world of research and whatitis ethnography community and the everyday activities of school person- provides, there is an obvitms disparity or "mismatch" nel and clients but also by hlentifying forces responsible (Nhilhauser, 1975). Policy makers want quick and simple formoving theprogramin adirection. "Program information on a focused problem in order to provide objectives" and "outcomes"aspects ostensibly crucial information on variables that can survive the administra- to good -policy researchwere foundto have little tive:legislative process. Ethnographers provide broad and importance in the lives of most school personnel when dense studies on areas which may. or may not be placedinthe context of their dailylives and the considered to be ptiliey issues. In looking at critieism;of regularities of schooling and the community, ethnography and itseffect on the making of public policy,1 am struck by the emphasis on ex ped i e nee and Bid we call see that any attempt to examine a setting pragmatics adopted by those in policy circles. This is holistically and, more specifically, to conduct an ethito- certainly understandable, for ill the world of action and graphic approach on sonw aspect a that setting, creates getting things done, long-term gains are usually surrend- adisjiincturebetween the precepts of ethnographic ered and compromised for short-term effects. studies and the ostensible conditions under whiell such studies are said to be "useful" for the making of publir Yet, Ihave little sympathy with the eriticisin that policy. Earlier,I described what I saw as some character- ethnographies do not define some readily identifiable istics of an ethnographic approach and I outlined those lever which a policy maker can pull in order to change a characteristics in terms of problem definition, ;:eope, and socialprogram. What many!milkymakersfailto detail. In terms of policy studies. then, an ethnographic recognize is that policy itself is a cultural phenomenon, approach mins into considerable difficulty. First, the subjecttostandards and values that are constantly. problem for investigation is frequently alit-red or even changing and which are meant to be altered to fit a determined after the fieldworker llSs heen on the site for variety of circumstances. George Herbert Nlead said that some period of thne. While it may he legitimate for men create their own world and their own view of that policy makers to guide the ethnographer in certain world: so do they come to form and u. accept various directins (such as examining the cducatit mai itroresses views on what constitUtes a lever for social action. Public illa given community an(l schooling in that context), policy then is Not east in concrete, molded by policy few ethnographers would findittenable .to conduct makers who have objectively determined where polity fieldwork where they were forced to study "alternate changes can be affected and where they cannot. Public ways to tax a uliIumliioliz, it I regulate organizations and policy is a political process. and the political process is as individuals, and to channel funds through one or another much symbolic and ceremonialas itisatightly.

20 21 rationalistic system. Because of the non-hnear dimen- the case being described. (:ertainly, tiley often rite other sion, of policy making, policy is meant to be pushed and anthropological literature to stipport (and sometimes expanded, informed and debated.it this nellra!,it114441 refu(e) a variety of points being made, but this in llol the lila lieminor variation" deahng with sonic relatiyely type of developmental approach of which I am np..akiug. "mundane problem but can nd should be expansive Instead, I see that ethnographers are either unwilling or and III our ow.ii country, for ryample. %yr unable to .consuult Anil digest the rariety of literature have come to areept afiveto ni\percent rate of o'\ 11 ing outside of (as w(.11 ki(hin) their own field and uneinploy mem as permissible, luiIo too Srandanavian bring itto bear on the sperifie phenomenon they have rountries such a rate would he the cause of swift pokey examined. action. Inthis country, ve have come to tolerate an I .et1111' offer a ease in point. The series, -(:ase Studies educational system which allows a hull twenty percent of in Education and Culture," edited by George and Louise the population to be unable to exhibit any modicum of Spindler and initiated almostIt/ years ago, contains hanie Survival nkilk y et we ignore many factor, which sonic very interesting and readable ethulographies dealing ethnographicapproarlues,suchas -thoseby( :usick with education in a variety of settings. I hay.. read many ( 1 97:1) and Itist (1 973), i4lentit y. as conitributing to that of the hooks in this series am/ find them commendable. condition.Thosefactorsaresaidtobe -notma- Ru( they lack an). systematic attempt to tie the findings nipulable.3 to literature so that those in policy circles could take the l'hus, the critiques of ethilographies raised hy many- findings, compare them t,. similar findings. and arrive at policy- maker:, are also critiques of their own lark of an informed judgment about howpolicy maylor t011 What the parameters of plublie poliey are and reconceptualized aecount for those findings. \lost of could be. Both (.:oleiluan and Nlulhauser seem. content the books in this series deal, in one way or another. with Yvith attacking all poliry research that does not fit a such topics as acculturation, the nexus between the narrow. pragmatic, and utilitarian model. They want (Immunity .and the school, education and the economic policy researell to predelim the proldems, to deal. with order. the school in it, politival context, the relationship 1"1.11"1l'\ t" horivf: ovir- betYvven the school and the state, classroom dynamics, thing else is peripheral. Their obsession with pragmatism or modernization. l'et seldom do these ethnographir, and the status quo explain, the policy maker, call for education attempt to inform the reader on %dial sindies ethnography to adjust to the practical demand, of the in not only anthropolog% lout political science, sociol- policyprocess, %dude they refuse at the same time to o!ry history, 611111'11, I'Vcii literature, have to examine the very process by whirli policy made. say about the findings and interpretation, reached. :1( best, these ethnographies treat us to a short, one- or The Noeded Contribution of Ethnography two-page conclusion which inform, its in smile general to Educational Policy. svay that the school is part of the larger society ill which i(i imbedded. Thus far,I have disrussed how educational policy i, vourse, the studies in the Spindler serie, were not made and some criticism, ethnography and it, lin.ill originally conerived to have policy.- implications, toitin making educational policy.Itin clear dlatI have little 'lir field(to fault them for a sin of omission. flu) the sy inpathywith some of these criticism,. and I ha\ e other hand, in there any reason why ethnographers could faulted policy makers for making the assumptilm that notincorpora(e a wide hod) of finding, from any policyis as it in and demanding that ctIniograhlly adapt number of fields to better place the study in ,oine more to its standard,. general and broad perspeetive? This approacha holi,tic 1-ct. I thinkifyve look in the mirror, w ner mode of analysis to complement the holistir nature of relive( ionof Mir:when an brightand tlue fieldwork--could make ethnography more influential uncorrupted a, we %vould like to believe. Weed, in this in informing :,ignificant cducational nertiiill, I'd like to maintain that ethnographers are not limitation of ethnographies in their role- the knigh(s in shining armor that they think they are vance to public edneational policy is the ethilographer's (1:imball,I 975), and that they, too, need to examino ! penchant for a functional approach to deseribing carefullytheir own work vis-a-vis the formulation of phenomenon.Idon't see tlui, a, a problem unique to edlleationalpolicy. I shouldmile herethatmany rthnographie, but they sharetluecriticism with any 10 etliumraplier:, lo Mot feel that their ovork should have number of research modes and thus IIIIIntill'111.111 policyimplications, and I would not ito .r11 daring to a tile saint' su !sttluatall should; Ido, however, claim that manv I don't want to indict structural functionalism as an more could. inappropriate way to look at some social phenomenon. One limitation of many ctlutiographies is that the) fail for Ifeel it does describe a great deal. Vet, a functional totie the rjell and ea,e-sperific data to ail:.develop- approaell is often used simply to describe Wily a gjvcil mental literature that rould add considerable insight to social or cultural ,etting maintains itself in the manner

21 2 2 11111411itdoes, ivithl'ttle consideration for patterned analysis behind Ichicli they stand. I can sympathize 111111 inequities, institutional pover, ideologies, or the internal this feeling, for indeed I have found tit) must difficult dynamics of 1(4)1%.a system vorks and for 11110111 the and embarrassing moments to ht. not %vitenI present a system is clot functional. Sociology journals lvere filled scholarly paper before illy peers but %vitenI

111111 such criticisms and rejoinders a number of years describe %elicitI Ill)if) Illy neighbor, %vim is a member of ago. Davis and Moore (1 1)15) posited zifinictional model the Teamsters Union. of social differentiation to explain 11()1v soviet) allocated I thinkthisistut, bad. If%ye can't translate our revvards and distinguished among its members. fieldvork findings into an) thing other than siteli gob- on the other hand,Ivertquick to point out Innv a bledygook statements a, "the most Inisic problem that system of stratifivation, as analyzed by Davis mid arises_.in connection Ivith knovIctlgt utilization ina) be had its d):filnetions as well. In the same vein, functional thosethatstemfrontthe social and organizational analysis !dares schools into a systemic equilibrium and character of educationalinstitutions,"then%yr can slimes holy they are part and pared of the entire social blame no one butourselves. forthefactdial our ,)stein, Fituctional analysis too often ends there, with studies art not highl) regarded coestderation for or opinion on vlietlier such an It)Mall\1)1IiSide our own little dub. hi general, and equilibrium (if it exists) is desirable and how it might be %vitenappropriate, there no reason vli) studies on altered, for %%Atom, and at what cost. socialization or tieculturation patterns cannot address

I thin'. Gnu ethnographers, although they may find issnes of public ludic), icr wh) studies of community .tional anal)sis it) ht useltil at times, attempt values andreceptivit)to change cannotby.; io eitherlisf7it!mire creatively (Gaits, I972) or be applied, or vli) ethnographic studies of student culture eneuttragell to listother modes of analysis. There is a cannot Ice applied to the entire subject of learning and tendency, %viten dealing 111th systems and analyzing a cultural transmission in a particular socirt), The) can be setting hulisticall), to fall back on finictionalism a, the but aren't, and I:0111elillit'S %yonder if lve as sociologists most obvious mode of analysis. But this nerd not alvays. or anthropologists arc so limited in oar perspectit. that

Icc illi ra:=4! :11111 thereisnothing inherentinan) %Ic .simply don't kilmv Itt)Iv to consider the import of evintination of education and its context stating dial a our vork be) ond the debate of theoretical framevorks. functional approach must be used. The vork of Jules Some ethnographers exhibit afear or Itesitaticvlic limn-)%vas anything buta functional anal)sis., some take a stand and state limy they. the ethnographers, see recent Ivork I))liritish sociult)ists of education using a theparticular stud)relating to alitchi.)issue. The sueiology id knocledge perspectiv e(keddie.1971 ) argumentis often ink anced that description. and suggests the uses of an ethnographic approach ill other eription alone, is %%hat rtIntograph)is all about and itis than functional analv sis. The point then is, and should notthertlinographer'sresp(,nsibilit) tooffer an) be, that ethnographers have a variety of leverage point, substantive comments on %%hat certain data mean in so the) can deseribe not old) limy a system fits together, terms of judgment:, alum( %%hat could or should be donc .

butlimyitdoes nut. I think ethnographer., emilti differently, nor are the) capable of doing so.I suspect examine social phenomenon in term, of dis.sensus a, this:stature is rooted in the notion of cultural relativism %cellas consensus, thus offering a inure specific and and the accompan) ing belief that the etlinugraither's itch particular point of concern for polie) consideration. is mil) to sti)holy a s)steni does function, not limv it Another limitation of the ethnographic approach and might operate. Some have argued that a stateteent its goodness of fit with policy research is its failure to of judgment on IIOW something should ttrk precludes considerlit)%vpatterns described' and perspectives re- (cltjectiv it)in the slcucI iiIiiinii.ituheltaior and counted could have an)rehab 111,1611to larger order Co( ):1'%%lit) 11.14 c1)111111III'dif) shots" are hi be question, imolving public puliry. This point I. related if I ticrorded less than full membership in the chili (1\ olcott, the first point oil the ineorporatitm of relevant finding, P)751)). in other fields hilt some additional foci art still in order. I prrsonall)find this to be an unrealistic assessment

Onefocuscenterson 1111,11 isafailuretoapply of nut old) how ellittograph) I. conducted lint Iniv% the ethnography to policy issues, the other on \vital seems to human mind functions. To believe that b) not statile, be a fear ur applying all ethnograph) to poliey issues. opinions or making judgment, sonic:hoe,purifies the Unfortunately, tou minty ethnographers failto take data that have come before and makes them "more ethnographicstudies tothe next step to be able h) objective" is naive. 1\ I.all go ittli, an sitilatilin 11 it 11 min allsver in a detailed fashion the "so 1111.11 question. olvni prectnuriptions awl our owl, biases.. Ethnographic Perhaps this is and has been all part of the scholarly description itself I. Itiased, fur the ethnographer has had tradition" wherein academicians have founditmore to make decisions about %vied events to portra) and comfortable to talk to each other rather than place their vhicli to leave ont, what to emphasize and not ht. It) insights on the lintbefore the general public, thereby pretending that these factors are nut there makes the being stripped of the jargon and sometimes pretentious description no inure valid" thanII)statingtine's

22 23 fraine%oirk. beforehand and then attempting to compen- view, should remain in the elcistered halls of the campus sateforthat as much asispossible.Siiiiiiart and scientists hould speak to themselves. making judgments and calling.foriccticv reeommenda- I don'tthinkthatetlinrigraplierscr an social lions after dispassionate 'dcseription makes a study no scient,sts have to quit dealing with !whey issues but I do less ethnographic, anthropological, or Imre than does think they have to do a better job at it. Certainl. wc prIniding description alone.. Idon't think that have to recognize that our knowledge is fragmented and the inolvement of ethnographers inthe making of somewhat imperfect Inut as (.:oicitiall (11/7:3) himself has educational polie) necessarily corrupts the discipline and said. -Partial information at the Curie an action iiiiist be makes itless respertable or scientific.. As Ilyines says takenI,.better than voniplete information after that (11)72), ''Uuui siucnuiii react to the utterance of 'that's not time." Etlinograplivrs must lie willing to grapple with anthropology' as mic vould to an omen of intellectual the hard realities of the imperfection and generality of death. I:or that is what it is." iheir informationlintthis shoidd not dissuade them from making informed judgments atter having presented Towards Reconciliation a description as arenratelv and as objectiel as possible. e should not lead people to thihk we ha\ e the forres of The question we now fare is whether the application prediction in our grasp but Ile afraid to of ethnographic :Ipproaches to the making of educa- venture a probabilit. tional indictis possible or whether thinxviii alwas be ant cstrangenient.4 hile WI. \ 11(4.1 ',Mill 111,91.0 ccl In this respect. et linographylike any la her seience icr reconciliation. ithinkitvindil he unreasonable to art. for that matter. might be akin tic Stretnm's (11nM) expeet a blissful marriage.Likeit(If MIL 110111'i. malogy of the practice of law. where anthropologists ii.iiuiI \ticci made using the information Indic) makers and sociologists describe. explain. and even interpret 1:iie about the merits of one approaeli or the other hilt behavior -roughlyInit%yell withinlocallimit::. and on the bargaining and rompromising hetwecii individuals inveritivelwhen reqiiired.- l le representing variousinterests and interest groups. As the bar huts prin-iples, no Grand 'Theory.Its Redman 0973) lias cc iichiportrav ccl. polic,,legisla- tion is a dance which responds to inan ciles and which principles are moral, indilical, admtmilary. But the general priwiples Ihemselres are rarely reliable far moves iii man% directions before it is completed. deduction, and theyriccz nv never shmildbe. no less the ease when Imlic) made lc.)aelmini,lrative Lawyers do nal dream that a few parsimaniaus, athe than lerislati% I' decision. If this is true, itis not arerarrhing laws may MU' day subsume all UtherS. onl ethnographic data are %irtinall utilised (and They know the difference between Lucke's subject unusable) but most scientific data as well. The political mailer and .Newton's. They neither suppase their proves, often precludes the use of -scientifirallra- science la be younr:,it rnsjl indlistriously under tional" data in much of it,. operation. If such %very not apple trees. the rase. then how could the finiliiprs of the National (:onlinission on the (:ailses and Prevention of Violence It ethnographers on the one hand are to be more and other similar bodies go linheeded Malt. 1971: willing to suggest what their deseriptions and how konuaric%,kN. theyapply,then policy makers mi the other hand

(ii% en theselimitations. I think thenare certain tl) 111W1.1 some doors and allmv ethno- responsibilities both ethinigr.:pliers and polict maker,- graphic approaches to become working tools for the liatif thereisa potential for reronciliation andif. informing of eilmationalicciji. (.:mvaril (1117.1) states indeed. more dcliiiitic information is to Iictised as the that -because the agencies are wholl dependent cm basis for eillicatimial !colic). Sonic claimed that (:1)11grP,for financial support. the agencies mlist complv ethirographers. indeed. social sHclitists in general. liai with certain responsibility parameters mandated b the no placeiiithe making or hchlhchictiii. Alo)uihan politiral matrix in whieh 1110 exist." 1 )ry\ (us (14)7n) (11)101). for example. criticizes the pretentiousne-- of a argues that Congress is limited to sinninar action rather ,mall group of soviologists interested in problems of than to the implementation of major Indic) directi%es, a ile%ialir,for IuI the impression that the had the role rcr.ened to the executive branch. Yet this line of iiiis%er.for vomincing the ,...,)eriiitient111 adopt their reasoning sliggests thatthe federal s stemcitpolicv "arisiver." andtheutviitchia,, the whale effortla1i. making andpolicyimplementationisa giet, and Nisbet(11)75) auses sorialscientistsingeneral of somehow cannot be altered.Italso disgili,es the fact and denialulin:, the right to git. :Aire as fiants that there is enormous discretion ill the political process. %%crc IitIir 'rinks.- Ile goes on I(I andthatiiitheareaof education many programs ,(16:11 in general should sta mit of public polic, -mandated- by Congress are sclectieh

-tiltingthat the "piirposI' I -Iihili j,.to search for enforced andimplemented b government agcncie, truthnot to ackisc ;.to eminent,. sa%. mankind. make (\lcirph. 1471). public polir, yr build empires.- ::;eiviire.iiiNisbet-s I ilforIlinatelv. I thinkthattherefusal of policy

23 2 4 makers to look id their own side of the fence as well as 3. thereis where the ethnographer should be at his the other side indicates a lack of vision and a too great best.Ile should be ableto describe an eilueational willingness to accept what is rather than to speak out for praetiee. examille the assumptions underl ing it. and what could or should he. We need a greater sens of then relate the findings to II broad bod of comparative intellectual ,:limate in Om area of pliblir policy-not just data. IleItotild be able to outline the cultural assimip- a search for answers but. as Riehard llorstadter mire tions in both polie formation and implementation and said. the ability "to turn answers into questions.- In this show, if tieressar. that these assumptions mav hi respell.policyhasto becomeles.:concerned with changeable if viewed in the proper perspectiVe. pragmatics and more concerned with the problem at SUIllu reanull:- for this estrangement arc outlined in hand. Nlerton's (1968) discussion on the role of the intellertual

