Notes

INTRODUCTION

1. Peck, The Lost Heritage of the , Gesher, 106 (1982) p.107. 2. For ''s' place in this matter, see H. T. Yablonka, 'The Commander of the Yizkor Order, Herut, Shoa and Survivors', in I. Troen and N. Lucas (eds.) the First Decade, New York: SUNY Press, 1995. 3. Heller, On Struggling for Nationhood, p. 66. 4. Z. Mankowitz, and the Holocaust Survivors; Y. Gutman and A. Drechsler (eds.) She'erit Haplita, 1944-1948. Proceedings of the Sixth Yad Vas hem International Historical Conference, 1991, pp. 189-90. 5. Proudfoot, 'European Refugees', pp. 238-9, 339-41; Grossman, The Exiles, pp. 10-11. 6. Gutman, in , pp. 65-103. 7. Dinnerstein, America and the Survivors, pp. 39-71. 8. Slutsky, Annals of the , B, p. 1114. 9. Heller The Struggle for the Jewish State, pp. 82-5. 10. Bauer, Survivors; Tsemerion, Holocaust Survivors Press. 11. Mankowitz, op. cit., p. 190.

REALLY, 'HUMAN DUST'?

1. Many of the sources posed problems concerning numerical data on immi• gration, especially for the months leading up to the end of the British Mandate, January-April 1948, and the first few months of the state, May• August 1948. The researchers point out that 7,574 immigrant data cards are missing from the records and believe this to be due to the 'circumstances of the times'. Records are complete from September 1948 onward, and an important population census was held in November 1948. A parallel record• ing system conducted by the Jewish Agency, which continued to operate after that of the Mandatory Government, provided us with statistical data for immigration during 1948-9 and made it possible to analyse the part taken by the Holocaust survivors. 2. Sikron, in Immigration into Israel, A, p. 82, declares specifically that all the systems of categorization used by the Israeli authorities until the end of 1949 were flawed. Also: 'The report of the Zionist Federation and the Jewish Agency on activity for the years 1947-51', presented to the 23rd Zionist Congress in Jerusalem 1951. 3. Statistics on age were taken from the following sources: Gil, Immigrants' Settlements, p. 13; Dvorsetsky, The Holocaust Survivors, pp. 83-115; Annual Statistical Report, 1950, p. 19: Sikron, pp. 46-7.

279 280 Survivors of the Holocaust

4. Statistics from Sikron, part B - Statistical Addition, Special Publications series, no. 60, Central Bureau of Statistics, 1957, table 63A, p. 53; popu• lation census, 8 November 1948; Special Publications, no. 53, Central Bureau of Statistics, 1957, vol. B, p. 57. 5. Sikron, p. 78, table 9; significantly, a family of two, in these records, consists of a husband and wife. 6. Dvorsetsky, The Holocaust Survivors, pp. 89-90, based on the paper: 'The Vital Statistics of the Jewish Population in the American Zone in '. published by the Joint Medical Committee. 7. Dvorsetsky, p. 86; Immigration to Israel, 1948-1972, Special Publications series, no. 416, the Central Bureau of Statistics, Jerusalem, 1973, p. 56. 8. Grossman, The Jewish DP Problem, p. 18. 9. Based on Sikron, Immigration to Israel, A, pp. 82-95; Sikron, The Mass Immigration, p. 40; M. Dvorsetsky, 'Immigration from Europe, after the the Holocaust - biosociological problems' in The Diaspora, 2 (1960), pp. 75-91. 10. See Grossman, The Jewish DP Problem, pp. 18-19. 11. Manpower Review, June 1954, Special Publications, no. 56, Central Bureau of Statistics, 1957, p. 13; civilian manpower consisted of all citizens over the age of 14, who were categorized as employed or unemployed. 12. From Annual Statistics, no. 6 (1955) CBS, pp. 41-3; numbers relate to nationals who left and had not returned by the end of 1952, excluding diplomats and students. See also: Bachi, The Demographic Development, p.382. 13. Dvorsetsky, Demographic Problems, pp. 27, 28 shows reservation by say• ing that care should be taken in accepting his conclusions on emigration, since significant differences exist between the number of immigrants who declared their intention to leave the country and those who actually did, whose number is greater. 14. Sha'ari, Detention in Cyprus, p. 38; both Sha'ari and Dvorsetsky defined the group of Holocaust survivors as they are defined in this book. 15. Report of the Committee convened by the Jewish Agency on the problem of emigration, 6 July 1955, Labour Archive (LA), 443, IV, Immigration Department. 16. Summing-up report on causes of emigration from Israel, compiled by the Department of Sociology, under Professor Shmuel Eisenstadt and Dr Yonina Graber Talmon, October 1959, JAA, Department of Immigra• tion, Container 2, serial no. 20. 17. Bachi, Demographic Development, p. 383, of the emigrants, who were native-born Israelis, many were the children of new immigrants from various countries, so that assessments regarding different countries are lower than they are in reality. The difference between column 3 and col• umn 4 concerns years, where details are available for 1948-51 on all the emigrants, while for the years 1952, and July-December 1953 and 1954, details are available only for those who had declared that they were leaving for good. 18. Letter from Dr Golden to the Director General of the Ministry of the Interior, 3 December 1953, National Archives (NA), Interior, G2243; letter from the Director General of the Foreign Ministry, G. Eitan, to the Minstry Notes 281

of Immigration, to the Director General of the Minister of Defence, the Department of Foreign Currency, the Ministry of Finance, 19 August 1950, NA, Foreign Affairs, Al2397/20. Same file contains more letters in this vein: Report to V. Eitan, 11 April 1948, NA, Exterior, 2533; 23; report of a further meeting with Zeinman. 6 August 1948; from the East European Department in the Israeli Consulate in Prague to the Ministry of Foreign Affairs, 3 May 1949, NA, Exterior, A/2503/5. The file contains more letters on this. 19. A letter from Mr Pladt to the newspaper, Yediot Aharonot dated 15 February 1954, NA, Department 105, file 51: The unfortunate problem of emigration stems from the fact that not enough attention is paid to elderly and old people who lost the foundations of their existence during the Nazi occupation. These people sometimes find themselves facing the harsh reality of starvation, or reaching a decision on leaving the country.' 20. Letter from the Director General of the Foreign Ministry to the Ministry of Defence: 'most of the people want to return to because they claim that what was left of their families stayed there and that there is no possibility of their being reunited with them unless they return to Hungary' (original emphasis). I would point out that this claim was received in Israel with a certain reserve and considered to be propaganda put out by the Hungarian Consulate, who, according to the Foreign Ministry, used emo• tional pressure to persuade the emigration authorities to permit free emigration from Israel. None the less, in an interview with Andrash Mezei, a Hungrian Jewish writer, at his home in Budapest on 24 August 1986, he claimed that the main reason for his return to Hungary in 1950 after having come to live in Israel in 1948, had been his desire to return to his mother. 21. See letter from Dr Yehushua Grinbaum to the Consular Section in the Foreign Ministry, NA, Foreign 2533/33: 're: Dr Max Zeinman, Many Jews are returning to '. As for the emigrants to Hungary, and Austria, who asked to return to their countries of origin, it should be pointed out that these did not mostly pass through the displaced persons camps in Europe ~ a way-station which included something of a declara• tion regarding their severance from their motherland. They can therefore be seen as ordinary emigrants, disappointed by their new countries and deciding to return to their original one. Those going to and Poland, for example, wanted to leave Israel and emigrate to countries other than their countries of origin. They were mostly immigrants who had spent considerable time in DP camps. No data exist, to confirm this claim, but it merits a thorough review.

2 OLD REFUGEES AND NEW REFUGEES

1. Ben-Gurion's diary, 21 April 1949, Ben-Gurion Archives (BGA); Murphy, The Refugees in Israel, p. 164, gives 140,000 as the number of settlers in the abandoned places; Aron Zisling sums up the way in which the immigrants were integrated in the abandoned towns and villages as being 'a shameful dis• grace', an answer to Ben-Gurion for his offhand attitude to the contribution 282 Survivors of the Holocaust

made by the kibbutzim to this integration, Hashomer Hatzair Archives 31190(1). His numbers, which relate to the period between 15 May 1948 and 1 December 1949 are similar to Murphy's - 139,521 (Jaffa - 45,527; - 39,200; Acre - 4,396; Zefat - 2,213; Ramleh - 9,150; other towns - 14,199; abandoned villages and townships - 13,469; immigrant moshavim in abandoned villages - 11,357). 2. Gil, Settling the Immigrants, p. 74. 3. Ibid., pp. 41-81. 4. Zionist Executive Committee meeting, 23 August 1948, spoken by Moshe Shapira, Central Zionist Archives (CZA) in Jerusalem. 5. Lufban, A Man Leaves, p. 119. For further confirmation of the lack of planning in the abandoned towns, settlements, see Yitzhak Koren's speech to the Council 10-12 August 1948, LA, Councils: Eizenstadt, Immigrant Integration, p. 30; 'Not a single urban concentration was blessed with any kind of preliminary overall planning programme, which would attempt to suit the type of population in hand to the economic possibilities of the town and its surrounds.' 6. 'Where were all our 35,000 immigrants integrated into?', Bulgarian Immi• grants' report, BGA. 7. Frumkin in the Central Committee, 9 August 1948, LA, 23/48; A. Verobel and Y. Giger, reference to the liberation of Zefat, Zefat Workers Council, IDF archives 782/65/189. 8. Letter from M. Shapira to Ben-Gurion, 2 July 1948: 'Re: settling immi• grants in Jaffa', IDF Archives 1255/53/6. 9. Minutes of Histadrut September-December 1948, 3 November 1948, 91M, LA. 10. Summary of meeting of Ben-Gurion, J osephtal and Patishi, rep. Immigrant Integration Department, 22 September 1948; BG General material. 11. Minutes of Jewish Agency Management, 20 October 1948, CZAs 46/1. 12. Herbert (in Settling One Million Immigrants) points out that the Arab population in Ramleh in 1948 was 15,000, but only 3,000 in 1965. If we look at the birth rate within the Arab popUlation, we can see that the number who left the town was large indeed. In 1948 Lydda had an Arab population of 17,000; it was only 2,000 strong in 1965. In Majdal, of the original 10,000 Arabs in 1948, only 1,400 remained, Ben-Gurion's diary, 23 December 1948, BG Archives, Diaries. 13. Letter from deputy commander of the Military Administration in occu• pied territories, to military commander, 8 August 1948, IDF Archives, 1255/53/6. 14. Summary of meeting dated 3 September 1948, those present: Laniado, Commander 41st Battalion; Yoram Shlush, from the office of the Custodian of Abandoned Property; Liason Officer in the Military Governor's office and the National Requisitions Officer, IDF Archives, ibid. 15. Letter from Laniado (military governor of Jaffa), to the Military Admin• istration of the occupied territories, 3 September 1948, ibid. 16. Actions taken to return squatters to the immigrant camps, 5 April 1949, ibid. 17. Letter from the committee of Giv'at Ha'aliya to the military governor of Jaffa, 22 March 1949, ibid. See also from Laniado to Jewish Agency, report dated 16 February 1949, on the demonstration by hundreds of Jews Notes 283

outside his office, demanding housing alternatives to what they had been allotted, ibid. 18. Letter from , deputy military commander of occupied territories, to military governor of Ram1eh and Lydda, dated 7 January 1949, IDF Archives 1860/50Kl31, 're: Squatting'. Following an attempt at squatting in Ramleh 'we have bitter experience in this in Jaffa. This plague of squatting began in a single place and spread in such a way as to be impossible to control.' Report on meeting with immigrants: from Laniado to Military Administration HQ (undated). In the report, the governor emphasized that the squatting was still going on and was not under control, IDF Archives 1255/53/6. In the same file: report on meeting with additional delegation of immigrants, 24 March 1949. The governor demanded that a decision be taken jointly by the Jewish Agency and the authorities, assuming that the Army was the body which carried out policy and did not determine it. Many appeals of a personal nature were received by the military governor of Jaffa at that time, some quite heartrending. Thus the appeal made by Rabbi Fishman (Minister of Religious Affairs) to the military governor, on the matter of Rabbi Y. D., of the town Turnov, 'who arrived here after many trials and tribulations ... exhausted and penniless, having lost his three brothers and their families.' Here, too, the governor's reply to most of the appeals was that he was unable to do anything. See also IDF Archive 1255/53/1; more such appeals can be found in this file. 19. Letter from H.P. (a new immigrant) to the military governor, dated 6 June 1949, IDF Archive 1255/53/6. In the same file: a sworn statement by Ya'akov Vogel, an engineer in the Municipality, 14 February 1949, 'Due to the heavy rains, several building collapsed in Jaffa. Immedi• ate demolition order'; Letter from David Tenna, Immigration Department, to Mr Shafrir, Custodian of Confiscated Property, dated 23 May 1949, 'Responsibility for the situation will fall on you [original emphasis].' 20. Verabin Report (military governor of Majdal Gad), January 1950, IDF Archives 834/53/190. 21. Reports of Military Administration Ram1eh and Lydda, 10 October- 15 November 1948, February 1949, IDF Arch. 1869/50Kl31. 22. Material used in press conference at Military Governor's office, 24 February 1949, IDF Archives 1255/53/56. 23. Military governor's report dated January 1949, presented 10 February 1949, IDF Archives, 1860/55K130; from the Technical Department to Mekorot (the national water board), re: Water supply to Acre, 25 May 1949, JAA, Settlement, Finance, container 926, column 9, serial no. 84. 24. Verabin Report. 25. Letters to military governor ofJaffa from YosefShapira, demobbed soldier, new immigrant; from Lurie Betzalel, war invalid, new immigrant; from Bulstein Ze'ev, new immigrant; from Kaner Eliezer, new immigrant; 13 March 1949, IDF Archives 1255/53/71. 26. Vera bin Report, April 1949, IDF Archives 1860/50Kl24. 27. Letter from Yitzhak Shaham of the Licensing Department to military governor 19 October 1948, IDF Archives 1255/53/199. 28. Minutes of 7th Agricultural Convention, 13 July 1949, LA 235, IV, 1442 (henceforth 7th Agricultural Convention). 284 Survivors of the Holocaust

29. Report of Military Administration Ramleh and Lydda, February 1949, IDF Archives 1860/50Kl31; Verabin Report, April 1949, ibid., 1860/50Kl24; Verabin Report, January 1950, ibid., 834/531190. 30. Letter from Tel Aviv Town Clerk to Manager of Education Authority, 26 August 1948, IDF Archives 1255/531198, 're: Educating children in the Jaffa neighbourhoods', letter from Tel Aviv Workers' Council to Military Governor, 4 April 1949, ibid., 1255/53/1: 'Hundreds of immigrant children are wandering aimlessly through the streets of the town.' 31. Hans Rubin, first plenary session, meeting 17, 28 March 1949, NA, section 60, container 11. 32. Ben-Zion Dinburg files, NA, section 60, container 3. 33. (a) Lists of organizations and cells of settlers in the immigrant camps (Pardes Hannah, Je1il, , Sha'ar Ha'alia, Bet Lid, Ra'anana, Natanya, Haifa, Be'er Ya'akov), LA 307, IV, 1-272; (b) Five-year anni• versary of Bet Eliezer (Akir), JAA, Settlement, Finances, col• umn 9, container 935, serial number 72. 34. Letter from Yitzhak Koren to committees of Tarshiha, Akir, Igazim, Kobiba, Majdal Gad, Bessa, Safsuf, Satria, Yavne, 28 April 1949, LA 307, IV, 1-272; letter from Harzfeld to Eliashar dated 22 April 1949: 'there is no point considering settling families whose ages are above 30-40 years', LA 235a, IV, 2319. 35. Eshkol, Land Covenant, pp. 88-92. 36. Ben-Gurion diaries, 6 November 1948, BG Arch. diaries. This was said to YosefWeitz and Levy Eshkol. It is interesting to compare this with Weitz's description in his diaries of the same meeting: 'as we were leaving, Eshkol pointed out: "he's [Ben Gurion] totally concerned with the Galilee right now, maybe we'll be able to direct him to want to recruit the immigrants for settlement.'" Wietz, diaries, d, p. 353. 37. Ben-Gurion diaries, I December 1948. 38. 'Our agriculture will be intensive and it is possible that we shall be able to give them [the Arabs] some fields to work. Thus a proposal that the Israeli government should undertake responsibility for settling the displaced Arabs, in the event that they should desire to return to their abandoned homes.' Eshkol said in the minutes of J A Executive, 22 November 1948, CZA 46/1. 39. Proposals for agricultural propaganda programme in immigrants' camps, written by: Shlomo Zemach, LA 307, IV, 1-273. 40. Letter from Y. Koren to BG, 26 January 1949, LA 307, IV, 1-237. 41. Review of activities of Department of Agricultural Settlement, 14 May 1948-11 April 1949, Jewish Agency, Page a, LA 443, IV. 42. Letter from Z. Mishari, Manager of Immigration Settlement Department, to Harzfeld, 9 March 1949, LA, 235, IV, 2319. In same file, see also letter from Hanoch Hillman to Josephftal, 12 June 1949. 43. Ya'akov Hazan, at the Zionist Executive Committee, 23 August 1948, CZA S5-323. 44. Letter from Buber, Simon, Sentor, Roth, to Ben-Gurion, February 1949, National Arch, division 43, file G5559. There is no doubt as to the high social standing held by the writers of this letter at that time. 45. Letter from Hanoch Hillman to Yoseftal, 12 June 1949, LA 235, IV, 2319. Notes 285

46. Further aspects of the potential for settlement of the immigrant Holocaust survivors will be discussed in chapters dealing with their confrontation with Israeli society and the movement. 47. Letter from Dr Josephtal to the Custodian of the Abandoned Property, 22 September 1948, LA 235, IV, 2319. 48. Letter to members, dated 27 April 1949, UKMA (UKMA) foreign afairs section, container 20, file 119. 49. Letter from Y. Klovner to Ben-Gurion, dated 5 May 1949, NA 43, G5559. 50. Yitzhak Koren at a meeting of Instructors in Immigrants' Settlements, 14 March 1950, LA 307, IV, 1-473, this fact turned the activity of the moshav movement to an outstanding voluntary act: 'It is inconceivable for a member of the to work with people he considers have no chance of ever becoming kibbutz people.' Documents show that the moshav movement accompanied the immigrants to the abandoned villages, without first taking this into account. This was brought up by David (no surname available) in: 'Members or not members', Tlamim, September 1950, 91, pp. 9-112. 51. Fifth anniversary of Moshav Bet-ELAzari (Akir), JAA. Settlement, Finances, column 9, container 935, serial no. 72; G'vati, One Hundred Years, pp. 29-30. 52. Zilberberg at the 7th Agricultural Congress. 53. Report of inter-moshav committee on work in the immigrant settlements in the south of the country, 30 December 1949, JAA Settlement, Jerusalem, container 286, serial no. 1027. The committee enjoyed the personal atten• tion of Ra'anan Weitz and Levy Eshkol, see correspondence in same file. 54. To the agency responsible for Jerusalem, Custodian of Confiscated Pro• perty, Regional Engineer, 21 January 1950, ibid., finances, technical, Jerusalem, container 36, column 15, serial no. 510; Report on tour of abandoned villages in Jerusalem area, 13 May 1949, (housing, accessibility and water supply), ibid., technical. Letter from Haim Rokach, Mapai coordinator, to Heshel Frumkin in the Labour Federation, 16 September 1949, ibid., settlement, finances, column 9, container 923, serial no. 42. More in the same file on Ein Karem. 55. Letter from Z. Mishari to Settlement Department, 23 August 1949, and report on situation at EI Kubab, 1 August 1949, ibid., container 941, serial no. 22. Same file contains correspondence on same matter: letter from Ra'nan Weitz, deputy manager Settlement Department to Lieutenant• Colonel Eshel, 21 September 1949, ibid., Jerusalem, container 941, column 9. File contains more on same matter. 56. The families Hoffman, Levkovitz, Moskovitz, Lustig Yosef and Lustig Alexander, letter from Z. Shapira, Agricultural Centre, to Immig• ration Dept. Jewish Agency, 10 May 1949, LA IV, 1235; letter from Dr Brand, Tel Aviv regional doctor, to Jewish Agency, Settlement Dept. 21 November 1949, 're: Bad sanitary conditions in the abandoned villages, Dir Tarif, Renatia, Elmazra,' ibid., 307, IV, 1-272; letter from Histadrut Municipal Department to Health Min., 3 February 1949, ibid., 208, IV, b4762. 57. Minutes of 7th Agricultural Congress; the issue of water was raised repeatedly on the congress's agenda; Minutes of full secretariat of Moshav 286 Survivors of the Holocaust

