Space As Sociocultural Construct: Reinterpreting the Traditional Residences in Jinqu Basin, China from the Perspective of Space Syntax

sustainability

Article Space as Sociocultural Construct: Reinterpreting the Traditional Residences in Jinqu Basin, China from the Perspective of Space Syntax

Yu Chen 1,2,†, Keyou Xu 1,†, Pei Liu 1, Ruyu Jiang 1, Jingyi Qiu 1, Kangle Ding 3,* and Hiroatsu Fukuda 2,*

1 College of Landscape and Architecture, Zhejiang A&F University, Hangzhou 311300, China; [email protected] (Y.C.); [email protected] (K.X.); [email protected] (P.L.); [email protected] (R.J.); [email protected] (J.Q.) 2 Faculty of Environmental Engineering, The University of Kitakyushu, Kitakyushu 808-0135, Japan 3 School of Civil Engineering and Architecture, Zhejiang University of Science and Technology, Hangzhou 310023, China * Correspondence: [email protected] (K.D.); [email protected] (H.F.) † These authors contributed equally to the study.

Abstract: The traditional residence with protogenetic spatial arrangement is regarded as a critical carrier of social logic of space, which makes it an ideal object for studying the relationship between the spatial form and social context. To this end, a comparative analysis is conducted using Depthmap Software. This study is based on space syntax theory between two groups of proxies of sharp differences in spatial organization in one geomorphic unit where the natural factors show little

variations, while the human factors present a bifurcating distribution. Furthermore, the study clariﬁes the differences among genotypes of the domestic space system. Finally, combined with

Citation: Chen, Y.; Xu, K.; Liu, P.; historical material, it proves the dual division of regional sociocultural factors as decisive forces Jiang, R.; Qiu, J.; Ding, K.; Fukuda, H. shaping the traditional living space and its constructed manifestations. Space as Sociocultural Construct: Reinterpreting the Traditional Keywords: traditional residence; spatial form; space syntax; genotype; sociocultural factor Residences in Jinqu Basin, China from the Perspective of Space Syntax. Sustainability 2021, 13, 9004. https://doi.org/10.3390/su13169004 1. Introduction To embrace industrialization and modernization, China has been undergoing a thor- Academic Editor: Guy M Robinson ough reform in rural construction for over a century. Since the regime stabilized in 1949, rural construction framework and methods have gradually narrowed down from gover- Received: 28 May 2021 Accepted: 6 August 2021 nance mechanisms and economy transformations to the remolding of living environment. Published: 12 August 2021 This process can be divided into four stages as presented in Table1: Collectivization period (1949–1978); Household Contract System period (1978–2005); New Rural Con-

Publisher’s Note: MDPI stays neutral struction period (2005–2013), and the period under the background of new urbanization with regard to jurisdictional claims in (from 2013 to now) [1] (p. 123). Figure1 shows 7 typical ground ﬂoor plans of residences published maps and institutional afﬁl- across different periods surveyed in Luzhangwan village in the north of Zhejiang Province iations. with the most developed rural areas in China. A comparison between this series of plans shows an apparent continuity in spatial pattern, which is centered by an ambiguous space or courtyards (the dotted parts) and sustained regardless of building materials, structure and appearance. However, an abrupt mutation occurred in the latest proxy built in 2013 in a relocated collective settlement—the inner courtyard disappeared, which changed Copyright: © 2021 by the authors. Licensee MDPI, Basel, Switzerland. the orientation and sequence of the other spaces. This is not an individual case. In the This article is an open access article fourth period, local governments almost assumed control of the execution of rural con- distributed under the terms and struction behaviors, supported by external design forces selected through bidding. Thus conditions of the Creative Commons far, the users have completely lost control of their living spaces, with homes degenerating Attribution (CC BY) license (https:// to houses that scarcely echo habitants’ patterns of movement, which arise from people creativecommons.org/licenses/by/ ordinarily conducting their routine activities. 4.0/).