Finally. and related to an earlier point, Ithink we ill public laireaucracies. need to make the distinction between ethnography as a way of assessing the rffects of a program linked to a indie and its use in assessing the very policyitself. References

Clearly. I think. ethnography -and possiblyapplied research in general- -is more suited for assessing a poliev Cohen. D.K. and \ I.S. Garet. "Reforming Edneational as"sing "nlYthe Policy With Applied Social Researeh." 15 Harrard program. which is part of the policy. In this respect. Educational RITiew. 17. February 1975. ethnographers can and should be willing to relate their Wyman. 'Teil Principles Governing PolicRe- search." .4P21 6. Februarv 1973. findingstothebasiepremises and objectives of a Monitor Coward, R.T. "The Invokement of Anthropologists in particular policv. In the same light. policy makers and Federal Contract Evaluatims," presented at meeting implementers should welcome this contribution because of American AnIhroptdogieal Asstiviation. San Fran- it adds to what (ohen and Garet (1975) have termed a cisco. Iteeemher 1975. "discourse about socialreality -a debate about sorial Cusick.P..A.InsideHigh Sehool. New York:Holt. itroblems and their solutions.- This is.1 think, what. we Rinehart W'inston, 1973. need more of -a forum for discussion, not just on hivis, K. and W.E. Nloore. "Ullie Principles of Stratifi- answers but on the questions to which proposals are the cation." 10 lnwriran Sociological Review 2.12. 19.15. answers. The commitmentofthe ,...pherttt Dreyfus, D.A. "The Limitations of Policy Rescariliiii context. to description. to the meanil everyday life CinigressionalDecision Nlaking." Poliey Studies cantituutr:j;;i ni nrablytothatdiscourse. The Journal 269, Spring 1976. Gans.1IJ."The Positive Funetions of Poverty.- 78 tiI enter the discourse American Journal of Sociology 275. Sr ptendier 1972. ;rid the commitment of both parties to be informed by thyme:, D. -ria. ()se of Anthropology: Critival. research die the discourse ran hlp remov e from Personal.- In Ilymes (ed.) Reinvent ing .-1 n thropology. stigma which lIenry Brooks Adams once laid on philos- New York: Random !louse, 1972. oph"unintelligible answers to hist ihible problems." Keddie, N. "Classrown Knowledge." In Young (ed.) knowledge and Control: New Directionsfor the Sociology of Education. London: (:ohlier.MacnnElan, Notes 1971. Kimball. S.T. "Comments" ttuuNhilhauser's "Ethnog- raphy and Policymaking: The Case of Educatitm." 34 I. This paper was presented as part of the sympo- Human Organization 315. Fall 1975. sium."The Wider.Applicabilitytil:\tithropological Komarovsky,I. (ed.) Sociology and Public Policy. New \lethodology." at the meetings of the .Ainerican Asso- York: Elsevier, 1975. ciationfor the Advancement of Science..lioston, 21 Nlerrow1. "The Politics of Federal Editeatit,ial Policy: February 1976. The paper benefited fnmi the criticisms The Case of Ethicatitmal Renewal." 76 Teachers of Raymond 'Award,\\ ne Do le, Toby Edson, Caw 19. September I 974. WilliamFirestin c. Nlcsserselimidt.a1141 Harry \ lerton, R.K. SocialTheory and Siwinl Structure.New W4)11.4)(t. York City: Free Press, 1968. 2. At the outset. let Inc say that my training has been Nloynilian. D.P. MaximumFeasibleMisunderstanding. New Y ork: Randinn House, 1968. ill soeiology and education. not anthropology. I have \lulhauscr.F. "Ethnography and Policymaking: Th, lotm had an aversion to the preocrupation of 11104 Case of Education." 34 Human Organkation 311. sociologists with social structure and survey analysis. Fall 1975. thus my natural attraction to anthropological fieldwork. ,I.T."Title 1 of ESEA: Politieals of Neither doI want to claim that the work I have been Implementing Federal Edurational Rebirni." 41 Har- duitig the past three .rars is necessarily ethnographic: vard Educational Review 35. February 1971. rather. it is possibly what Wolco(t ( 1)75a) has termed an Nisbet. 11. "Knowledge-De-Throned," New York Times ethnographic approach to research in education. Magazine, 28 September 1975.

24 25 matt. vm. (i.d.) The polities ot Riot (..ottonissions. Nem. -.\Iternative pproaches to the Stink of Nock: Macmillan. l'/71. Complc\ 2() Human Organization 198, Rdman, E. he llam. of I.egislation. New York: Simon Fall 14.440. N R till i (if Bruad. Itichartkon.NI. Niithropolo.ist.1 he NI) th Teller.- 2 hued Programs': Experimental Desi,..04, Its Difficul- merir" EtlinOIOluist 517- \11!`11'l 1975- ties. and .\Iterilatis..- 15 Administmuire Seiener Iti,t. R. The Crhan School: Factory .for radars,. Cam- Quarterly mr.". \larch 1970. bridge: NUT 1(/;3. Spindler. (1. and L. Spindler. -Case Studic, in Education \\4414.44tt.11.1'. "'Criteria for ati Ethnographic .pproaell and Culture.- NY.. N.I). toResearchin Schools.- 3 I/Inman (Irganization Stretton. IL The l'olitical :_.;eienees. New York: Basil- 11 1. Summer 19774. 1-look,, 19W). .Viehlwork in Schools: \\ here the Tradition of Turnbull. The .11ountain People. :ew'irk: Simon Deferred Judgment NII.4.ts a Subculture 014,..4.s,ed with SehusTer, Ealuatism.- hil. Quarterly 17211, Vebruar 197511.

ON THE ETHNOGRAPHIC PROCESS IN ANTHROPOIMGY ANH EDUCATION'

Allan F. Minns Alit Associates, Inc.

\iithrspolog and education a, a field of inquir) ha, Time, hat r changed. Toda.) the problem, of selecting

inherited 111111\ 11111111 from authropolog. Like a field site w here a project can be carriesi out invoke the the ts bierdi,ciplitie anthropolle:.educational illingilessofthehost74Wil.t. tO A11111111, the antliropolog) haa ero,,-cultural msr comparatit s frame- aailahitit of funds. and the applicalhilit of a them-) or tork. itplacc, a itjit:due on cowl-t and ,ituational Iu pothrsis to the location. There I. need to be more ariablc,.and.fortheniti,tpart,itdemand,. that 4,, Illicit about the kind Of kilowled!,4 to be gained from kilmtled!reabout'whim!,and education be!rained a particular stiol _Serious thought has tim be gi en to the

throupliinten,itcfield,t1111.iLti Iantliroplilog and format, audiences. and utilit of stinkfinding,. Iii- education ha, al,o inherited ,olits trait, of atithropolo* fortunatel, educational antliropolog has continued to that ma not be Tide pott erfill for illider,tandin:.! follsks die parent discipline of alithropolog) in ignoring education. nue ,iichtraiti,a lack of thought about these topics in faor oft lie more 4.,4 citing aspect, 441 t% hat make, up an anthripolotlical ,tild of education. doing (he fieldwork kut people are not transported into NN hillit common to read about the technique, and a school s stem like the crew of the Starship Enter. actit die, iiifiehltork. participaidob,ert, :1111: (he prise :2 ,tuslic,. films and other products of research do 01111111111:1 14 being a stran...er and a friend to 1111- ,iibiect, not magic:11k appear at the 4.144,r of a ntild).Itis ni iii r,eareli. little ha, been tyritten Aunt re,earch 111,1:111 purpose here to take a 4m1114[1.144.mi\ e 1100k at research in and the ttriling. up of a ,t1111.iii anthropolog). this authropolog and 4.1h:cation.Iwill not be reviewing the

liarril range of topic, in the de\ eloping -,elf-conseion,- various 1114)414.1, of re,eareli design implicit or 4. \ plieit ui (Na-11 and NNintrols. 1972) of the iii.ii1iliuis ha, a the literature of the field. but rather will propose a , ethnographer, leftto And)xotic infidellirheuristicparadigmfor an anthropological culture, in far-off lands, it wa, tIshs,tlrotil to record n11111\ Of eillIcatimi. In order to e\eniplif the content of

01111111 I. 1110r.11115.' tilisit 11111111411111111 '401111\ . unit thi, model, I will dra upon a stutkI haw 115111 doing all approach wa, ben'efieial in that autliropulog iletel- Nitli lit ssociates of the school, and conintunit of oped as the 1115.,t general of the ,ocial science, and the \\ Mew, \rizolia. Hitt the main ;militia this discussion is diter,it of the Imman condition became the hallmark thestructureoftheenterprise. The whole of an of the field. In the old anthropologi,t, were ,ent anthropological stildfrom deciding who. what. and ont lilt -eXprdition,- dic frontier, of die planet or. 114.re tsi stiol to publicizing results--ean be termed ati more often. scut lo a ,mall 50111111111111\ 10\11111111\ 1, -ethnographic process.- \\ ithin this procc,,. four major :11111 111111 115 "11.:irn lbe culture.- componentsrail 144. identified:researchconditions.

2 5 26 research -lesign, resean.li implementation. and product anthropologists %vill not be recognized as authorities in creation. At fisst glance, these four component, appear educational research planning and policy. Educational to make tip a temporal sequence: indeed. the limitation, anthropology will be put in the po.-ition of reavting LI of proseslipportthis appearance.lintinreallife. the proposals and plan, of others rather than generating especiallythelife ikfield stud). these four com- proldems and new kvays of looking at schoolin,r them- ponent, areillconsfant motion. The conditions of selves. Inkist., if the creation of research products is rest arell change, a, does a stud de,igii and it, ample- not taken seritiusl, then ii I kri.likelviltat the timi . 1.rtaiitets are assembled l the end air it stild the skipport. and the editing of the product, %%illhe and perhaps edited or revrittili btu their creation is a relegated to a residual eategory in a stit.1. W riling up iteGvit . monographs,.creating audiovisual materials. and in tPther Delon.Iturn to a disctission of each component of ways puldieizing research fintliii!,s, art. loo important to ti.1'prOC1'Ss. 1 ciI i.iiiiIIIi4)tii)illthe danger, lie left to chance. Wax (1)t71) has noted that a study's inherent in igtioriti,k Ctis process. dangers which can limit write-up generallytal.es more time than doing the the contribution nthropology ran make to t thicational fieldvork, a point forcillly seconded II\ W.4.1cott (19770. polic.theory. andpraetiee.Follo%vingthis. I Will lintbecausemanyethicationalatithropoltwistsrl .

1111t11111 .011111 III tilr 11:Irri1TS that have kept people from trained in the tradition *If old-time ethulogra1111, which looking at educational anthropology in a comprehensive emphasized a separation of fieldwork from the vritie.l. light. of an extensive monographwriting a reportis often tholight of as something that occur, after t study. Dangers of Ignoring the Ethnographic Process more prudent approach W011111III'LI)I'Ve1/g1117.1' that 1ill Thi. basic 'Linger facing educational anthropolog) anthropological stud)of education seldomtells\ iiiitilil the whole of 1111 /11111111'1111)11(1gIcill :111(IV Iiiigulorvii only 1/111! thing about seln.mls: lion does tile knowledre IS thr 4(1111ept11111 1111111011S/111011 Of till! disCildille 11110 tIll' gitinedei a study wait itutil the end of a period of idea Of fieldwork. Doing fieldwork or participant obser- fieldwork before it becomes visible. The component of vation isnot antliropoliwy. lic:aiise of the inordinate report preparation uuiiiLI,iC011sidITI'd as a major and.. attention umiak. givn to fichhvork in the literature. rolitinning part of an ethnographic ,tudv.\ practical educational anthropologis ill danger of bring equated result of ignorin!r this f .ature, one that many of ti, have withit.It inaportant to note that the relationship of laced in the field, is finding that for political. economic_ fieldwork to educational anthropology is not reeiprocal. or policy reasons support for product preparation is While it is diffirailt to imagine an anthropological study lacking after fieldwork has been completed. inch does not include fieldwork. it is certainly possible A third danger in not looking at an anthropological to do fieldworkiLIiiiilL doing anthropology. study asa comprehensive operation involving several Iftheproblemwere merely the mislabeling of equall-important components is that future students research (how much more exciting a study sounds if goingintothefieldwillhave a distortedideaof it is calk(I ''anthropological"). then it would be easy to educational anthropolog. There has been a lot of talk send out warnings and admonitions to the perimeters of lately about the need for preparing graduate students iii the discipline and hope that the researchers stealing the nthropology (I).Alidradt. -tal.,I975) ;nal education name and some of the thunder of anthropology would I97() for the uncertain job markets of the take heedlintthe problem runs ilce;:er.'Ellenisa future. While most of Limitreports stress the need for (hanger that those commissioning studies of education bv adaptability among the scholars of the future,iti, anthropologists will take the false equation it, importantto note that any anthropological study of Some signs of this possiblity have already emerged as edneation has the potential for teaching ntildelltS the sliovvii by (linton's ( I97:1) portrayal of the anthropol- diverse skills of the trade. It would seem to la the height ogistas a "hired hand." If such a trend continues. of folly to caricature educational anthropology as the anthropologist, of education may Ileo'11111e the "instru- roblemsoffieldwork" whilealsO attempting to ments" of the many sister disciplines shitlying schools convince new student, that they need to adapt to new andtheir contexts. To III'rel'i)gluiZI'd 0111Vfor their frontiers. lahilitytoelicitex teli,iveinformation from sehool :\tithropology has alway, been a risky and dangerous people ill unobtrusive ways, alithropologi,ts would be in business, When my family andI undertook rem-arch in danger of becoming personified tincstionnaires roaming Yucatan. Alex ico, several veal-sago. wt. were warned that the schools of the wi mrld. tropical disease could easily claim (1111- III.our lives. ti additional danger in equating ethleationial Canting short a field s:ittly because of illness or death is pology vvithfieldworkisthat development of other not tiol..tminion in th..:sistory of the discipline. Totla in components of the ethnographic process will suffer. If educational anthropology lick.' dangers confront students careful attention I. not given to research design and the of thefiebl:while they may not be as physically evolution of research implementation. then educational threatelinig as the agile, they can severely retard the

26

27 development of anthropobig) and education. Ignoring pology.' most of nu,uii related to the science/art dilemma. an\ni the cutnienfellb. .111int ethnographic study of Powilerinaker (1966) talked about the anthropologist as education can lead to Ow false impression among policy "stranger" (i.e., scientist) and "friend" (i.e., humanist). iii.ikers that anthropologists of educationIillTIL know \lost introductory textbooks make a distinetionbe- quantitative teeliniqiies- and are best "left in the field.- tween "real- behavior (what people are observed to do) Atthelevel of an individual stud y.the ilan,reriii and "ideal" behavior (what they say they do). Trans- ignoring the complexity of the ethnographic process formedbysome oftheideasand vocabularyof manifestsitselfinthe lack of time or support for linguistics, this division of thy world into real and ideal adequate concyptualization, analysk. awl writing, or ill categories became the basis for a debate over the stud) the inappropriate use of research techni(ples in the lIeld. of "clic" or "emir" klehavior (Berryman, 19(i6: Ilarris, P)68). A recent discussionin Current Anthropology Barriers to Examining the Ethnographic Process (Paredes and Hepburn, 1976) has sugge-ted that the cognitionparadox"isrclArdtothe At thy outset. I suggested that the discipline of "culture and anthropology Aned aWir:from discussion of such different hemispheres of the brain. While itis possible things as research design and report preparation for that the right or the left side of the brain is responsible historical reasons. and that educational anthropology has for people being "intuitive- or "analytical." there is followed snit. This barrier raisYd in front of a critical growing evIllenri snggesting that the two halves of the examination of the ethnographic process is a barrier brain %.ork in concert, and "right" or left" thinking built on tradition. Three other barriers have obstruYted dominance is only a popularized notion (Hamad and thy dialoglic nil thy process: the dilemma of anthropol- Steklis, 1976). ogy as art and science. the lack of comin'tence among 'I he reg,on that the z-cieney/art dichotomy has served scholars in the field, and the lack ()I a vocabulary for as a barrier to a realistic assessment of the ethnographie discussing theissue. The last of these-the lack of processisthat the combatants. on both sides 0; the vocabularyis: of c.Jursi .the topic of this :.ssay. While I battle-line have made ridieulous demands. Thus,' who make no elaiin that the particular terms : am using here hold an "artsy" vi"w of anthropology recoil from the are the final words on We :11IP:IVCL.I do hope that they at thought of setting down a rational minlel for what they frist open a dialogile.. do. There is a fear that loy stating exactly what will take Whether anthropologyis an art or a sriener isa place during astmnh one limits the intuitive, often question which continues to be posed by practitioners of randomactivitieSthat ar needed to maximize the the discipline. Edneational anthropolOgists are .not im- anthropological way of knowledge. There isa sense mune to the implieations of the questioui . although among the more humanist anthropologists that some- yet seem to hay,. been Spared some diatribes that thing of the "beauty" of a study will be lost in this way. have characterized the debate in anthropology. Iprefer I am reminded of a remark an ethno-musicologist said to uot to think about anthropology-as-art-or-scienee as a me (mire about the place of analysis in OWdiScipline: ipwstion with a right owl wrong answer but rather as a "pm anthropologists take apart culture like a bhdogist dilemma. The discipline deals with 'Inman beings: as takes apa.1 a butterfly. You never see the beauty of its suellitis faced with all ()I' the vagaries. contradictions, flight." and hidden motives that humans have developed over I hi the other side of the coin anthropologists looking the past few million years. Still, it seems possible or at for more scienceinthedisciplinecallfor explicit leastworthyofefforttoabstractregularities and discovery procedures (Tyler.1969) and careful enn- similarities from the human condition. finnationofallethnographic stattinients (Nloerman, Inthepast."either/or"rather than "I.oth"and" 19(9). Nandi (1973) hos suggested that anthropological thinking lws characterized discussions about the art a id knowledge is nothing more than a stochastic probability science of anthroludlig.y. Th, editors of the MOIlllinell',a1 chain. and inspiring Handbook of Methml nv.tultural A nth, - The barrier of the science/art dilemma in anthropol- pology (Nandi and ( .ohen. 1973), for example, st ogy needs to be dismantled quickly.Taking the stand . that they would like to -see anthropology oecome a that an anthropological study is mysterious and per- progressively more rigorons and scientific branch of the sonal, and thus not amenable to rational dialo;.4ne, is as social sciciii.cs ill general.... Partially in response to ,this bad as asserting that the intuitive and aesthetic aspects and to other calls for more soiciice in anthropology, of the enterprise be banned from the disnipline (Werner floniginann (1976) recently propo4;(1 a return to the and Feleim, 1973).Iti-time to take heed from the 'personal approach- of the discipline. Thisdebate over writings of science and art (Ghiselin, 1963) and admit suience or art tells mon, about the wayanthropologists thatintuition,inspiration, and plain hard work 'are thinkthanitdoesiiomtthe stml)of peoplein characteristic of th" search for knowledge. Although it cross-eultural settings. Binary thinking based on polar may appear difficult to propose using "insightbased on (ipposites has long dominated man)lihiatt,s iianthro- serendipity" iii a research proposal, such an attempt still