Movement, dated 21 September 1949, T1amim, pp. 16-25: 'The problem of water supply has not been solved to this day in most of the places.' 58. Letter from Shmuel Meir to moshav movement secretariat, 27 May 1949, LA 307, IV, 1-273. 59. Meeting of agricultural instructors to sum up a year of activity in immi• grant settlements Tlamim, 98-9, May, June 1950, pp. 45-53. 60. Spoken by Ben-Arie and Grinker, T'nuva Marketing Manager, at the agricultural instructors' meeting 14 March 1950, LA 307, IV, 1-473; Spoken by Zalman Mishari at fourth convention of instructors in immigrant villages, 8 September 1949, ibid., IV, 1-273. 6l. Letter from moshav movement secretariat to Levy Eshkol, 1 January 1950, ibid., 307, IV, 1-272. 62. Reports of visits made to immigrants' villages, 7-13 September 1949, ibid. Same file contains more reports and correspondence on same matter. See also: 'In the Villages', Tlamim 91, September 1950, pp. 27-8. 63. See for example: letter from Yugoslav Immigrants Association to moshav movement, 12 June 1949, LA ibid.: 'The Yugoslav Immigrants Association and the immigrants who arrived in Israel in 1948 and settled on agricultural settlements have decided to form a committee for the settlement of immi• grants of Yugoslav origin, for the purpose of organizing immigration from Yugoslavia'; forming the inter-moshav committee for work on the moshavim in the south of the country, JAA, Settlement, Jerusalem, con• tainer 286, serial no. 1027. 64. Arbitration in the full convention of the Secretariat, 21 September 1949, 'Situation in the Immigrants' Moshavim' (see note 57). 65. Ben-Arie, report of visits to immigrants' settlements, 31 January 1950, LA ibid. 66. Congress of Instructors, 14 March 1950, spoken by Israel Erez: 'It would be necessary to point out that an immigrants' moshav is not a branch of an immigrants' hostel and that selection is necessary ... We must be granted the option to remove a family from the moshav'. Further: in a letter from David Nipmanetnay to Mr Koren, 20 January 1949 - the man was destined for Akir - 'but the Inhabitants' Committee had decided that he was unsuitable', LA 307, IV, 1-273. 67. Statement of delegation of Immigrant Workers' Moshavim, 26 January 1950, LA 307, IV, 1-53 (Dir Tarif, Bassa, Yavne, Kubiba): 'Cruel terror is practised by Mapai activists against settlers whose ideologies are advanced [communist]. These are denied all help in the purchase of seeds, livestock, work tools and equipment as well as finances. Many of them went to settle shortly after they arrived in the country, during the War of Independence.' 68. Letter from secretariat of moshav movement to Eshkol, 1 January 1950, ibid., 307, IV, 1-272. On this matter, see also Koren at arbitration in full secretariat meeting (see note 64): 'The new settlers are detatched from all Israeli reality. They do not understand the country's elementary problems. We must understand that if we neglect the cultural aspect of this, we will create islands of immigrant Holocaust survivors, who are connected neither to the movement or to the country itself.' Notes 287

3 PARTISANS, FIGHTERS AND KATZETNIKS

1. The Welfare Committee at Kushta was the official representative of the Jewish population in Israel, whose objective was to save Jews in occupied Europe. Details on Menahem Bader's activity in his book: Sad Missions (Tel Aviv, 1978). On the central role played by the welfare committee, see also Hanna Torok Yablonka, 'The Europe Plan' (MA thesis, Hebrew University of Jerusalem, 1984), p. 40; , An Entangled Leadership, p.135. 2. Bader Report, Histadrut Executive Council, 19 June 1947, Hashomer Hatza'ir Archives (HHA) (8) 4.5. Also in that file: letter from L. Ashri, ed., August edition of Yediot Hamazcirut, aimed at Menahem Bader in Mazra, dated 21 July 1947, explaining why his writings would not be published in full in this publication. The writer also urged Bader to include 'some changes' as a condition for their being published. 3. Report of the Zionist Federation and the Jewish Agency, presented to the 23rd Zionist Congress, Jerusalem, July 1951, pp. 275-82. 4. The exchange was made between groups of Jews with Israel/Palestine citizenship, or those bearing immigration permits, with Germans resident in Israel or other parts of the British Empire. 5. Porat, An Entangled Leadership, pp. 435-50; Weitz, Mapai Stances, pp. 106-7. Now and then, more immigrants arrived from Europe, but their records were mostly incomplete. 6. Kol, Youth Aliya, pp. 154-9. 7. Gutman, The Jews of Warsaw, pp. 302-15. 8. A few, sparsely spread soldiers from Israel were active in Italy from the summer of 1943, although until mid-1944 this activity was only local and personal in character. Indeed, even in 1944 any activity on the part of the soldiers depended on their own initiative and willingness, when ties with the Jews in Palestine were slack and no directives or orders were forth• coming from there. Nevertheless, the Joint had already entered the picture and in 1944 there was even a visit from Shertok. Moreover, a group of immigrants had already arrived in Palestine. For many details on the summer of 1943, see Gelber, Volunteering, pp. 207-40, 256; Bauer, The Escape, pp. 23-4 (Ruz'ka Korchak arrived here on 12 December 1944). 9. Ibid., pp. 241, 257. 10. Korchak, Flames in the Ashes; in this respect, it is important to remember that before the war Vilna had been a lively and wealthy centre of Jewish life. Before the war, the 'Jerusalem of ', as it was described, had a population of some 60,000, and was notably Jewish, Zionist and with a strong internal social cohesion. Vilna was often visited by Jews from Israel and their leaders. Furthermore, it is no coincidence that after the war the Lithuanian Jews formed the foundations for leadership within the com• munity of Holocaust survivors. It was also a fact that after September 1939, there was a stream of refugees into Vilna, especially members of Zionist youth groups, on their way to Israel. Some of these youths returned to Poland to join the youngsters. Details on the meetings from several sources: Ruz'ka, The Personality, pp. 44-7, 79-82; Ruz'ka's speech on 288 Survivors of the Holocaust

17 January 1945, LA, 208, IV, 4096; and Ben-Nahum, Weitzman; Korchak, meeting; Yehuda Bauer, personal testimony, 4 May 1988. As for the meeting with Ruzka, voices were soon heard to the effect that 'Ruz'ka is not working at all', 'Everybody is working and she's talking'. Demands were heard that she begin living an ordinary life. Ruzka, symbol of a movement that had died, did not agree with this and the Movement's leaders were less critical. Ruz'ka, ibid., p. 119. II. Isaac Grinbaum had been one of the Zionist leaders in Poland, vice• chairman of the Jewish Agency Executive and head of the Labour Dept and member of the temporary government and the first Interior Minister in the Israeli government, Eliezer Kaplan, Jewish Agency treasurer and first Finance Minister in the Israeli government, Vera Weizmann, wife of . Mordechai Shenhavi, veteran of the Hashomer Hatza'ir, member of Mishmar Ha'emek, founding member ofYad Vashem and the Mossad. , first commander of the Palmah. Shaul Avigur (Mairov), leader and coordinator for many years of the Hagana, was, from 1939, head of the Aliya Institution and was later in charge of the purchase of arms. 12. K. Tzetnik, Salamandra. l3. Sources for analysing this meeting come from Gelber, Volunteering, pp. 289~355, 394~512, 527~9; on the character of the Holocaust survivors, pp. 81~111; ibid., spoken by Shmuel Potick and Avraham Zilberger: 'The main element in saving them were the survivors themselves'; Slotzky, History of the Hagana, pp. 997~1011; Weitz, First Contact. 14. Zuckerman, Exodus from Poland, pp. 13, 15. 15. Bartov, Teenage Spots, pp. 55~6. 16. The Diaspora Centre was founded in October 1944 by the Jewish repre• sentatives of British army units, in order to make their activity more efficient. Its tasks included: material, social and spiritual help to the Jewish refugees, as well as help in organizing the Zionist objectives. This activity increased with time, both in the number of activities and in its geographical scope. 17. The survivors' battalion ~ the remainder of the Pioneer Youth from East• ern Europe, who congregated in Romania and were integrated into the activity of the Israeli delegation in the Zionist Movement, in the 'Halutz', and in organizing the '' and illegal immigration. 18. Bauer, Remains. A moving, literal description of the Holocaust survivors' approach to the Brigade is given in Bartov's, Teenage Spots, pp. l28~31. Bartov, who served in the Brigade, based his book on his autobiography, and his descriptions are very true to the reality of the time: '''So say something", Little Oistroicher couldn't contain himself, "how did you get here so suddenly?" "Not so suddenly. I was sent to you." "But where from?" "From the survivors' battalion". "What's that?" said Poker. "The survivors, friends, partisans. The ones who fought in the forests, the shadows, the Holocaust survivors. I've been sent to ask you what we're to do now, we, the survivors. Now I know what your answer is. We shall get up and set off on our way. To you.'" Also in Eichenwald's book on paths and frontiers, p. 115: 'It was, for them, the meeting with the Holocaust survivors and for us ~ a meeting with Israel. Words cannot describe the Notes 289

excitement on both sides. The curiosity - to know, to hear, to learn, to understand, erased all signs of strangeness.' 19. For further details see Gelber, Volunteering, pp. 517-18, 528. 20. Ibid., p. 419. 21. Bartov, Teenage Spots, pp. 130, 142. 22. Tzimrion, Chapters on the Holocaust, p. 12; Gelber, Volunteering, p. 459: 'We reached our destination ... we met our brothers ... '; Eichenwald, On Paths and Frontiers, p. 115. 23. Gelber, p. 430. In this respect it is important to point out that Sharet was the first Israeli leader to visit Europe (Italy) in 1944. This fact reinforces the hypothesis that there was an ideological gap between those who visited Europe and met the Holocaust survivors, if only a few of them, and those who had lived the entire time in Israel and judged the issue according to the reality in Israel. Sharet also visited Kushta in 1943, a visit which left a deep impression on him. 24. Beba Idelson in the Working Women's Council, 4 October 1943, LA, 104, IV; 'We saw in this uprising [the Warsaw ghetto] something of our spirit. We knew that had [the uprising] not shown its ability to protect the souls of Jews, men, women and children - it would not have reflected the same uprising that we had witnessed.' Abba Kovner, The Testimony of the Last Survivors, Gutman, The Jewish Holocaust, pp. 477-86. 25. One of the possible explanations for this was that, as soon as they returned, many of the Brigade's soldiers were drawn straight into activity within the exciting and burning national tasks, in the years 1946-7. The exceptions were Yosef Bankover, one of the leading volunteers from the Kibbutz Hame'uhad Movement to the British Army and later a member of the battalion committee, and Mordechai Surkis, one of the leaders of the Diaspora Centre. 26. Gelber, Volunteering, p. 498. 27. Tzur, Hakibbutz Hame'uhad, b, p. 21. Immigration both legal and illegal peaked in 1947. 28. Report of the Zionist Federation and the Jewish Agency to the 23rd Zionist Congress, pp. 276-8. 29. Menahem Herring, 16 December 1947: 'A struggle is taking place in the camps over the souls of the Holocaust survivors', B.G. (general material); Gelber, Volunteering, p. 528; Hoffman Yahil report, Moreshet Arch. (MA) 1413.2 (6H). 30. Report to the 23rd Zionist Congress, pp. 277-8. 31. Sha'ari, Deportation to Cyprus, p. 30. 32. Chaim Hoffman, lecturing at an emissaries' congress, 11 February 1947, CZA S6-4588, echoes of this kind of debate could be found also in Luba Levita's report in the United Kibbutz Movement executive council at G'vat, 28 February 1947, on completing his mission, UKMA. Dept. 5, container 11, file 1 (henceforth G'vat council). 33. Review of the activities of the Medical Services for fiscal year 194617, presented in February 1948, CZA S6-572: 'On the one hand, it was the strongest who remained alive, but were suseptible, on the other, to injuries and various maladies as a result of their living conditions.' See also: Murphy, The Refugees in Israel, p. 157; Appe1feld, The Burning Light, 290 Survivors of the Holocaust

in a book which deals with the integration in Israel of a group of youths, survivors of the Holocaust, a single theme is repeated - in several vari• ations - which considers the negative selection undergone by the Holocaust survivors: 'Who knows where they were and what they learned there' (p. 79). 'Suffering does not turn one into a better human being' (p. 84). 'The best ones died and those who came here are bad and lack ideology' (p. 85). 'The noble and the honest perished and those who came here are mere devils' (p. 86). In a conversation on 2 April1983, Appe1fe1d pointed out that he emigrated to Israel after the Holocaust as a boy of 14, and statements of this sort were a 'very strong message' that he had encoun• tered, and were finally expressed in the book. 34. Dubkin, in a lecture to the Pioneering Organizations Union, 8 July 1947, CZA S 86-351, pointed out that only three of the 19 members of the Jewish Agency Executive had visited the camps. If the Jewish Agency Executive is to be seen as the government in those days, then it is obvious what the country's priorities were. Considerable criticism was heard because: 'Many emissaries were sent to the Diaspora, yet those in the camps feel themselves to be without a mission, a lack of contact with Israel.' The main criticism was the fact that the emissaries saw as their chief objective the task of organizing the lives of the Jews, instead of fulfilling the refugees' social and cultural needs. See A. Bardichevsky of the party executive, 'The Holocaust survivors' image of truth', Ahdut Ha'avoda, 23 August 1947, with regard to inadequate cultural activity in the camps, see also Haya Slutzky in a meeting of the emissaries in Germany, Munich 1947, UKMA 2, overseas files, liaS. Further research is required if this is to be validated. Docu• ments show only one request for artists to appear in the camps in Germany - e.g. YosefGoland's review (,Not for a Prize'), with M. Vilensky, H. Zahavi and S. Damari. See letter from Goland to Dubkin, dated 17 February 1948, CZA, S86-97; and letter from Dubkin to Boskovsky in Paris, dated 26 February 1948, same file. 35. See also letter from Mina Liberman to the country's leaders, 28 June 1947, CZA S6-829. The letter addressed to 'Murderers, murderers', includes: 'How could you have endangered so valuable a cargo as entire families of Holocaust survivors ... why did you not give orders not to resist, in the event that the ship is apprehended, and ensure that everyone remains alive and well ... but maybe someone, for political reasons, feels the need for dead and wounded?' 36. Yoske Rabinowitz, a member of the United Kibbutz Movement Council, Na'an 10 May 1947, UKMA 2111/5 (henceforth Na'an Convention). See also letter from Moshe in Italy, journal, dated 14 May 1947: 'They are much better than they have been described and much better than I had imagined myself. We have no reason to feel ashamed of them.' 37. There were those who distinguished between a katztanik, a repatriate and one who was saved by going into hiding, and attached different moral traits to each of these groups. See Bogner, Cyprus, p. 348, quoting P. Lavon and A. Ochmani. None the less, it would seem that the rest of the population did not draw such a sharp distinction, but rather simply distinguished between Holocaust survivors and fighters (with the latter being divided between partisans and ghetto fighters). Notes 291

38. Ruth Bondy, in an interview at her Ramat-Gan home, 2 April 1989, claimed that, in her experience, there was never a real desire to know (the truth) through empathy and identification, rather an inability to cope with the horror, and perhaps disdain. As an exception, Ms. Bondy referred to the poet Uri Zvi Greenberg. The only source we found of spiritual resis• tance was in a series of articles by Mary Yatziv, including 'What and where shall we receive the immigrants, April, 1946, LA 104, IV. 39. A letter from Lilia, journal, dated 16 January 1948. 40. Dvorsetsky, The Holocaust Survivors, pp. 102~4; a similar interpretation, stressing a sense of loneliness and isolation, can be found in Murphy, The Refugees in Israel, pp. 168~9. 41. Rotem, And Within Me, My Past, p. 139, adds: 'My meeting with Melech Neustadt, who was among the first I met here, focused on the fighters of the Warsaw ghetto. I was questioned and interrogated on each one of those who fell, but not once was I asked, nor was there even an allusion to, those who survived. It was for this reason, that I spoke little even after I had learned the . I was reluctant to reveal my past.' 42. Bondy, In the Heart of the East, p. 20. 43. Zuckerman, The Exodus from Poland, p. 56; see also Ruzka, Herself, p. 101; Dvorzetsky, The Holocaust Survivors, p. 103; letter from Cyprus, Givat Brenner journal, dated 23 April 1947; letter from Lilia, Ein Harod journal, dated 16 January 1948: 'Our truth is hard for them to comprehend and they find it hard to understand us.' Also, the letter from Moshe in Italy, Givat Brenner journal, dated 14 May 1947: 'Nevertheless, there is a difference between us, although I grew up in the same townships in Poland as they did.' And Tabenkin at the Kibbutz Hame'uhad council, , 22~23 October 1947 UKMA 3/11/5 (henceforth Givat Haim con• gress): 'Shoshani said, he has the feeling that we feel like the fighters in the Warsaw ghetto. Do we get this feeling? Are we imagining to ourselves a devastation in the full meaning of the word?' 44. Letter from Cyprus, ibid.

4 'THIS HUMAN MATTER'

1. Medical Services Report, review of medical services for fiscal year 194617, presented in February 1948. CZA S6~527. This report, because of its objective approach, expressed realistically the mixed emotions towards the Holocaust survivors and their immigration to Israel. See also: Frumkin's Immigration and Development: 'There were times when strong doubts were raised about this immigration. Not necessarily because of a negative attitude to the immigrants, but because of the pain and suffering they had experi• enced before their arrival in Israel.' 2. Dubkin's report, 12 June 1946, LA IV; report from Barlass to Kaplan, Shapira and Greenboim, 25 February 1947, LA S6~1169; Dvorzatsky, in The Holocaust Survivors, pp. 89~90, points out that the birthrate among the Jews in the American zone in 1948, was some 35.8 per 100 of the popUlation and that this was one of the highest birth rates in the world. 292 Survivors of the Holocaust

It is of interest that in internal discussions, the emissaries in Germany drew a much more positive picture of the survivors than that recorded in their reports to Israel, which were mainly negative. This might be because of ulterior motives, such as: an attempt to get more emissaries appointed because of the burden of work, or a desire to exaggerate the value of their work in Europe - the harder their task, the greater their success. In any case, the image which developed in Israel of the survivors was based on the reports and not on the emissaries' internal discussions. See also: lecture by Yehoshua Levy at a congress of emissaries from Eretz Israel, November 1947, CZA S86-344, and other speeches at same congress, UKMA 2, overseas files, lIa5. Also, Tzimerion, Journals of the Holocaust Survivors. 3. Letter from Gurfinkle, at the Karmona camp in Italy to the emissary department of the Jewish Agency, 29 December 1947, CZA S86-6J. 4. Letter from Cyprus, Givat Brenner journal, 23 April 1947. 5. Letter from Cyprus, from G. 22 April 1947, CZA S86-343; Sha'ari, The Holocaust Survivors, pp. 20-45, quoting Dr Shmuel Greengauz, head of Landsburg camp, at the second congress of Holocaust survivors. Greengauz, in his speech, gave six explanations for the negative character• istics in the way of life of the Holocaust survivors: J. their latent nomadism during the period of transgression; 2. the financial support, 3. the system of organizeran; 4. the inherent contradiction of being victors and the actual fact of being defeated; 5. a social conflicts left over from life in the concen• tration camps; 6. emotional fatigue from the close living conditions in the military camps. See also: first Report on Immigration, base no. I March- 20 July 1948, Haganah Archives (HA), department 36, file 6: 'difficult human material ... powerful inferiority complex'; letter from Dubnov to emissary dept. dated 23 May 1948, CZA. S86-6; letter from Eliezer Ben Dov to Amami and Haklai, emissary dept. 17 August 1949, CZA S86-57, letter from Gur-Arieh (Italy) to Mapai Central Committee, 21 January 1948, LA 104, IV, 223. 6. Letter from Menahem Zahroni in Zalzburg to emissary dept. 14 February 1948, CZA S86-6. 7. Dubkin in a speech to Pioneer Organizations Union, 8 July 1948, ibid., S86-35J. 8. Letter from Dubnov to emissary dept., 23 May 1948, ibid., S86-6. 9. Letter from Dr Yosef Kot, Germany, to Yosef Barfel, 8 January 1948, CZA S6-5067; words spoken by Z. Robashov, minutes of Histadrut Execu• tive Commission, January-March, 14 January 1948, LA M88; words of the Kibbutz Ha'artzi emissaries in Germany at the Movement's 27th congress in Naharia, 12 December 1948, HHA. 6/20/5(AI): 'The people are being poisoned [mentally] by these hand-outs'; letter from Munich, Givat Brenner journal, 3 July 1949. Report by Yosef and Miriam Meir at end of their visit to Germany, to emissary department, 3 December 1947, Central Zionist Arch, S86-343, publication of the report was forbidden and had 'unsuitable for publication' hand-written on it. 10. Dvorsetsky, The Holocaust Survivors, p. 103. 11. Robashov, 14 January 1948. 12. From Brandman to the Jewish Agency emissary Dept., 30 January 1948, CZA, S86-61; letter from Eliezer Ben-Dov to Haklai and Amami, Notes 293