Sustainability 2021, 13, 9004. https://doi.org/10.3390/su13169004 https://www.mdpi.com/journal/sustainability Sustainability 2021, 13, x FOR PEER REVIEW 2 of 20

houses that scarcely echo habitants’ patterns of movement, which arise from people ordinarily conducting their routine activities. Nevertheless, as early as 2003—the transition from the third to the fourth period— the CPC Central Committee formally presented and enforced sustainable development strategy in rural construction. However, to date, cultural and social welfare, which has Sustainability 2021, 13, 9004 been repeatedly acknowledged as one of the three fundamental dimensions of sustainable2 of 20 housing, was subjected to technicians’ personal work ethics. Contrarily, requirements of ecological and economic sustainability have been standardized by an entire set of national and local standards issued in the ensuing decade. Table 1. The four stages of rural construction after 1949 and their characteristics [1] (p. 200).

StageTable 1. The Subject four stages of rural construction after Object 1949 and their characteristics Changes [1] (p. in 200). Living Environment Stage Subject Object Changesthe inﬂuence in living is little, environment basically lies 1949–1978 Commune cadres Commune the influence is little,in basically ideology lies in ideol- 1949–1978 Commune cadres Commune The villageogy expanded, the rural Peasant household; Village 1978–2005Peasant household; Vil- Individual dwelling; Infrastructure The villagespatial expanded, mechanism the and rural overall spatial style collective organization 1978–2005 lage collective organi- Individual dwelling; Infrastructure mechanismhave been and changedoverall style to certain have been extent zation Relocated collective settlement; Originalchanged village to certain disappeared, extent new Peasant household; 2005–2013 Relocated collectiveMunicipal settlement; public Municipal service facility; pub- Originalsettlement village adopteddisappeared, and copiednew settle- urban Peasant household;Local Government Lo- 2005–2013 lic service facility;Renovation Renovation of dilapidated of dilapidated buildings ment adoptedstyle, developmentand copied urban unbalanced style, de- cal Government Relocatedbuildings collective settlement; Originalvelopment village unbalanced disappeared, rural 2013– Local GovernmentRelocated collectiveMunicipal settlement; public Municipal service facility; pub- Originalaesthetics village disappeared, is reviving, ruralrural valueaesthet- is 2013– Local Government lic service facility;Village Village landscape; landscape; Commercial Commer- projectics is reviving,being recognized rural value and is being reevaluated recog- cial project nized and reevaluated

(a) (b) (c) (d) (e) (f) (g)

FigureFigure 1. 1. TypicalTypical ground ground floor floor plans plans of of residences residences in in diffe differentrent periods periods surveyed surveyed in in Luzhangwan Luzhangwan village. village. (a (a) )is is the the ground ground floorfloor plan plan of of a ahouse house built built before before 1949; 1949; (b (b) )is is the the ground ground floor floor plan plan of of a ahouse house built built in in the the 1970s; 1970s; (c (,cd,d) )are are the the ground ground floor floor plansplans of of two two houses houses built built in in the the 1980s; 1980s; (e (e,f,)f )are are the the ground ground floor floor plans plans of of two two houses houses built built in in the the 2000s; 2000s; (g (g) )is is the the ground ground floor plan of a house built in 2013. floor plan of a house built in 2013.

IfNevertheless, the administration as early and as technicians 2003—the transitionare not to from blame, the the third problem to the fourthmay lie period— in the issuethe CPCitself. Central Indeed, Committee the social logic formally of space presented is poorly and under enforcedstood, sustainable despite being development pervasive instrategy everyday in ruralexperiences construction. [2]. An However,empirical tosummary date, cultural about andsurface social properties welfare, and which styles has cannotbeen repeatedly be expected acknowledged to succeed as as a onesocial of disc the threeourse fundamental without a rational dimensions analysis of sustainablebecause a summaryhousing, does was subjectednot concern to technicians’the fundamental personal sociology work ethics.of buildings. Contrarily, This requirementstheoretical gap of hasecological obsessed and scholars economic in different sustainability fields for have ov beener 30 standardizedyears, and several by an breakthroughs entire set of national have and local standards issued in the ensuing decade. If the administration and technicians are not to blame, the problem may lie in the issue itself. Indeed, the social logic of space is poorly understood, despite being pervasive in everyday experiences [2]. An empirical summary about surface properties and styles cannot be expected to succeed as a social discourse without a rational analysis because a summary does not concern the fundamental sociology of buildings. This theoretical gap has obsessed scholars in different ﬁelds for over 30 years, and several breakthroughs have been made. This study aims to supplement the academic culmination by researching the lawfulness of spaces created for human social purposes through examples in east China. Sustainability 2021, 13, 9004 3 of 20