27

28 should in inadc. conditions:.Itis thus necessar) to examine disciphilar)- A more down-to-earth barrier has kept the discussion interests in light of the other conditions of research. bout the ethnographic proves., the barrier of (If a ,ntall Southwestern cominiiiiitv. the scholarlycompetence.Althoughnthropologist,ol disciplinaryinterests I brought with ine ilichided an education would like to see themselves as reinearnations interestintlic ideational stslcuis ideas thatf teoph of the proverbial Ilenaissance 111(11 and women: in ctual Creatrd in order Jo ,,et along nd effect social change.

fart. ll of the n kills involved i the process, including lv view of culture and soviet)%%tis lieavil) influenced organization, planning. fieldwork, mid writiiv, skills. are 11) Wallace's (Ohl )ideathat people had olifferent seldom found under one hat. Stolle people are % er) good 'intizeways- (or configurations of the %%a)tliv)per- designing a rescarch project but not %veil equipped for veived the world) vvorked in a coniiiiiinit)in a !tutting plans into operation and gathering data. ()tilers wa) that made both social order and conflict a fart of ilia)be sensitive fieldworkerslint poor writers. Still life. Seen in terms of the study of a large, comprehensive others niti)be thoroughgoing researchers nd excellent projectof educational change ina small town. my writers but have no sense about how to pick a field site. interestinthe"cul(ural maps- thatpt,ople earritil The folklore .of anthropolo* and ethivation is replete round in their heads. was translated into researching with tales of scholars who have either excelled or fallen how different actors involved with a National Institute Oil their faces while carrying mit a Stlitly. of Education Experimental Schools project looked at The barriers to examining the ethintgraphic provess as whattheyweredoing nd howthet:ttalproject it applies to etlucational authropolog) have not served a appearedtothem. Taken one stepfurther, I %vas useful! function. Instead, the) have served to channel and interestedin how the several versions of the project limit the exploration of %%hat an antliropofog;cal study is. would affectthe wa)students,teachers, and other into the nit of writing about fieldwork experiences or eoinninnity residents either aceepted or rejected the intothedebateofswientisinversus humanism.If kinds of educational changes that were proposed. practitioners of anthropolog) and education feel at a .A second disciplinary interest was in the place of It.ss to describe how they write or how thc),plan a contextual vt:riabl..s as the) related to planned

stink, it is probabl) dile as mulch to a lack of attention ()Ile a tlit basic insights that anthropolog) has to offer to tht:.se topies as to their ability as ethnographers. is that icople do not ak%ays a7.1as. their institutional roles might predict but, rather. pproach every sovial exchangewith complex setof expectations and (:)nd:tiotts of the Ethnographic Process strategies for behavior. lo the specific case of W 'Hie conditions initler whiell a stud)is carried out Arizona,I was interested in the place that a local or range from the high') personal preferences one has in regional identity might have in the implementation of a relationships with other people (stunt researchers study federal clitowe program, nd whether sueli factors as principals, others study kindergarten students) to the ethnicity., linguist ir pluralism, or kinship would inflii- institntional setting of the research. For the purposes a ence the way the school system ()penned in general or this essay,I will not dwell on tile highly personal aspects, the federal prtiject operated in particular. of research vonditions except to note that they, too, are subjert to chlatqlc throughout a project. The disciplinary A thirdinterest.derivingfromthe disciplineof interests of areseaieher, the location of the project anthropology and education, was inthe naturalistic under stud% . and the institutional context a the study study of' schools. This interest bordered on the methodo- will be ctinsidered here. logical iii that it assumed that long-term observation was The interests one has developed in the discipline of neeessary to develoht a model or description of. what anthropology of education form the basis for the whole happens when a total school district attempts wide-scale research enterprise. If this essay were iii the tradition of innovations. l)oes educational change follow a step-hy- outlining the formal steps of theory trStingstateinent step advancement, or are there early and late changes iiiproblein, development of hy pothesis,hypothesis that don't seem to voineitle with an external measure testing,andanalysis-thenthedis(:iplinaryinterests (sueli as the month or year of implementation)? Is there would belong with a discussion of problem statement. something that can be identified as -the project'. in the Ilonigniann (1976) notedthatthe colliguration of dish-::t or an. there, several innovations that become the factor-. iiilluencing the choice of what to study often projectQ.t. post facto? These kinds of questions could depend, tm suh things as the popularity of a topic or a only beansweredifsufficienttime was givento research technique or the availability of funds for certain dav-to-dav observation of due school district over a long kinds. of researeli.It should collie as no surprise that period of time. Although the partividar educational academie fads or trends have a great inllnence on the change.oceurring in Willeo had characteristics of change

research marketplace. The importance of llonitummit's It% diffusion, change by **cultural brokers" or entre- observation is that the statement of the problem or the preneurs, and change by remote control through the researcher's diseiplinaryinterests are related to other funding agent.).in W'ashington, nthropological

28 29 LI1iLjIIIII,Ilgge,ted thatatianalysis of the elution. receiving funds from the ..ntvernment. program in the schools hail to wait until observation The institutional conditions that I1niii most trou- took !dar. blesome \very the -research overkill- that local piopl Miler iiiirryst,thatmake up the conditions of noticed emanating from the company. Illy tendenry for research are related to the location of the sellout or the survereseal-eller, alld other on-site coniniunit under stink. The selection of a research site observers to do their legv..ork in collerting data. and the where the problem, one seeks to solve Call be reasonablv lack of support and \that anthropological delineated is an ex treiliel important task. Idralk. Lhtr studies hadbothfrontthe rompati and from the loCale Of a bOth and National Institute of Education_ emotional interest to a researcher- it is too vas) to allow the other hand. the institutional conditions of the dislike of a community or silhool to overcome the- 1ht and the National Institute of Education made it objective and intensive base of a study. In my stud\ of possible to do a threr-yrar field stud of a stnall school Wilkrvo.ic..1. had little control mil- the ..perific s,:istem. a circumstance quite rantiu anthropolog and Seiretiiill for the rural I'Aperi- education (Firestone and W acastrr.I 9710. In addition. !UVULA ,4(11ilok program rite,s itt,itiiii,(Ile N.Iti011ai the research project involvd nine other studies of small Institlite of Education. .1sapart of the stimulative ommunities that received NIE funds for educational evaluationre,rarchtram.4thenr wenrtellpossible ehatior. 11 hen the final reports are completed, it will be

ommuniti s that I might hm-e had the opportimitv to possible iii-i mill-size and compare the experiences of stud .I was interested ill,(iing to Vi iIhiiiliecimse it was thesetenschool systems and uommunities as they the onk uuiuiitiiiiiiiiliuuii ill the :41.1111WeSi. reghin participated ill this huge educational experiment. whene ilk fainik and I wantd to live. In addition, I hail completed a sillily1)1 era! May al, Research Design in the Ethnographic Process (1)1;11111116CM,iii.uihiLhurrriNlexico. so the problem, of .1 good research design would show the two basic bilingualism and the influence of Mexico on a coin- phases of doing all rthilographiu ... study of education: the inunitfascinated lue.It turned OM that \\ ihhuui tvaS exploratory phase and the intensive examination phase. l*Xttelllek va,v to live ill. alld ulhir.L,l there was very hie of the power sources all ethnographic sooty brings revardini.:.Stoll:sing a CO111111111116 that Calllie raild to education is a 'commitment to doinil research vvhich "bottle- is a special pleasure. explores a school systcni and community unencumbered Willcox, .Arizona.is locatd close to the Ale\ jean Iia priori assumptions about %dim is most important to border and is diverse in latimage, histor y. occupational look at.Itivuuiiltl be naive to suggest that a researcher baseand environment. This diversityv.t. neflreteiliii could enter into a study vvith no prior assumption, proposal for educational change. so interests. or predelictions, but itis possible to hold these the localproject provided an excellenttest case for iii aIle alley during the period of exploration. studying change designed to make an institution more Designing au exploration period in a study serves two sellsitiVetOItSculttural environment. This particular functions. It first of all allows the researcher to devise emphasisinplanwas especially amenable tO being problems whirli take into account the unique circum- studied by au anthropological approach which traili- stances of the study site. It allows for subsequent studY tionalk plaed apriorit.v on understanding the influ- based on inductively gained knowledge of a school, a ences of environment and culture as applied tosoial district. or a community. A time of exploratory research change. pnwides inveAigators a chance (o -de-center- (Werner and Campbell, 1973). a process by vvhich titisYniliols I was hired by :ibt :1ssociates. a private. pplied and relationships of their own culture are replaced by resean.li comparu y. to do a case study of educational those of the culture under consideration. I te-centering in change in Willcox and to assist in several complementary a SellOol withintile United State:.is a more stildiescarried mitIIVAlll'evresearchers.Stichan delicate and subtle process than the usual trauma an institutional setting is not that common in anthropology ethnographer faces in meeting people \dm share neither and education. though then is a chance it may be more language nor experience with academie types (Wolcott, common in the future. The institutional conditions that NT I ). had a direct effect oll my study included the fact that three major survey studies were bring conducted in this second function the exploratory pliasr si..ryes it relatively small community (5.000 people) vvhile the thatitallikvs the researcher to gather as nitiCh con- schoolsattemptedbroadchanges.Inaddition.the textual and comparative data as possible before personal. contractnal arrangement between the National Institute professional, or institutional limits an ..set on \dila will iiiI.:duication, the school system, and .A111:\ssoviates dm focus of a study. The exploratory phase allows tolightthe made for a confusion of sorts--itit'd::difficultto the researcher to seekont and bring understand InkyI could be working in the schools, an background of cultural and social forces which have employee Of the research firm (Alit). hut somehow lir made the institution or community what itis. In some

29

30 eases, the information gained in such an exploration will hired to do the studies (Fitzsimmons, 1 975), do little besides set the stage for other parts of the Itis difficult to strike a balance in a research design study. :More often than not, however, the historical. whic.41 indirates both the dedurtive and inductive know- environmental, or other rontextual knowledge gained in ledge a researeher expents to use throughout a stmlv. this way willprove to he central to understanding Ideally, a research design shoti,d bc a nounisi pi" Wi,;(ti, whatever educatimull segment is under study. allows one to budget time and resource., ill such a way as In the Alit Associates project I have been referring to. hiachievea good stmly,Ifthe probkins ace tGo the iieriod of exploration was designed into the research, carefidly delineated at the outset, there is a danger that It was expected to last approximately six months and in-the-field observations may prove the prolilem to be the major product W011id a -Site History and Context non-existent, On the other hand, if aspects of schooling Study" (Burns,1 975).iii Willcox. the historival and or education are not disi:ussed in research design, there is review or the co,,ity and 5)11001.; gaveus the danger that the investigator may never get around to the illea of a "cargo eult,"5 a system of people aml studying them or that funds for studying them may be facilities which has the function of hiring urban riches to channeled elsewhere. this rural communityTit, fact that the schind system There were no requirements on the Alit project for received a million dollar:4 for five years (about 1 :**0 of creating individual research designs Iwyond the general thet))talschoolbudgetforthattime) to attempt planforthe whole pmject. Eachfieldworker was comprehensive change is a good example of how tbe expected to design a study according to the standanls of "eargo cult" worked.Like the cargo cidts of New the discipline involved (anthropology, sociology, and Guinea, the figurative runways leading to Willeox were educational administration), but no formal document not as equipped to handle the cargo as they were at was required. In my case,I wrote up a design for the enticing the planes to land. shiny of Willcox six months after I had begun fieldwork, 'flue second phase of a study making up a research The design was an outiine for a final report a grand design is Ow phase of intensive examination of major ethnography (in the tra)Iitional sense) that would vover topics.Levine (1 973) has labeled Otis the "problem- topics ranging from prehistory to rultural change,Iti solving or hypothesis-testing phase." The problem I see retrosret, the design inemotandilin i wrote was far too with his term is that presumably some problems may be ambitious to carry out, -but it did serve Lu bri solved in the exploratory. phase, just as A0111e hypotheses order to the field notes, photographs,intervienvg might be tested. During this second phase a study is criptions, and community artifacts accumulating in the brougbt intofocus,hiWillcox,the secondphase office. concentrated on the way the government hinds were Anthropologists of educatiiniare not known for transformed into a series of local project components writing comprehensive research designs, In the general such as bilingual education, early rhildhood education, field of anthropology, more aml more attention is being colniminity/sehools, and local evaluation. The study of paid to this activity (Spain and Brim, 1 97-1.: Spindler and project introduction and implementation (as opposed to Gold:m:1111MR.1 973), so perhaps the experience I liave project impact) required careful observation of hoW the related here is anachronistic. Broadly viewed, the im- various components ,wcre staffed, bow the new staff aml portant aspects of research design were still present: an positions were integratfil into the formal and informal allocation of time and resonrces for both' exploratory networks of teachers and administrators, and how the and intensive topic study, a statement of purpose about different "roordinators" of the components carved out what was to be studied and how knowkdge was to be places for themselves in the community. The funding gained, an indivation of the product that would resuit agency, the National Institute of Edlication's Experi- from the study, and the relationship of the study to mental Schools division, becAne a major research phe- other literature in the field. nomenon, atopic to be investigated along with the Development of Research in the Ethnographk Process activities of loval people. Earlier,I mentioned the importance of paying atten- The formal reseimli design for the study existed as a tion to the changes that lake place in the conditions of portion of the overall plan that .Abl Associates had for research, Doing an anthropological Andy of cdoeation in studying the Experimental Schools projects in ll ten an institutionas complex asa school demands an rural selund systems. The ethnographic studies were incredible amount of "fancy footwork." or changes in referred to as "ease studies," and wen. described as the role of the investigator, for a study to he carried out. broadly-based ethnographies which would tell the pros- Not only do the t!gendas of a school system change from pective reader "what it was like" to live through the year to year with the vagaries of new administrations, localprojects.Modelsfor the studiesrangedfrom new fads in education, and new kderal programs to Levi-Stranss' Tristes Tropiques Hollingshead's Elm- competefor,but the wider conditions of research town's Youth, the variety being built in to accommodate change aswell.The studyIdidofdie Willcox the range of interests annmg the 'eleven fieldworkers Experimental Schools project is a ease in point. Between

30 31 the first and y ear of research, over tventv changes product asI had envisioned it votild suffice, The card took place in the staff positions of the local Project: t system %vas finefor noting the location of the syn- the Allt project level, fieldwork was shortened from five chronic data that filled the file eabinets but could not be to thre,by ears and the ethnographic ease studies %Yen: easily adapted to referencing the chronologicalfield relegated to part-time status. The funding agency, NIE, journals that had been written, The idea of a "grand tulderventseveralncar-erises andtheExperimental ethnography" also scored tont of step %%Ali the realities. School,: program lost much of its earl%interest m iLlliti orthestudy I wasdoilig. The loyalprojectand the agency. .As a result of these and similar changes, the communit were extremely complex. Trying to integrate study planned for Willcox :.Abcaine more limited in scope. some of the 1111.1!rsiaspects of the study bet;Neen t\vo 'Elie goal of a complete ethnographir description was covers seemed counter-productive to a goal I 111'111 01 reduced to an account of limy the local project operated. expressing some of this diversity ilt the report. I derided Iltiingthefieldvorkforthestudyvas61m:- that the "ease study- of Willcox could best be written if consuming, exhausting, and subject to the usual prob- it contained a number of reports. One would be a major lems that someone doing partieipant recordinv, docu- report of the implementation Of the local Experimental mentation, and observation of a school and community Schools project., others. %void& deal vitlt .specific com- might facc. The only point that needs to be made about ponents such as bilingual education or with methodo- fieldwork is that changes ill the fieldwork's role should logical. itspects of the study, III. expected. Friendships vitli key actors in the drama of .As the Andy changed ill form and different seetions educationin 'a school become the !oasis for in-depth of thereports beganto bewritten. I foundthat -expert informant" or field assistant relationships villt edge-punched cards providedmeans front moving from people. While a Ileldworker may begin a study attempt- thefiles and journals of field notes and community ing to I"' a detarhed and neutral -objective. observer:. artifacts to written products. These edge-punched cards such a pose is 4telt not functional when information is served the function of distilling, organizing. and recalling needed on such topirs as the basis for inter-organiza- information from the diverse sources of field data so tional conlliet or the secret lives of teenagers. trick, thatdifferentreports could bewritten. The edge- again, becomes one of balance.and the careful examina- punched eards had the disadvantage of being too small tion of the consequences each evolutionary change has for 50111C data.111 addition, data such as photographic on the role of the fieldworker.Itisherr that prior files could not be entered into the edge-punch system. experience of fieldwork in ati exotic setting is of value. Such all experience usually has the effect of humbling Product Creation in the Ethnographic Process anthropologists enough to make it unlikely that they Nlaking the products of a research effort available to will become knovn as "troublemakers- in the culture of the public iti 1.00 important a jOil to'be left. to tliv cud of schools through outlandish behavior. a project. Although there is a long tradition of waiting Nlanaging the ever-gro%ving storehouse tof data from a until fieldwork is complete before the writing of a report. study deserves serious consideration. II' a study involves begins, such a strategy ran prove to he dysfunctional, In the storing and 'manipulation of a large number of easily many eircumstances, writing up a study must. take place codable data,thenitispossibleto take a portable while other 1111!11115 01 making a living are pursued, such key-punch machine to the field and transform notes as teaching or other research.. By beginning the serious directly onto computer cards, A far more common task of writing up a study-its sOUn as one enters the field, practiceinvolveskeeping two sets of notes, one a itispossible to build up a kind of library of interim chronological log or events,. 1110ivitil'5, and interviews reports, papers, and chapters from the study which van held with people, and the 51'1011111itfiling of relevant bereferredto.revised.and checked against future portions of the chronological log under the headings of findings of the study. theproposedfinal study. As I began the study of Such all approach is followed informally by most \Villcox, I used this latter method.I had different file ethnographers. The. tentative models, letters to frit:1141s drawers for information on the sellools and the com- and colleagues, and rescarvh 10101105 make tip a body of munity, each subdivided into categor:ie; that made sense literature which essentially :4erve this function of prod- ill Willcox. .A separate file drmver Yvas reserved for the uct creation in many studies. What I am calling for here short papers, memoranda, and articles which would be is a More fornialized pmeedure ill which such products integrated into tlicfinal study. Eachfile drawer also would be written up with the express purpose of contained notes from articles and books that pertained disseminating the among local residents, colleagues, to the topics I was investigating: In addition, a master and perhaps even the policy audiences of a study. Such a card file was started which listed the materials for quick strategy would seem especially useful on a long-term reference. project where nitu:h anxiety arises from the lark of Ily the on d year of research, it became apparent visible results of an ethnographic study.In addition, thatneither this system nor the form of thefinal writing up interim reports serves thc investigator loy