15 May 1949, ibid., S86-58; Murphy, The Immigrants in Israel, p. 156. The committees in the camps were either self-elected or were appointed by Jewish Agency committees. 13. Hoffman-Yahil Report, MA, 1413.2 (H6), worth pointing out here is the fact stressed by Hoffman, that it was only in January 1947 that agreement was reached in principle between the management of the Jewish Agency and the management of the American Joint Distribution Committee, on sending a delegation of teachers from Israel to Europe, and especially to the camps in Austria and Germany. 14. Josephtal to the Nurses' Organization, 9 October 1947, CZA, S6-844, the excerpt had 'Not for Publication' written on it. See also Report on pre• parations for immigration, written by Haim Hoffman, 4 March 1948, ibid., S86-58. 15. Letter from Shmuel Brandman to the emissary department, 30 January 1948, ibid., S86-61. 16. Zilberberg at the seventh Agricultural Conference; Haim Rosenberg, 'Meditations a Year after Being Released from Concentration Camp', Givat Brenner journal, 24 May 1946; Lilia, Ein Harod journal, 14 January 1948. 17. Murphy, The Immigrants in Israel, p. 166. Guilt was widely expressed among the Holocaust survivors towards members of their own families who had not survived the Holocaust; Dvorsetsky, The Holocaust Survivors, p. 103; letter from Yehezkel Ran to the 'Ghetto Fighters', journal, 10 December 1948: 'You too sanctified the name of Israel ... not only did you not offer your necks to the butcher, you did not go out to fight for anything other than the honour of Israel, which was being trampled under by the world ... and your message was real, that you shouted from beyond the ghetto walls.' See also words of Arieh Kobobi, at a ceremony at which a Star of David was placed on the graves of Haviva Reich and Raphael Weiss, 3 December 1951, NA Foreign Affairs, 532/17; The earth in which they were buried, the undertaker who buried them, were as ransom to the nation. Thousands went like sheep to the slaughter, as those tied up who cannot untie themselves.' Gideon Hausner testified that his aim in placing emphasis on the Jewish revolt in his testimony at the Eichmann trial also had an educational significance: to vindicate the name of the Holocaust survivors, also in keeping with his view that the negative attitudes toward them was harmful to national awareness. Afek, Changes, p. 161. 18. Tebenkin, active secretariat meeting, 20 July 1947, UKMA, lB17A132; Lufben, A Man Leaves, p. 136; A. Bardichevsky, 'In Preparation for the National Congress for Immigrants', for Ahdut Ha'avoda, 14 November 1947; the Histadrut (National Labour Federation) in Haifa, p. 197; Tikva Bernstein, 'How We Shall Integrate Them', letter from the Kibbutz Union, G, V, July-August 1945. 19. B. Z. Dinburg, 'Spiritual Integration of the Mass Immigration and their Problems', NA. dept. 43, G 5543: 'They [the survivors] do their best to keep apart from other people and to build their lives in deliberate isolation from the rest of the and its way oflife.' Also, Avraham Levinson, at the Histadrut Executive, 19 January 1949, minutes of Executive Com• mittee, January-March 1949, LA, 92M: 'This is an element far from being 294 Survivors of the Holocaust

good for the national way of life' - Tabenkin at the extended secretariat, 14 April 1948, UKMA 1B/35.8. 20. Chaim Hoffman-Yahil, 'A Question of Spiritual Integration' NA. dept., 130 2395/22; Murphy, The Refugees in Israel, p. 156. 21. Ben-Gurion's speech at , 1 November 1947, BGA speeches. 22. Letter from Stiglitz and Haklai, Jewish Agency, to Bella Pninit, Austria, 30 January 1948, CZA S86-6; from Stiglitz and Haklai to Yaakov Zaltzman, Italy, 25 February 1948, ibid., S86-61. 23. Ben-Gurion, The New Israeli State, A, p. 166. 24. D. Bankover, 'Tools for Integrating Immigrants', Ahdut Haavoda, 2 October 1947. 25. Speech by A. Harzfeld, United Kibbutz Movement Council, Givat Brenner, 5 November 1948, UKMA 3/12/5. See also A. Ami, 'Reminder Regarding the Setting-up of Temporary Camps for Groups of Youngsters in Jerusalem', 3 March 1948, HHA, 4.20: 'Experience with the immigrants who have recently been integrated into the country, it seems that ... there is a complete lack of the pioneering element'; Ben-Gurion's speech at Kfar Vitkin, 1 November 1947, BGA speeches; B.Z. Dinburg: 'Spiritual Integ• ration of Mass Immigration and the Problems (facts, conclusions, sugges• tions)', NA. dept. 43, G 5543. 26. Weitz, My Diary, D, pp. 5-6, 35. 27. Words of M. Tils at the seventh Agricultural Conference; meeting between the representatives of the Farmers Union and the Agricultural Centre, 6 October 1949, BGA, meetings; Frumkin, at the 62nd Histadrut Council, December 1948, LA councils.; Ben-Gurion at the 25th meeting of the first Knesset, 26 April 1949, NA. dept. 60, container 11. 28. Meeting with writers, 27 March 1949, Ben-Gurion's summing up speech, BGA meetings.

5 'STIR OVER A LOW FLAME'

1. Borrie, Cultural Integration, p. 239; Ben-Gurion's diaries, 19 December 1948, BGA: 'Security only through immigration and mass settlement', see also ibid., 8 January 1949: 'The security of the state of Israel will be founded on (i) a swift increase and integration of immigration to the country. (ii) planned settlement and inhabitation'; ibid., 12 May 1949: 'Security is not only the army, the elements of security are many: (1) immigration ... ', ibid., 8 September 1948, a meeting with MacDonald: 'We shall never reconcile ourselves to interference in matters of immigration, for which reason we came here (in the first place) and for which reason we founded a state.' 2. 'Public Opinion on the Forthcoming Scope of Immigration.' October 1949, publication no. 11, the Israeli Institute of Public Opinion Polls, IDF Archives. 3. In answer to a question in another survey: 'Problems of Immigration from the Point of View of Israelis', held in August 1949, by the Israeli Institute of Public Opinion Polls, publication no. 5, IDF Archives - 'Should there be an organized system in operation when bringing in immigrants?' - 82 per cent Notes 295

of those asked were in support of systematic and close control, while only 18 per cent believed that immigration should be free, unlimited and uncontrol• led. This strengthens the hypothesis that identification with unlimited, mass immigration was more a matter of lip-service than real empathy, both on a rational and on an emotional level. In this context, we found a letter from a boy, David Krinbad, from , to the Management of the Jewish Agency (13 February 1946), CZA S6-804. The writer, who asked to remain anonymous, opposed the immigration of old people at a time like this, since these would not be of use to the state or help in 'work and manpower'. Fur• thermore, they 'should have come before the war'. There is no doubt that ideas such as these are picked up by a small child from the adults around him. 4. Eisenstadt, Immigrant Integration, p. 33. 5. B-Z. Dinburg, The Spiritual Integration of Mass Immigration and its Problems'. NA, section 43, G. 5543, stresses the importance of avoiding objectifying the issue of the Holocaust survivors: 'The internalizing of pioneering values is dependent on and connected with raising a person's self-image and value, with relation to his being an Israeli, [we] must not demand this in immigrants without first expecting them to undertake real responsibility [and activity] in the life of the neighbourhood they live in.' Speech delivered by Giyora Josephtal to the Nurses' Union, 9 October 1947, CZAs, S6-844. 6. Ben-Gurion's diaries, 23 April 1949, BGS, Diaries, Ben-Gurion to Zalman Aranne: 'When we need pioneer ... no one comes forward. They do not understand that pioneering nowadays means going to the immigrants' camps, the way we did in Germany'; the words of Zvi Harman, in a discussion on immigration at the Zionist Executive, 5-15 May 1949, CZA, Pages on Immigration; 'Why is immigration described in dark colours only? Why are such bad things written about the immigrants, without even a hint of understanding? of love? Why is there such a wall between the immigrants and the veterans? ... Immigration is a good thing but not the immigrants'; Eisenstadt, ibid., p. 33; also, he claims that some 80 per cent of the immigrants he questioned blamed the country's bureaucracy for being a group of patronizing, inhuman (etc.) people. This is expressed especially sharply in a report by Ruth Gruber on the immigrants' camps, 12 August 1949 NA, section 43, G 5558, under the title: 'People are Forgotten in the Heart'. She writes 'the indifference of the Yishuv is horrific ... no one takes any interest in the people in the camps, after struggling to bring them here as immigrants ... part of their suffering, much of their bitterness and feeling of betrayal, would be alleviated if they felt they had someone to speak to.' Murphy, The Immigrants in Israel, p. 69, n. 58, sums up the Yishuv's attitude to the Holocaust survivors as being one of a son to his old and useless father: a feeling of obligation rather than of love. 7. Israeli Institute of Public Opinion Polls, February-March 1949, IDF Archives. 8. An interview the writer had with Ruth Bondy at her home in on 5 April 1989. Zilberberg at the 7th Agricultural Conference; Writers' discourse with Ben-Gurion 11 October 1949, BGA, meetings; Blumenkranz at Naan summit; These people, if there is something which hurts them, it's that feeling they get of being strange and alien.' 296 Survivors of the Holocaust

9. Eisenstadt, Immigrant Absorption, p. 130: 'The new immigration is evident all over the country, though at a noticeable distance from the existing population ... entire towns, Jaffa, Lydda, Ramleh, Acre and townships like Ein Kerem - are all proper immigrant towns.' See also, Beba Idelson at the Histadrut Executive, 3 November 1948, records and verbally, September-December 1948, LA, M91: 'They are living here within an island, among themselves, and there is almost no hope that they will be able to change themselves from a social point of view.' 10. We shall present only one source for each expression, although they were very commonplace. Shapira, Eshkol, p. 103, Ada Fishman, records and verbally, January-March 1948, 14 January 1948, LA, M88; in order to illustrate that the word 'refugee' is not meant in a positive way, see the words of Meir Ya'ari at a meeting of the Kibbutz Haarzi, 23 May 1948, on the occasion of the arrival of Haika Grossman, HHA. 1(5.5): 'When we met Haika ... it wasn't a refugee we were meeting,' A vraham Levinson, minutes of the Executive Committee, January-March 1949, 29 February 1949, LA 92M; a letter from Stiglitz and Haklai to Aliash Yerachmiel in Germany, 6 January 1948, CZA, S86-58. Letter from Yitzhak Rafael to Immigrant Dept, CZA S6-1l75; Also Josephtal, in Weissberg: Sha'ar Ha'aliya: 'the refugees are difficult human material' and Weissberg, Sha'ar Ha'aliya (Gate of Immigration), pp. 45-7. 11. D. Bankover, 'Tools for Integrating Mass Immigration', to the Ahdut Ha'avoda, 2 October 1947.

6 OUT OF THE HOLOCAUST AND INTO THE WAR OF INDEPENDENCE

1. Weitz, My Diary, C, p. 299. 2. Ben-Gurion's speech at the Va'ad Hapoel Hazioni, Zurich, 20 August 1947, BGA Speeches. 3. Report from Nahum Shadmi to Ben-Gurion, 28 July 1948, LA, 36/6; M. Sirkon's research, 'Recruitment into the IDF in the War of Indepen• dence', CZA. 4. Sikron, ibid. 5. Recruitment of new immigrants - report of Gahal department, 10 May 1949, for the period between 1 January and 1 May 1949, CZA 679/56/22. 6. Sikron, ibid., quotes: IDF Archives 1042/49K11437 and IDF Archives 1042/49KI89. 7. M. Nissiyahu, The Mahal in the War of Independence, IDF Archives. Historical Research Deptartment. 8. BGA diaries, 7 October 1948. 9. Problems of overseas recruitment, 21 October 1948, IDF Archives 1042/ 49K11261. 10. Slutsky, Hagana History (Toldot Ha-hagana), pp. 1464-6. 11. Gelber, Garin la'Tsava, pp. 155-7. 12. Pa'il, from 'The Hagana', pp. 76, 100. Notes 297

13. Ben David, Herev b'Nakar (A Sword in the Wilderness), p. 7. 14. Nahum Shadmi, personal archives, recording 419, a-2. 15. Ibid., recording 420, b-3; report on Hagana delegation, 28 July 1948, CZA 36/6, pp. 12, 14. 16. Nahum Shadmi, ibid., recording 420, a-4. 17. Ibid., recording 419, b-7; recording 420, a-I, g-2, g-3. 18. Letter from Haim Hoffman to Dubkin, 25 April 1948. CZA S86-56. 19. Summary of 2nd European Hagana Congress, November 1947, UKMA, Galili Division. 20. Letter from Ben-Gurion to Etai (probably Ehud Avriel), BGA, correspon• dence. 21. HA Division 36, file 8. 22. Report on Hagana delegation. Nahum Shadmi, personal archive, recording 421, b-3; Ben-Gurion diaries, 2 December 1948, BGA diaries. 23. Report on activity in Immigration Camp no. 1, Marseilles, IDF Archives 580/56/226. 24. Letter from Nahum to 'my friend', 1 January 1948, B-G Archives general material. 25. Letter from Nahum to a friend (probably B-G), 24 January 1948, ibid., correspondence. 26. Ibid., 4 February 1948. 27. Letter from Galili (Hillel) to Ben-Yehuda, 31 February 1948, HA, Galili files, file 23. 28. BGA diaries, 8 February 1948. 29. Slutsky, Toldot Hahagana (in Hebrew), p. 1465. 30. 26 February 1948, BGA, general material. 31. Letter from Yis'ar (Ze'ev Shind) to Arnon (Yoseph Barfel, another of the Mossad for Aliya leaders), 7 March 1948, ibid., correspondence. 32. Letter from Katriel Katz to Ben-Gurion, 2 March 1948, ibid., correspon- dence; to Nahum from Amitai (B-G), ibid. 33. Nahum Shadmi, personal archives, recording 422, b-6. 34. BGA diaries, 12 March 1948. 35. Letter from Ben-Gurion (co-signed by Galili) to Ze'ev Shind, 18 March 1948, ibid., correspondence. 36. Letter from Mossad in Israel to Mossad abroad, 30 March 1948; CZA S6-5067. 37. Letter from United Kibbutz Movement in the German camps to Israel, 11 April 1948, HA. Galili files, file 22. 38. Letter from Hoffman to Dubkin, 25 April 1948, CZA S86-48; letter from Y. Levy to Arnon, 1 May 1948, BGA, correspondence; letter from Stern to Dubkin, 17 March 1948, CZA S86-61. 39. Letter from Galili to Dov and Amnon, 29 March 1948, UKMA, Galili section; letter from Temkin to head of personnel dept., re foreign recruits, 11 May 1948, IDF Archives 50/55511003. 40. Nahum Shadmi, personal archives, recording 422, a-4; interview with Y. Ben David at his home, 4 November 1987. 41. Letter from Hillel (Galili) to Amitai (Ben-Gurion), 5 April 1948, Galili files, file 23; recommendations regarding recruitment in Europe, BGA general material. 298 Survivors of the Holocaust

42. Shadmi's report on recruitment mission to Europe, 16 Apri11948, UKMA Galili section. The first report was sent by Shadmi to Ben-Gurion 24 April 1948, ibid. 43. Report by Shadmi to Ben-Gurion, 28 July 1948. HA. 36/6; list of files with recruitment data: IDP Archives 5118521288, 1004, 49, 24 and especially, 1042/49/189. 44. Ben David (see note 40). 45. Prom Zaltsman in Italy to the emissary dept., 5 December 1947, CZA S86-61. This file contains more letters from N. Herring in Germany to B-G, 16 December 1947. BGA general material; letter from Nisht in Italy to emissary dept., 26 January 1948, CZA S86-621; H. Hoffman, 'Ha'apala', from: the emissary book, MA. 14.13.2 (H6), p. 46. 46. Dubnov's letter, 23 May 1948, CZA S86-S; Hoffman (ibid.), p. 48. David Reshefs Report no. 4, 16 December 1948, IDP Archives a511852. Letter from H. Hoffman to Dubkin, 25 April 1948, CZA S86-58. 47. Letter from Hoffman to Dubkin, 25 April 1948, CZA S86-48. 48. Hoffman (see note 45), p. 49. 49. Prom Head of Recruitment and Integration Department to Manpower Department, 26 June 1948, IDP Archives 1042/49/556; letter from Hillel (Galili) to Amitai (Ben-Gurion), undated, HA, Galili files, 23; from Ben• Gurion to Meir Sapir, 2 September 1948, BGA, correspondence. 50. Letter from member of military delegation to Europe to Ben-Gurion, 8 October 1948, BGA, correspondence; letter from David Cohen to Israel (Galili), UKMA Galili Division. 51. Reshef report no. 2, 20 September-7 October 1948, IDP Archives 852/511a526. 52. Prom Head of Recruitment and Integration Department to Manpower Department, 26 June 1948, ibid., 1042/49/556. 53. Reshef report, 16 December 1948, ibid., 852/511526. 54. Prom David Reshef to Chief of Staff, summary of activity, 1 April 1949, ibid. 55. Y. Shani to D. Reshef, 15 January 1949, ibid.; on the Brigade: Ben-Gurion war diaries, b, pp. 784-5, 793-4; NA. Poreign office files, esp. file 2501.3, 20 June 1949; Reshef report, 7 October-l November 1948, IDP Archives ibid.; M. Hoter report (Mossad member), 14 November 1948, on recruit• ment activity in , IDP Archives 1042/4911307; Kramer, Forgotten Friendship, pp. 109-12. 56. Reshef report, 16 December 1948, IDP Archives 852/511526; D. Reshef letters to Head of Manpower Division, Headquarters, 7 March, 1 April and 10 May 1949, IDP Archives, 852/51152, 580/56/229. 57. Slutsky, Hagana History (Toldot Ha-hagana), pp. 1166-77; Sha'ari, Girush Kaphrisin, pp. 173-83; Bogner, Kaphrisin, pp. 471-95. 58. Early 1948, two illegal immigrant ships landed on Cyprus - Pan York and Pan Kershent (the 'Pans'). See: Hadari and Tzahor, Oniot (Ships). 59. According to Y. Kamisky, a camp commander, some 11,500 people received military training. 60. Bogner, Kaphrisin (Cyprus), p. 340, based on A. S. Hyman, 'Displaced Persons', American Jewish Year Book, 50 (1949), p. 471. 61. Sha'ari, Girush Kaphrisin (Deportation to Cyprus), p. 321, based on CZA Y211320-321. 62. Grossman, Ha'akurim. Notes 299

63. Report to Zionist Congress, Emissary Department Activity from end of 1946 to 1948, pp. 278-9; Bogner, Kaphrisin, pp. 438-9. 64. Ibid., pp. 479-80. 65. Letter from Temkin to Tzadok, 27 April 1948, IDF Archives 1042/49/21. In same file: letter from Tuvia from Taboria, recruitment officer, to head of personnel department, 12 May 1948. 66. Bogner, Kaphrisin, p. 441, quotes A. Ophir's report on Cyprus, Mapai office, 5 August 1947, LA a25/47. 67. Bogner, ibid., p. 496. 68. Letter from Duvdevani to Y. Izraeli, A. Shoshani and L. Shkolnik, 24 March 1948, BGA, correspondence; also in Bogner, Kaphrisin, p. 501. 69. Bogner, ibid., p. 498. 70. Letter from Ben-Gurion to Meir Sapir, 2 September 1948, BGA, correspondence. 71. Report on Cyprus camps and military delegation, November 1948, from Sergent Ze'ev Melion to Chief of Personnel 1, IDF Archives 1042/49/1307. 72. Report on activity at immigration camp 1 in Marseilles, 1 March 1948-20 July 1948, IDF Archives 480/56/226. 73. The medical examination was aimed at determining which of the recruits were Jewish and which German, ex-SS. Ben David, in describing the condition of the DP camp inmates, wrote: 'insufficient care was taken in determining their origins. Younger people (17-25 years) were in worse physical condition than older ones (aged 25-35), probably because the former had spent their childhood and formative years in the war.'