The motivation for this paper was generated from an optimistic view: we believe rural areas in China will retain the vernacular characteristics of local society, at least in the coming decades, as the rural registered residence population in this country is more than 800 million, accounting for 55% of the total population, according to the latest census. Different from urban residents, rural residents are entitled to establish their homes in the allotted homestead based on the household unit, implying that regardless of the way they earn their living, their identities, social welfare, offspring’s education and so on, are tied up with their native land. Therefore, the sociocultural pattern, including values, beliefs, conventions and shared interests of lineage society, will preserve and exert its inﬂuence on spatial behaviors. By uncovering the closeness, delicacy and complexity in the relationship between traditional residential space and social circumstances, this study aims to lay the ground- work for developing an externalization methodology for transforming tacit knowledge into explicit design knowledge that aids the designers and planners in the production of sociocultural supportive environments. Placing the study within the sustainability discourse, the overarching approach to sustainability within the architectural discipline should be viewed within the parame- ters of a complex system and should be more inclusive of non-technological viewpoints. Sustainability is a cultural and social issue requiring approaches from both science and society [3]. In the 2030 Agenda’s 17 Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs) proposed by United Nations and adopted by all member States in 2015, SDG11 was speciﬁcally established for inclusive, safe, resilient and sustainable cities and human settlements and its targets emphasizes the cultural heritage safeguard and positive social links between urban, peri-urban and rural areas [4]. Thus, the premise of the study is coherent with the core elements of Sustainable Development.

2. Literature Review In the 1920s, Liang and Liu—who are the earliest overseas students with architectural backgrounds—initiated the research of Chinese traditional architecture based on Western theories. Through 10 years’ arduous field survey and mapping, the publication of A History of Chinese Architecture in 1937 [5] marked the successful embedment of Chinese elements into the international academic framework. For attaining systematic soundness—as an indispensable part of the architecture—large-scale field investigations and mapping work have been conducted, comprehensively covering various residential buildings throughout the country. However, in the 1980s, research on traditional residence was dominated by the pro- cessual paradigm with archaeological surveying, which was challenged by international “cultural turn” trend. Even though archaeology concerns itself with the excavation and interpretation of diverse domestic structures, the interpretation has been confined to descriptions with little explanations [6] (p. 2). The concerns were universal, and the most far-reaching publication can be traced back to House Form and Culture written by Rapoport in 1969, detailing the examination of social and cultural meanings of domestic use of space as revealed through local architecture. Afterwards, several books shared the fundamental principle that culture is an essential factor in understanding the local built environment, which addressed various themes concerning vernacular architecture worldwide (e.g., Bourdier and Alsayyad 1989; Duncan 1982; Glassie 1975; Oliver 1969, 1987; Seainon and Mugerauer 1985; Turan 1990). In the realm about China, Yu proposed that residential architecture is a prototype of the composition and image expression of various buildings, and he held the view that all kinds of local buildings shared an obvious isomorphism—a hall is the entity of the cultural core image, and a courtyard is the virtual body of space core [7]. Xie stated that despite the changes caused by advancements in economy, technology and materials, the internal layout and etiquette taboos continue to be potentially inherited, and the deep psychological mechanism shared by the villagers shows the strong conservatism and stability in China [8]. In 1991, Prof. Knapp published the Chinese house: craft, symbol Sustainability 2021, 13, 9004 4 of 20