31

32 providing a chance to pull back from die demands of 'midi, the results of stmlies. day-to-day data collection nd review how the total Even if the traditional medium of prose is adhered to, results.. study is progressing.IL .Iso serves the investigator by therearelitanypos,ibilitiesforpublicizing insuring that an alldietlee or cmistintency n. dev(loped Scientificinier:ectua:idPsychology Today are Iwo for the kind of study beim, carried (me. popularjournalscapableofreachingawider and Thidifficultywithprodticing studyfindingsin different audience thatare the more esoteric researuli mid-streamisthat the confidence of the couttutunh journals of the trade.It an attempt is being inade Lii under study might be jeopardized.Inthe study of influenceIndic.),diet,itwould prove benficial hi Willcox, assurances we...e made when the study began publish summaries and articles ottresearchinthose that the sommative research findings would not he used journals that policy makers are likely to read. by the Experimental Schools staff of the NIE to make formative decisions bout the loyal project. There are Rethinking the Ethnographic Process several strategies (Inc can take in such a sensitive Indi() Much of the tone of this discussion of die ethno- ciuttcx L.For example, the interimfindings can be graphic proress has helm presuriptive. The ideas and written in slich a way. that they deal with suggestion,. I have presented here have grown out of Illy tion-progranunatie concerns such as the soial make-up 0%V11 experience on a large-scali .ititilti-diseiplinar proj- of a community, a -day in the life- of a student showing ect carried out by a private research company. The the place and attitude toward school itt such a dm or experieure has indicahil how little the anthropology of the network of communieation in a school. A second education is understood outside the boundaries of the strategy is to write up the methodologiral problems and field. Part of tltis problem has arisen from the lack of prospects of early fieldwork in an effort to examine the attention many researehers have given to explaining the kind of objectivity brought to thefield and also to nature of what I have termed herr as the -ethnographic provide the discipline with some examples of new field pnicess.-

teehilitines. .A thirdstrategyistowrite bout the It is 11111C11 easier to look back on a project and disruss historicaliamecedents of the school or school s, Stelll and what should have been dont rather than look forward LiiiplaCe itt historical trends in the present-day world. itt and Plan for the future. Still. the exercise -is useful in all cases,fromearly c..-,z4ay:- in,fieldworktofinal vreventim: future. blunders. Itis for this rPasonI used Albstantive nports. lucid school people, residents. and illustrations of Inv StIldV to talk idiom the ethnographic other c(nistiltants should review and critique the prod- processillgeneral. The discussion or ow conditions. uct:. Not only diws this insure that (daring oversight:, design, development, and product creation or au ctlinu- will be corrected butit. also maintains good relations graphie Andy of edtivation presented here is meant to with the community under sunk. In the future, the begin a dialogue whiell will strengthen the way research iliseiphn iii anthropology and editration will turn more is carried mkt nd publicized. This essay is meant to be a and more to the re-study of schools and communities in first Ivord-not the last-in what I hope will be a lively an effort to collect a comparative setof studies which cony ersa t ion. couldtest hypotheses about the differences between investigators or changes in education over time in one Notes setting.Stichimportant work can only be doncii anthropologists and other researchers of education are I.Iwould like to acknowledge the support ()I' Abt careful to maintain good Mations with the subjects 01 Associates and the NationalInstitute of Education (contract OEC-72-5245) for the opportunity to do the their studies. research which forms die basis of this essav. Without the Written reports arc only one kind of pro(luet that can support of colleagues and friends on the project staff, ac..rue from a study of e(hication. Tobe still:,tile writing t..his would not have been possilde. Terence Hays, tradition of scholarship gives a high priority to written Harry Wolcott. and limner Barnett made many useful results, and their creation is facilitated by the chances an suggestions on earlier drafts, hut the responsibility for investigator has of reading preliminary drafts at confer- theinterpretationsand shortcomings ofthispaper remain with me and not with these august cmisultants or ences and meetings and sending aroundphotocopies to with Alit Associate, . colleagues for review and criticism. But other forms for 2. The allusion to the popular TV series Star Trek research products are available as well. Ruh Walker and is based On a high school teacher's remark ahout toy Clem Adelman have just published1 Guide to Class- study when he heard ine explain it soon after I arrived in room Observation (1975) which shows thepowerful wit: Willcox. Ile compared Abt Associates with die crew of photograPhy can be put tu iii rdncational research and the spaceship whose mission it was to "find new life in teacher training programs. Video and audio recordings these distant school districts Inn not interfere with the hav e long been used as technologicalids Lit ,athi..ring aliens." data.If the expertise in graphic design and sound is 3. 'rhis possibility looms as very probably because the available, these media could well be used for making reliability of paper and pencil questionnaires 6. under

32 33 study and response rates decline. systems funded by the agency, 4. The Experimental Schools program of N1E made a distinctioll between local, formative evaluation of the 5. Harry Wolcott first recognized this similarity be- ilrojects and the simulative evaluation carried out by the tween Willcox and New Guinea: his insight is highly Abt Associates research team for allten rural sehool appreciated..

References

Berryman, G. "Anemic and Emetic Analysis in Social Naroll, R. and Ronald Cohen (eds.) A Handbook of Anthropology." 68 A merienn Anthropologist 346, Method inCulturalAnthropology.New York: 1966. Columbia Univ. Press, 1973. Burns, A. "An Anthropologist at Work: Field Perspec- Nash, D. and R. Wintrob. "The Emergence of Self- tives on Applied Ethnography and an Independent Consciousness inEthnography." 13:5 Current Research Firm." 6:4 Council on .4nthropology and nthropology 527, 1972. Education Quarterly 28, November 1975, Paredes, J. A. and M. Hepburn. "The Split Brain and the Clinton, C. A. "The Anthropologist as Hired Hand." 34 Culture-and Cognition Paradox." 17:1 Current .4n- Human Organization 197, 1975. thropology 121, 1976. D'Andrade, ft. G., E. A. Hammel, D. L. Adkins, and C. Powdermakcr,II.Stranger and Friend. New York: K. McDaniel. "Academic Opportunity in Anthropol- 'Norton, 1966. ogy 1974-90." 77:4 American Anthropologist 753, Spain,D.H.andJ.A. Brim. Research Designin 1975. .4nthropology. New York: Holt, Rinehart & Winston, Eddy, E. "EducationalAnthropologistsinNon- 1974. Academic Settings: Reports from the Field." 8:2 Spindler, G. and W. Goldschmidt. "An Example of Council on Anthropology and Education Quarterly Research Design: Experitnental Desiobn in the Study 20, May 1976. of Cul ture Change." In Naroll a rid Collen (eds.) A Firestone, W. A. and C. T. Wacaster. "The Promise and Handbook of Method in Cultural Anthropology. New Problems of Long-Term, Continuous Field Work." York: Columbia Univ. Press, 1973. Paper presented at the Annual Meeting, American Tyler, S.Cognitive Anthropology.. New York: Holt, Educational Research Association, April 1976. Rinehart & Winston, 1969. Fitzsimmons, S. J. "The Anthropologist in a Strange Walker, R. and C. Adelinan. .4Guide to Classroom Land." 34 Human Organization 183, 1975. Observation. London: Metheun, 1975 (distributed in Ghiselin, B. The Creative Process. New York: Mentor, U.S. by Barnes & Noble ImpOrt Division, Harper & 1963. Row). Wallace, A.F.C. Culture and Personality. New York: Hamad, S.R.andH. D.Steklis."Discussion and Random House, 1961. Criticism on Split Brain Research and the Culture- Wax, R. H. Doing .Fieldwork: Warnings and Advice. and-Cognition Paradox." 17:2 Current Anthropology Chicago: Univ. of Chicago Press, 1971. 320, 1976. Werner, 0. and D. Campbell. "Translating, Working Harris, M. The Rise of Anthropological Theory. New Through Interpreters and the Problem of Decenter- York: Crowdl, 1968. ing." In Naroll and Cohen (eds.) A Handbook of Honigmann, J. "The Personal Aisproach in Cultural Method in Cultural Anthropology. New York: Co- AnthropologicalResearell.21 17:2 Current Anthro- lumbia Univ. Press, 1973. pology 243, 1976. Werner, 0. and J.Fenton. "Method and Theory in Ethnoscicnec or Ethnoepisternology." In Naroll and Levine,R.A. "Research Design in Anthropological Cohen (eds.) A Handbook of Method in Cultural Fieldwork." In Naroll and Cohen (uds.) A Handbook Anthropology. New York: Columbia Univ. Press,

of Method in Cultural Anthropology. New York: . 1973. Holt, Rinehart & Winston, 1969. Wolcott, IL "Handle With Care: Necessary Preeautions . Moerman, "A Little Knowledge." in Tyler (ed.) in the Anthropology of Schools." In Wax, Diamond Cognitive Anthropology. New York: Holt, Rinehart and Gearing (eds.) Anthropological Perspectives on & Winston, 1969. Education. New York: Basic Books, 1971. Naroll, R. "Epistemology." lii Naroll and Cohen (eds.) A Wolcott, H. "Criteria for an Ethnographic Approach to

Handbook of Method in Cultural Anthropology. New Research in Schools." 34 Human Organization 11 1, York: Columbia Univ. Press, 1973. 1975.

33 34 PRESIDENT'S REPORT

Three tipies will be discussed in the present report: a mein appeals to you as a means of advancing the Dire Nrced, n Imminent Achivemmt, nd a Long- subfichl, expressing your creativity, and making a mark Sought Union. for yourself within the profession, for Pete's sake, let The Dire Need is for an editor of our Quarterly to one of us know rOtt away! And if you have a friend replace the distinguished ineumbentlack Chilcott, who who seems well-qualified but just a bit bashful, send us seeks the flexibility for other emleavors (see below) that your friend's name, too. We'll handle the rest! becoming a former editor will bring him. hod.; will thus I mentioned at the beginning certain "other endeav- leave his post after the November I976 issue, completing ors" that Jack Chilcott hopes to attend to, his term of a three-year term of office. office completed. In part, these vonsist of research and sothe searchis on for the thirdeditor or the writing of his own, and in part of making appropriate Quarterly (ii thn Singlehni was the first). The task is use of opportunities for the good life in his 1 ilesmi demanding but has its attractions. Perhaps forenwstis home territory. But Jack also hopes to undertake active the opportunity for central participation in the con- exploration of a CAE monoqaph series, in which he has tinuing definition of the sublield of anthropology nd a long-standing interest. Nlany membersof the Board of education: by what and how the editor solicits, cum- Directors hope that Jack can devisefinancially and misshms, and ehooses to publish, he or she is telling the academically somid plans for such an enterprise. It will world what educational anthropology is or ought to be. be a challenging assiginnent, however -witness the ups The editor's influence in this regard is more intense (four and downsorAAA's monograph seriefor which the times a year!) and sustained than that of CAE's officers, continuous duties of getting out the Quarterly provide who may shuttle through their posts several times during insufficientleisure.In leaving the olitorship, Jack is the editor's maximum three year:: on duty. With the reallybeingunleashed, a factI )1 which he seems editorship comes correspondence, too, with prodneing thoroughly aware. Thanks. lack! anthropologists and educationists throughout the United The Imminent Arhievement, probably recent history States and the world and access to up-to-dab informa- by the time you read this report but still pending as I tion about .current projects and publications inthis write it, is essentially Bob Tex tor's, on behalf of CAE. I subfield. am referring to the invitational"NloNterey Conference" The editor is a non-voting member of the CAE Board (July '2 l-'2:1) on the uses uf ethnography in research im of Directors, and chairs a personally selected editorial eduration. (The formal title of the meeting is "Work- hoard. There is hard work involved, too, such as cajoling shop Ex ploringQualitative/Quantitative Research tardy contributors, proofreading. arranging for type- Methodology in Education," a set of phrases worthy of setting the mannscripts, designing layouts,. negotiating instant oblivion.) .As reported in the Evbrnary Quarterly, with the printer, and so forth. Would-be tyros should the Far West Laboratory approached CAE. last December probably seek from their university or employer assur- to co-sponsor sucha meeting, to be funded inits ance of released time (one-quarter to one-third) and entirety by NIE, and the Board of Directors approved assignment of a professional typesetter. In these finan- the venture. Tex tor was appointed our representatiVe ciallydifficulttimes,perhapsthisisanunrealistic and negotiated (entirely pleasantly, he reports) through expectation and alternative means of dealing with the tlui winter and spring. CAE ideas and perspective are demands onthe editor'stime and skills should be firmly entrenehed in the final program. considered.Ifyouareinterestedin assuming the CAE and educational nthropology will be repre- 'editorship, we invite yon to tell us how you think you sented by Ray Rist, NW: Heanor Leacock, CUNY- will be able to handle the "productiomu '. phase of the Brooklyn: Louis Smith, Washington: Ered Erickson, position. Harvard: RobertIlerriott,AbtAssociates; Courtney 'flue 'we'' in the preceding sentence refers to the Cazden, I larvard: Dell I lymes, Pennsylvania; Textor, and Search Committee members I have asked to assist in the me. Another main contingentwill be :.oniposed of selection of the new editor: Paul Carlson, University of "metricians," to employ the Lab's useful neologism: Honston, Victoria Center: I:lid Killed'. University of New psychology, tests, and numbers researchers, more rep- lampshirc; Frances Schwartz, Swarthmore College: and rmentative than we anthropologists arc of the education Richard Warren, University of Kentucky. research community. A third groupwillconsist of Adademic protocol formerly required aspirants for a foundation officers and government officials whom we coveted position to languish demurely until someone hope to "educate" about the potential of ethnographic else had the extrasensory perception or blind luck to techitiques and findings for comprehending and solvieg nominate them for the desired sinecure. Well, CAE educational problems. certainlydidn't grow thatway, and if guiding the Quarterly through its next stage or stages of develop- 'flue strategy for this conference is to eschew the

34

3 5 broad view and to concentrate, via prepared papers (one Directors nd I hope to end this separation. by. an anthropologist, one by a nietririan), on specific substantive topics for which interdisciplinary collabora- A significant beginning to the end was made last year tion may be dluminating. Topics chosen include Assess- in San Francisco, with the invaluable assistance of the ing Race Relations in the ClasSroom;' "I low to Identify Effective 'reaching," Nex tSteps in Qualitative Data Hay'.Area 'feachers of .Anthropology and Hay Area ion:, wily what Archeological Collaborative. Yet the number of teaeheN Learned," nd ".Assessing Language Development: Writ- who came totileNleetings and participated in CAE ten/Oral." 0»r ambitions arc high---ive expect that the events was disappointing. In Washington, we will have Nlonterey Coulerenve of 1976 will lw influential to additional bait. Walter Watson, co-chairperson of Gun- the growth of our fieldas the Stanford Confereme mittee 3 (Anthropological Resources and 'rea(hing) has (organized by George Spindler in 1954) and the Nhaini arranged a display of elementary, secondary. and junior Confereiwe (organized by Fred Gearing iii 1968) were. college curriculum materials (textbooks, trio., but espe- cially items Other than textbooks) that will he located in One direct benefit for CAE. members will be receipt special space added to the regular book exhibits for the of a free copy of the conference proceedings as soon as full duration of the Meetings. Quite intentionally, tilanY they are availabh., a perquisite of membership in the or the CAE symposia included in the AAA Progam deal society. Th,,. willbe publishedby CAE nutter tlo terms withtheteachingof anthropologyor subjectsot' of olir agreement with the Far West Lab and NIE, and potential direct concern to teachers in sub-collegiate distributed widely to libraries and other professional institutions, as do many of the regular AAA sessions. orranizations in addition to CAE members. By this means, CAE's activities and interestswillbe made, "f o inform Our school colleagues of these and other wide range of potential members and known toa opportunities atthe :Meetings,aregular blizzard of collaborators. publicity will go oitt iii September awltolwr. Or. Solite of this Will he dittoed annonneements: other parts will be Finally, the Long-SoughtJllioilwill take place (if transmitted informally via the network of contacts in long-laid plans materialize) in Washington, November the Washington areathat\yr have assemlikd in the 17-2 I at the .A.A.A.CAE Annual Nlectings, when, for the monthssinceDecemberlast.Our goalwillbeto first tune, high school and elementary school teachers of convince these teachers that they are wanted at boll, tile anthropology will participate illthe Meetings in repre- formal and informal sessions and that they willfind sentative numbers. Do you realize that in 1974 there them helpful in improving their teaching effectiveness were 2901 teachers of anthropology in Anwrican high and anthropological linderstanding. We hope that similar schools (not all of them full-tilne in anthropology, of efforts to rearli local tearliers will inwur at subsequent c(Iurse),103 of them locatedinthe DC-Alaryland- CAE-AAA Meetings (e.g.. Houston in 1977) so that, irginia area? before long, CAE is in touch with praetieing school- people in all parts of the conntry. Ilw major thrust of my presidential 'year has lwen and will continue to be the "bringing in" to CAE of A "Union'. with our scarcely known brethren offers those high school and elementary teachers now present- many potential advantages for all partiesktorwledgeof ing the subject in the schools who, for one reason or instructionaltechnhpies developAbyhighschool another, are not affiliated with CAE or AAA. Soule may teachers, opportunities for institutional and community feel that CAE is the plaything of the niliversity research rescareh,.enrichment of the substantive Irirkgt.ound of community: others may feel that CAE cannot speak to pre-collegiateteachers, hurdler development of public their specialized, instrurtion-oriented interests...a number understanding of anthropology, cOnt:atIting jobs, partici- may anticipate a patronizing attitudetowards them by pationinthe expanding arena of in-service teacher current CAE members.Itis most unlikelythat the edircation,new memlwrsfor CAE, c(nninunication majority has mit heard of' CAE and its openness to among otherwise isolated instructors of ourdiscipline, contributions of new interest groups.Certainlythe am! many others.I hope tliatin the bag of tricks participationof largemitnbers of high school and planned for Washington we have included ones that will elementary si:limA teachers in the affairs of CAE would be effective in bringing us face-to-face with our separ- signify the advent of a new interest group! The Board of ated colleagues.