7 THE MOTHERLAND - AN ARMY AND A MILITARY FRONT

1. CZA S44-717; BGA Meetings. 2. Interviews with David Cohen, 20 August 1986; Yitzhak Divon, 11 November 1987; letter from Hillel to David Cohen, 12 February 1948. HA. Galili files, file 23; see Gilad, Sefer HaPalmah (The Palmah Book), pp. 327-8; diary, 27 May 1948; LA M87. 3. Giv'ati files, IDF Archives 170/51Kl3. 4. Letter from B Company, 9th Division, 30 March 1948, IDF Archives 1881150/81; Eilon, Giv'ati, pp. 162-79. 5. Interview with Y. Divon, Adan, Degel Ha'Dio (Flag of Ink), p. 212. 6. Ben Gurion diaries, 29 January 1948, BGA, diaries. 7. Letter from Hillel to Sacha (Y. Alon), 12 February 1948, HA. Galili files, file 23. 8. IDF Archive 481/49-52; Alon, Palmah, p. 200; Ben Gurion, War Diaries. a. p.145. 9. Letter from Adjutant General, HQ to Tzadok Yoash, IDF Archives 1042/ 49/21. 10. IDF Archive 1049/49/21. 11. Minutes of Executive Committee of National Service Authority, ibid., 679/ 56/22, ibid., 679/52/22. 300 Survivors of the Holocaust

12. Ibid., 679156/21; ibid., 1881150/81. 13. Letter from BG to S. Avigur, 2 May 1948, BGA. correspondence. 14. Letter, IDF Archives 1042/49/649. 15. Letters dated 4 May 1948 and 17 May 1948, ibid., 1042/49/21. 16. Letter, 3 July 1948, IDF Archives 1042/49/1440. 17. Letter, 23 April 1948, IDF Archives 1042/49/649; letter, 11 July 1948, 1042/49/1440. 18. Letters, 16 August 1948, ibid., 20 July 1948, ibid. 19. Minutes of Executive Committee of National Service Authority, 1947-8, ibid., 679156/21. 20. BGA diaries, 8 and 20 August 1948 . 21. Letters, 26 September 1948, IDF Archives, 1042/491556; 22 August 1948, ibid., 852/5111453; 22 May 1948, ibid., 1881150/81. 22. BGA Diairies, 16 September 1948; Ben-Gurion, Medinat Israel Hamechudeshet (The Restored State ofIsreal), A, p. 148; letter, 26 October 1948, IDF Archives 5801561194; letter, ibid., 1042/491556. 23. Letter from Niv to Izraeli, ibid. 24. Letter from D. Yoseph to Defence Min. 7 November 1948, ibid., 6791 56122. 25. Gelber, Garin la'tsava, p. 156: United Kibbutz Movement, report 1949, UKMA. 130, pp. 104-6. 26. Letter from Hillel to Sacha, 12 February 1948, HA. Galili files, file 23. 27. BGA Diaries, 17 March 1948. 28. Letter from Galili to Shadmi and I. Amir, 29 March 1948, UKM Archives, Galili Division. 29. Letter from B-G and Gal iii to , 18 March 1948, in Ben-Gurion, Yemei Milhama (War Diaries), pp. 302-3. 30. Minutes from consultation: Changing priorities in queues for immigration from Cyprus, 3 April 1948, IDF Archives 1042/49/22. Letter, 2 May 1948, 1042/49/21. . 31. Letter, 12 May 1948 ibid., 1042/49/21. 32. Meeting of central committee, UKM Archives Division Ib, minutes, con• tainer 8, file 35a. 33. Letter, 24 May 1948, IDF Archives 1042/49/21; letter, undated [mid-May], ibid.; letter, 22 May 1948, ibid. 34. Letter, 25 June 1948, ibid., 1042/49/1440. 35. ibid., 1042/49/1436, in same file, see letter dated 17 October 1948. 36. Report, IDF Archives 1042/4911440; letter dated 2 June 1948, ibid. 10421 491556. 37. United Kibbutz Movement (1947-9), UKMA. pp. 104-9; letter dated 9 December 1948, HHA 5.81a (gl); reports of visits 14 September 1948 in same file. 38. Tsur, Hakibbutz Hameuhad, g, pp. 10-13. 39. Congratulations from Rechtman at the United Kibbutz Movement Coun• cil, 8-9 June 1948, UKMA. Div. 5, container 12. file Bl (TL V Council); collection of letters, July 1948, volume 12. 40. Galili at Tel Aviv Council: The Kibbutz and the War Effort. 41. Letter from A viezer Shlush and Israel Levit to Minister of Defence, UKMA Galili Division. Notes 301

42. M. Nissiyahu, Hamahal B'Milhemet Ha'atzma'ut (Mahal in the War of Independence), IDF Archive, Historical research. 43. Problems in Overseas Recruitment, 21 October 1948, IDF Archive 1042/ 49/277. 44. Letter to Yo' ash, 14 March, 1949, ibid., 1042/49/21. 45. Letter from A. Shlush and I. Levit to B-G, 6 July 1948, UKMA. Galili Division. 46. Temkin to Tzadok, Overseas Recruitment Report, 2 May 1948, IDF Archives 1042/49114. 47. See, for example: report, 21 October 1948, ibid., 1042/49/277; letter, 7 November 1948, ibid., 1942/49/1436; undated letter, 1042/49/21, ibid. 48. Letter to head of personnel deptartment, 12 May 1948, IDF Archives 1042/ 49/21. 49. Letters, 2 May 1948, ibid., 1042/49/24; 12 May 1948, ibid., 1042/49/21; 10 May 1948, ibid. 50. Letter from Adjutant General GHQ to Yo'ash. 51. Series of information to soldiers, nos. I, 3 and 4 (undated), welfare services, IDF Archives 853/51/1453; in same file, report on Gahal welfare activity, 2 March-9 March 1949; report for 6 April-13 April 1949, IDF Archives 852/51/1453. 52. Appendix to central training camp standards, from Adjutant General GHQ, ibid., (undated), 852/5111453. 53. Correspondence, ibid., 1042/49/277; in same file, directive, dated 4 January 1949, 28 December 1948. 54. Letter, 12 September 1948, ibid., 852/51/1451; programme for graduation party at training camp, ibid., 852/51/1453. 55. Letters from officer for Gahal affairs to Adjutant General GHQ3, 10 September 1948 and 7 January 1949, both IDF Archive 852/5111451; see also: from HQ Payments, 26 November 1948, ibid., 4544/89/4. 56. Letters, 23 September 1948, ibid., 96/580/56; 11 October 1948, ibid., 273/52/ 20; 17 January 1949; 31 December 1948, 14 January 1949 (all in the same file), 22 August 1984, ibid., 580/65/96; letter, 28 October 1948, ibid., 4544/ 49/6; and more: 6 September 1948 on 'recruits who do not understand Hebrew'; 4 January 1949, ibid., 273/52/20. 57. IDF Archive 273.52.75; LA 208,IV,2355b; CZA 292/28. 58. IDF Archive 1042/49/1453. 59. Letters, 12 August, 15 July and 4 November 1948; from Temkin to Com• mander of Cultural Div., IDF Archive 50/555/1003. 60. Letter, 17 January 1949, CZA 292/28. 61. IDF Archive 273/53/75, 10 October 1949.

8 SABRAS AND GAHALINKS IN THE ISRAEL DEFENCE FORCES

1. Adan, Degel Hadio (Flag of Ink), pp. 211-12; Avneri, B'Sdot Pleshet (In the Fields of Palestine), pp. 74, 94, 285. 302 Survivors of the Holocaust

2. See, for example, letter from a soldier to Gahal officer, IDF Archives 852/ 51/1453; Bamahaneh, 1 April 1949; the session (n.d.) of the first Knesset, 28 March 1949, NA, div. 60, container 11, Gil (); letter, lO May 1948, IDF Archives lO42/49/21. 3. Gahal problems, 21 October 1948, IDF Archives lO42/49/277; report from H. Ben Asher, Cultural Officer, 3 November 1948, CZA 292/27. 4. Minutes of Foreign Affairs and Security Committee (Temporary National Council), probably September 1948, BGA meetings. 5. Adjutant General at HQ, Psychological Research Unit, IDF Archives 4. 6. Hospital poll, July 1949, Institute for Applied Social Research, December 1949, IDF Archives 4. 7. Poll held by Institute for Public Opinion, October 1949, ibid. 8. IDF Archives IDF/355.34 (how); letter from Y. Garta, published in Givat Brenner journal, UKMA 4 November 1948. 9. Murphy, The Refugees in Israel, pp. 158-61. lO. See also, Chapter 5. 11. Horvitz and Lissak, Mi-Yishuv Lemedina (From Settlement to State) on the way the immigrant was seen as an object for social political recruitment rather than as someone with his own desires, wishes, etc. - B. p. 24. See also Netiva Ben-Yehuda's picturesque description in Ben Hasfirot (Between Dates), pp. 70-1. 12. Y osef Ben Y osef, Ata Lo Domeh Le Gahalnik (You Don't Look Like Someone from the Gahal), Bamahaneh, 7 May 1975. 13. Adan, Degel Hadio (Flag of Ink), p. 212; an interview with Gad Gutkind, Battalion 72, division 7, at his home in Mishmar Hanegev, 11 February 1988; correspondence, 25 February 1949 and reply, 9 April 1949, IDF Archive 852/51/243; reply, 12 April 1949, Foreign Office Archive 2514/3; letter from Ben-Gurion dated 20 September 1948, IDF Archive 5205/49/60. 14. Avneri, Besadot Pleshet (In the Fields of Palestine), p. 238. 15. See also: 'Temporary National Council' (28th meeting), 25 November 1948, Archives. 16. The United Kibbutz Movement in the Years 1947-1948, UKMA, pp. lO5-6; Gilad, Sefer HaPalmah, p. 188; N. Ben-Yehuda, Ben Hasfirot (Between Dates), pp. 334-8; interviews with Yacov Sad and Gad Gutkind, Kibbutz Mishmar Hanegev, 11 February 1948. Gutkind: 'What bothered me when I came to Tel Aviv [was seeing] young lads like myself sitting in cafes. What am I doing here, what's he doing there, why isn't he with me in battle? It hurt.' 17. I found this explanation in Natan Shaham's article, Degel Hadio, Al Hamishmar, 17 April 1949; letter from Eli Rubinstein, 17 September 1949, IDF Archives 1544/49/6. 18. Meeting of National Kibbutz Movement recruits at Givat Brenner, 29-30 August 1948, National Kibbutz Movement Archive div. 2, container 19, Security. 19. B. Kimmeriing and V. Azarya, 'New Immigrants in Israeli Armed Forces', in Lissak and Kimmeriing, Tsava Ubitahon (Army and Security), pp. 575-8. 20. J. Isaac, Israel a New Melting Pot?; W. D. Borrie, (ed.) The Cultural Integration of Immigrants, UNESCO, Paris, 1959, p. 237. 21. Alon, Palmah, pp. 174-224. Notes 303

22. From Hillel (Galili) to Ya'akov (Dori), 12 February 1948, Hagana Archives Galili files, file 23. 23. Letter from Adjutant's office, 6 April 1948, IDF Archives 1942/49/22; letter from Chief of Staff, 18 April 1948, recruitment of immigrants from abroad, IDF Archives 1042/49/21. 24. Letters from Chief of Staff to Tsadok, 21 April 1948, 27 April 1948, IDF Archives 1042/49/22. 25. See, for example on the Palmah, Etzioni, Golani, pp. 9-10. 26. BGA 14 September 1948, meetings; report dated 17 April 1948, IDF Archives 1942/49/189. See also Gelber, Lama Pirku, pp. 263 and 222-6. 27. Alon, Palmah, pp. 241-2; Haverim Mesaprim al Jimmy (Friends Discuss Jimmy), pp. 191-2, 199-200. 28. magazine, January 1949, IDF Archives Divisions files; Palmah magazine, 11 June, 7 July and 19 July 1948, IDF Archive.

9 THE ISRAEL DEFENCE FORCES AND THE HOLOCAUST

1. Meeting of the Security Committee, 10 February 1948, CZA S25-9346. 2. Letter from Galili to Amitai, UKMA Galili section; letter from Golani to commanding officers, IDF Archives 1944/40/29. 3. Minutes of Executive Committee meeting of 'National Service Command', 28 and 30 March 1948, IDF Archives 679156121. 4. Letter from Kazhik (Simha Rathauser) to High Command, UKMA, Galili section, Kazhik confirmed that no reply had been received. See also letter from Rivka A. Tel Aviv, to National Service Command, 21 September 1948, IDF Archives 1881/50/81. 5. Bamahaneh, 10 February 1949, p. 14. 6. See, for example, from Eshkoli (Givati) to Adjutant General GHQ, 5 and 16 April 1948, ibid.; or from Adjutant General GHQ to Galili, 17 June 1948, UKMA, Galili section; and from Eshkoli (the commander) to Givati, 14 April 1948, ibid. 7. See Mahanot Girush B'Kafrisin (Deportation Camps in Cyprus), Hanoch Reinhold headed the office of the deportation camps in Cyprus. 8. Ben-Gurion, Israel Mehudeshet (The State of Israel Restored), p. 207; Alon, Bet Avi, p. 63; Defence Minister's directive, Bemahaneh, 18 July 1948, p. I; letter from Ben-Gurion to Minister of Immigration, 10 April 1948, BGA correspondence; Adjutant General GHQ 2, Hebrew Names Com• mittee, 19 December 1948, HHA, h3.52(3). 9. Only one commanding officer (Haim Laskov) was permitted to preserve his previous name, whether out of respect or because his name had Hebrew connotations. 10. Letter from Rami Shevo, Ministry of Interior, Population Administration, to the author, dated 3 January 1988. 11. Draft for Eichmann trial, Haim Ben Asher, IDF Archive, 292/25; pictur• esquely in Ben Yehuda, Ben Hasfirot (Between Dates), pp. 70-81 12. Report of military delegation to Cyprus, 29 May-18 June 1948, IDF Archives 1042/49/1440. 304 Survivors of the Holocaust

13. Siotsky, Toldot Ha'Haganah (History of the Hagana), p. 1468; Alon, Palmah, p. 242; Pa'il, Min Hahagana (From the Hagana), p. 100; Lord, The War of Independence, p. 379; see also Ben-Gurion's meeting with writers, 11 October 1949, BGA meetings. 14. A call by the Jewish Agency, the National Committee, the National Service Command to Hebrew youth (undated), IDF Archives 679/56/21; Bamahaneh, 16 April 1948, p. 6. 15. See also Education System for 1948: 3 September 1947, HA, 73/26. Meeting with Haika Grossman, Palmah magazine, 19 July 1948. 16. Eilon, The Israelis, p. 195; Gil'ad, Sefer HaPalmah, pp. 476-7. 17. See Givati battle page, 21 October 1948 (written by Abba Kovner), IDF Archives battalions file. 18. Ha'aretz, 6 May 1945. 19. See, NA, section 60, container 6, minutes 1/g, 21 February 1951, Knesset sub-committee. 20. Ben-Gurion and the writers, 11 October 1949, BGA, Meetings. 21. Avneri, Be'sadot Paleshet (The Fields of Palestine), p. 285; see also, Ben Yehuda, Bein Hasfirot, p. 12; and Haverim Mesaprim al Jimmy (Friends Speak of Jimmy), 'Respect them and suspect them', p. 187; Alterman's poem: Tlalei Ne'urim Ivri'im (A Hebrew Youth), M agash Hakessef (The Silver Tray), Alterman, Ha tur Ha'shvi'i, pp. 154-5. 22. Article from Gavriel Lurie, 54th Battalion magazine, Givati South, no. 12, September 1948, IDF Archives. 23. Lissak and Kimmerling, Tsava U'bitahon (Army and Security), p. 578. 24. Avneri, Be'Sadot Paleshet, p. 94. 25. Schapira, Mipiturai Harama, pp. 110-13. See also Haim Laskov, who expressed sentiments similar to those of Yadin, ibid., p. 168. 26. Gabi Daniel, 'Peter the Great', Igra, 2 (1986), pp. 199-200. 27. Gelber, Garin Latzava (A Platoon for the Army), pp. 251-2. 28. See, Yitzhaki, Latrun, pp. 206-31. Contemporary description of an immi• grant sent straight from the ship to Latrun, HHA. 4.5, testimonial dated 31 May 1948, Dov Ben Shaul and Max FriedpIan. 29. Mishmar Hanegev, internal paper, 702, 16 June 1948. 30. Interview with Gad Gutkind, 11 February 1988, at his home in Mishar Hanegev. 31. Mossinson, B'Arvut Hanegev (On the Plains of the ); Ben-Gurion, meeting with Meskin, Finkel and Rovina, 28 February 1949, BGA, Meet• ings; meeting of lecturers, Ben-Gurion's speech, 7 November 1948, BGA Speeches. 32. Natan Shaham, Ad Degel Hadio, Al Hamishmar, 17 April 1949, pp. 6-7. 33. Gil'ad, Sefer HaPalmah, p. 769. 34. From Adjutant General GHQ to Golani, 7 May 1948, IDF Archive, 1042/49/22. 35. From Menahem Pel'i to Golani, 16 May 1948; From Gideon, Commander 13 Golani, to Adjutant General GHQ, 17 April and 20 May 1948, IDF Archive 1042/4911440; all replies to IDF questionnaire. 36. From Enlistment and Integration Services to Adjutant General GHQ, 27 September 1948, IDF Archive 1042/49/1307. 37. BGA Diaries, 6 and 14 June 1948, BGA diaries. Notes 305

38. From security officer, base camp to commander of base camp 5, 11 October 1948, IDF Archive 1042/49/1440. 39. From Recruitment Officer, Tuvia to Department Head, Personnel Section 1, 12 May 1948, IDF Archives 1042/49/21. 40. Meeting of battalion commanders with high command during first cease• fire, HA, Galili files. 41. Minutes, kibbutz committee, UKMA, Section 5, councils, container 12, file 2. 42. Problems in overseas recruitment, 21 October 1948, IDF Archive 1042/ 49/227. 43. From Ben Hur, Head of Instruction Department to Amitai, to Chief of Staff, to Boaz, Tsadok, Neria, Avidar and Yadin, personal and confident• ial, 28 April 1948, UKMA, Galili Section. 44. See note 42. 45. Gil'ad, Seier HaPalmah, p. 529 and see more tales of bravery, ibid., on pp. 575-6, 633. With regard to the battles in the south: 'Gahal, but I was with them all the way in the battle.' 46. Haverim Mesaprim al Jimmy, pp. 191-2. 47. Shaham; in note 32. 48. Bar Yosef, Bechol Me'odam (To the Best of their Ability), p. 138. 49. Givati, 20 February 1949, IDF Archive in Givati.

10 THESE PRECIOUS RESERVES

1. Guttesman, Aliyat Hanoar, pp. 29, 30; see also letter from Aliya Depart• ment to Yitzhak Raphael, 10 December 1948. CZA, S6-1175. 2. Tsur, Hakibbutz Hameuhad, B, p. 189. 3. Baruch Minkovsky, Livtei Clita (,Tsror Michtavim'; henceforth, letters), 28 February 1947; Tsur, Hakibbutz Hameuhad (The United Kibbutz Move• ment), p. 275; letter from Y. Wedler to Jewish Agency, 5 January 1949, LA, 235,IV, 2319; UKMA, div. 2, Immigration & Integration, cont. 8, file 2; HHA. v-3 60(3); Tsur, ibid., p. 248; HHA, 1.13 (4). 4. Aharon Reichman (), Ba'ayot Hadita', CZA. 14 March 1947, and Tsur, ibid., p. 248. 5. Kol, Aliyat Hanoar, p. 322 . 6. Kibbutz Ha'artzi annual congress, , 17 June 1949, HHA, 6.20.5(a). 7. Executive Committee meeting, 21 March 1946, HHA. (8)5.10.5. 8. Minkovsky, Livtei Klita (letters), 28 February 1947 and Givat Brenner diary, 30 May 1946. 9. Moshe Artum, Leklitat Olim (To integrate immigrants), ibid., 21 June 1946. 10. Hannah Puah, Leklitat Ha'aliyay Hahadasha (To the New Immigrant Integration), ibid., 8 July 1946. 11. Haim Rosenberg, Shana Leshichrur Mahanot Haricuz (A Year after Lib• eration of the Concentration Camps), ibid., 24 May 1946. 12. From Kibbutz Ha'artzi to Histadrut, 28 May 1946, LA 208, IV, a5005. 13. Executive Committee meeting, 21 March 1946, HHA. (8)5.10.5. 306 Survivors of the Holocaust

14. Reichman at Gevat council, LA 104,IV, Beba Idelson, file 12. 15. Just, Ha'aliya ve kelim leklitata, group magazine; from Immigration Department of Kibbutz Ha'artzi to Executive Committee, 17 November 1949, Sh.Ts. (2)1.13. 16. Y. Korniansky at Social Committee, 18 April 1947, UKMA, div. 2, cont. 9, file 56a. 17. Le'an panainu mo'adot? (Which Way Shall We Turn?) (letters), 23 May 1947; also letter from Moshe in Italy, Givat Brenner journal, 14 May 1947; unsigned letter, ibid., 20 April 1947. 18. A. Tarshish, UKM council, Givat Hashlosha, 8 February 1948, UKMA, div. 5, cont. 12, file 1. 19. Rechtman, B. Givat Brenner council. 20. UKM committee meeting, Tel Aviv, 5 January 1948, UKMA div. Ib, cont. 7, file 29, notebook 5. 21. Minkovsky at Givat Hashlosha council, see also D. Rodener at same meeting. 22. Minkovsky, B. Immigration committee, 22 July 1948, UKMA, div. 2, cont. 12, file 1. 23. 'or, Amram, Nahin et Hakeilim (We Shall Prepare the Necessary Tools), Givat Brenner journal, 8 October 1948. 24. Rechtman, Bracha at Givat Brenner Council. 25. Braslavsky, Tnu'at Hapo'alim, p. 133. 26. See Yablonka, Klitat She'erit Haplita (Integrating the Holocaust Surviv• ors), p. 151. 27. Minkovsky, B. and Rechtman, Bracha, Central Secretariat, 19 January 1948, UKMA, Div. B, cont. 8; A. Tarshish, Giv'at Hashlosha Council. 28. Eliezer Kaplan at Zionist Executive Council, 27 August 1948, CZA, S5-323. 29. Giv'at Brenner journal, 13 November 1947, 29 February 1948 and 17 September 1948. 30. Givat Hashlosha journal, 5 December 1947 and 5 March 1948; Yagur journal, 24 June 1949; Tel Yoseph journal, November-December 1949, LA, 208, IV, 5411. 31. Barginsky at a meeting of Jewish Agency Executive 29 April 1949, UKMA div. 15, Barginsky Archive, container 3, file 14; similar tales from other kibbutzim, Bracha Rechtman at Givat Brenner Council: 'hundreds of families were integrated in the kibbutz ... by transferring veteran members to tents and giving their huts to the immigrants.' 32. Central Secretariat, 16 January 1949, UKMA, div. IB, cont. 8, file 35 - information on housing; Central Secretariat 19 January 1948, ibid., file 35. See also Givat Hashlosha council; Central Secretariat 14 November 1948, UKMA, ibid., file 39a. 33. BGA Diaries, 1 August 1949. 34. UKM Secretariat, 26 May 1948, UKMA, ibid., file 39a. 35. Tel Aviv Municipality; the council was headed by Ruth Haketin from Ein Harod. 36. Liaison office report, Ruth Haktin, Givat Brenner journal, 9 August 1948; to secretariat of the Gardosh settlement group, Ein Harod from Liaison Committee, UKMA, div. 2, Foreign, cont. 18, file 104. 37. Givat Brenner council. Notes 307