and the folk tradition, in which he elaborates the philosophy behind the location, structure, and surface decoration of Chinese dwellings and further discussed the belief and norms shaping the architectural space and the relationship between each part [9]. The importance of interpreting the architecture, especially the vernacular residences, in a sociocultural contextual framework was reinforced by the global demand for Sustainable Development proposed in the 1980s. The overlapping of the core values of sustainability and “culture turn” movement agreed on human habitation embedded in a system of interlocked spaces (physical, temporal, social and conceptual) [10]. In the last two decades, supported by the theoretical progress of sustainable development and computational analysis methodology, extensive research works exploring the potential interface between traditional vernacular and contemporary construction processes have been carried out in the area, faced with a rapid renewal of the built environment due to climatic, economic or political reasons. Kellett argued that contemporary construction can be regarded as a continuation of existing vernacular traditions by analytical frameworks, which address the broad spectrum of non-professionally produced environments and their relevance, demonstrated using data from a longitudinal ethnographic study of informal settlements in Latin America [11]. Elwerfalli revealed how the courtyard housing typology has been adapted and modified to address the current housing market and occupants’ lifestyles by analyzing the three new projects in Libya. The findings of the study demonstrated how vernacular logics of design are being appropriated to strengthen the cultural aspects of sustainable housing designs [12]. By exploring the traditional architecture and their cultural meanings in Najdi—the central region of Saudi Arabia—Alnaim argues that the core concepts and forms are not necessarily meant to describe or specify a form appearance, as the form can be a manifestation developed over time from different related components and constraints within the built form [13]. Miller investigated the dialectic relationship between Marshallese culture and the built-environment and uncovered the continuity of deep cultural patterns (DCP) in the production of the Marshallese built-environment. In addition, this study expanded DCPs by representing indigenous knowledge and should be applied to design frameworks for climate-forced displacement and resettlement to produce culturally supportive built-environments demonstrating resilience [3]. Zhao situated the scholarship between place, home and tradition and offered an understanding of the stability of tradition in the physical, psychological and social construction of home in rural China, in addition to providing guidance for the local practice of a new socialist countryside [14]. By thoroughly exploring the spatial design of villages in Jiangnan, Liu established a pedigree to support sustainable development, which integrated the dynamic (cultural changes over a certain period of time) and static (spatial features at a fixed time) of spaces with artistic features exhibited in traditional Chinese villages [15]. Notably, along with the empirical studies, another group of scholars continued to work on methodological approaches to explore spatial patterns to understand the underlying organizational principles. Steadman [16] and Hillier and Hanson [2] introduced the analyses of domestic space configuration through architectural morphology. This approach, later known as the space syntax, used spatial layout as an architectural variable to reveal social and behavioral patterns; it has since become a widely applied tool in various research disciplines and design applications. Aided by this method, Thungsakul accomplished a comprehensive analysis of spatial configuration to understand continuity and change in vernacular living spaces in the upper northeast Thailand [17]. However, with evolving theories and relevant software systems, most research continue to focus on the individual architecture examples. To summarize, many scholars and researchers have argued that there is a close connec- tion between the sociocultural context and physical form. Their approaches and interests may vary, but they are united in their beliefs in the vitality of vernacular traditions and its corresponding core forms and agree that its continuity acts as a dynamic mechanism in creating sustainable spatial and physical forms, in which people can express their iden- tity. Nevertheless, further research is needed for establishing a universally compatible Sustainability 2021, 13, 9004 5 of 20

framework to elaborate and interpret how sociocultural factors are related to the pattern of spaces or spatial conﬁguration.

3. Cases and Methods 3.1. Cases This paper focuses on the traditional dwellings in the Jinqu Basin in Zhejiang, China, to explore the influence of the regional human factors on the architectural spatial form. In this study, 31 traditional residential buildings in 19 villages scattered across the area were selected and analyzed using Depthmap. Analysis objects were limited to the ground floor due to two reasons: first, most samples are of one and a half stories high, and the upper floor is only used for storage; second, in some cases, the coffins prepared for the elderly are placed on the space above the living room, which prohibited the survey. Jinqu basin is a flat strip-like area of close latitude with similar climatic and topo- graphical characteristics [18]. However, its humanistic elements showed a significant bifurcating distribution until the 19th century—in the Song Dynasty—a crucial period in the transition of social morphology of China [19]—two major schools of Confucian- ism, represented by Chen Liang and Zhu Xi, were quite active in the east and west of the Jinqu Basin [8,20]. The confrontation between the factions led to the corresponding socio-cultural differentiation [21] (pp. 156–161). Interestingly, despite having a continuous and constant geographical structure (as shown in Figure2), the region’s traditional buildings, mainly housings, are divided into two completely different categories, according to the study on the typology of local vernacular architecture [22] (pp. 175–177, 197–199). The sociocultural and architectural structures, which was scarcely influenced by natural factors, makes the traditional architec- Sustainability 2021, 13, x FOR PEER REVIEW 6 of 20 ture in this area an ideal research subject for exploring the mapping relationship between human elements and architectural space.