John D. Herzog 36

35 THE CAE QUARTERLY 1973-76: TI1E LIFE CYCLE OF AN EDITOR

John El. Chilcott

Following Ow model of sib! theory, I must dmit and a emative mind to make this transplantation. Much that I was most uncertain as to the expectations for a of the nthropology Ihave seeIl edueators attempt to CAE editor- threeyearsago when I assumed the translatehas been most inadequate. This. might editorship oftlic Newsh.tter (as it wasthen called). The suggest, is not so much the fault of educatoN as that Of role Of editor had not been (and still may not be) well the anthropologists wlm have not provided much in the defined. A6 is true of any individual moving into a new way of a model for making this transposal. role, I attempted to determine wbat the CAE member- This may, indeed, be a dead issue since none of the ship expected from their publication. Before I join that recent candidates for CAE office have expressed this contingency of happily smiling retired CAE officers,I concern. Privately. however, I have reteived a number of thoughtI would like to share (with th)se of the CAE letters from individuals who arty concerned about the readership who are interested) some of my frustration, rdationship between educators and CAE, nd partieu- sense of accomplishment. and impressions of the future lady our parent organization, the AAA. This division (if CAE. hmanie eminently obvious at our meetingsinSan (Ine of ,ny first actions as editor was to summarize Francisco where a number of interested teiichers were the reviou.s accomplishments of the C. Newsletter excluded from the sessions. (Novendwr 1973, p.(0). At that time I perceived four John Herzog, in his President's report for this issue, major areas of CAE interest: (I) An interest in the describes some movement at the forthcoming AAA cultural context of the school of American society: (2) meetings in Washington to alleviate this situation. Our Aninterestindie education of ethnicminorities, attention %vill be directed to the AA.A registration desk particularly in the U.S. and Canada: (3) An interest in to watch John's success in thi.s endeavor. the role of the school in both macro- and mirro-cultural The rdationship of educators to CAE may be more of change in foreign countries: and (.1) An interest in the a [political issue thail a publicatitm issue-yet publication use of anthropologied data and theory in the training of polic) should follow pohtical policy. Cmisequently, teachers. .:111 four of these interest:4 have been continued would like to make sonie suggestimis to the Steering through the publication of a wide variety on these topics Committee. during the. past three VCarS. First,I would suggest that the locatimi of the animal tine of my major roncerns when I became editor was meeting might be re-examined in terms (if the conthmed the appanult isolation between the anthropologist in an conflicts, both as individuals and asgroup at the AAA academic setting and the professional educator illthe meetings. not suggesting a split from dic AAA but 1 school. Early issues of theNetusletter consistedprimarily would sil.rest that only the business affairs of CAE be of conversations between anthropologists rather than conducted at the annual meeting.s and that C.AE papers, dialogues between educators and anthropologists. I'm symposia, and the like, be presented atthe annual sorry to report that not inurli progress has been made in meeting oftheSocietyfor Applied Andiropoltigy this direction. To be sure, some. recent issues of the (SIAA). This scheme would r nnit anthropologists to Quarterly have descrilmd du: role of .anthropologists in pursue their academic interests at the AAA, aml allow non-aeadernic settings, most of whom express a very both educators and anthropt,logists topur:Aletheir high level of frustration: but there has vet to be much mutualinterests at the SfAA. It has been my impression concernforedueatorsstruggling withputting into that the SfAA has been more amenable to "outside" practice their anthropological training. The recent survey participation in their meetings. of the CAE membership reveals that a large number of For the anthropologists, this scheme would have the CAE members are not anthropologists, yet somehow advantage of permitting them to participate with their these individuals have not been adequately represented colleagues at the annual AAA meetings in generating in theQuarterly. new knowledge in tbe field of anthropology, some of A colleague of mine, the late Edward P. Dozier, ()nue which, no doubt, would be related to education. For the remarked in a faculty meeting that all of anthropology is educators, this scheme would permit them to participate appliedanthropology. 1 would 4Iterthis statement along with anthropologists in the translatimi of this new somewhat toreadthat allof anthropologcanbe knowledge into educationalpractice.If the Standing applied anthropology. Anthropology needs Llw trtms- Committees conducted their meetings at the SfAA. this lated into action for educators, not an easy task because would permit them more time and allow them to include it requires a fundamental knowledge of anthroplogy among their members more individuals who have an

36 37 interest in their particukir activities. The Editorial Board has attempted a compromise between these two positions by developing a policy Filially,it occurs to me that CAE members need to which maintains theQuarterlymuch as you see it-a move out of the friendly portico of their own organiza- service-type journal with articles and news items of tion into the "'native"' world of teachers, administrators. interest. to the diverse CAE in-mbership. We also are and infornial ellucational settings. We need to participate currently developing a monograph series whichwill in workshops. organizations. and consultantships w here contain arti-les of significant research and thinking in CAE is the minority. President John Herzog in thiSuiit the field of anthropology and education. this describes some of CAE attemptstoperform To this end, CIE is fortunate in participating in a function. To date wc have, more often thannot, workshop sponsoredbytheFar West Educational expected educators to come to us rather than our going Laboratory, the papers from which will be published as to them. thefirst monograph inthis serieS. As funds become We need to help organize and participateinthe available, other monographs should follow. The August activities of local educational ortanizations .not only as and the November issues of theQuarterly containpapers peopleincurriculum development butas resource which were originally designed for a monograph series specialists in problem-solving at all levels of education. that remained dormant due to lack of funds. Careshouldbe exercisedhere,asthereare some I have been most happy with the special editions of problems anthroimlogists cannot solve. sponsored by the standing committees. We are particularly fortunate here in Tucson to have a theQuarterly Next February, the newly reorganized committee No, 3, local organization of anthropologists (Society of Profes- "Anthropological Resources and Training," will edit an sional Anthropologists) who all work in non-academic issue of theQuarterly,and next May, committee No. 7, settings.I've found participation in this organization "Blacks iii Education," will edit their issue.I hope that particularly interesting, for even though the members this practice will continue. may be working in public health, 111011d cities, alcoholic rehabilitation. or local television, they are all involved in Some topicsI would have liked to address in the cross-cultural communication and education. Quarterlybut didn't, would include the folliming: Accounts of CAE participation in these organizations An examination of some of the major educational would privide moulds for other CAE members and other issues confronting the public in the media. Can anthro- educator organizations in translating anthropology into pologysolvethebusingissue?If. not,then what educationalpractice. Suchactivities would be most contribution could an anthropologist make? How would appropriate material for theQuarterly. anthropologist explain the rise of c of Itie rvativt: educa- Sonic years ago, Fred Gearing (May1 97 1,p.1 7) tion-baek to basics- in an era of rapid socio-cultural suggested that the wortd of anthropologists and the change? Can, indeed, anthropologists train teachers to wodd of educatorsaredifferent,particularlywith become"culturallysensitive"?If an anthropologist respect to their different reward systems, goals, and could create an 11). test, what would it be like? Finally, ideologies: and yet there were points 'of overlapping whyhastheanthropologist, supposedly trainedin common interests between the two groups. I would human biology, become so reluctant to relate human suggestthatthefour majorall'easof CAE interest genetics to human learning? In short, what I think is previously acknowledged represent these common inter- needed in future issues of theQuarterly issolutions to ests. educationalproblems rather than descriptions of these During the past three years, I have attempted to problems. incorporate all these interests within the framework of According to Henry Burger, siwiologist Phillip Foster one publication. The appointment of an editorial board recently stLted that no significant advances in theory hasbeen most usefulinhelping with this purpose. have been generated in anthropology and education Additionally. the appointment of two special editors- during the past five years. Is this true? Several years ago, one concerned with teaching anthropology at the college the retiring Dean of the College of Education at Ilarvard level and another concerned with teaching anthropology stated that education had no theory. Is this also true? I and education com.ses- has proved to be nuist useful in might suggest that both statements are true in the sense broadening the interests of the readership. liowever, that any theory in, anthropology and education or in there is still eonsideralde concern that theQuarterlyis education will be generic to a specific discipliiie, rather trying to be all things to all members. There is still a than to education itself, since education is a cultural group of CAE members who would like to see the process rather than a discipline. Thus, any theory in Quarterlyremain a publication solely for research and anthropology and education must come from anthro- theory in anthropology and educatimi, while yet another pology. Up to now, I have not seen specific anthropo- group would prefer to emphasize the applied aspects of logical theories applied to education. I would like to see anthropology and education ;mil leave the reporting of an essay on how a "French structuralist" would view research to other anthropologleal journals. education.I would like to see an essay by a "cognitive

37 38 anthropoliOst" on how that person viewed education-- As Ilook back on what has been accomplishi:d and ora "neo-evolu tionist." or a "functionahst," or a what might brenwe some concerns for future i:sues, a "generative grammar" person. Itis here that theory in number of ideas emerge. First, Iwould like to see a antlimpology and edneatirm ;night emerge, rather than nintrodnetion of . mss-cultnral studies I if child-raising, in descriptive studies, most or which have little or no area which dominated the field of anthropology nd theoretical trarnework. education some 25 years ago when I first became interested in the field and which seems to have disap- Not that anthropology and education I. without any peared with the demise of Freudian psychology. In this

. ctivity in this direction. During thec past three years, reprd, Iwould suggest some attention to child-raising I'veattemptedtoprovith,reports on theresearch practices among minorities andthecultural change activities Of such noteworthy persons as George Spindler processes and influences upon young parents to raise (February1)7-t), Shellac! Cole (February 197-0, Fred their children. It occurs to ine that the results of this

(;earing (Slay 1975), .Frances lanni (slay 1974). Slarion . researchwill...iwavs remain invaluabletoteaclicrs, F)obbert (May 1975), Allan Howard (Slay 1976), and counselors, and parents. Thomas La Belle (November 1975).I hope the new Another area of interest might he the anthropological editor will be more successful than I was ill updating the study of power in education, with particular emphasis work of Solon Kimball, acki Burnett, Rolland Paulston, upon the decision-making prowess. Stone work has been Charles Harrington, Lomhros Comitas, Estelle Fuchs, initiated in this area Ina little has been published. Fred Erickson, Murray Wax, and others. Additionally, Iwould suggest some work on the

At the same time, I atte 11 1 lite d priI de a Wide subjert of educators as change agents. To be sure, there a ri e v of articles -though primarily descriptive in con- has been considerable description of education as a tent-inordertolienionstratethe wide varietyof cultural change process. but little has been accomplished interests in the field. The editorial bOard feels fortunate inIleveloping guidelines for educators who wish to that a large number of scholars are now considering the initiate ellangt% Quarterlyfor t heir publicathms. 'rho processing of these Fitudly, I am reminded that of the first textbooks in manuscripts is the one area of my editorship hi which I thefieldof anthropology and edlwation two were feela sens of failure. Too often, the rearthm of the written by philosophers-George Kneller and Theodore review committe has been too long in arriving. 'Ft) those Bramddwhat has hapitenedto the relationship of indivhivals whose manuscripts spent weeks-sometimes anthropology to the phdosophy of education? It here months-residing in my files (some are still there). I offer that anthropologists'. skills in ascertaining cultural goals my apologies. Perhaps the new editor will be better would make a major contribution to philosophy. educa- organized than I was. thuird policy, and educational practice.

TEAClIING ANTHROPOLOGY AT TIIE COLLEGE LEVEL

Dward A. Moore, Jr. Special Editor

This section of theQuarterlyisdevoted to an new experiences to their students. Whitney and !Midis exchange of ideas on the teaching of anthropology. describe .yet another individualized pproach to nthro- Course descriptions, philosophical statements, reactions, polo*. based mainly on Keller's "Personahzed System of and comments are welcome. Persons with material to histruethm," their modification of this structure indi- contribute are requested to send tlwm to the editor, cates its flexibility. Jamestown Community ColkgolamestownA' Y --Lehavy presents us with ideas for offering physical anthropology as a laboratory course in whh.h students receive laboratory sciener credit. This is an exciting idea [Ed. Note: The two artieles which appear below indicate for expanding the traditional ()tiering,: in anthropology, the continuing efforts 1:f anthropology faeulty to offer especially at the two-year college level. I

38

39 'MODULAR FLEXIBILITY IN AN the San Diego State University Teaching and. Learning INDIVIDUALIZED INTRODUCTORY Counciltos,:nd one of our graihiate students, Mr. CULTURAL ANT11ROPOLOGY COURSE Richard Anderson, to a PSI workshop. When he returned Daniel D. Wifitney & Patrick .1. pubbs with PSI information, we set about ascertaining the main San Diego State University features of PSI and how they could be adapted to our local situation. The mainfeatures are: Teaching anthropology,likedoing anthropolog), lends itself to a wide range of acceptable approaches. (1) The removal of the lecturing teacher as a major source of course content and the organization of However, wIlatever appunichisselected,instructors thecoursematerial into self-instruction units, must give care ml thought and consideration to at least with a related stress upon the written word in two important areas of the eduratnal process: course teacher-student communication. content and presentation terhniques.It has been our (2) Ur go-at-your-ow n-pace feature, which permits ex perielive that most new instructirs have only recently stmlent.; to tmwe through the course at a speed completed long years of schooling in which virtually all commensurate with their ability and other de- course work was press.med in either a lectore/disctkA.sion mands upon their time. or seminar format, with the latter usually reserved for graduatelevelinstruction.Inpart,these techniques (3) The mastery concepts, or unit-perfection require- result from the organization of instruction into time ment for advancing, which lets students go ahead tO 11Cw material only after demonstrating mastery blocks of a specific duration, be they hours, quarters, or of that which preceded. semester, and this system is then adhered to by most (4) The use of proctors, perinits repeated new instructors. testing, immediate scoring. almost unavohlable Recent articles in the CAE Quarterly, however, have tutoring, and a marked encliancenymt of the indicated an increasing interest in altering the techniques personal-social aspect o the educational process. of anthropological instruction along the lines of an (5) The use of lectures and demonstrations as vehicles . individualized, personalized, orKeller approach (Moore, of motivation rather than as sources of critiral 1974: Sanford, 1975: Steffy,1975). That one of the information (Steffy, 1975). most individualized of disciplines is filially focusing on imlividualized instructionis,in our opinion, a belated In principle, we agreed with all live features: however, but healthy sign.After employing numerous instruc- we determined we could realistically implement only 1, tional approaches in our intr( Hi Ile tory courses over the 2, 3, and 5. We decided not to employ proctors ill our past several years, we found ourselves tending towaril initial attempt at PSI primarily because we wanted to greater student flexibility, greater individualization of gain first-hand ex perienee with the technique ourselves, course material, and an increasing reliance upon methods and we could not envisage under our administrative of giving students ways to "experience" anthropology system a suitable academic reward for individuals who while at the same time reading about it. might volunteer their services as proctors. Thus, we, with About two years ago we came across the Keller Anderson's assistance,(lidallthe proc wring and tu- instructional approach and discovered that much of toring. what we had developed by trial and error was very For the basic core of our c(,urse, we constructed a similar to the Keller approach or, as iz has come to be pr()gressive series of twelve required modules (units) that known, Personalized System of Instruction (PSI). We requirtid mastery through testing. Those modules re- then set out to see if and how the PSI approach could be quired mastery in the following sequence in order to adapted to both introductory cultural anthropology obtain, depending upon the level of mastery,either a 11 material and, of equal importance, to the lock-step 60- or C glade in the course: (I) Nature of Anthropology: or 75-minute time'Period, one instructor to one class, (2) Fieldwork: (3) Culture, Social Structure, and Envi- administrative arrangement of elasses at San Diegi, State rim MI; nt: (4) I..anguage: (5) Enculturation: (6) Social University. We have been ableto7rodifythePSI Structure: (7) Midterm Review: (8) Economies: (9) approach to fit both of these considerations and, we are Socio-Political Control: (10) Religion: (11) Culture and told by our students, with a good deal of success. The Personalityf 12) Change. remainder of this article describes some of our early With the exception of Unit I I, which required us to attempts, some of the pedagOgical prtublems we wrestled write a brief essay as source material, we used standard with, and our latest modifieation Of the PSI approach. texts (Taylor, 1973: Bowen, 1964: Powdermaker, 1966) coupled with films or videotapes as source material for .4n Early Attempt each unit objective. To encourage variable grade possi- In ourfirstindividualized class, we relied heavily bilities and course experiences, we designed and added upon Green's (1974) cmnpilation of PSI materials in seven optionalunits,with certain required units as oilier to design our course. We then obtained funds from prerequisites, involving written reports about tion-elass.-