38. See, for example, UKMA, div. 2, Foreign, container 8, file 104; div. 2, security, cont. 6; Givat Brenner council (ibid., file 81); from Shmuel Leibovitz to Givat Brenner liaison office, Givat Brenner journal, 29 October 1948; to liaison office, name illegible, 21 December 1948, HHA, (4)5.18; from liaison committee to UKM secretariat, 12 June 1949, UKMA, div. 2, foreign, cont. 20, file 119. 39. A. Reichmann, G'vat Council; Givat Brenner journal, 20 April 1947. 40. Leviteh, Central Secretariat, 7 October 1947, UKMA, div. Ib, cont. 8, file 34. 41. Central Secretariat, 31 August 1947, ibid., cont. 7, file 29. 42. 'Integrating children and young people in the working settlements' (also relates to integration of adults), manifesto by moshav movement, October 1947, CZA, S86-72. 43. Letter from Dubkin to Ya'akov Ori, Secretary of Moshav Movement, 28 October 1948, CZAm IS86-72. 44. Letter to Israel Marminsky, Histadrut Executive, from Moshe Kol, 9 February 1948, IDF Archives 208, IV, 5670. 45. D. Cohen and D. Rodner, Givat Hashlosha Council. 46. Letter from I. Marminsky to UKM Secretariat, Hever Hakvutzot, moshav movement, 19 February 1948, IDF Archives 208, IV 5319; letter from Marminsky to Kolodni (Kol), 25 February 1948, ibid., 5670; letter from Moshe Kolodni to HA secretariat, 29 April 1948, ibid. 47. Activity report for years 1947~51, presented to 23rd Zionist Congress, Jerusalem, July 1959, p. 254; Reinholdt, No'ar Boneh (Young People Building), p. 238, and Appendix, table XXI. 48. Avraham Herzfeld, UKM Council, 5 November 1948; Tsur, The United Kibbutz Movement, B, p. 335. 49. Central Secretariat, October 1948, UKMA, div. Ib, cont. 8, file a35; Central Secretariat, 14 November 1948, ibid., file a39; proposals of HA Immigra• tion Dept. to Exec. Committee Secretariat, January 1949, HHA, (2)1.13. 50. Tarshish, Central Secretariat, 26 January 1949, UKMA, ibid., file a35; letter to emissaries, 4 September 1949, ibid., div. 2, foreign, cont. 20, file 119. 51. Ya'akov Ori, Miyomano shel Kolet Klita (From the Diaries of an Irruni• gration Activist), M'bifnim, 3 January 1952; Tsur, Hakibutz Hameuhad (The United Kibbutz Movement), B, p. 335; 'estrangement and ridicule were what they received at first'. 52. Letter from Ze'ev Meinart to Agricultural Centre, 18 March 1949, IDF Archives 235, IV, 2319; Central Secretariat, 8 April 1949, UKMA, div. Ib, cont. 35, 8a; see also: Tsur, ibid., pp. 336~ 7; Givat Brenner journal, 24 May 1949; see ABG Diaries, 23 May 1949. 53. ABG Diaries, 31 May 1949, ibid., HK decisions, 5 June 1949, HHA, (8)4.5. 54. Tsur, p. 389, quoting from the 16th UKM Council meeting, which con- vened on 19 October 1949 at Givat Brenner. 55. Central Secretariat, Ein Harod, 4 May 1947, UKMA, div. Ib, cont. 7, file 32. 56. Cnaani, Central Secretariat, Tel Aviv, 8~9 June 1947, ibid. 57. 'Programme for integration of immigration after a year's trial', meeting of Executive Committee, 21 March 1946, spoken by Meir Ya'ari, HHA, (8) 5.10.5. 58. Suggesions by Rivka Zimbe1in and Bracha Rechtman, Central Secretariat, 19 January 1948, UKMA, ibid. 308 Survivors of the Holocaust

59. Meeting of Immigration Committee, 25 February 1948, ibid., div. 2, cont. 12, file 1 - the 'Hakovesh' group which refused to go to Ayelet Hashahar, and the 'Sharsheret' group from Cyprus, which demanded to go to Givat Haim. 60. Tarshish, Central Secretariat, 14 November 1948, ibid., div. Ib, cont. 8, file 39a; from HA secretariat to Ma'apil secretariat, 12 September 1949, CZA, (1)1.13: 'you acted against our orders by presenting it with a given fact? Also, 'Michayeynu' (Of Our Lives), Tel Yoseph journal, 5 March 1948, meeting of HA immigration activists, 1 June 1949, HHA, (4)1.13. 61. Moshe Kol at the Executive Committee of Children and Youth Immigra• tion, 5 February 1948, CZA, S86-72. 62. David Rodner, Givat Hashlosha Council, 9 February 1949, UKMA, div. 5, cont. 12, file 1; to the recruit 2, 24 June 1948, from speeches in Tel Aviv municipality. 63. Summary of immigration activists of HA, 1 June 1949, HHA, (4)1.13; decisions on immigration at Kibbutz Nir David; Rivka Shimonovitz, Central Secretariat, 14 November 1948, UKMA, div. Ib, cont. 8, file a38. 64. Y. Meltzer, report on immigration, meeting of Executive committee, 3 September 1949, at Ein Hahoresh, journals of the HA, October 1947; Immigration integration programme, excutive committee meeting, 21 March 1946, HHA, (8)5.10.5.; minutes of meeting in Haifa, 16-17 June 1947, HHA, (5)5.7: 'the problem of integrating singles - there is an exag• geration in the unwillingness to accept them.' Central Secretariat, 23 March 1948, UKMA, ibid., file 35; see also Friedman and Vinia, 1 September 1947, ibid., div. Ib, cont. 7, file 29. 65. Letter from Elizur Hacohen, Haifa, to Social Department with regard to P. A., a single woman with a six-year-old child, who wants to join the kibbutz, 2 April 1948, HHA, 4.20; letter from Zvia Fish to Levi Rosenzweig (Social Dept.) undated, CZA, 4.20; letter from Dr. Lowenthal at the Jewish Agency to the Histadrut Immigration Dept. re: S.K., 4 August 1946, LA, 208, IV, 50l9b; letter to Social Committee from at the Immigrants' Hostel, Ra'anana, 2 March 1948, HHA, 4.20. 66. To Hashomer Hazair immigration activists at the Immigrants' Home, 7 July 1949, HHA, (4)1.13.

11 STRAIGHT HOME

1. Yagur magazine, 19 December 1947, by Shulamit, activist in the immigrant integration committee. 2. Questionnaire on social and kibbutz matters, Kibbutz , April 1947, UKMA, div. 2, file 56a. 3. Givat Brenner magazine, 19 November 1948; Aharon Reichman, on immi• grant integration. 4. Haim Rosenberg, 'Hakibbutz ve-Ha'olim Hahadashim' (The Kibbutz and the New Immigrants), Givat Brenner magazine, I March 1946; C. Haim, 'Hevrat Hano'ar B'' (The Children's Groups in Negba), 1946 LA. 264. IV. Notes 309

5. Yosef Kutai 'Be'enei Ha'oleh' (In the Eyes of the Immigrant), Yagur magazine, 15 June 1949. 6. 'Be'enei Ha'oleh', paper; Y. a new immigrant, Yagurmagazine, 25 May 1948. 7. Haim Rosenberg, 'AI Klitat Aliya' (On Integrating Immigrants), Givat Brenner magazine, 29 January 1948. 8. Givat Hashlosha Council. 9. Yagur magazine, 10 December 1948. 10. Givat Brenner Council. II. Immigration Committee, 25 February 1948, UKMA, div. 2, cont. 12, file 1. 12. Ya'akov Hazan and Antke at Kibbutz Ha'artzi Council meeting no. 57 Nahariya, 10-12 December 1948, HHA (4) 5.20.5; Menahem Gerson, Nir David Council. 13. 'Mipeulot Va'adat Ha'aliya', Yagur magazine, 19 December 1947, written by Shulamit; Avraham Birer (Gesher), meeting of acitivists, young groups, and kibbutz youth at Kibbutz Na'an, 1 January 1948, UKMA, div. 2, social affairs, cont. 2, file 1; Yagur magazine, 18 March 1948, written by Abba Sh.; 'Passover', Givat Hashlosha, 12 March 1948. 14. Our Negba, no. 14, 1949, written by G. Shmuel. 15. 'Letter to the lads' from Yanek, Givat Hashlosha magazine, 25 June 1948; ibid., 9 July 1948, reply to the 'Letter to the lads', from Mordechai of the immigration committee. 16. '1m No'ar Oleh be-yamim eleh' (With Immigrant Youth), Yitzhak Perver, September 1948. 17. Ibid. 18. Haim Rosenberg, 'Hazabarim ve-Noar haKazetim' (The Sabras and the Immigrant Youths), Givat Brenner magazine, 20 July 1946; see also D. Meletz (ed.), Hadam be-Hityashvut (The Individual behind the Settle• ment), p. 156; from Rina's letter: 'such differences within the Jewish nation. Young people arrive here after having starved for years. And here, the youth are spoiled and stuffed full,' Givat Hashlosha magazine, 5 August 1948. 19. 'Hadam be-Hityashvut', ibid., pp. 88-156, 152-86. 20. Rosenberg (see note 18); 'Hadam be-Hityashvut', ibid., p. 88: 'We are willing to take part in the national mourning and memorials, but when a group of immigrants arrives and we have to enter the "holy of holies", it's not so easy'. See also: 'Hayeynu' (Our life), Kibbutz Ma'anit, vol. g, end of 1946, HHA, 7.7. 21. 'At the End of a Year Following Release from a Concentration Camp', Givat Brenner magazine, 24 May 1946. 22. Minutes of Hashomer Hatzair General Council meeting, Merhvia, 25 June 1948; Yehudit speaking on youth groups, HHA (2)30.1.3: 'the youth groups are confronting much ridicule and disdain'; 'Hed Hanesharim' (Echo of the Eagles), Mishmar Hanegev, 2 February 1949, HHA 7.7: 'We never tried to get close to them and even if we had, we would not have been made welcome'; minutes of youth counsellors' meeting, Hakibutz Ha'artzi, Haifa, 16-17 June 1947, HHA, (5)5.5.7: 'We must reduce this alienation between the group and the kibbutz. Each kibbutz must form a youth committee and, together with the counsellors, these will act as a bridge'; Immigrant Youth magazine, group 5, 25 April 1947, , after one year. 310 Survivors of the Holocaust

23. Report of'' group at , HHA (5)5.7; A. Yitzhak, 'Shana be-Kvutzat Schiller, Hevrat No'ar Oleh' (A Year in Kvutzat Schiller, Immigrant Youth Group), Nivim, 1950. 24. Reinhold, No'ar Boneh (Creative Youth), pp. 73, 183. 25. Pirhei Shitim ( ... flowers) no. 13, Eve ofJewish New Year, 1949, Children's journal at Bet Hashita, LA, 215, IV. 26. Braslavsky, The Labour Movement, p. 90; Tsur, Hakibutz Hameuhad (The United Kibbutz Movement), b, p. 322. 27. Yagur magazine, 10 December 1948, it is worth bearing in mind that this positive attitude relates to the group that founded Kibbutz Lohamei Hageta'ot. 28. Reichman at the Council; Minkovsky, third Geva Council meeting. 29. Tebenkin at a meeting of the UKM Central Committee, 14 April 1948, UKMA, div. 1b, cont. 8, file 35. 30. Thus with the 'Sharsheret' group from Cyprus, which they wanted to attach to Kibbutz Nahsho1im, when the decision was not to force them to unite against their wishes. In the words of Venia, UKM Central Committee, 29 January 1949, ibid., file 35a; closing session of Nahariya council, 26 December 1948, HHA, 5.31 (3b) in which they announced the accept• ance of nine new kibbutzim to the Hashomer Hatsair movement; seven of these were founded on groups of Holocaust survivors, with additional reinforcements of veterans. See also a letter from Zilla to Levi Rosenzweig (Social Dept.), 10 June 1947, HHA, 4.20. 31. 14 December 1948, UKMA, div. 2, foreign affairs, cont. 20, file 119; 12 April 1947, HHA, 4.20. 32. Mo1ka Berenchok (from Ein Hayam), Dror Council, 'Ahdut Ha'avoda' issue no. 165, 13 November 1947; Minkovsky at Givat Hashlosha Council; Integration Committee, 25 February 1948, UKMA, div. 2, cont. 12, file 1. 'Geulim' report, Gan Shmuel, HHA, (5)5.3. 33. 'La-Meguyas' (For the Recruited), 4, 25 August 1948, UKMA, div. 2, communique, cont. 19: From Poland - two groups, in Yagur and Ginnosar; from Hungary - four groups, in Ein Harod, Ma'oz Haim, and Kinneret; from Romania - one group in Givat Brenner and - two groups, in Afikim and . 34. Yagur magazine, 8 September 1947 and 10 December 1948, written by Havka (probably Fulman, one of the bravest women in occupied Poland). 35. Tsur, Hakibutz Hame'uhad, b, pp. 322-3; Yagur magazine, 10 December 1948, written by S.; Y. Rabinowitz, Na'an Council, 10 May 1947, UKMA, div. 5, cont. 11, file 2. 36. K. Zvi, 'AI Hayahasim ben Hahaverim', Shitim magazine. 37. 'Me-Hayeynu', youth group at kibbutz Ein Hashofet, January 1949, HHA, 8; 'Me-Hayeynu', Ma'anit, third issue, end of 1946, HHA, 7.7, written by A viva: 'You are unable to permit yourselves to give us more ... therefore you should not have taken on this burden.' 38. Nahariya Council. 39. Reports of visits to kibbutzim, 1952, HHA, (3)4.7: 'Kibbutz Ma'abarot (a group which was taken in April 1949) - of Polish, Romanian, Yugoslav and Bulgarian origin - conducting two educational levels.' Notes 311

40. Aharon Reichman, Be-Eyin Haklita (In the Eye of Integration), CZA 14 March 1947. 41. Yagur magazine, 19 March 1948, written by S.; spoken by Yoske Shindler (Bet Ha'arava), at Na'an, 1 January 1948, UKMA, div. 2, cont. 1, file 1. 42. Rachel Saborai (Ein Harod), activists' seminar, ibid. 43. Circular no. 40, HHA, (1) 4.7; Secretariat meeting, 6 July 1947, HHA (2) 5.5. 44. From Kibbutz Hafziba to the Agricultural Centre, 25 July 1948, LA, 208, IV, 5417; Yagur magazine, 19 December 1947; from information centre at Yagur to the Histadrut, 13 October 1946, LA, 208, IV, 3970; from Hashomer Hatzair to Executive Committee, cultural department, 25 May 1949, ibid., 5320; Avraham Borer (Gesher) at a meeting of young activists and kibbutz members at Na'an, I January 1948, UKMA, div. 2, Social affairs, cont. I, file 1.

12 'IT WAS A HEAVY FALL THAT YEAR'

1. UKM conference in , 16 May 1949, UKMA, div. 2, 'Foreign', container, 20, file 119; Tsur, Hakibutz Hemeuhad, II, pp. 332; Hashomer Hatza'ir and Kibbuz Ha'arzti Arch. (HHA) at Giv'at Haviva, (4)1.13. 2. Tsur, ibid., p. 337; Berl Gemernik (Ma'oz Haim) at kibbutz immigration committee, 22 May 1949; 14 December 1945, LA, 235, IV, 2314; Bracha Rechtman, 25 February 1948, UKMA, div. Ib, container 8, file 35. 3. Tebenkin, 14 November 1948, ibid., file 39a; 26 January 1949, ibid., file 35a; Bracha Rechtman, Giv'at Brener. 4. 25 February 1948, UKMA, div. Ib, container 8, file 35; 30 June 1948, CZA, S86-351; Ze'ev Meinert, 26 January 1949, UKMA, ibid., file 35a. 5. Memo dated 26 November 1949, HHA, (1)1.13. 6. 26 January 1949, ibid., file 35. 7. Letter, Zion Geller, early 1949, HHA, (3)1.13. 8. Berslevsky, Tnu'at hapoalim, pp. 74, 93, 137-8; Shefer, Hakibutz, p. 113; Rahel Yanait Ben-Zvi, seventh agricultural conference. 9. Lova H., 26 January 1949, UKMA, ibid., file 35a. 10. Lova Livite, 1948, ibid., div. 2, Foreign, container 20, file 119. 11. M. Kliger, Giv'at Brener council; Tzur, Hakibutz hameuhad, III, p. 334; P. Bandori (Giv'at Hashlosha). 12. Alim, April 1946; Moshe G. in: Dvareinu, Bet Hashita magazine, 1946. See also, 'Bor', in Hedim, Bet-Alfa, LA, IV, 262. 13. Haim Rosenberg, Al klitat , Giv'at Brener magazine, 19 January 1948; Aharon Reichman, '1m kinusei ha-olim', CZA 17 November 1946; Haim Rosenberg, 'Shana ba'aretz', CZA, ibid. 14. Report to Palestine delegation in Rome, 28-30 March 1947, CZA, L58-18. 15. Hashomer Hatza'ir Executive, 21 March 1946, HHA, (8)5.10.5; Minikovsky, Giv'at Hashlosha; letter from Haklai and Stiglitz to Shmuel Berndman (Italy), 6 January 1948, CZA, S86-61. 312 Survivors of the Holocaust

16. Giyora Josephtallecturing to Nurses Union, CZA, S6-844; Ben-Gurion Diaries, entry, 4 January 1948, ABG Diaries; Michael Glass, Giv'at Hashlosha, 13 November 1947. 17. Bracha Rechtman, Giv'at Brener. 18. Questionnaire to young kibbutzim, , 18 December 1950, HHA, (5)3.20. 19. Yoske Shindler (Bet Ha'arava), and Avraha Birer (Gesher), at Na'an, I January 1948, UKMA, div. 2, Social, container I, file I; Haim Rosenberg, 'Hakibutz ve ha-olim ha-hadashim', Givat Brener magazine, I March 1946; Aharon Reichman, G'vat council, 'Ba'ayn haklita', CZA, 14 March 1947. 20. Seminar, 5 May 1948, HHA, 4.20. 21. The feeling of inferiority is mentioned repeatedly, see Reichman, '1m kinusei ha-olim', CZA, 17 November 1946 and in the same edition, 'Yoman ha-aliyah - divohim al bikurim be-meshakim, and Ein Hayam.' 22. Michael Glass, Giv'at Hashlosha, 13 November 1947 and Alkolombaro, 5 May 1948. 23. Bracha Rechtman, Giv'at Brener council; Minkovsky, Giv'at Hashlosha council. 24. Aharon Reichman, 'Ba-ayot klita', CZA, 14 March 1947. 25. Haim Rosenberg, 'Hirhurim b'tom shana l'shichrur m'mahane ha-rikuz', Giv'at Brener magazine, 25 May 1946.

13 THE KIBBUTZ AND YOUTH ALlYA

1. According to Kol, 59.8 per cent, Aliyat Hano'ar, p. 322, and 61 per cent according to a Youth Aliya report, conducted by David Netzer in 1953; the report appears as a draft, not for publication in the Palestine section of the Library of the Central Office of Statistics, Jerusalem. 2. Ibid. 3. Netzer, ibid. 4. Murphy, The Immigrants in Israel, p. 154. 5. CZA S86-72. 6. Letter dated 21 October 1948, LA, 208, IV, 5670; minutes, 7 January 1948, 6 June 1948, CZA, S86-72. 7. Kibbutz Ha'artzi meeting, 18 August 1946, HHA, (1)5.5; ibid., (2)9.7; CZA, L58-727; IDFA 235, IV, 2319; 4 December 1947, HHA, (1)4.7. 8. Letter to Kolodani (Kol) from Schecter, I August 1948, LA 14172. 9. Hans Beit, Min hamithave b'aliyat hayeladim vahno'ar (From Events in the Immigration of Children and Youth), Alim, November, 1947- January 1948; meeting Jewish Agency, 29 February 1948, CZA, 45/2; Moshe Kol at Zionist General Council, 5-15 May 1949, CZA, 22645. 10. Letter from David Ominsky from Agricultural Centre to Halperin, Youth Aliya, 8 June 1946, HHA, (2)9.7; from settlement department in Histadrut to immigration department, Jewish Agency, 4 November 1946, LA, 235, IV, 2319. II. Ein Harod magazine, 8 October 1948. 12. Letter from Moshe Perlmutter, Youth Aliya, from Shmuel Schwartz in , 15 October 1946, HHA, (2)9.7; see also note 10. Notes 313

13. Meeting of Agricultural Centre youth immigration department, 8 January 1947, LA, 4812, IV, 208. 14. Letter from Dr Landauer to Yehuda Kvish (Cyprus), 20 January 1948, CZA, S6-4324; meeting of Youth Aliya management, 20 June 1948, CZA, S86-72. 15. Letter from Frieda Keitz, Kibbutz Gat to Kuba (Ya'akov Fleisher), 8 September 1948, HHA, (1)4.7. 16. Directive to Youth Aliya in Europe, 10 August 1948, CZA, S86-72. 17. ibid., 21 November 1948, L58-277. 18. Letter to Youth Aliya in Paris, from Moshe Kol, 14 April 1948, ibid., L58-372. 19. Youth Aliya management, 6 June 1948, ibid., S86-72; letter to Moshe Ya'ari, Youth Aliya, from Hannan in France, 5 May 1948, ibid., L58-703; letter from M. Shapira to Liechtenstein, Paris, 29 June 1948, ibid., L58-372; letter from M. Kol to Liechtenstein, Paris, 30 June 1948, ibid. 20. Meeting of Youth Aliya management, 21 January 1948, ibid., S86-72. See also Jewish Agency Executive meeting 11 January 1948, ibid., 45/2. 21. Meeting of Youth Aliya, 6 June 1948, ibid., S86-72.