FigureFigure 2.2. JinquJinqu BasinBasin area.area.

3.2. MethodsInternationally, the particularity of the case study area lies in three aspects. First, as mentioned above, the feature has one uniform geo-morphic unit but is based on the junction This study adopts the space syntax method to further analyze the issue. Founded in of two cultural spheres. This is academically important and attracts a global interest for any the 1970s, this theory is the most widely recognized and used mathematical modeling tool study in the field, as cultural diversity aims to address the challenges of homogenization of space [2] (pp. 48–49). The syntactic analysis implements a descriptive autonomy in that across the world. Moreover, the area covers the outer fringe around the downtown of spatial patterns described and analyzed elucidates the built environment as a combination Jinhua and Quzhou City, where fierce advancement of rural built environment is being of multiple spatial cells formed by a specific topological structure (Figure 3). In addition, conducted. Finally, Zhejiang Province in China, the location of the study, is the frontier the topological structure is regarded as the internal genotype of architecture, and its cor- of rural construction both on constitutional and substantial levels against the process of urbanization.responding concrete The previous architectural two points entities are ar especiallye called phenotypes meaningful [2] to developing(pp. 43–45). countriesDifferent infrom the the Asia-Pacific concept of area,biology, confronting the genotype the conflictsproposed between by space city syntax and is countryside, inverted [9] (p. urban 44); residentsphenotypes and are farmers not derived and industry from genotypes and agriculture. but from spatial-temporal realities and activities to form a discrete system generating the mechanism. From a syntactic perspective, a series of topological relations of space is called the configuration [23] (pp. 185–186).

(a) (b)

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Figure 2. Jinqu Basin area. 3.2. Methods 3.2. Methods This study adopts the space syntax method to further analyze the issue. Founded in This study adopts the space syntax method to further analyze the issue. Founded in the 1970s, this theory is the most widely recognized and used mathematical modeling tool the 1970s, this theory is the most widely recognized and used mathematical modeling tool of space [2] (pp. 48–49). The syntactic analysis implements a descriptive autonomy in that of spacespatial [2] (pp. patterns 48–49). described The syntactic and analyzed analysis elucidatesimplements the a builtdescriptive environment autonomy as a combinationin that spatialof patterns multiple described spatial cells and formedanalyzed by elucidates a speciﬁc the topological built environment structure (Figureas a combination3). In addition, of multiplethe topological spatial cells structure formed is by regarded a specific as topological the internal structure genotype (Figure of architecture, 3). In addition, and its corre- the topologicalsponding structure concrete is architectural regarded as entities the internal are called genotype phenotypes of architecture, [2] (pp. and 43–45). its cor- Different respondingfrom theconcrete concept architectural of biology, entities the genotype are called proposed phenotypes by space [2] syntax (pp. 43–45). is inverted Different[9] (p. 44); from thephenotypes concept of are biology, not derived the genotype from genotypes proposed but by fromspace spatial-temporal syntax is inverted realities [9] (p. and44); activ- phenotypesities to are form not aderived discrete from system genotypes generating but from the mechanism. spatial-temporal From realities a syntactic and perspective,activities toa form series a ofdiscrete topological system relations generating of space the mechanism. is called the From conﬁguration a syntactic [23 perspective,] (pp. 185–186). a series of topological relations of space is called the configuration [23] (pp. 185–186).

(a) (b)

(c)

Figure 3. Architectural plan and topology structure. (a) is the original architecture plan; (b) is the transformed space syntax—convex map; (c) is the space relationship diagram according to the topological relationship.