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4 0 rooinactivities. These "field activities" were projects in what we are saying? Is it possible to lecture to 50 or involving the collection and analysis of data obtained in nitre students and reach them all, recognizing they coin.: the San Diego area and resembled the type of projects from various disciplines nod have a wide range of reading describedin Crane and Angrosino (1974), Maranda and intellectual backgrounds? We think the answers. are (1972), and Schwartz, Sonek and Cowan (1971). Believ- self-evident, at least from our experiences at San Diego ingthat"enrichment" ketures would allowfora State University. prtifitable. groupdiscussionOn topics given scanty coverage in our unit source material, we also scheduled W bile an individualized approach minimizes the per- foursuelilectures.Both an earlyand a regularly sonal gratification or ego-milianeement dissociated with a scheduled !I'mh examination were tqdional. lecture course, we believe that individualizing allows excellent instructors to become even better, and stimu- Althougn most of our students were able to jump the lating lecturers to lie more interesting in student-teacher requiredtwelve hurdlesinthe span of a 15-week interaction. Why? An individualized course does uot semester and believed the course to he a welcome change necessarily change the instructors hut it does ehange the from theusuallecture/discussion course, we found all-inquirtant relatiiniship between 1111, instruvtors through our discussions with them and their written, their stmlents.Individualization allows .instructors to anonymous evaluations thatthe, most frequent com- respond directly to the needs of each imlividual student. plaint was a sense of mechanistic programming, i.e., two There is still ample opportunity to relate "war stories" must be done, lwfore three, six before seven, and ic and personal elaborations bitt. it is done in a context that forth.Having been involved inlecture/participation is meaningful to that particular student, one who courses both as students and professors, we.shared some willbenefit from it. All students are individuals, with of our students' concern about the regimentation in- individual problems and understanding, cold i:t.,truetors volved in our modified 1)S1 course. Rather than com- can take advantage of this in the numerous individual pletely abandon our attempt at individualization, how- conferences throughout the semester. ever, we decided to re-examine our goals for introduc- tory cultural anthropology' antl the PSI method as used Pedagogical Concerns by us to seeif we could eliminate the mechanistic Analysis of our first attempt atindividualization features of the course. convinced us thatthe Keller plan's "removal of the hTturing teacher as a major souree of course content" Lecturing vs. Individualization was not only viable but better, SQ long as it included One of the most diff icult steps in individualizing is to carefully drawn and specifically wAi.fen self-instruetion accept the ego-threat involved in the abandonment cif course materials emphasizing small,readily mastert d giving lectures. We alllike to think we are excellent units.But what of course content? How eould we instructors and stimulating lecturers. Even thoughac- eliminate mechanistic tedium and occasional procrastina- cepting these gratuitous self-perceptions, we still need to tion so evident in our first attempt? Similar to Dobbert ask, "What do we teach in introductory cultural anthro- (1972), we were committed to the notion that the major pology?": and of even greater complexity, "Why?" Nlore goal of our course should, insofar as possible. reflect the often than not, we believe most introductory courses nerds and interests of our stinlents. At our institution. tend to follow a standard format of topics and the introductory cultural anthropology fulfills the general subject matter conveyed, except for "war.stories" and education requirements, so the vast majority of our personal elaborations, is adequately available in .ihy one students are not anthropology majors, never intend to of several dozen tex s. become majors, nor engage in the study of another Why, then, de we as instrur tors usually lecturc to culture. Thus, in introductory cultural anthropology, we large groups of diversified students about material that hoped to instill in our students a general anthropological generally is available in print? We strongly suspect the perspective similar to what Albert (1963) called the answer is that we listened to lectures as students and "anthropological point of view." Such a perspective therefore perceive this to be the proper medium for wouldbe of valueto them inunderstanding and university instruction. Most university instruc Li irs are appreciating other pe()ples and cultures and thereby lead indeed. capable of delivering a number of lectures that to a better understanding of their own culture and are funk stimulating and informative and which may not themselves. As Albert so aptly wrote: Cover ground also covered in texts. But how many can sustain this high quality of lecturing over a period of 10 It is, then, not really venturing very far to suggest or 15 weeks? Isn'tit common to feel that perhaps that there are distinctive core conceptions of man one-third of the students is burial to tears by a lecture and of methods of studying man that constitute because they already know the material, that another 'the' anthropological pozat of view, /Id may third is bored because it is over their head, and, if we are best beregarded asa developing conceptual lucky, the final third is really stimulated and interested framework within which communication can or- 40

41 ear among anthropologists of diverse interests. Modalar flexibility. Although we had incorporated' theories and methodsand, hopefullv, among stu- the modular approach in our first l'SI course, both we dents of anthropology in India, Norway or the and our studentsfeltthe required serial progression United Stales. through twelve units resulted in a rather mechanistic, unstinitilating, learning model. 'rhe serial arrangement of While a formidable goal. it seemed worthy of pursuit. various alithroisological subjects was a "survival" from though instructors teaching anthropology ntajors might our earlier teaching when we presented subjects itt some well find fault with it silwe the standard" ethnographic kind of seemingly logical order. As we analyzesi this facts and other minutiae re minimized add general particular aspect of our course, we came to question the principlesnd concepts are emphasized.In our pre- validity of such aserial,progressive organization. A individualized courses, we encsatraged conceptual under- cursory examination of anthropology textbooks and standing by having students roNeet nd analyze ethnog- ethnographies revealed that authors indeed varies1its raphic data rather than rely on any one of the :minerals their determination of what follows what within the ethnographics vailable for instructional purposes.Il broader scope of cultural anthropology. Virtually all students wanted or is eed ed other ethnographic data, we possible permutations of arrangement seemed present in believed them capable of pursuing it(at their own for the various texts. For example, why does kinship come whatever purpsise. before economics? Language before political organiza- We adhere to the belief that the introductory vourse tion? (:hange before religion"! We..eoncluded that seriali- in cultural anthropology should expose students to the zation was an arbitraryprocess that might be detri- nbjed matter, methods, and exidanatory systems of our mental to our course goal in the sense that it could lead discipline so that students might develop the "anthro- students to a segregated understanding of anthropoleq;). pological-puntt of view." I lowever, we do not ttempt to instead of an integratesi understanding or perspective. mass produce a covey of "miniature professionals" To a certain extent, we were also the victims of (Dobbert,l97.2). While Dobbert logically argues that relying too heavily on the PSI method as explained in few students actually analyzea soriet:once they finish Green (I)71.). Th, traditional PSI approach scents to an introductory course, we feel tis ..development of an have been first devsloped and used for those subject anthropological perspective allows students to analyze areas which had a body of essential material that had to their own societ) and. morc importantly, thei- relation- be masteredinstep-likefashion:for example, one ship to that society. Stalls's.'itto say that memorization usually sloes not attempt to solve algebraic equations and eventual regurgitati.m of a bundle of ethnographic without first ntastering the notion of equivalency. Does facts is not our goal. We envision the discipline as an this apply to anthropoloi4? We think not. . active held of study, with involvement as a prerequisite for learning am! understanding. While one could pre- For two reasons, we felt it important to have a few sumably learn anthropology front a book or lecture, we requiredserialunits.First, we believed that before believe one cannot understand anthropology (i.e., de- attempting to understand material on political organiza- velop the anthropological perspective) by these media tion,:religion, and the like, students should have been alone.So, we searchedfora methodthat would exposed to the concept of culture and its ramifications: eurourag .. active learning as welerslanding as opposed to textbooks were nearly unanimous on this point. We also passive learning as regurgitation. We came up with what believed the student should understand the anthropo- w cal: the "modular flexibility approach." logical nwthod, i.e., fieldwork awl data analysis: text- books were somewhat less unanimous on this point. Modular Flexibility, Mastery, and Self-Pacing Second, since our course materials involvesh a variety of Modular flexibilityisa system of instruction witlt student activitiesreading the book and being testes!, two' essential components: (I) course subject matter and conducting research and reporting, viewing and analyz- materials are broken down into smaller units (modules) ing films, and so forthwe wanted students to sample capable of mastery with a few days study or outside- some of the variety early in the course :a) they could the-clas.:roomdatacollection andanalysis: and (2) decide whether they wished to continue in this coutse or

self-pacing, whereby studentsare allowedflexibility try some other, more traditismal anthropology class. . both as to the modules they undertake as well as the Students inour nwised course were required to time they allocate to a module. The total course, then, complete three units before going on. The required units consists ofnumerousindividual moduleswhich, were the concept of eult9re, the establishment of a although self-contained, are part of a carefully thought contextual framework, and experience in collecting and out wholethe introductory course itself. Students are analyzing cultural I I at a.Thefirstwas mastered by permitted to set their own pace for completing modules reading the text and making 80% oll an examination and further to select the order in which to eotnplete the (combined objective and essay questions): the second by nmdtdcs, so lung as mastery isevidenced prior to viewing a videotape on the Tasaday (Philippines) and undertaking a neW module. answering a specific essay spwstion: and the third by

41 4 2 reading the book, collecting datain and about San A further modification was to institute a multiple Diego, and presenting a 5- to 9-page typed report. The exit plan. Since students are not all equally motivated remaining topics could then be selected and completed towards, or interestedin,things antlin yological, we in any order determined by the students. assigned variable point awards for each unit depending on the level of difficulty and type of unit, and then set 'that decision raised another questionneed every np ott \-1.3-C grading scale based on the total accumula- stmlent proceed through all the reniaining sub-areas of tion of points. The "C" range represented what we anthropohigy? Is each sob-area necessary or relevant for believe to be the minimal anthropological understanding For a student not intending to major in anthropoloe neeessary to fot,ler an anthropologieal point of view, real purpose to require a example, doesitserve a while the "A" raoge represented a thorough command master a unit related to religious studies major 'to of the material. This approach allowed students to leave We decided that, while mastery of allthe econotnics the course after successfully mastering sufficiem anits to itneedn'tbe conceptualareasisindeeddesirable., accumulate the points for their desireil grade. They required for us to attain our .goal of imparting the could, inessence, decide early in the semester what point of view." 'Therefore, we ex- "anthropological grade they wanted and work towards that grade,.being panded our course units from 12 to 23, with more than assured of it once they had enough points. Stndents one type of activity often tied to a particular sub-area, failing to get enough points for a "C" grade were given and allowed students to pick aml choose those units "Es." Whtie contrary to the pure PSI approach, this did they' wanted to complete. Modules were of four types: eliummimuate proerast illation and also solved tin. problem testing of text materials: written reports based on fieid created by the administrative requirement that conrses activities (often requiring text reading as well): written be completed within one semester. responses to andio-visnal presentations (combined with material in the tex t): and self-designed modules over text Lectures and Proctors materials. This fonr-fold feature was designed primarily The Keller feature of using "lectures and demonstra- to accommodate the different interests and performance tions as vehicles of motivation" was dispensed with alter abilities of each student. one semester's trial. Attendance was extremely low. Then, too, because of the change to student selection of Alastcry. We hail.then, adopted the Keller Plan's modules, it was impossible to design lectures based on modular approach and extended it to allow for individ- student progressthey were everywhere. Furthermore, ualizedstudentselectionofmaterialswithoutthe student comments 'indicateda general disinterestin lock-step serialityso) characteristic of familiar courses. lectures, We found we can more effectively impart the Keller's mastery ronerpt or nnit-perfection require- same information to students in the ronferences when the need ment for advancing" was modified to eliminate they fed it is of more interest to them. to marell in serial fashion. Wt did, however, retain the As mentioned above, we also dispensedwith the general mastery conrept. All students were required to Keller feature of student proctors. We were able to master aunit before undertaking another. Surcessful handle all testing, e.valuation, and counseling ourselves mastery was evidenced bv attaining I101or b'etter on the with the help of a graduate assistant. Our plan, though work after a student-instructor conference. Students simple in practice, is difficult to describe. Both of us attaining less than 110','t were then counseled on their each. scheduled two sections of about 50 students each weaknesses and required to repeat the work at a higher (a grand total of about 200 students). The classes were level. scheduled conseentively in the same classroom. That gave us almost (i hours in the same room, two days a Selfpneing and multiple exit.It was important, we week. Students were told they could come in any time felt, that the students be allowed to set their own pace during those hours to take tests or turn in projects, and for completing modules during the semester. Students have the work evaluated there. In this way, we were able have varying time to work on .aspecific eintrse at to circumvent most of the restrictions imposed by the different times in a semester: therefore, itis important standard time block for classes. Students were seen oil a that they be allowed Solne control over their allmation first-come-first-servedbasis. So far,thi-; method has of time. We began with the assumption that each student worked without !undue clogging or long waits. We spend was a mature adult, capable of deciding howmuch or anywhere from 5 minutes to 30 minntes with students, how little time to allocate to various activities. One depending on th, nature of their problem. Thus. while student may require a week or more to complete a tutors mav be a :b.sired feature of the KelliT plan, they modnle,whereas another may completethe same certainly arcn't indispensable. module in one evening. So we impos,A no deadlines for module completion. We did, however, provide students Conchtsion with a recommended plan for maintaining a relatively In sum, our revisions produced an individualized steady pace throughout the semester, if they ilesin;il. course that has: (I) A series ofkith.% idual study units

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43 )clising on a variety of topics. The;e units explain the experience, well worth the many long hours of prep- importance of the topic., the student goals for that topic, aration. and a suggested procedure for attaining the specifical goals. (2) Ail optional, individualized, self-paccd scIietI- References ule under which students decide what unit willbe completed and when itwill be completed, with the Albert, E. NI: "Value Aspects of Teaching Anthropol- exception of the three required units at the beginning. ogy." In Mande lbautn, Lasher and Albert (eds.)The (3) A cumulative point schedule wilich allows students 'reaching of Anthropology.Berkdey: Univ. of Cali- to complete the course when they have achieved the fornia Press, 1963. Bowen, E.S.Return to Laughter.Garden City NY: grade they chose, though anything less than a C results /Natural History Library, 1964. in an F. (4) All class periods clevoted to individual tests, (.1:rane,J. G. and M. V. Angrosino (ed.s.)Field Projects in pntject evaluation, counseling, or andhrvisual presenta- Anthropology:.4 Student Handbook.Morristown tions. Our implementation of modular flexibility atul NJ: General Learning Press, 1974. individualizationhas been a success inthe view of Dobbert, M. L. "Teaching Undergraduate Anthropology: students and in our own opinion. Problems, Solutions, and Experiments." 3:1CAE Newsletter14, 1972. Students felt they had participated in an individual- Green, B. A. Jr.Workshop on the Personalized System ized introchictory cm, rtie designed to accommodate their of Instruction ("PSI by PSI").Washington DC: The interestin anthropology without sacrificing learning CenterforPersonalizedInstruction, Georgetown content. Though :Aome students dropped the course after Univ., 1974. realizing it would take inure effort than lecture/discus- Keller, F. S. "Good-Bye Teacher.... " 1J.of Applied sion courses, the rest of the students fdt it was a positive Behavior AnalYsis79, 1968. approach because they assumed a largepart of the Maranda,P.Introductionto Anthropology: A Self- responsibility for their learning by controlling their work Guide. Englewood Cliffs NJ: Prentice-Hall, 1972. Nloore, D. A. Jr. "Individualizing Instruction." 5:4CA E schedule and the dates of completion. Quarterly32, 1974. From our point of view, the modular flexibihty Powderinaker, H.Stranger and Friend: The Way of an addition resulted in more Ancients participating in the Anthropo'logist. New York City: Norton, 1966. field projects: as a consequence, more were personally Sanford, M. "The Keller Plan." 6:3 CAE Quarterly 26, involvedwith and rewarded by an "anthropological 1973. point of view." The variable schedules also removed the Schwartz, T., A. Sonek and R. Cowan.Involvement in tediunt of talking to 50 students about the same test on Anthropology Today.Del Mar CA: CRM Books, the same day. And because we don't use proctors, we 1971. beemn,: more enthusiastic instructors. We now look Steffy,D.M."Toward aPersonalizedSystem of InstnietktnforIntronluctory Anthropology." 6:3 forwaA to the diversity of discussing a religion project CAE Quarterly 30,1975. with one student, followed by discussion of an economic Taylor, R. B.Introduction to 'Cultural Anthropology. systemstestwith another.Ithas been a rewarding Boston: Allyn & Bacon, 1973.

PHYSICAL ANTHROPOLOGY AS A LABORATORY SCIENCE COURSE IN COMMUNITY COLLEGE yechiel NI. Lehavy Atlantic Community College Nlays Landing, New Jersey

Physical anthropology, or human bhdogy, is one of narrowsub-fields. DespitethefactthatinSIMIC the sub-disciplines of anthropology. As such, physical academie institutions laboratory science credit is given anthroitology is offered in most academie institutions in to students who take ithysical anthropology, inthe the United States as a social science study program in United States,allsub-disciplines of anthropology are the liberal arts and sciences. Nlost students who are not traditionallyeonsideredpartof the socialseiences. anthropology majors and who take physical anthropol- However, if one looks at almost any course description ogy usually fulfill part of the curriculum requirements of physical anthropology, one finds tliat physical anthro- for the sootial sciences: the reason is that the American pologyisnearly always offered in conjunethm with Anthropological Association (AAA) maintains the gen- laboratorysessions,regardkss of the fratneworkin eral integratimi of the sub-grouping despite centrifugal which the course is offered. tendencies that lead the discipline of anthropology into When we started offering physical anthropolop at

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4 4 Atlantic Onnmunity College (AC(.) we also offered zhe at the aotors while the cultural anthropologists look at murse iii conjunetbm with laboratory sessions. With this the action" (Benoit, 1%(,).3 We also stress the insepar- practice, my colleague,Louise Kaplan,thought of ability between the culture and the genetics of mankind. offering the course as an accredited laboratory scienre Wt. attribute our student growth to the stress we put on course rather than the customary mere reading presen- anthropology's unity,. and its unique approaeh to the tation with :40HIC lalmratory exercises and demonstra- study of mankind. Physical anthropoloAy is presented as tion.s. We do not claim to be unique: we mend.: offer to abroadsurveyofthediscipline. Human genetics. share our experience with others..At Adman. Com- biochemistry, anatomy and physiology, and primatology munity College, we have always felta need to ofkr and paleontology ,artall linked together to demonstrate students not majoring in the natural sciences another how various biological aspects of mankind have evolved. Option to fulfilltheir laboratory snience requirements llowei.er, the course does not stop there: it then relates for graduation. By dtat lime. well-roundededucated how IdolOgical evolution and human culture and behav- students inthe liberal arts and se;ences should have ior are interwound. gained basic knowledge of themselves, of tlteir souiety, We offer the course in two different formats. With andthephysicaluniverse inwhich theylive. With our day-lime students, we ine:.t for 15 weeks. 3 days a physical anthropology as another choice (besides die week for one-hour lectures, and have 3-hour laboratories customary biology, chemistry. mathematics, and phys- once a week. For our night students, we follow the same ics), we hoped our grmluates would be able to make format for the laboratory sessions and meet once a week Frsonal and social judgements necessary for effective for a 3-hour lecture. A ttemlance at laboratories is rigidly participation in their romplex society. enforeed: absenteeism is not tolerated, Any student who Therefore,in1%9, l_muise Kaplan experimentally misses morethanthreelaboratory sessions cannot offered physical anthropology as an arcredited labora- rmeive a passing grade for the course. On the other tory science course. The experimental courSe was sliccess- hand, attemlance at lectures is highly recommended but filland became a permanent one at ACC. Physical is not rigidly enforced, as long as the student's perform- anthropology has since become one of our most popular ance is not below the passing grade. Course requirements laboratory science courses. It grew from 69 students in also include a research paper, two hourly exams, and a 1968, with one lecture and 011C laboratory sertion per final exam. The paper's topic has to be approved by the semester, to176 soolents in 1974, with three lecture hist rue tor. sessions and four laboratory sessions per semester. We uourse is divided into three unitsthe first unit have offered physical anthr1/1/011)gy as a summer course comprises the .nsual introduction to anthropology and twire (197'3 and 1975): these also experienced a large its sub-disciplines, introduces the students specifically enrollm eli t. 2 to physical anthropol(%y, and covers basic concepts and At this point, itis worthwhile to note a side-effect: theories in human evolution. The second unit leads the offering physical anthropology courses has stimulated students towards an understanding of the dynamics of studentinterestinother anthropology courses, We human evtilutitni in micro- or madro-evoIntionary prti- started with a part-time anthropologist: at present, we cesses. Once the students have been exposed to the have twohill-timeanthropologists who alsoteavh theories of evolution and have studied do dynamics of overloads (not including summer rourses). Besides phys- evolution and population genetics, we introduce them to icalanthropology.,wtoffer two citurscsincultural the time element. Now they are ready to appreciate the anthropology and one nourse in archaeology. With the third unit of the Course: primate and human paleontol- exception of physical anthropology, all other anthro- ogy and human evolution. The first and seu.oud units are pilogy courses are nitre!). elective. fonr weeks each: the third rises the remaining seven Physical anthropology is one of the science courses weeks. offered .to fulfill graduation requirements. Historically, The laboratory is designed to aid students to under- ACC's first anthroimlogy course was administered by the standbasic concepts of biological anthropology, to department of biology andhemistry because it dealt enforce the lecture, and to allow students to :lave direct with human biology. Therefore, all anthropology Colirses contact with the loasie subject materials. Nhiretwer, the aro administered by the saute departmentAnthropol- lab gives students an opportunity to investigate anthro- ogy,. Biology and Chemistry, or the ABC Department. indogical and Ihilogical topics in lalniratory sitnations. The other anthropology courses fulfill elective require- Above all, the laboratory experience functions like any mentsinthesocial sciences. Any one of the four other laboratory in tbe natural sciences: it clarifies the anthropology courses is a basic introductory course that meaning and methods of science- by giving students the does not require a prerequisite. One course re-enforces opportunity to become a part-time scientist. and is complementary to the other ones. The first laboratory is introductory in nature, as is We emphasize the unity of the field of anthropology the first lecture. The student is intr(ohiced 6, laboratory and usually advocate that physical anthnipoltigists "look procedures,the microscope, aml the metrie system. 44