14 EDUCATION, OCCUPATION, SOCIALIZATION

1. Reinhold, No'ar boneh, p. 12; Ein Harod magazine, 2 April 1948, 'Le sium hevrat ha'noar h' (At the end of the 5th Youth Group); Yagur magazine, 8 July 1948, also Giv'at Brenner magazine, 11 August 1948. 2. Reinhold at meeting of Youth Aliya Executive Committee, 14 July 1947, CZA, S86-72. 3. Alim, November 1947-January 1948; Rafael Aronstein, 'Hayeled oleh b'bet hasefer (l'ahar shana tzfia) , (Following a Year of Observation) from Hayeynu, Tel Yosef, 5 May 1948, LA, 208, VI, 5411; 'L'mele'at hatzi shana lekiyum hevrat no'ar oleh z' (Six Months of the Immigrant Youth Group, 6), Ein Harod magazine, 22 September; 'Miyoman va'adat ha-no'ar• divuach al hachsharat Dafna' (From the Youth Group's Diary - Report on Training at Dafna), CZA, 16 December 1949. 4. Educational plans for ages 10-12, 12-14, 15-17, CZA, L58-727. 5. From Hayaynu, Tel Yosef, LA, 208, IV, 5411; Report on children's groups, Mazra, HHA, (1)13.7; 'Nivim' (Expressions), anniversary of the 'Ayala' youth group in Kibbutz , Hannukka, 1950, 264, IV. 6. Report on youth group, Merhavya, 19 September 1946-17 December 1946, HHA, (1)3.7. 7. Youth committee diary, entry 9 February 1949, UKMA, div. 2, container 5, file 4; semi-annual report, Kibbutz Alonim, 14 August 1946-14 February 1947, HHA, (3)4.7 and (1)4.7. 8. 'Nivim', Sarid, Hannukka, 1950 anniversary of Ayalah group, LA, IV 264; Kiryat Anavim, youth, ibid. 9. Sha'ar Hagolan, 3 October 1947, HHA, 8.7, written by Zalman. 10. Letter to Kuba (Fleisher) from 'SL' and 'HM', in , HHA, (1)4.7; from Hayaynu, Tel Yosef, 30 January 1948, LA, 208, IV, 5411, group of 314 Survivors of the Holocaust

Cyprus youth; Dobkin report, 12 June 1946, Jewish Agency immigration department, LA, 443, IV. 11. Reinhold, No'ar boneh, p. 118; G. Just, Aliyat Hano'ar b'hever hak'vutsot, . B'kvutza, October 1948. 12. Youth Committee diary (see note 7); youth group Ramat Hashofet, April 1949, HHA, 7-8; Aloneynu (Our Magazine), Beit Hashita, 8 November 1948, LA, 264, IV. 13. See also Hedim, , LA, 264, IV, written by Moshe R. 14. Nivim, ibid.; Hedim, Negba, LA, 264, IV. 15. M'hayaynu, youth group at Hulda, 14 September 1947, LA, 264, IV. 16. Reinhold, ibid., p. 75; youth group, , magazine 1, 20 November 1946, written by Y. Ornik, LA, 264, IV. 17. 'Geulim' youth group in Mizra, HHA, (1)3.7; Reinhold, ibid., p. 75; ref. 26; youth committee diary; report from Giv'at Brenner, CZA, 29 May 1947. 18. Report on youth group, Merhavya, 19 September 1946-17 December 1948, HHA, (1)3.7; also Kfar Rupin, 'Hatzi shana ba-aretz' (Six Months in the Country), LA, 264, IV.

15 'THESE YOUNG PEOPLE - THEIR SOULS ARE CLOSED TO US'

1. Rafael Aronstein, 'Haye1ed ha'oleh b'bet hasefer', Alim, November 1947- January 1948; Yosef Indig, 'No'ar sarid u-palit', and D.A., '1m ha-olim hahadashim b-Atlit,' Alim, April 1946. 2. Ibid. and Alim, August/October 1947; also Nathan Alterman's Seventh Column poem 'Leil milhama' (A Night in War): 'Ish Yehudi ben shesh' (A Six-year-old Jewish Man), no. 7. 3. Report of 'Geulim' youth group, Kibbutz Mizra, HHA (1)3,7. 4. See note 2. 5. Report of 'Geulim' youth group, Kibbutz Mazra, HHA (1)5,7; Min hate/ut• zot, edition no. 8, 12 June 1946; Youth Aliya Immigration Department, Dobkin report, LA, IV, 443. 6. See note 2. 7. Mirian Shmuelevitz, '1m kevutzat yeladim olim', Ein Harod magazine, 21 September 1948; letter from group ofleaders at Kibbutz Aylon, to Kuba (Fleisher), 29 July 1948, HHA (1)4,7. 8. Yehoshua Givoni, 'Doch havurat ha-no'ar be Alonim', 14 August 1946- 14 February 1947, UKMA, div. 2, Youth Centre, container 5, file 4. 9. Youth group in Merhavia, 17 September 1946-17 December 1946, HHA (1)3.7; G. Just, 'Aliyat ha-noa'r be-hever hakvutzot' (Youth Aliya in the Kibbutzim), Bekvutza, October 1948; Alim, November 1947-January 1948, first impressions. 10. Bekvutza, October 1948; Youth Committee diary, entry, 9 February 1947, UKMA, div. 2, container 5, file 4; Hedim Bet Alpha, written by Moshe R. LA, IV, 264. Notes 315

11. Report of Alonim youth group, 14 August 1946-14 February 1947, UKMA, div. 2, Youth Centre, container 5, file 4; Alim November 1947-January 1948; Hedim, Hevrat no'ar oleh, bl, Bet Alpha, LA, IV, 246, written by Moshe R. 12. Youth group at Ramat Hashofet, Apri11949, HHA, 7-8; Aloneinu after a year in Bet Hashita, 8 November 1948, LA, IV, 264. 13. Yitzhak Perver, Ma'ale Hahamisha, Alim, September 1948; Raphael Aronstein, in note 1. 14. Report of 'Geulim' youth group, Mizra, HHA (1)3.7; Haim C. 'Hevrat no'ar be Negba', Hedim, 1947, LA, IV, 264; second annual congress of Dror at United Kibbutz Movement in Mishmar Hayam, 1 November 1947, UKMA, div. 2, Foreign, container 23, file 127b. 15. Nivim, Hannuka, 1950, Ayala group, Kibbutz Sarid, written by Abraham; Hedim, Bet Alpha, Youth Group B, written by Haya, LA, IV, 264; Immigrant youth H, at Kiryat Anavim, 3 April 1947, ibid.; 'Benetiv hahitarut', Giv'at Hashlosha, 8 February 1946, second anniversary of liberation of the camps, ibid. 16. Giv'at Hashlosha magazine, 11 March 1949; Raphael Aronstein. 17. Reinhold, No'ar boneh, p. 125, note 20; study day at Kibbutz Lohamei Hageta'ot, 19 September 1948; Alim, November 1947-January 1948, 'First impressions' (Hebrew) report of 'Geulim' youth group, Kibbutz Mizra, HHA (1)3.7. 18. From Mordechai Stein to Moshe Ya'ari, 'Aliyat Hano'ar', 18 October 1946, LA,9.7. 19. Alim, August-October 1947; Tel-Hai, 'Meparashat hayeinu', 29 September 1947.

16 HOME AND PARENTS ON THE KIBBUTZ

1. From the counselling team on Kibbutz Eilon to Kuba Fleisher, 28 July 1948, HHA, (1)4.7; Ein Harod magazine, 8 October 1948, May 1948, July 1947 and January 1948; youth group g, Sde Nahum, magazine no. 1, 20 December 1946; on the composition of youth group from Poland, Bengazi and Italy, LA, 264 IV; Ashdot Ya'akov magazine, LA, 246 IV, by David Rosenzweig; from Moshe Ya'ari to Shmuel Schwartz, 1 December 1946, HHA, (2)9.7. 2. Letter to M. Ya'ari, 6 October 1946 and to Kibbutz Ramat Hashofet, 13 October 1946, HHA, (2)9.7. 3. Minutes of Hashomer Hatza'ir youth counsellors' meeting, Haifa, 16-17 June 1947, HHA, (5)5.7; youth committee diary, entry, 9 February 1947, UKMA, div. 2, cont. 5, file 4. 4. Minutes, youth group meetings, ibid.,; report, youth group. 5, HHA, (1)3.7. 5. Questionnaire to young kibbutzim, 18 December 1950, HHA, (5)3.20; Giv'at Hashlosha magazine, 9 January 1948. (see note 3). 6. Kiryat Anavim, 3 April 1947, No'ar Ole H, written by Matityahu, LA, 264 IV. 7. Alim, Bet Hashita, April 1946; see note 3; '1m olim hadashim be-Atlit', Alim April 1946. 316 Survivors of the Holocaust

8. Kiryat Anavim, 25 April 1947, LA 264 IV; Youth report from Mizra, HHA, (1)3.7; Ramat Hashophet, December 1947, (Polish), LA, 264 IV; team of counsellors Kibbutz Eilon to Kuba (Fleisher), 27 July 1948, HHA, (1)4.7; Alim, November 1947-January 1948, UKMA, div. 2, youth, cont. 5, file 4, written by Yehoshua Giv'oni; reports of visits on kibbutzim, 1952, HHA, (1)4.7; youth group at , 18 October 1953, LA, 264 IV. 9. Youth committee diary, entry, 9 February 1947, UKMA, div. 2, container 5, file 4; semi-annual report, Alonim. 10. Merhavya, LA, (1)3.7; Mizra, HHA, (1)3.7. 11. Greenberg report, HHA, (2)9.7; Reinhold, No'ar Boneh. p. 88. 12. 'Ba-moledet' (In the Motherland), Afikim group, New Year, 1947 written by Gedalia, LA, 264, IV. 13. Natan Rotenstreich report to Youth Aliya, 24 August 1948, HHA, (1)417. 14. Tarshish, Giv'at Hashlosha Council. 15. Ya'akov Fleischman, 29 October 1948, HHA, (1)4.7; see also from Eilat to Kibbutz Ha'artzi, 18 November 1948, HHA, (1)4.7; December 1949, report to Zionist Congress, p. 236. 16. Reinhold, No'ar Boneh p. 121. l7. Greenberg report (see note 11); Reinhold, ibid., p. 89. 18. Rotenstreich report (see note 13). 19. Reinhold, 2 December 1947, HHA, (1)4.7. 20. Greenberg report (see note 11). 21. Reinhold, ibid., p. 89; see also LA, 264, IV. 22. Hedim, Bet Alpha, ibid. 23. Giv'at Brenner magazine, 3 March 1949. 24. Minutes of meeting, 30 June 1948, CZA, S86-35l; Giv'at Brenner maga• zine, 21 October 1948; letter from S'dot Yam to security committee of Agricultural Centre, 27 March 1949, LA, 235, IV, 228lg. 25. Kiryat Anavim, No'ar Oleh, 3 April 1947 from Matityahu, LA, 264, IV. 26. Mizra, Geulim group, HHA, (1)3.7; also see note 9. 27. Alim, April 1946; see also, Reinhold, p. 124. 28. Conversation with Aliza Badmor, group leader 1946-8, on 12 August 1989; also letter to author, 5 June 1989. 29. Reinhold, p. 228. 30. Ibid.; letter to Kibbutz Ha'artzi youth department, 13 October 1946, HHA, (2)9.7; letter from A. Greenstein, 12 May 1948, HHA, (3)3.7. 31. Reinhold, p. 182. 32. Kibbutz Sarid, LA, 264, IV. 33. Ma'anit youth group, April 1947, LA, 264 IV, see also note 32.

17 THE HISTADRUT IN THE SHADOW OF THE STATE

1. Based on Kachinsky, Ha'aliyah ha-hamonit (The Mass Immigration); Horovitz and Lissak, M'Yishuv lemedina (From Settlement to State), B; Horovitz and Lissak, M'Yishuv lemedina, A; information from other sources will be detailed. 2. Data from: Shnot hamas he'ahid, 1937-62, Tel Aviv, 1962; Ha-Histadrut miyom kum hamedina netunim ve-uvdot, Tel Aviv, 1969; slightly different Notes 317

numbers in: Bartal, Ha-Histadrut, according to which the Histadrut had 150,091 members in 1945; 169,443 in 1946; 180,660 in 1947; 257,634 in 1949. No census was held in 1948, election year. 3. Election results, 26 April 1949, LA, 235, IV, 1443. 4. Histadrut charter, p. 3. 5. Ha-Histadrut be-Haifa, p. 620. 6. Frumkin in Executive Committee, Sept.-Dec. 1948, 3 November 1948, LA, 91M (protocols, Exec. Com.). 7. Histadrut magazine no. 2, May 1950, LA 208, IV, 5489; and in same file, conclusions for December 1949, Ramleh. 8. See note 2, pp. 37,44; ibid., pp. 23-4. 9. Protocols, Histadrut Council, 10-12 August 1948, LA, Councils. 10. Horowitz and Lissak, M'Yishuv le-mediana, B, pp. 24-5. 11. Koren, Surkis, Gurevitz and Bankover, Histadrut Council, Protocols Exec. Com. 12. Protocols Exec. Com., 19 January 1949, LA92M. 13. Zvi Herman, Protocols Exec. Com. 14. Yehuda Barginsky, ibid. 15. Horovitz and Lissak, ibid., A, pp. 105, 138, 285, 322, 422. 16. See Ben-Gurion Diaries, entry 3 March 1949; see note 13. 17. Histadrut Council. 18. Surkis, Exec. Comm. 19. Ibid. 20. David Zimand (Ha-oved ha-Zioni), ibid. 21. Meeting of Diaspora Committee, 28 January 1949, and 5 January 1949, LA, 208, IV, 4716B. 22. Idov Cohen (Ha-oved ha-Zioni), ibid., see note 12. 23. Hashomer Hatza'ir to Histadrut Immigration Centre, 28 May 1946, LA, 208, IV, 5005A, from Bialystok immigrants to Marminsky, ibid., 3963; from Serbian immigrants to Histadrut housing committee, 1 September 1949, ibid., 4814; from Mapai centre to Yefet, 29 January 1948, 30 December 1949, 1 January 1949, more names, ibid., 5l70a, 5l70b; from Melech Neustadt, 18 February 1948, LA, 104, IV, file 137; from Melech Neustadt to Jewish Agency, 8 February 1948, ibid. file 138; to Haim Berman at Foreign Office from ... 24 February 1949, LA, 208, IV, 4773a; 10 November 1949, ibid., 4716a, re: Haim and Pnina Greenshpan. 24. To Y. Harlap, Israel Knesset, Haifa, from [name illegible] Histadrut, 31 October 1947, LA, 208, IV, 3957. 25. 22 March 1949, ibid., 4557; see also 27 November 1946, ibid., 4713b; 21 May 1946, ibid., 4298, other applications are described in note 23. 26. From Kfar Giladi to Partisans and Ghetto Fighters' Committee, 15 August 1946, ibid., 3971; to secretariat of Ashdot Ya'akov, Degania A, Ein Harod, Kfar Giladi, 21 February 1948, ibid., 3977; decisions of central committee, 15 February 1948, ibid., 4891. 27. From Labour Exchange Centre to Eisenstadt in Exec. Com., 14 June 1946, ibid., 4713a; from Jewish Agency to Histadrut Exec. Com., 25 June 1946, ibid., 50l9b; decision taken on 27 December 1948. 28. Ibid., 4890. 29. Ibid., 104, IV, Neustadt, file 136; ibid., Yuris, file 143, date 7 January 1947. 318 Survivors of the Holocaust

30. From Histadrut to Jewish Agency, 25 November 1949, ibid., 208, IV, 5120; from Mapai to Histadrut, 2 November 1949, ibid., 5170a; from Herring to Yefet, 29 December 1949, ibid.; see also ibid., files 5170a and 5170b; also file 5505. 31. From P. Lubianker to Jewish Agency, 27 December 1949, ibid., 5120b; from Zvi Yehuda to Military Governor, Jaffa, 23 March 1949, ibid., 5324; from Exec. Committee to Haim Berman, 24 February 1949, ibid., 4773a. 32. Stressing party political affiliation. Protocol of Immigration from Diaspora Committee, 5 January 1949, ibid., 4716b; see also to Haiks, Jewish Agency from Histadrut, 29 March 1949, ibid., 5120. 33. See, for example, from Department for Professional Training to Surkis, 18 December 1950, ibid., 5505; from Marminsky to Mina Rogoztok, Immigration Department, 12 April 1949, ibid.; from Mapai to Histadrut, 30 January 1949, ibid., 5170a. 34. From Berl Laufer to Histadrut (undated), ibid., 5170a and in same file, letter to Histadrut for Zvi Yehuda and Mikes Bromat, 1 January 1949; from Histadrut to Defence Ministry, re David Kittel, 24 July 1949, ibid., 5055a. 35. Horowitz and Lissak, M'Yishuv Ie-medina, a, pp. 150, 264.

18 LOCAL SOLUTIONS TO AD HOC PROBLEMS

1. Horowitz and Lissak, M'Yishuv Ie-medina, a, p. 264; Horowitz and Lissak, M'Yishuv Ie-medina, b, pp. 26~7. 2. From Ada Fischman to Katzenelson, 12 October 1947, LA, 235, IV, 2595a. 3. From labour exchanges to Jewish Agency, 22 July 1948, ibid., 2595; Histadrut diary no. 5, 20 November 1947, UKMA, div. Ib, container 33, file 199. 4. From Ada Fischman, Histadrut to Yosefthal, Jewish Agency, 23 December 1947, LA, 208, IV, 5071; from Katzenelson to Shapira, CZA, S6-1503b. 5. Bankover, Frumkin and Koren, 1O~12 August 1948, LA, councils. 6. Labour exchange centre, meeting, 15 December 1946, LA, 208, IV, 4713b. 7. Koren, Histadrut, LA, 235, IV, 2595; ibid., 26 November 1947, 2061. 8. LA, 208, IV, 4298. 9. Frumkin at Histadrut council; Fischman, Frumkin, Yosefthal, protocols Exec. Com. 10. Katzenelson, seventh Agricultural Congress. 11. Amendment, LA, 208, IV, 4713a; to labour exchanges from Aharon Bloch, 14 August 1946, ibid., 4713b. 12. Immigration department diary, no. 5. 13. Zimand at Histadrut Council, Frumkin, protocols Exec. Com.; attention was also given to exceptional employment problems, like those of couples with small children, who were separated while they were in the DP camps and the wife remained the only source of income. 14. Letter from labour council to Agricultural centre, 3 December 1947, LA, 235, IV, 2598. 15. From the National Union of Print Workers toJDC management in Cyprus, 2 July 1948, LA, 208, IV, 5039. Notes 319

16. Report from joint fund for constructive loans to new immigrants, 16 September 1948 to 10 August 1949, LA, 211, IV. 17. Ze'ev Shapira at seventh Agricultural Congress. 18. From the Histadrut to the Jewish Agency, 6 March 1949, LA, 208, IV, 5120. 19. Kachinsky, Ha'aliyagha-hamonit, (Mass Immigration), p. 60; Kalo, Kuch m be-Yaffo, pp. 23-9. 20. Yitzhak Shapira at seventh Agricultural Congress; Horowitz and Lissak, M'Yishuv Ie-medina, a. 'The struggle for integration of the immigrants in employment, involves control of the systems responsible for delegating work to the immigrants ... a third aspect of this struggle was expressed by the Histadrut's penetration of a monopolistic or at least dominant position within the unions in the Yishuv.' The remaining percentages in 1948 were: 20 per cent belonged to other unions and 18 per cent were non• union affiliated. In 1949: Hapo'el Mizrahi - 11 per cent; Agudat Israel - 7 per cent; A.A.L. - 5 per cent; non-union affiliated - 21 per cent. 21. Frumkin at Histadrut council. 22. Letter from labour exchange to Lod Agricultural Centre, 20 April 1949, LA, 235, IV, 2582; also 30 September 1947, ibid., 2583. 23. Letter to Pardes Syndicate, ibid. 24. Y. Shapira at seventh Agricultural Congress. 25. A. Ritov, protocols Exec. Com. 26. E. Melis at seventh Agricultural Congress. 27. Seventh Agricultural Congress; Horowitz and Lissak, M'Yishuv Ie-medina b, p. 24. 28. Immigrant Zilberberg, settler from Akir, the first deserted village to be settled by Holocaust survivors; see also, G'vati, Me'ah shnot, b, p. 29. 29. Letter from Histadrut to Jewish Agency, 12 June 1946, LA, 208, IV, 5019, b; to immigration committee in Labour Council from Brechman, immigration department of medical services, 22 July 1946, ibid., 235, IV, 2595. 30. Elisheva Kaplan at seventh Agricultural Congress. 31. Yosef Katzenelson at seventh Agricultural Congress. 32. Ramlah Labour Council, December 1949, LA, 208, IV, 5489. 33. Protocol meeting of sick fund management, 2 July 1949, ibid., 243, IV, 157.