4 5 During the second week. cellstrui ture. mitosis, and 'ro ,umi up, we at Atlantic Community College feel meiosis are studied. The third week rovers DN.A and that our successful experience should not be limited to ItNA, in conjunctionv....111 _iv Allure. By the [Mirth us but should be adopted by other eommintity colleges week. the Audents arc readv to work on population as well. 'limn, only itfew colleges in the country that genetics.Liiiiii Lii wmk covers biochemical variations. offer pity:at:al anthropologv as a laboratory science: this such as Bic ABU. Rh, NIXN, S iuiii 1:hlood. groups. PTC. nuntlwr is not enough.I would like to quote one of mv tasting. sickle cell anemia. and other polyinOrphie students. a State Trooper, who approached me ,:dler the this session is suitable for exerrises in Alendelian traits. final exam and said: Mr. Lehavy. I do not ear:. about By the sixth week, we go into protein serum testing, skin my grade.I know I did better than merely itassing. But I pigmentation. and dennotogly pits. Geological time can want to telh you thatIlearned a great deal and thank be introduced either by the sixth or seventh week. .An you for liberating my tnitid.'' introduction to the human skeleton and anthropotnetry are the subjects of the seventh week. After learning the SYLLABUS human skeletonintheeighthweek.thestudents experiment in anthroptimetrie measurements of living Scope. Thi, rimp.:, is a broad surve,' of die discipline Immo sapiensthey measure each other. Age and sex of physical anthropology. PriMatology, human genetics, determination in skeletal remains is the topic of the biochemistry. physiology, and anatomy are all linked ninthweek.Inthetenthweek.thestudentsare together to demonstrate how various biological aspects introduced Lii primatology through a trip to the Phila- of man have evolved, However, the course does not stop delphia Zoo. In the eleventh week, we show films on hereit then relates how biological evolution is inter- primate behavior and do a short exercise in skeletal wound with human t oltnre and behavior. taxonomy. Thrtwelfth,thirteenth, and foerteenth Format. Tim,e willbeIS eonsmitive weeks of weeks are devoted to fossil remains of .Australopithecus, lectures ind IS consecutive laboratories. Films will be homo erectus, early homo sapiens, Neanderthal, and shown, discussions will be condnett.d, and a field trip to later holm) sapiens. The fifteenth week is a study of tlw Philadelphia Zoo will take pliwe. dating and tool making, and we have recapitulation of all :.Ittendanee. All students should make every effort to the laboratory sessions. attend all classes and laboratories. Absnice from labora- Of course, the above sequence is just. a suggestion: we tories not be tolenited. Aloremer, the students' oil rmlyt%,ku'ep changing the laboratory subjects and general progress in the cmirse, aml tin refore their grades, trying new ideas: if they work, we adopt them. At the will reflect the students' attendance aml attention to same time, wi. keep purchasing more and more equip: these matters since exams willhe related to reading, meta for the laboratorysuch as an extensive colleetion lectures. and the various class activities. of human skeletal remains (modern homo sapiens and Reading. Clark F.llowell. Early Man. Life Nature fossil man reprodu('tiom.).4 Our inventory has become Library, Time.l.ife Books, New York City. 1973, A. J. quite extensive, which enables us to offer more sophis- Kelso.PhysicalAnthropology. .4n Introduction. J. B. firmed laboratory experiments. Even with little or no Lippincott Co.,Philadelphia,1974. Weiss Mann. equipment, fifteen successful laboratory se.ous.can lie Human Biology and Behavior. .4n A nthropohwical Per. offercd.5 speclive. Little, Brown. Boston, n.(1.6 Near the lOth week of the seineSter, we hand out Recommended Reading.I. FlindamentalsJ. Comas. evaluation forms to the students. which also asks for .Manual of Physical Anthropology. II I 11 196U. comments. SIntle typical remarks are: "Very interesting. Evolutitmary Theory --Charles Darwin. On the Origin At tinws makes me think a lot about how things came to of Species. John Murray, London, 1859. 1. Dobzhansky. beas theyare.""Interesting 'learning about.your Mankind Evolving. Yale Univ. Press, New Ihiv,m cr, possible ancestry." "The subject was very realistic to 1962. E. Mayer. Animal Species and Evolution. I iarvard life. Held my interest."' "The thing 1 like the most about. Press,Cambridge MA,1063.G. G. Simpson. The this courseisthe teacher. Ialso like the interesting Meaning of Evolu lion: Study of the Ilislory.of Life things we learn about and the interesting things we do in and of Its Significance for Man. Vile Univ., New Ilaven lab." CT, 1949. III. Ilmmul PaleontologyC. S. Coon. The Of course, mit all comments are as favoralde as the Origin of Race. Knopf, New York City, 1%2. Kenneth above. We also receive notes such as: "Was over my P. Oakley. Framework:: for Daring Fossil Man. A Min, head. It was hard to follow.I understood much better Chicago,1964.IV,PrimatologyW. E.Clark.The the primates and man than genetics.'" "Disliked learning Antecedents of Man: :In Introduction to the Evolution a lot of erazy names. "Too much material presented." of the Piimates. Quadrangle Books, Chicago, 1960. A. "Dislike 8:30 am labs." Overall, however, the positive Jolly. The Evohilion of Primate Behavior. MacMillan, and constructive comments outnumber the negative New York City, 1972. S.I. Rosen. Introduction tothe on es. Primates.Prentinc-llail, Englewmul Cliffs NJ, 1974. V.

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46 AnthropometricsA. lirdheka.Practical Anthropometry tions and some other morphological characters: and skin (4th ed. by Stewart) Philadelphia, 1952. VI. Genetics & color,hair color, aod eye color.Week8.Anthro- RacesS. M. Garn.Human Races.Thomas, Springfield pometry: IL,1961. Dobzhanasky.GeneticDiversity and Human Paleontology and Human Equality.Basic Books, 1973. VII. EthologyW. Human Evolu t ion LaBanc.The Human.4nimal.Univ. of Chicago Press, Chicago, 1954. :\ more complete list is available Inne Week 9.Evolution and time: geological time; and the the instructor. fossil record of the evoltition of life.Week 10.Man's kinship with the animal kingdom: the diviAiM of the In addition to these books, there are other useful animal kingthen: aml man's place in nature.Week I 1. sources at the ACC library. These sources include the Primatology; primate behavior: and primate evolution. followingperiodicals: merican Anthropologist,Sci- Week 12.Early hominids; and Nliocene, Pliocene, and ence, Current.4nthropalagy,a ndScientificAmerican. early Pleistocene lumninids.Week 13.Homo erectus Other useful sources, not at the ACC library, include: man the tool maker: and ways of lifein the Middle American Journal of Human Genetics.AmericanJournal Pleistocene.WeekII.The Neanderthal man and the of Physical Anthropology, Human Biology, Journal of Neandertholoids: classical Neanderthal and progressive Human Ecology,andNature.Howell's; Kelso's, and Neamlerthal: and the early homo sapiens.Week 15. Weiss and Manns' books will pnwide the basic thread of Modern man; and epilogue. continuityfor the course, allowing the lectures the ,freedom to dwell On a number of issues not usually Exams and Requirements of Course Fulfillment. covered in the introductory texts. Hence. the students There will be two 010101ir exams and a final exam, plus are expected to understand clearly those portions of die a research paper and three quizzes in laboratory. texts which are assigned; the lecturerwill make no attempt to re-hash and may not even mention some NOTES contents of the text. Questions may be raised at any time during the lecture. I )iseussion is encouraged. I. Current Direetions in Anthropology.Bull. of the Backgrmind to Physical Anthropology Amer. Anthropological Assn., Part 2, Vol. 3, No. 3, 1970. and Basic Concepts 2. Becamse of New Jersey's budget cuts, we were Week I.The fidd of anthropology: backgnaind to forced to offer fewer sections i ri Iall 1975. i)hysieal anthropologr the itiliqueness of mankind; and 3. As quoted by F. E. Johnston, 1970, p. 67. thespecies of mankind.Week 2.Formalgenetics: I. Fossil reproductions are available from the follow- ing sources: Carolina Biological Supply Co., Burlington Darwin al111 Nlendel: and evithitionary principles.Week NC 27215; University Museum, Univ. of Pennsylvania, 3. Molecular and Idoehenlical genetics; and DNA and Philadelphia 19104; Wenner-Gren Foundation for An- RNA.Week 4.Population genetics; Menddian laws; and thropological Research, Inc., 14 E. 71 st St., New York Ilardy-Weinberg laws. City 10027. 5. There arc two laboratory manuals for physical an- Biological Variation in thropology available; Stecgman,Physical A nthropology Human Populations Work book,Random !Ionise, 1974: and Stein & Rowe, Week5. The blood groups; the ABO & Rh systems: Workbook in Physical A nthropology,McGraw-11in. 1974. hemoglobin variations; and balanced polyinorphysim. Both mannak are gomil, at least to begin a course with, Week 6.Implications of human heterography; climatic 6. We adopted Weiss & Manus' book in the fall of 1975. adaptations: and genetic and non-gencticfactors in It is as good as Kelso's book but also ine:ludes the latest climatie adjustments.Week7. Polygenic traits: pigmenta- finds.

SINGARA

Frank Salamone, Special Editor Department of Anthropology St. John's University Jamaica NY 11439

/This is my first column as_editor of theSingaradepartment. The article by Claudia Lewis is superb but not the only kind of material I'd like to receive for the.column. In it, she has presented more than an outline of a course syllabus; she has presented the context in which tlre course was taught as well as its purpo.w. Finally, she has presented an evaluation of the course by students and her response to their evaluation. I would appreciate readers' comments on her article, some of which may be printer!, for I'd like to tura thr column into a constructive exchange of viewpoints./ 46

4 7 CROSS-CULTURAL PERSPECTI VES ON The studies selected for the general bibliography were CHILD BEARING AND SCHOOLING: organized un(kr the following headings: (1) A look at TEACHING A FIVE-SESSION COURSE chihken in sonic cultures very different from our own: Claudia Lewis (2) Studying socialization: (3) About Black families, Bank Street College of Education child-rearing, and living styles: (4) Understanding the New York City backgrounds of Puerto Rican children: (5) Changing Israelisociety today: (6) Emphasis me change: (7) How does one intrenlucc graduate students to some Schooling in transition: (8) The cultural context of usefull approaches to understanding chihi-life in families learning and thinking: (9) Teaching anthropology to and communities unfamiliarto thein' in onlyfive children. The following is tlic outline of readings and discus- sessions?'t his was my problem when the curriculum committee at the Bank Street College of Education sion topics: asked me to organize sudi a one-credit seminar, and to ,"Family and Childhood in a Southern Negro Com- limit it to 12 students ill thought it best. omnity." V.II. Young. 72:2 American Anthropologist 269, April 1970. Characterize the main features of the At Bank StreetCollege,allstudents working in teacher education for an M.S. degree arc liberal arts child-rearing pattern de:scribed here. How does this differ graduates studying in a program that can be completed from the common stereotype about Negro family life? in one year. 'the requirements indmie a heavy emphasis Sonicpoints todiscuss (according toyour special interests): (I) What is the course of speech development on child development and three creditsinminority perspectives or bilingual education. My proposed "mini- and why? (2) Comment on the cultivation of aggressive- course" would satisfy requirements in either of these imss and assertiveness. Any bearing on ways children might behave in school toward .authoritics? (3) COM- areas. 'the students are preparing for pre-school or elemen- meld on the non-verbal style of communication and tary teaching or supervision, so their fide! work assign- what we might learn from it. (4) What relationship does ments take them into New York City's public and Young see between childhood experience and the way ()I' private schools where they work with children of varied life the adults grow into? backgrounds (mostly Black and Hispanic). Some of the Learning tobe Rotuman: Eneulturation in the South Pacific. A. lloward. Teachers College Press, 1970 (espe- studentsareexperiencedteachers gaining fieldwork credit. cially (hapters I, 3, 4, 6, 8). (I) Explain the relationship The faculty and the students are constantly reviewing loward shows between children's socialization at home the program, weighing it, and attempting to make the and the troubles they may ,have at school. Are you total offering of eourses, mini-courses, fieldwork, and convinced? (2) What do you see as some positives of the sPeciai ommrtunities aflexible one that meets the "Botumati character traits"? The difficulties limy lead changing ncuis of students. to! (3) Do you agree with the author in all of his assumptions about w hat Amcriran (Aura tiim should or We hopedthat a mini-course on Cross-Cultural might be? PerspectivesonChild-Rearing and Svhooling would accomplish just what its title suggests: offering perspec- The Ten Grandmothers. A. Marriott. Univ. of Okla- tives for students to followun independently: broadening homa Press, 1971. (1) Sibling rivalrydo you think it value perceptions in thnic groups different from their existed when one bnither was singled ont to be the wn: and sharpening their ability le. .-aderstand child 'favoriteson'? Why or why not? (2) Babies not behaviorin relaion to the total matri% of cultural babiedimplications for us. (3) What ways or beliefs influences. Such a course could not pretend to tiller a tend to persist even after years of schooling and 1iving iii basic foundation in social anthropology, but its scope a white community? (4) Behavior of whites resented by innd purpose seemed appropriate, eonsidering that al- Indians. though some students lack background in anthropology, The Mountain People. C. Turnbull. Simon & Schus- all of them arr now involved in a program geared in ter, 1972. ( 1) Ex plain as fully as yon can what led the lk many ways to promoting insights into chihi and family into such treattnent of children. R,4er to Thrnbuirs life in various situations. discussion on the concept of "family" in tin: old hunting Iprepared all cx tensive general biblioqa phy and a life. Ilvinemlwr that in hunting societies children were smaller listing of four studies proposed for class reports. snnething of a burden. (2) Do you see any possible

I knew from yxperience that the more concentrated threads of relationship between early childimod exper- reporting we could have, with three or four students iences midthe values of the adults? (3) is Turnbull diseussing each study. the more profitable it would In . mmvin..:ing when he suggests dmt we may be heading for everyone. Of course, the option would remain open, toward the ik way of life? for individuals to follow their own strong interests in Why these particular choices? First, Ifelt it essential their reading rhoices. to have atleast One study on child-ry.aring in Black

47 48 families because so man of our students work with 11'e agreed that the report, would be informal and !flack children. The 1 ming stud i, one of the best for presented a, the student, planned. I urged that we avoid breaking down ,teretityped idea, and opening up llev ,tiltimariAing the studies and trto rocil, directionsforthinkite:.FlicI loward study of the important o.uuiswhether or not the were the topics I4l1IlIllIli. chosen breati,t. it 'was about family lift. suggested in the outline. I suggested these point, be kept in the South Pacific, but beeitit,t.it seemed to offer in mind: Effects of rarl home experience, and relation [lertiluctitleadsforunder,tantlitwrhildtuella% iorill ,Itip,: Implication, for our child-rearing and schooling: schooland because it, \ merit an education Iteiin,ightsfor ow, \n wa, challenging. Nlarrioll., hook on the IiomIndians unan,wered question,. %vas sulretellfor lW44 ( )our students arr

intereste(hin Native.1tnericalls and their educational Tlw reports were extremelystimulating. .A11 tlw problems,and(2)the book offers arichreading students were capable of independent work and were experience as both atithropolog inn! literature. .As for expel-kneed in discussion participation. The readings The MountainP(oi)le. I know of no other book suggested questions thatit number of students hope to presenting Snell challenging questions and implications, pursue on (heir own. Only the stud\ of the many of them relative to American family and:4 ovial M'ellled alittle lacking in substance !treatiseit didn't life. offer enough details on child life in the family. NI stodents included ten%youlien and two men. Thu, written u.alttation, left expressed great enthus- ralwing ill age from the early 20, 14) thy iasm and the litt},c that the COM-M. uutuuhuhIt,rx14'1111r(I. Several were experiellred lcileher,. The outline seemed Hill even five ses,ions accomplished some of tlw basic immediatelyacceptabletothcm,exceptthatfouir aim:Student, wrote,forinstance,".\ IIofitwa, akrati%killWthry l;)choose extremelyusefulandstimulating. I hadnotbeen readings from the larger biblioTaphy in order to pursuit. exposed to the dii.eipline utl :Nuthropology awl you have their special interest,. 'Flies'. choices included Children vdlettell appetite.Iplan to vontinue exploring the of the (,'umberland 19.16)."Education and bibliography." "Eascinating and full of sharing. Efficient (_ulturalI )ynamic,:I )alionteandthe New World" in covering tA 411 more than in the master plan. This (Ilerskovity. in Middleton (ed.) From (,'hihl to Fldull, comment went right to tlw heart of Ilw course goal as I 1 970). Culture and Thought (Cole and Scribner,1 973). I have liven really enjoying Ally course as and readings from The Puerto Uwan Community and Its well as finding it growth-facilitating both personally imd (hildren (Cortlasco and Bilechione, 1972). inotilectually.