19 MOBILIZING IN DEFENCE OF THE SPIRIT

1. Avraham Levinson, 19 January 1949, protocols Exec. Com., January• March, 1949, LA 92m. 2. From the Cultural Centre to the Immigration Department, Executive Committee, 29 April 1947, LA, 208, IV, 4298. 3. From the Cultural Centre to the Settlement Committee, 29 June 1947, ibid.; see also letter to Ze'ev Bloch at Beit Alpha, 22 October 1947, ibid., 3989. 4. To Youth Department from Kibbutz Buchenwald Afikim 1 May 1947, ibid., 4428b; from Haim Tarlovsky, Yagur, to Cultural Centre, 27 July 1947, ibid., 3970; to Haim Tarlovsky, Yagur from Cultural Centre, 13 August 1947, 320 Survivors of the Holocaust

ibid.; to Cultural Centre from Kibbutz Buchenwald, Nahalat Yehuda, 24 December 1947, ibid., 4428a. 5. From Dr Israel Kloisner to Pioneer Department, Histadrut, 2 March 1948, ibid., 4557; from Exec. Committee to Zionist Arch, Dr Kloisner, 16 March 1948, ibid.; to secretary of Kibbutz Buchenwald, Nahalat Yehuda from immigration department, Exec. Community, 23 November 1947, ibid., 4428. 6. From Cultural Centre to Ze'ev Bloch, Beit Alpha, 22 October 1947, ibid.; Propaganda department, Activity among new immigrants, August 1948, ibid., 4826. 7. Frumkin at Histadrut Conference. 8. From the Histadrut immigration department to Dr Yoseftal, Jewish Agency, 30 September 1948, ibid., 5120; Histadrut to United Kibbutz Movement, Hever Hakevutzut, Hakibutuz Ha'artzi, No'ar Zioni, Moshavim Movement, 1 October 1948, ibid., 5320; 24 October 1948, ibid., 4826; from Cultural Department to Ben Ari, Bornstein, Levinson, Schwertz and Frumkin, 9 November 1948, ibid. 9. Y. Kluger, Hapeula hatarbutit be Jebalya (Cultural Activity in Jebalya), edi• tion 8 of cultural department magazine, October-December 1948, ibid., 5136. 10. Levinson, Reptor and Leibovitz, protocols Exec. Com. 11. Dvora Dayan at seventh Agricultural Congress. 12. Raptur, protocols Exec. Com. (See note 1). 13. From Cultural Centre to Hebrew Department, to David Levin, Chairman Teachers' Union, 15 February 1949, LA, 208, IV, 5054; summaries of Hebrew Department, August-September 1949, ibid., 5136; see Hahsitadrut b'Haifa, p. 262. 14. Ibid., p. 262. 15. See note 12, above. 16. Freiburg, Central secretariat, 31 August 1947, UKMA, div. 1b, container 7, file 29; Levite, central secretariat, 7 September 1947, ibid., div. 1b, container 8, file 43; Bogner, Cyprus, pp. 443-6. 17. From Lubanker to Levinson, 24 June 1947, LA, 208, IV, 4516; Pinhas Lavon, Jewish Agency, to Histadrut, 14 December 1948, ibid., 5670. 18. Meeting of Executive Committee, 1 January 1948, protocols Exec. Com, LA, 88m; Executive Committee, 14 January 1948, ibid.; from Kibbutz Ha'artzi to Histadrut (Baruch Eisenstein), 2 April 1948, LA, 208, IV, 5520. 19. Ada Fischman, from Immigration Department to Cultural Department, ibid., 4298.

20 IN SUMMARY

1. Zuckerman, Yetziat Polin, pp. 18-19; protocols Hashomer Hatza'ir meet• ings, 21-22 November 1945, HHA, (8)5.10.5. 2. Kovner's words should be seen as representative, although he is a Hashomer Hatza'ir man who settled in a kibbutz so that he was not concerned with material matters. Most ofthe Holocaust survivors did not settle in kibbutzim Notes 321

and it is clear that they attached great importance to employment and housing. Moreover, the Holocaust survivors in general had similar expec• tations to those of Abba Kovner in the emotional and educational spheres, and we have shown this in the chapters of this book. Yitzhak Zuckerman, a member of the UKM, in his speech as a conference in London, focused on the mental and moral aspects of integration. 3. Meir Gottesman, General Manager of , in Aliyat Hano'ar bakibbutz, according to which the main objectives of Youth Aliya were survival, integration, rehabilitation and ideological education. It is inter• esting that most of the issues had a futuristic orientation. This can explain, in part at least, the enormous investments made in Youth Aliya, which had the belief that children and young people were malleable and so they would be a blessing to the society at large. This was also the reason behind the decision not to take in children over the age of 17. 4. National Archives (NA), division 60, container 3, file B. Ginsburg. 5. See Ben-Gurion's Diaries, entry 24 June 1946. 6. Mankowitz, Ideologia u-politika, p. 383; protocols of Jewish Agency debates, CZA, 43/2, S6. S5; Heller, B'ma'avak lemidina, pp. 83-92. 7. Dr Katzenelson at the National Council, 17 September 1947, CZA, S6-1572b; M. Bachar to B. Shapira, 7 December 1947, NA, 41139; Dubkin, 23 August 1948, CZA S5-323; Barlas to Shapira, 10 March 1948, NA, 41140; Barlas and Hoffman-Yahi1, at a meeting of the committee for problems of immigration and integration in the first two years of the foundation of the state, 14 January 1948, Labour Party Archives. 8. Letter from Barles to Shapira and Dr Yosef, 25 February 1948, NA, 41139; letter from Z. Sherf to Bachar and Shapira, 16 December 1948, ibid.; summary of meeting 8 November 1947, ibid.; temporary government decision, 19 May 1948, NA, 411458; report, 22 February 1948, NA, 411111. 9. Memo, Mr Z. Lubianiker on the matter of housing, 15 July 1948, NA, foreign, 2395/22; M. Shapira, 23 August 1948, CZA, S5-323; budget, CZA, S5-5308. 10. Letter from Ben-Gurion to Dr Sofer, 5 February 1948, correspondence, ABG. 11. Ben-Gurion Diaries, entry 6 September 1948; see note 9; Ben-Gurion, 22 August 1948, CZA, S5-323; Ben-Gurion speeches, entry 11 September 1948; Ben-Gurion at Mapai centre, 16 January 1948, speeches. 12. Hazan, 23 November 1948, CZA, S5-323; Riftin, 6 September 1948, CZA, S5-322. 13. Ben-Gurion Diaries, entries, 18 December 1948, 19 December 1948, 8 January 1949. 14. Protocol, immigration committee, 1947, UKMA, div. 2, container 11, file 2. The protocol contains many expressions of the kibbutzim's feelings on the immigrant Holocaust survivors. Thus for example, Mordechai Lapsky, relates how his kibbutz (Tel Yosef) decided that people who had lived in the camps were not to be housed in tents. 15. Ben-Gurion Diaries, entry, 21 April 1949; ibid.; Horovitz and Lissak M'Yishuv Ie medina a, p. 272; M. Vilner, 28 March 1949, NA, div. 60, cont. 11; Zvi Harman, protocols Exec. Com., September-December 1948, 3 November 1948, LA, 91m. 322 Survivors of the Holocaust

16. Report 1948, CZA, S6-1572; from Dr Grushka to Dr Katzenelson (see note 7); M. Shapira at the Zionist Exec. Com. 23 August 1948 (see note 9); Ha'aretz, 15 May 1946. 17. Zuckerman, Yetziat Polin, p. 56; testimony to Aharon Kedar. 18. Letter from Jewish Agency to Y. Raphael, 11 July 1949, Immigration Department, container 11, sequence 18. 19. Letter to United Kibbutz Movement, 6 July 1949, UKMA, div. 2, abroad, cont. 20, file 119; letter from E. Ben Dov, 25 May 1949, CZA S86-58; Immigration Department meeting, 3 January 1949, NA, div. 60, cont. 3; letter from Kadmon, 30 June 1940, Haganah Archive, 14/79b; letter to East Europe department, 3 May 1949, NA 2503/5/a, foreign; also letter 5 June 1940, S6-5037. 20. Although they were not questioned in later years, it is easy to see that the Holocaust survivors did not produce a leadership, in any part of Israeli society, not even those who were seen by the Yishuv leaders as the elite of the Holocaust survivors: in other words, the ghetto fighters. This is true also of the Holocaust survivors in the camps in Germany, at least not with regard to those who immigrated to Israel. 21. Bauer, Habricha; Mankovitz, Ideologica upolitika; Lidovsky, Shaviv haesh, pp. 214-15. 22. There is room for an historical-psychological research to be conducted on the process that gave birth to the opening of the hearts of many of the Holocaust survivors in recent years and the extent of the effect of this process on Israeli society. 23. As was created, for example, by the immigrants from Asia and Africa in working settlements and development towns. However, it should be pointed out, this subject needs a review, over a longer period. On their closeness to the centre, see Zilberberg, Tifroset ha'uchlusia (Population Dispersal), p. 50. Bibliography

A. ARCHIVES

Ben-Gurion Heritage Archives at Sde Boker

Ben-Gurion's journals Minutes of meetings Miscellaneous data

Labour Party Archives -

File of East European Immigrants' Department Labour Party Archives at Beit Ber! Minutes of Mapai Centre meetings Minutes of Mapai Council Minutes of Mapai faction in the Histadrut Minutes of Mapai office meetings Minutes of Mapai Secretariat meetings Minutes of meetings of Mapai political committee

Jewish Agency Archives in Jerusalem

Immigration Department files

Labour Archives in Tel Aviv

Executive Committee activity file, IV, 208 Mery Yatziv, Melech Neustat, Beba Idleson - personal archives, IV, 104 Minutes of Histadrut Committees Minutes of Histadrut Council Minutes of meetings of the Histadrut executive committee Minutes of the Agricultural Centre Minutes of meetings of the Histadrut central committee Moshav Movement files, IV, 307 Publications of immigrants youth, IV, 264 Reports from abroad, IV, 211 Sick Fund files, IV, 234 Statistics Department files, IV, 220

323 324 Survivors of the Holocaust

Israel Defence Forces Archives in Tel Aviv

Adjutant's Office at General Headquarters, Department for Psychological Research Gahal files Givati Division files Golani Division files Military Divisions publications Military Government files - Jaffa, Lydda, Ramlah, Acre, Majdal Research projects of the History Department

Central Zionist Archives in Jerusalem

Ben-Gurion's office files - S44 Cyprus Deportees Committee files - 121 Emissary Department files - S86 Haim Ben Asher files - A292 Immigration Department files - S6 Minutes of meetings of Jewish Agency Management Committee Minutes of meetings of the Zionist Executive Council - S5 National Council files - 11 Political Department files - S25 Salvation Committee files - S26 Yishuv Security Committee files - S25 Yitzhak Greenboim - AI27 Youth Aliya, Continental Office in Paris files - L58

United Kibbutz Movement Archives

Division 2 - Committees: security, social, foreign, integration, immigration, youth, culture, communications Division 4 - UKM committees Division 5 - UKM councils Division Al - correspondence of the UKM secretariat Galilee division Nahum Shadmi personal archives Palmah HQ archives

Hashomer Hatza'ir and Hakibbutz Ha'artzi archives at Giv'at Haviva

Department files: social, youth, security, statistics, culture and social, integration Elections files - Mapam HH correspondence Higher Management files Immigration and Integration files - Mapam Bibliography 325

Minutes of 31st council meeting of Mapam Minutes of HH secretariat meetings Minutes of meetings HH councils Minutes of meetings of HH committees Minutes of meetings of HH executive committee Minutes of Unity with Mapam Committee

Haganah Historical Archives, Tel Aviv

Haganah in Europe files - division 36 Headquarters files - division 73 Israel Galilee files Mossad le-aliya files - division 14

National Archives

Foreign Office files - division 130 Immigration and Registration files - division 73 Knesset files - division 60 Ministry of Health files - division 57 President's files - division 105 Prime Minister's office files - division 43 Situation Committee files - division 41

Personal Archives

Mr Shlomo Shamir's archives Mr Yehuda Ben David's archives

Central Bureau of Statistics

Bureau publications and special surveys Palestine department

B. VERBAL TESTIMONIES a. Ruth Bondy - Ramat Gan, April 1989 b. Yehuda Ben David - Zahala, 4 November 1987 c. Gad Gutkind - Kibbutz Mishmar Hanegev, 11 February 1988 d. Haika Grossman - Tel Aviv, 16 November 1988 e. Yitzhak Divon (Davidson) - Neve Magen, 11 November 1987 f. Riva Hirurg - Tel Aviv, 2 July 1989 g. David Cohen - Beit Alfa, 21 July 1986 h. Andrash Mezei - Budapest, 23 August 1986 326 Survivors of the Holocaust i. Ya'akov Sad - Tel Aviv, 14 January 1988 j. Simha Rotem (Rathauser) - Jerusalem, 10 February 1987 k. Shlomo Shamir - Tel Aviv, 21 January 1988

C. DAILY NEWSPAPERS AND JOURNALS

Alim - Children and Youth Immigration publication B'mahane - IDF monthly journal Dapei Aliya - Information sheet published by Jewish Agency immigration department Ha'aretz - national daily Mibifnim - UKM publication, three or four time a year Niv Hakevutza - published by Hever Hakevutzut T'lamim - Moshav movement monthly publication Various kibbutz publications: published weekly or monthly III individual kibbutzim Yediot Hakibbutz Ha'arzi - monthly kibbutz publication Zror Mikhtavim - United Kibbutz Movement monthly publication

D. RESEARCH - BOOKS AND PAPERS

Abitbul, Algeria - M. Abitbul, 'The Jews of Algeria, Tunisia and Morocco 1940-1943' (Hebrew), Pa'amim, 28 (1946), pp. 79-107. Afek, A., 'Changes in Attitude to the Holocaust Issue in Israel' (Hebrew), Maso'a, 9, (1981), pp. 156-68. Alon, Y., The Palmah (Hebrew), Tel Aviv, 1956. Avni, S., 'Exodus from Romania, 1944-1980' (Hebrew), Meso 'a, 10 (1982), pp. 148-174; the same (continued), Meso'a, 11 (1983), pp. 192-215. Baki, R., 'Israel's Demographic Development' (Hebrew), Economics Quarterly, 2, 8 (1956), pp. 379-91. Baki, R. and B. Gil, 'Changes in Immigration and Settlement in the years 1948-1951' (Hebrew) Shivat Zion, 2-3 (1952), pp. 461-81. Bar Yosef, Y., With All Their Might (Hebrew), Tel Aviv, 1950. Barslavsky, M., The Israeli Labour Movement (Hebrew), 4, Tel Aviv (1963). Bartal, G., The General Labour Federation (Hebrew), Tel Aviv, 1986. Bauer, Y. 'Beginnings of the Presence of Holocaust Survivors in Bavaria' (Hebrew), Yad Vashem anthology, 8 (1970), pp. 117-45. Bauer, Y., The Flight (Hebrew), Tel Aviv, 1970. Bein, A., Immigration and Settlement in the State of Israel (Hebrew), Tel Aviv, 1982. Ben Nahum, D., 'Chaim Weizmann and the Holocaust' (Hebrew) anthology, 16 (1986), pp. 137-51. Ben Tov, A., 'Cyprus is also Israel' (Hebrew), Maso'a, 9 (1981), pp. 221-6. Borrie, W. D., M. Diegues Jr., J. Isaac, A. H. Newa, C. A. Price and Y. Zubrycki, The Cultural Integration of Immigrants, UNESCO, Paris, 1959. Bibliography 327

Darin, H., The Other Society (Hebrew), Merhavia, 1961. Dinnerstein, L., America and the Survivors of the Holocaust, New York, 1982. Dvorsetsky, M., The Demographic Problems of the Immigration of Holocaust Survivors' (Hebrew), Lecture Abstracts from the Second World Congress for Jewish Studies, Jerusalem, 1957, pp. 27-8. Dvorsetsky, M., The Holocaust Survivors in Israel' (Hebrew), Gesher, 1, 1956, pp.83-115. Eilon, A., The Israelis as Founders and Builders (Hebrew), Jerusalem, 1981. Eisenstadt, S., Immigrant Integration (Hebrew), Jerusalem, 1952. Frumkin, H., Immigration and Development on the Way to Statehood (Hebrew), Tel Aviv, 1971. G'vati, H., A Hundred Years of Settlement (Hebrew), 2, Tel Aviv, 1981. GaInor, Y., Beginnings of Israeli Democracy (Hebrew), Tel Aviv, 1957. Gelber, Y., A History of Volunteering (Hebrew), C: Bearers of the Flag, Jerusalem, 1983. Gelber, Y., Why Did They Disband the Palmah? (Hebrew), Jerusalem, 1986. Gelber,Y., The Nucleus of a Regular Hebrew Army (Hebrew), Jerusalem, 1986. Gil'ad, Z., (ed.) Book of the Palmah (Hebrew), B, Tel Aviv, 1957. Gil, B. Z., Settlement of New Immigrants in Israel 1948-1953, Jerusalem, 1957. Grossman, K. R., The Jewish DP Problem, its Origins, Scope and Liquidation, New York, 1951. Gutman, M., Youth Aliya, Continuation and Change (Hebrew), Tel Aviv, 1987. Gutman, Y., 'Outline of the History of the Jews of Poland Following World War Two' (Hebrew), in Diaspora, 1 (1961, pp. 43-52). Gutman, Y., 'The Jews in Poland After the War' (Hebrew), Yalkut moreshet, 33 (1982). Gutman, Y., The Jews of Warsaw, 1939-1943; Ghetto, Underground, Uprising (Hebrew), Tel Aviv, 1977, pp. 65-103. Gutman, Y. and Lilia Rothkirchen (eds.), The Holocaust of the Jews of Europe, Background, History, Significance (Hebrew), Jerusalem (1973). Hadari, Z. and Zahor, Z., Ships or State (Hebrew), Tel Aviv, 1981. Heller, Y., In a Struggle for a State: Zionist Policy in the Years 1938-1948 (Hebrew), Jerusalem, 1985. Herbert, S. E., 'Where did Israel Put its Million Jewish Immigrants?', Jewish Journal of Sociology, VIII, 1966, pp. 81-9l. Hilberg, R. The Destruction of the European Jews, New York, 1979. Horowitz, D. and Lissak, M., From Yishuv to State: Changes and Continuation in the Political Structure of Israel (Hebrew), Jerusalem, 1972. Horowitz, D. and Lissak, M., From Yishuv to State: The Jews in Palestine During the British Mandate as a Political Entity (Hebrew), Tel Aviv, 1977. Kachinsky, M., Mass Immigration During the first Years of Statehood - the Place of the Histadrut in Integration (Hebrew), Tel Aviv, 1983. Klein, H., 'Holocaust Survivors in Kibbutzim, Readaptation and Reintegra• tion', The Israel Annals of Psychiatry, 1972, pp. 78-9l. Kol, M., The Subject of Youth Aliya (Hebrew), Tel Aviv, 1961. Korchak, R., 'Meeting with Weizmann after the Holocaust' (Hebrew), Me'asef, 16, 1986, pp. 151- 5. Krammer, A., The Forgotten Friendship, Israel and the Soviet Bloc 1947-1953, London, 1974. 328 Survivors of the Holocaust

Lissak, M. and Kimmerling, B. (eds.), Army and Security (Hebrew), Jerusalem, 1985. Lorech, N., The War of Independence (Hebrew), Tel Aviv, 1958. Lufben, H., A Man Goes to his Brother (Hebrew), Tel Aviv, 1967. Murphy, H. B. M., 'The Resettlement of Jewish Refugees in Israel, with Special Reference to Those Known as Displaced Persons', Population Studies, V, 1951, pp. 153-74. Naor, M. (ed.), 'Immigrants and Transit Camps, 1948-1952' (Hebrew), Idan, 8, Jerusalem, 1957. Neshmit, S., The Struggle of the Ghetto (Hebrew), Tel Aviv, 1968. Pa'il, M., From Haganah to Defence Force (Hebrew), Tel Aviv, 1979. Peck, A., 'The Lost Heritage of the Holocaust Survivors' (Hebrew), Gesher, 106,1982, pp. 111-19. Porat, D., Leadership in a Trap (Hebrew), Tel Aviv, 1986. Proudfoot, Y M., European Refugees 1939-1952: Study in Forced Population Movement, London, 1956. Reinhold, H., Young People Building their Home (Hebrew), Tel Aviv, 1953. Segev, T., The First Israelis (Hebrew), Jerusalem, 1984. Sha'ari, D., Expulsion to Cyprus 1946-1949, Illegal Immigration, Camps and the Illegal Immigrant Society (Hebrew), Jerusalem, 1981. Sha'ari, D., 'The Holocaust Survivors, Distinguishing Features' (Hebrew), Maso'a, 7, 1979, pp. 20-45. Shalom, H., 'Youth Aliya - Children of Youth Aliya and Children of the Kibbutz' (Hebrew), Reviews, Follow-ups and Research, 14, 1982. Shapira, A., From Firing the National Council to Disbanding the Palmah (Hebrew), Tel Aviv, 1985. Shapira, A., Levy Eshkol at the Heights ofa Mission (Hebrew), Ramat Gan, 1969. Shefer, Z., The Kibbutz (Hebrew), Tel Aviv, 1960. Sikron, M., Immigration to Israel 1948-1953 (Hebrew), A, Jerusalem, 1957. Sikron, M., Immigration to Israel 1948-1953 (Hebrew), B: Statistical Addition, Jerusalem, 1957. Sikron, M., 'Mass Immigration - its Extent, Characteristics and Effect' (Hebrew), !, 8, 1987. Sivan, A., The 1948 Generation: Myth, Character and Memory (Hebrew), Tel Aviv, 1991. Slot sky, Y., History of the Haganah: From Struggle to War (Hebrew), C, part 2, Tel Aviv, 1972. Talmi, A., What and Whom, a Dictionary of the War of Independence (Hebrew) Tel Aviv, 1964. Tartakover, A., 'Problems of Cultural Immigrant Integration in Other Countries and in Israel' (Hebrew), Light on Questions of Culture and Education, B, 1950, pp. 34-47. Tovin, Y et al. (eds.), Ruzhka, Her Fight, Her Direction, Her Character (Hebrew), Tel Aviv, 1988. Weitz, Y, 'First Connections Between Soldiers of the Brigade and the Holo• caust Survivors' (Hebrew), Modern Judaism, C. 1986, pp. 227-47. Weitz, Y, 'The Holocaust Survivors in the Discussions and Considerations of the Jewish Agency Management, May 1945-November 1945' (Hebrew), Heritage, 29, 1980, pp. 53-80. Bibliography 329

Worm, S. (ed.), Giyora Josephtal- his Life and Achievements (Hebrew), Tel Aviv, 1963. Yalon, Y., 'Factories in the Cyprus Camps' (Hebrew), Maso'a, 6, 1978, pp.202-17. Yitzhaki, A., Latrun, the Battle for the Road to Jerusalem (Hebrew), Jerusalem, 1982. Zilberberg, R., Population Distribution in Israel, 1948-1972 (Hebrew), Jerusalem, 1973. Zimrin, Z., Chapters of Holocaust and Survivors (Hebrew), Tel Aviv, 1985. Zimrin, Z., The Journals of the Holocaust Survivors in Germany, as an Expres• sion of their Problems (Hebrew), Tel Aviv, 1970. Zur, Z., The United Kibbutz Movement in the Settlement of Israel, C: 1949-1960 (Hebrew), Tel Aviv, 1984.

E. COMMEMORATIVE BOOKS AND ANTHOLOGIES, ARTICLES AND LETTERS

Adan, A., Flag of Ink (Hebrew), Tel Aviv, 1984 Avneri, A. In the Fields of Palestine (Hebrew), Tel Aviv, 1950. Bader, M., Sad Missions (Hebrew), Tel Aviv, 1978. Ben-David, Y., A Sword in Foreign Lands, The Adventures of Haganah in Europe 1045-1948 (Hebrew), Tel Aviv, 1978. Ben-Gurion, D., The State of Israel Renewed (Hebrew), A, Tel Aviv, 1975. Ben-Gurion, D., War Journals, A-C, Rivlin, G. and Oren, A. (eds.) (Hebrew), Tel Aviv, 1982. Bondy, R. Suddenly in the Heart of the East (Hebrew), Tel Aviv, 1975. Braginsky, Y., A Nation Rowing to Shore (Hebrew), Tel Aviv, 1965. Eichenwald, Y., On Roads and Boundaries (Hebrew), Tel Aviv, 1989. Eilon, M. (ed.), The Givati Division in the War of Independence (Hebrew), Tel Aviv, 1959. Eilon, Y., My Father's Home (Hebrew), Tel Aviv, 1975. Eshkol, L., Covenant of the Land (Hebrew), Tel Aviv, 1969. Ezioni, B. (ed.), Golani Battles (Hebrew), Tel Aviv, 1952. Korchak, R., Flames in the Ashes (Hebrew) Merhavia, 1946. Lidovsky, A., And the Flames Never Faded (Hebrew), Tel Aviv, 1986. Meged, A., The Children's Journey to the Holy Land, the Story of the Selvino Children (Hebrew), Tel Aviv, 1984 Melz, D. (ed.), The Individual in the Settlement (Hebrew). At a congress on social issues in the working settlements, Mapai seminar in Ein Harod, Jerusalem, 1947. Mission to the Diaspora (Hebrew), Tel Aviv, 1989. Raphael, Y., I Achieved No Light ... (Hebrew), Jerusalem, 1981. Rotem, S., And Within Me, My Past (Hebrew), Tel Aviv, 1984. Tubin, Y., The Bunker at Mila 18 (Hebrew), Tel Aviv, 1987. Weissberg, Y., Gateway to Immigration, Journals of Mass Immigration 1945- 1947 (Hebrew), Jerusalem, 1986. 330 Survivors of the Holocaust

Weitz, Y., Diaries and Letters to My Son, C: Guardians of the Walls 1945 -1948; D: National Settlement 1945-1956 (Hebrew), Tel Aviv, 1965. Wirzberg, B., Killing in Sha'ar Hagai (Hebrew), Ramat Gan, 1967. Yona, A., Without Trace (Hebrew), Tel Aviv, 1965. Zuckerman, Y., Exodus from Poland (Hebrew), Tel Aviv, 1988.

F. CERTIFICATES, SUMMARIES, STUDY DAYS, YEARBOOKS AND MOVEMENT PUBLICATIONS

Report to the Zionist Congress (Hebrew), Jerusalem 1951. Histadrut Constitution (Hebrew), Tel Aviv, 1952. Zisling, N. 'On the Image of the Holocaust Survivors' (Hebrew), at a study day in Kibbutz Lohamei Hageta'ot, 22 February 1984. Study days at Yad Tebenkin on 'The Deportation Camps in Cyprus' (Hebrew) at Efal, 1987. The War of Independence, Study Day at the Information Centre, Jerusalem 1972. The Histadrut in Haifa in the Years 1945-1953, Haifa 11953. Special publications from the Central Bureau of Statistics (in Hebrew), Jerusalem: a. Special publications, no. 53 - population census, 8.11.1948 b. Special publications, no. 416 - immigration to Israel, 1948-1972 c. Special publications, no. 56 - review of manpower, June 1954. Index

abandoned children 204 Bendarvsky, Batia 244 abandoned towns 20-8 Berlin children 204 abandoned villages 18, 28-32 Bet Lid reception base 117 Acre 18, 20, 21, 22, 25 Bevin, Ernest 3 Adan, Avraham 130 birth rate 10 African/Asian Jewish immigrants 13, Blumovitz, A vraham 270 19 Bondy, Ruth 60, 77, 291n Agami, Moshe 98 Boneh, SoleI 252 agricultural instructors 31, 34, 37-8 Book of the Palmah 148, 150 agricultural labour 13 Braginsky, Yehuda 239 agricultural settlements 30, 70 Brandman, Shmuel 17 agriculture 28 Bricha 55, 88, 93 Agudot Israel institutions 200 Brit Shalom 32 alienation 77 British Mandate in Palestine 5, 233 Aliyat Hanoar 155, 160; see also under Bromat, Michael 245 Youth Aliya Buber, Martin 32 Alon, Yigael 120, 146 business licences 25-6 Amir, Israel 92,97, 98 Busse1, Hiyuta 244 Arab/Jewish mixed populations 19-20 see under Majdal Central Committee of the Holocaust Austria 3,4 Survivors (Zentral Komitat) 86, Avigur, Shaul 47, 87, 88, 90, 91, 92, 100, 270, 271 94, 116 ceasefire agreement 118-19 Avneri, Uri 135, 145 child immigrants 167-8, 199-207 Avriel, Ehud 88, 91 problems of 213ff see also education; Youth Aliya Children and Youth Immigration Bader, Manahem 43 Committee 167 Barpa1, Aliya 95 Cohen, David 102 Barpal, Yosef 95 Cohen, Idov 264 Bartov, Hanoch 53 combat units 131 Be'erotaim 41-2 Committee for Arrangements for Ben Ari, Dov 90 People from the Diaspora 262 Ben David, Yehuda 85, 99 Committee for the Partisans 242 Ben Natan, Asher 90 conscription Ben-Asher, Haim 128 exemptions from 119; see also Ben-Dor, Yehuda 97 only sons exemption Ben-Gurion, David 18,21,29,55,75, preferential treatment 118 81, 88, 91, 92, 94-5, 97, 103, 106, Constructive Fund 253 118, 119, 120, 128, 139, 148, 270, cooperatives 255-6 271, 272 funding for 252-3 Ben-Zvi, Yitzhak 21 cultural activities 259-65

331 332 Index cultural impoverishment 27, 65 Eshkol, Levy 29-30, 33, 42, 239, cultural integration 143 284n, 285n cultural pluralism 264 evictions, forcible 23 culture 259ff Exodus from Europe 125, 144 Custodian of Abandoned 'Exodus from Europe' 5 Property 33 Custodian of Confiscated Fischman, Ada 247,248, 250, 265 Property 24 Flames in the Ashes 47 Cyprus 3, 106, 107-11, 265 'from rank to the nation' 239 detention camps 108 Frumka 260 recruitment in 104 Frumkin, Heshel 252, 254, 261 Czechoslovakian Brigade 104 fundraising 97, 100

Davidson, Itzhak 114 Gahal 82, 116 Dayan, Dvora 27, 40, 263 GahallMahal distinction 123 Defence Brigades (Cyprus) 105, 106 impressions of 150 recruitment to the Palmah 137 Gahalniks 130ff Defence Lines 104, 105, 106 Galili, Israel 84, 92, 96, 97, 98, 102, Dekel, Ephraim 87 120, 122, 139, 149 demoralization 28, 147 Gelber, Yoav 53, 55, 83 deportation camps 3, 5 General Labour Federation see deserted towns 248 Histadrut Diaspora 3 Gerber, Yoav 53 culture of 218 Germany 3, 4, 51 prejudice against 46, 146 ghetto fighters 58 Diaspora Centre 51, 52, 288n ghetto uprisings 144 Dinburg, Ben-Zion 28, 75, 76, 145, Gil, Binyamin 19 269 Giv'at Ha'aliya 23 Dir Yassin 32 Greenbaum, Isaac (Yitzhak) 48, 77, discontentment 216 206,207 discrimination 185ff Greenbaum, Yehusha 281n displaced persons camps 3, 4, 45, Greenberg, Benio 224, 226 64-8, 100, 107; see also Marseilles Greenberg, Zalman 270 draft-dodgers 124 Greengauz, Shmuel 292n Dreksler, Yehuda 105, 108-9 Greenshpan, Haim and Pnina 243 Dubkin, Eliyahu 21, 48, 53, 58, 66, Grinbaum, Isaac 288n.11 87, 100, 145 Guri, Haim 135 Dvorsetsky, Mark 15,60,61,67,244 Gutkind, Gad 147 education 27,40, 191, 201, 208ff Hachalutz Hame'uhad 52 education attainment levels 12, 225 Haganah 5, 83, 85 Eichmann, Adolf 9 activity in Europe 102 Ein Kerem 35, 36 conference, Prague 87, 100 EI Kubab 36 Haifa 18, 19, 20, 249 emissaries to Europe 55ff Haklai, Ze'ev 265 reports 63ff Halprin, Yehiel 75 employment and Histadrut 250ff Hanna Senesh 144 equality 185ff Hano'ar Ha-Oved 235 Eretz Israel 3, 85 Haoved Hazioni 167 Index 333

Hap'oel Hamizrahi 167, 199, 235 professional profiles 12, 13 Harrison Report 4 unemployment rates 13-14 Hashomer Hatza'ir kibbutzim 193, youth 184 196,266 Horowitz, Zvika 147, 148 Hazan, Ya'akov 31, 155, 180 housing 18 Hebraization 143 allocation 22, 24 Hebrew/Hebrew classes 27, 76, 128, and Histadrut 249ff 264 on kibbutzim 163 Herman, Zvi 238, 239 shortage 163 Heroes of Israel awards 151 Housing Committee for Histadrut heroism myth 59, 144-6 Veterans 242 Herzfeld, Avraham 168 human dust 9ff, 32, 77, 147 Hever Hakvutzot 167, 170 Hirschfeld, A vraham 72 Ichenwald, Israel 53 Histadrut 3, 233ff Idelson, Beba 21 and agricultural settlement 247-9 IDF (Israel Defence Force) 82, 101, Council 237 130ff and employment 250-8 activity in Europe 102 health services 235 cultural services 133 and housing 249-50 recruit, integration of 97 and integration 237-8, 242, 259 recruitment 98, 115-16 partisans 241 compulsory 86, 116 sick fund 234 in Cyprus 105 and training programmes 252 in Europe see Shadmi youth integration 203 illegal immigrants 5, 58, 92, 96 Histadrut/lewish Agency in Cyprus 107 relations 240 Immigrant Societies Proposal 169-70 Hoffman-Yahil, Chaim 5,56,57, immigrants 86, 87, 99, 100 children 191 Holocaust 3 gender imbalance 10 attitudes to 144-6 hostels 18, 115 IDF's attitude to 139ff married 10 studies 9 settlement of 21 Holocaust and Heroism Memorial youth 183-4 Day 145 Imigrants Commission 122 Holocaust survivors immigration ages of 10 attitudes towards 73-4 as fighters 146 illegal see illegal immigration attitudes to 32-3, 45 rate of 9 average age 10 unrestricted 59 birth rate 11 Immigration Department 26 emissaries' descriptions of 64 individual care/integration 242-3 gender ratio 11 induction training 129 literacy of 12 Information Department 113 marital status 10 Information Services 110 marriage rates 10 integration orphans 199 collapse of policy 160-3 percentage of immigrants 9 failure of 135 prejudice against 46 in kibbutzim 157-9 334 Index

Integration - continued integration of children 201 into IDF 123ff liaison committees 164-5 individual 242-3 life on 175ff policy, collapse of 160-3 living conditions 194-6 93 manpower shortages 163 Israel, images of 68ff military rivalry for recruits 120-1 Italy 3,4 moshavim rivalry 166ff non-involvement of immigrants 182 Jaffa 18, 20, 21, 22-3 and partisans 196, 198 Jerusalem 18, 19, 35 preferences for immigrant Jerusalem Regional Engineering recruitment 172 Department 35 recruitment to 106 Jewish Agency 5 reserve manpower 165-6 emissaries to Cyprus 108 training programmes 159 and Histadrut 239, 240 youth 183ff immigration department 21 Kibbutz Ha'arzi 158 Jewish Aid Mission 52 Kibbutz Lohamei Hageta'ot 187, 188 Jewish Brigade 5, 46, 49-55 kibbutz movement 155 Jewish Fighters Organization Kibbutz Yagyur 175, 187, 191, 260 (Warsaw) 243 kidnapping 137 House 114 Kloisner, Israel 260 Jewish values 265 Kol, Moshe 135, 155, 168, 205, 207 Jews of the Diaspora 46 Korchak, Ruz'ka 47-9, 244, Joint Distribution Committee 57, 287n.lO 67, 110, 213, 216 Koren Yitzchak 24, 31, 237, 249, Josephthal, Giyora 21, 33, 75, 241, 286n 248, 250, 274 Korniansky, Yoseph 158 Kovner, Abba 48,51,58,267-8,269 Kaminsky, Ya'akov 105 Kutai, Yosef 195 Kaplan, Eliezer 48, 118, 163 Kaplan, Elisheva 256 Labour Councils 247 Kaplan, Sarah 244 labour exchanges 239, 251, 254 Katzenelson, Y osef 257 and partisans 244 Katztetniks 43ff Labour Movement 3, 245 Kedma 260 Landauer, Dr 168, 200, 272 Kfar Azar 18 language kibbutz/im and integration 76 aid to 162 problems of 135, 148, 263 allocation of immigrants 170-2 Laser, Haim 81 complaints 188-9 Latrun, battIe for 146-7 drop-outs 193ff Laufer, BerI 244, 245 emissaries 169 Leibowitz, Yeshayahu 236,263,265 expectations of immigrants 178ff Levinson, Avraham 28, 259, 262 finances 162 Levit, Israel 123 groups 119-20 Levkovitz, Ze'ev 244 housing shortages 157, 163 Levy, Yehushua 86,97 immigrant cells 159 Lidovsky, Avraham 47 immigrant preferences 171, 172-4 Lidovsky, Eliezer 51 integration 157, 161, 186 literacy 12 Index 335

Liviteh, Lev 166 only sons exemption 139-42 Lohamei Hageta'ot 187 Ori, Ya'akov 169 Lubetkin, Tzvia 58, 187, 244 orphans 199 Lufban, Hezi 20, 21 overcompensation of Holocaust Luz, Kadish 142 survivors 190 Lydda 18, 20, 22, 24, 25 overseas recruitment 82, 98

M ahal 12, 82, 117 Pail, Meir 84 Majdal 22, 24, 25, 26, 27 Palestine, partition of 3, 59, 99 Mapai 21, 28, 102, 233, 239 Palmah 84, 105, 109, 136ff Mapam 27,102, 110 recruitment to 116 Marseilles 97, 110, lll, 112 Palmah youth 105 mass immigration 160 'Pans', the 107, 108 medical services 117-18, 257 partisan platoon 114 Meinert, Ze'ev 180 partisans 43ff, 196, 243-4 Meir, Golda 71 patriotism 70 Meir, Shmuel 37 Pinson, Kopel 57 Meir, Yosef and Miriam 66 pioneering education 193 migration 14-17 Poland, anti-Semitism in 4 military draft 118 preferential treatment 244-5 military governorships 22 propaganda campaigns 30-1 military training 84, 106 Pua, Hanna 190 lack of 148-9 Minkovsky, Benyamin 101, l70, 180 Rabin, Yitzhak 149 Mishari, Zalman 37 Rabinowitz, Yoske 58 mixed-marriage children 204 Ram, Simcha 35 moshav movement 28, 30,40-1 Ramleh 18, 20, 22, 24, 235 moshavim, mixed-population 39,40 Raptur, Berl 135, 263, 264 Mossad 55, 83, 93, 94 Rathauser, Simha 114, 141, 243 Mossad for Aliya 88, 94, 104 Razi, Eliyahu 255 Mossinson, Igal 147 18 Reinhold, Hanoch 142, 184, 207, 52 208, 224, 225 Natan, Ben 91 Reshef, David 103 National Committee 271 Resnik, Nissan 51 National Recruitment Centre 100 resourcefulness 38-9 national security 29 revenge redemption 143 Nazism, Jewish resistance to 4 Rodner, David l79 Negev 70-1 Rosenberg, Haim 68, 177, 183, 189 Neustadt, Melech 244 Rosenzweig, Levy 186 Neve Oved 250 Rotenstreich, Natan 225, 226 New Jew 46 Rubin, Hans 27 No'ar Ha-oved 234 Rubinstein, Eli 136 occupation 208ff Sabras 130ff Office for the Immigration of Sack, Professor 243 Children and Young Sad, Ya'akov 147 People 202 Sadeh, Yitzhak 48 On the Plains of the Negev 147, 151 Sapir, Yoseph 130 336 Index

Second Aliya Institute 47 Trachtenberg, Shaike 104 Second World War 3-4 Trager, David 270 Sedovsky, ~enahem 245 transit camps 18 semi-orphans 204 Tzadok, ~oshe 115, 118, 124, 137 Sentor, David 32, 206 settlement 19ff, 28-9 unemployment 13,26-7,254-5 seventh Agricultural Congress 26, United Kibbutz ~ovement 96, 122, 71, 253, 255 155, 259 Seventh Battalion 147 liaison committee 164-5 Sha'ar Ha'aliya camp 18 United Nations 3; see also Palestine, Shabtai Levinsky 105 partition of Shadmi (Kramer), Nahum 5, 83, UNRRA 52,67,213,216 85-95, 109 Shaham, Natan 148, 151 Varfe!, Yitzhak 276 Shamir, Shlomo 147, 149 Verbin, Governor 25 Shapira, ~oshe 19, 21, 24, 118, 206, Vilna 47, 287n 253 Vilnai, Ze'ev 244 Shapira, Yitzhak 253 Vilner, Arieh 243 She'erit Haplita 1 Shenhavi, ~ordechai 48 War of Independence 2, 59, 81ff Sherf, Ze'ev 272 Warsaw ghetto uprising 54, 59 Shertok, ~oshe 53 water supply 37 Shind, Ze'ev 92, 95 Weiss, Yosef 81 Shlush, 123 Weitz, Ra'anan 29 Shprinzak, Y osef 238 Weitz, Yosef 71, 284n, 285n Shteinberger, Shlomo 128 Weizmann, Chaim 48 sick and handicapped 173, 202, 251 Weizmann, Vera 48 Simon, Ernst 32 Welfare Divisions 56 Sneh, ~oshe 87 welfare services 125 social integration 75-8, 134-5, Wetthoiser, Simha 60 179-80 women recruits 121 Socialist Zionists 46 Working ~others' Union 247,254, socialization 208ff 256 spiritual integration 75 Working Women's ~ovement 27 squatting 22 stock -taking 179-82 Yavnieli, Shmuel 264 Surkis, ~ordechai 237, 240 see migration survivors' battalion 288n Yiddish 65, 76, 135, 264 Yishai, Aharon 51 Tarshish, A vraham 240 Yishuv 3,81 Teachers' Union 264 sense of guilt in 69 Tebenkin, Yosef 110, 186, 193, 194 Yizraeli, Yosef 127, 140 Teheran children 45, 269 youth Tel Aviv 21, 249 attitude to work 211 Tel Litvinsky 117 drop-outs 229 Temkin, Eliyahu 117, 120, 124 emotional stability of 215 Tenenbaum, Binyamin 44 gender imbalance 222 Tervizio 51 groups 223 Tiberius 19 integration of 200, 202 Index 337

materialism of 216 Zefat 18, 19, 20 and routine 216-17 Zentral Komitat 86, 270, 271 Youth Aliya 15, 45, 199[[ Zilberberg, A vraham 34, 68, 77, education principles 208 256 education programmes 12 Zimand, David 251 education syllabus 209-10 Zionism 3-4, 46, 54, 68, 126 and kibbutzim 199 Zionist Congress 271 youth counsellors 227-8 Zionist Federation 124 Zionist Movement 3 Zeblodovsky, Israel 83 Zuckerman Yitzhak (Antek) 50, 58, Ze'ev, Shind 92, 95 61, 97, 187, 267, 275