PROFESSIONAL NEWS

CAE PROJECA'S FOR. 1 976 AAA ANNUAL MEETING Symposia Itting sponsored b) CAE at the upcoming proaches to Evaluating Schools,- Woody Clark, UCH: (3) meeting are:( I) Cross-A'ational.Apprmwhes to Educa- "The Scope andLimits of EducationinProducing tion and Change, Thomas]. I,a Belle: (2) Sex, Class, and Developmentin the Third 11'orbl," ThomasI mbelle, Ethnicity: Few: and the Educative Process, Judith UCLA: (4) "BienIturalisnl: Efforts and Prospet ts for tlw Preissle Goetz: (3) Power Processes in Education: Theo- Spalti,11-sp4'aking in the 5., Henry Torres-Truelnt, retical and Empirical Perspectives, Angie NI. Guggen- Illinois: (5) "Population IssuesillAnthropology and berger Nelson: (4) Comm unity-School System Collabora- Education: A Discussion of the Ecolitunie and Demo- tioninthe Development of Multicultural Education graphic Perspective." Kathleen J. Adams, Central Wash- Programs in Chicago. Elena Berez-A Ince MidcallyIcan ington State: (6) "Community Development and Educa- Schensul. and MariaH.Cerda: (5),1Study of tion: Education for What?" Thomas Labelle, I ICLA: (7) Functional Language in the Classroom, Roger W. SInty. "The Teaching of Anthropology," John D. Herzog, RoundtableLinichrtmtopicswill 1.:c: (I) "The Northeastern:(II)"Curriculum Materiais Workshop,- Anthropology of Edocatioh: Ey olution of an Area of 119f1:11n.'!: pll'hi:s1 yrs; Via,!ii;),,;liull and East Coast Inquiry." Frederick Erickstni, Harvard (speakers: Solon teachers to anthropology ill elementary, ,t.condary, and Kimball,( ;eorgeSpindler):(2)-Ethnographic.Ap- comilltillity.college settings.

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49 PLAY GROUP NII.:ETs IN the!Nisi':areas of activity. Priority activities an. lie The Association for the Anthropological Study of community SV111)111 curriculum (primar>) and provincial high schools (lower secomdary). (2) Qualifications: pro- Ph)(JA:\SP)licidits iuiiiiIAnnual Niertingiii Atlanta, 31\larch to 3 April,iiiIU(i.ILI1)!I With the fessional qualifications. experience in educationand Southern Anthropologival Soviet> and the America!, tertiar-level stank in an area related to the development Ethnological Society. Brian Sutton-Smith, Teachers Co of audio-visual aids. Experience in a developing country Columbia. was selcted as Publications Ealitor: and important. Abilit> to identify needs quickly and to get three new niembers-at-largc.Lo sen two-year terms. approved plans into speedy execution. were elected: Elinor Nirkerson. San Ramtm Valle> High Coordinator of Material Development and Evalualimt. School. Danville CA; Allen Sack, _New 11a%eir, and 1b.hm Salary iS SU.S.23.500. ppointment is to a headquarters Schwartzman, Institute for Juvenile Research. C:hicago. position in the national capital, Port Moresby. However, (Hikers emitinuing to serve for one more year are: travel to various centers and schools will be essential. A President,B. Allan EiutI.lI.lfniv.of.California - lot of this will be by air as Papua, New Cuinea. is a Berkeley: President Elect, Phillips Stevens Jr., SUNY rugged .mountainous country. Ilousing is adequate but linflalo: Immediate Past President, Nliehael Salter. not luxurimis. Cost of living in the national capital is Windsor: and Secretary-Treasurer, Alyce Cheska,IIIi- higherthanelsewhereinthe country.(1)Duties: Urbana. Nlembership in TAASP is open toall responsible for reviewing and controlling the develop- individuals and institiltions interested in furthering the ment of all edueational le:irning aids from Papua, New study of play. Information regarding membership and Guina schmds, lint particularly the community (pri- publications ()uarterly Newsletter. Proceedings, and so many) sigma& and provincial (lower secondary) high forth) may be obtained by writing to Elinor Nickerson, schools. Printed materials and, to a lesser extent, radio Box 297, Alamo CA 91507. Fees art: S10 Regular. S5 pnigrams are the major areas'of activity. l'he materials Studnt, S20 Institution. and S200 Life. required have to be cheap, simply written, and struc- tured to minimize the programming tasks of teachers. -Responsible for evaluating existing materials in terms of internal efficiency (comparison between materials) and T"() vACANT posiTioNs IN externalefficiency(alternative expendithre items to PAPUA, NEW GUINEA material production). One projeet for provincial high schools couldbeprovision of studentmaterials to Audio-Iiisual Aids Officer.Salaryis SU s 18,500. supportintegratedgeneralistapproachtoteaching. Appointmentisto a headquarterspositioninthe Responsible for evaluating success of variants rurrieula. national capital, Port Moresby. However, some travel to (2) Qualifirations: very highlevel qualifiratimis and various centers and sclundsI.essential:this would considerable experience (swill of which should be in a require absences of one or two weeks at least four or five developing country) in the development and evaluation times a yeir. Ihmsing is adequate but not luxurioms. of educational materials and eurricida. Able to learn the Cost of living in national capital is higher tlum elsewhere details of existing systems and materials quickly and to in the country. (I ) Duties: develop audio-% isnal aids a:: organize an effective contribution to hurdler develop- support material from design through preparation and ments and reviews. trial stages. Expensive materials or ones that rely on Apply to Dennis Donahoe, Superintendent, Currimi- expensive equipment are not practical in Papua. New lum Unit, Department of Edueation, Konedoba, Papua. Guinea. Cheaply produced graphics, radio, and aids are New Guinea.

DEMOG I? Ell CsAS THE DETERMINANT OhDEMOG REM ICS: A COMMENT ON HOWARD/Quarterly,May 19 761

,

Is demographic socialization importaW If so, does 'tt,. (2) codification of existing data toward those theories, investigation require naive (theory-less) research? Alan and only then (3) smne sort of experimentation for Howard has argued a desperate need" to observe the validatiou. Space limits me to aspect one. individual forming attitudes toward density, migration. After 100 years of anthropology, we have no excuse and other populational analysis.IVid(*MIIe his emphasis to begin any problem "cold.'' Our best present para- on thisneglecteddimensionbutsugget thatour digm"eultural materialism"--argue: thataeulturr's apprtnich to it sInnuld be (I ) le/pothesis and theory, then control of its environment ultimately decides its social

49 50 organization. The latter fundamentally gt werns its ideol- of bread. The expense cannot be explained by the thief's ogy, which inturn basically directs its logic. I have book-learning but by the British industrialists' desire to elsewhere named these three stages as the Steward, Anglicize a Pacific colony. Taine, and Gladwin effects, respectively. Although the behavior flow is from survival needs to The native's viewpoint, often terine( Ichilies, is there- ideology, the latter is no mere mirror image. Scientists of fore ultimately delimited (tImugh not necessarily step- sub-cultures err in extrapolating from rat colony disas- by-step) by the broader techno-envinunnental factors ters the densities humans can withstand. But human perceived by the outside comparative scientist-by what culture is a creative optimizer. Thins, the millti-pational isoftentermedetics.Howard has highlightedthe firms' needfor cheap labor,plus Bamboo Cnrtain insider'spopulationalview, soletuschristenthat refugees, make today's Hong Kong factories prosper. component Of demographic emics as "demogremics." The island's compactness is 100 times that of New York The theory sumrests that it must ultimately obey the City;itis made tolerable through the emergence of ecological-economic pressures on demography, which we seclusion customs such as shunning a ileigliborportion may name "demogretics." of the common kitchen, So Hong Kong enjoys further Now, a major evolutionary trend isthe increasing immigration, not emigration.4 conversitm of inorganics to organics (to hioimiss). The Nor need these demographic orientations arise tra- ongoing Darwinian/Malthnsian rivalries force each indi- ditionallyor spontaneously. "Ad-mass" is appearing vidual and group towaril optimal environmental adapt- even in Indonesia, where the Information Ministry has ability in a system called "agoneminetry."2 No siiciety infiltrated the ruralludrukfolk-skit with songs advo- call long lower its reproductive rate seriously below its cating forceful migration into West Irian.5 neighbors or it will siphon them in.3 liie,currciit zero And so Howard is to be congratulated for annexing populationcrazeisInittheinterplayof improved this worthy subject to educational anthroptilogy. Folk longevity through medicine phis the inability of the demographics arenot arbitrarybut tedimi-envinni- automated Western economy to utilize human potential. mentally obedient. As Malinowski (192(;, 1948) crowed, Much of the past decade's cultural ecology fieldwork myth -is not an idle tale, but a hard-worked active has reported both the 64:lino-environment and encul- force." At this stage of our subdiscipline's evithition, we titration, although rarely intertwining them. Educational should harness "demogremies," not through naive eth- anthropological codifiers should correlate them, begin- nography but through cultural-materialistic codification. ning always withthe techno-enviromnent. We may Henry G. Burger anticipate the findings: Ideas about fertility and other University of Missouri demographics are not self-generating but tend to obey economic opportunity. Thus, in the stagnant U.S.A. of 1970, undergraduates on my campus celebroted Earth Notes Day b) distributing leaflets that snarled, "On E-Day, the I. General Systems,volume 20, page 107, 1975. UMKC Student ActiOn League would like to remind you 2.General Systems,volume 12, page 209, 1967. that pregnant women are ugly!" Many sparse prehistoric 3. Sce -The Tragedy of the Conumnis." 162 Science cultures, by contrast, glorified fertility, as we ran see in 1243, 1968. the Insty proportions of the Venus of Willendorf statue. I.Urban Anthropology,volume I, page 144, 1972. 5. Prw!eedings,.American Ethnological Society, page As with fertility, behavior will be found to 69, 1966. obey densities and power politics: attitude.- are a mere References lubricant. 'rims, just tituries ago, a free 11,000- mile shippassagetoAt 'straliaw,h; offered,indeed Malinowski, 1926 km title given]. forced, on people convicted in London of stealing a gob Malinowski,Magic, Science and Religion,1948.

PUBLICATIONS

I Ed. Note: This section of theQuarterlyhas been revised in order to assist libraries and CAE members to develop a continuously updated bibliography in anthropology and education by means of annotated referent:es which havenotbeen included in the Bin-nett et al.Anthropology and Education: Annotated Bihliographie Guide,nor in previous isNttes of the CAEQuarterly. Anadditional section will list materials useful in teaching aim h ropology

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51 Anthropological Study of Education Beeby, C. E. The Quality of Education in Developing Catala, Pierre. "Education and Rural Development." In Countries. Cambridge: Harvard Univ., 1966. Prospects in Education No. 2, Paris: UNESCO, 1969. Examines the implications for quality development in Modernization and expansion of educational systems are educational planning, a problem largely ignored, the discussed in terms of potential problems rising from author maintains, inthe concern .with expansion of long-termobjectivesandchangesineducational educational programs in developing nations. Includes methods. The expansion of Western industrialization is analysis of the concept of quality in educational theory, suggested as promoting a cultural orientation which may theroles of educator and economist in educational conflict with economic realities. The importance of planning, and factors related to education's consorvatism careful educational planning is emphasized to reduce in the face of social change. A model of developmental uneven development. stages through which educational systems must pass is offered in an attempt to understand the nature of these educational problems. Klineberg, lino and Nhiria Zav alkali. Nationalism and Breinbcck. Cole S. "Education forNational Develop- Triindism Among African Sthdents. Nlouton, Paris: ment.Comparative Education Review, Vol, 5. No. Publicatimisof theIniernati,mal. SocialScience 3. 196'2. Counril, No. 12, I069. Some of the basic causes of resistance to change iul the Shifts in attitudes towards llegiance from tribalto results of this resistance on educational institutions are national groups forms thebasisfor examining the examined. Through the impact of technological change, process of national integration in African states. Em- changing status relationships. mid pohtical change on ploying a sample of university students from throughout schools in sia, the author disrusses some of the basic Africa. attitudes and behavior towards national or local problems facing educatorsilldeveloping nations and identity iviTr surveyed. Findings indicated a general but inakes some sion,estions for implementing change. Also uneven trend towards national integration. 'flit artifici- included is a diwiission of needs in educational planning ality of national boundaries and the relative newness of in the areas of instructional methods. teacher prepara- independent status were .ven as contributing i0 this tion and placement. pat term

Teaching Anthropology

Thomas, Grorgelle. "Programmed Instruction for 'reach- Cover, LoisB. Anthropology For Our Times. New ing Anthropology in the Fifth Grade." 36:1 Journal York: Oxford Book Co., 1971. Written as a text for secondary and communitycollege of Experimental Education 88. Summer 1%8. This paper compares achievement levels of fifth grade students,this book provides a broad inventory of general anthropological data and concepts. Someeffort students taught anthropology using programmed instruc- is exerted to relate the 'general anthropology to events 'tionalmaterials%sill!tliosi.taught anthropologyliv in modern times. At the end of each chapterisa conventional classroom terlinignes. No significant dif- glossary of .terms, study questions, and a list of recom- ferences in achievement levels are found between groups in terms of ra ce. sex, or reading bility. The author mended rea.ding. suggests that less ahle readers may be no less handicap- ord in programmed instruction than in conventimial Rosenfeld, Gerald L. ",Anthropology as Soda! Studies in instruction. the Elementary School,"69:8The Record 767,lily Wilson, Paul. "World Cultures: A Matter of Method." 1968. 13:8 The Clearing House 501, April 1969. This brief paper focuses on the relevance of antliropi d- This paper focuses on the problem of over-specialization

todementary education. Both the content. On social inpresenting material on vultures aromul the world. studies, and the fact that children may be viewed as new Four procedures: the "Semester Approach," the "Com- eulturalpartivipants muchlikeanthropologistsare parative Approach,'' the "Area Approach," and the argued as reasons for ineorporating anthropology in the World Problems Approach," are presented as ways to elementary social studies curriculum. structure the presentation of such materials.

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5 2 THE COUNCIL ON ANTHROPOLOGY AND EDUCATION TheCouncil on Anthropology and Education (CAE) is a professional association of anthropologists and educational researchers concerned with the application of anthropology to research and development in education. Organized in 1968 within the American Anthropological Association, but separately incorporated, the Council regularly meets at the annual meetings of the Association.

President: John Herzog, Collegeof Education, North- Co-Chairperson:Marion J. Rice, 107 Dudley Hall, Univer- eastern University, Boston MA 02115. sity of Georgia, Athens GA 30602. 1st Vice President (Immediate Past President): Robert Committee 5: Trans-national Issues in Education & Change Textor, I n ternational DevelopmentEducation Chairperson:Thomas J. La Belle, Department of Education, Center, Stanford University, Stanford CA 94305. University of Califoinia, Los Angeles CA 90024. 2nd Vice President (PresidentElect):Frederick C. Committee 7: Blacks in Education Erickson, praduateSchool of Education, Long- Chairperson:Sheila S. Walker, Division of Higher Educa- fellowHall,13 Appian Way, Harvard University, tion, 4607 Tolman Hall, University of California, Berkeley CA Cambridge MA 02138. 94720. Sectetary-Treasurer:GlennHendricks,327Walter library, University of Minnesota, Minneapolis MN Committee 8: Spanish-Speaking Concerns in Education Co-Chairperson:Henry Torres-Trueba, School of Education, 55455. University of Illinois, Urbana IL 61801. Board of Directors: Emily Vargas-Adams (1976),Ford Co-ChaIrperson:LucilaCarasco-Schoch,Departmentof Found ation,ApartadoAereo 52986, Bogota, Sociology, University of California, San Diego CA. Colombia SA;Peggy Sanday(1977), Department of Committee 9: Women in Schools and Society Anthropology, University of Pennsylvania, Philadel- Co-Chairperson:Ann Sigrid Nihlen, Department of Educa- phia19174; Courtney Cazden (1978), Graduate tional Foundations, College of Education, University of New School of Education, Larsen Hall, Harvard Univer- Mexico, Albuquerque NM 87131. sity, Cambridge MA 02138. Co-Chairperson:JudithGoetz,DepartmentofSocial Science Education, Audley Hall, University of Georgia, Athens GA 30602. Officers of the Standing Committees Committee 1: Anthroplogical Studies of School and Culture Committee 10: Population Issues in Anthropology Chairperson: KennethBaer,DivisionofEducational and Education Studies, Emory University, Atlanta GA 30322. Chairperson:AlanHoward,AnthropologyDepartment, University of Hawaii, Honolulu /11 96822. Committee 2: Cognitive and Linguistic Studies Co-Chairperson:Peter Woolfson, Department of Anthro- Ad Hoc Committee on Employment of Anthropologists pology, University of Vermont, Burlington VT 05401. in Non-Academic Settings Co-Chairperson:John Ogbu, Anthropology Department, Chairpcson:Willis Sibley, Department of Anthroology, University of California, Berkeley CA 94720. Cleveland State University, Cleveland OH 44115.

Committee 3: Anthropological Resources & Teaching Ad Hoc Committee on Evaluation. Co-Chairperson:Walter Watson, Department of Sociology, Chairperson:Woody aark, Sociology of Education, Educa- Brock University, St. Catherines, Ontario, Canada L25 3A1. tion Department, University of California, Berkeley CA 94720.

COUNCIL ON ANTHROPOLOGY AND EDUCATION MEMBERSHIP-SUBSCRIPTION FORM

Name Indicate Committees of Special Interest:

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Individual Membership $7.50 (__ AAA Member) __Library Subscription $10.00 includes $4.00 for a subscription to theQuarterly Mail with check to Council on Anthropology and Education, c/a American Anthlopological Association, 1703 New Hampshire Avenue, N.W., Washington, D.C. 20009.

QUARTERLY Council on Anthropology and Education 2nd Class 1703 New Hampshire Avenue NW Postage Paid Washington DC 20009 Washiagton DC

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