Phenotype-based typology is established at the level of visual properties or appear- ances and could be interfered with researchers’ subjective cognition, while genotype is obtained by mathematical analysis on space, which is more inherent and objective. Since the genotype reveals the deep-seated logical arrangement of architectural space, it is typically used to study the relationship and interaction between space and society [24]. A topological structure-based genotype shows a stability, as it eliminates the changes in color, decoration, embellishments or even materials, which are rather susceptible to the inhabitant’s personal interests and activity habits. Thus, the study on genotype is concerned about a group’s social morphology and structure, and the architectural genotype evolution usually accompanies regional society’s vicissitudes [25]. Exploring the relationship between the external social causative agencies and architecture’s genotypes is one of the major aims of establishing the space syntax theory. Sustainability 2021, 13, 9004 7 of 20

Based on the spatial gramma-analysis and interpretation on socio-cultural duality in this area, the study will conduct a quantitative analysis of the traditional residential buildings in Jinqu Basin to precisely and explicitly verify and explain the differences at the genotype level. The research is divided into two parts: veriﬁcation and explanation. The veriﬁcation process resorts to a mathematical model to ensure the objectivity of the results, while the explanation refers to detailed historical information to achieve a reasonable elaboration.

3.2.1. The RA Value Analysis Relative asymmetry (RA) is adopted in the veriﬁcation process. RA value is the only parameter used to describe social distance, and it is the ﬁrst and most frequently used syntactic parameter used for the genotype study of objects of a similar scale. The calculation of RA adopts the following equation:

Mean depth − 1 = RA N (1) 2 − 1 Sustainability 2021, 13, x FOR PEER REVIEW 8 of 20

The RA value was improvised by P. Steadman for standardizing the mean depth (MD) concept by eliminating the interference of structural symmetry. Thus, RA can be regarded as space in differentthe configurations quotient of MD and of articula the selectedte the point diversity and the of genotypes symmetry ofthrough the system. numer- Figure4 shows the ical results. process of obtaining the RA values using the DepthMap 10 (Windows Version 10.08.00r) software.

(a) (b)

Figure 4. DiagramFigure 4. of Diagram the RA valueof the calculated RA value by calculated DepthMap by Software. DepthMap The Software. ﬁgure shows The thefigure RA shows values the of different RA types of spaces in traditionalvalues of different residences. types (a) of is thespaces RA in value traditional of courtyard residences. space of(a) a is proxy the RA around value Quzhou; of courtyard (b) is space the RA value of a of a proxy around Quzhou; (b) is the RA value of a bedroom space of a proxy around Quzhou; (c) bedroom space of a proxy around Quzhou; (c) is the RA value of courtyard space of a proxy around Jinhua; (d) is the RA is the RA value of courtyard space of a proxy around Jinhua; (d) is the RA value of a bedroom space value of a bedroom space of a proxy around Jinhua. of a proxy around Jinhua.

As a quantitative analysis tool, space syntax transforms the void in a physical building into a topological structure with interconnected spatial cells or points. The number of cells that crosses the shortest route from one cell to another, including the last cell, is called depth. MD is obtained from the total depth, which is the sum of the depths from point X1 to the remaining points, divided by the total number of the cells or points excluding X1 [2] (pp. 108–112). The concept of depth was originally derived from the research results of applying graph theory. It is the most important concept in space syntax and is of great social and cultural signiﬁcance. Mean depth is computed from the following equation:

Total Depth (X ) MD(X ) = 1 (2) 1 N − 1 MD expresses the topological accessibility of a specific cell, or its degree of convenience in the entire spatial system. Accordingly, the RA value can represent the theoretical degree of the cell’s integration with other points, or the extent to which the cell is integrated into the entire complex for a certain kind of space. The larger the RA value is, less integrated with the spaces and vice versa. Space syntax assumes that architecture is a designed configuration whose peculiarities are derived from structural differences [23] (pp. 216–218). The RA value is thus used to quantify the differentiations of the same type of space in different configurations and articulate the diversity of genotypes through numerical results.

3.2.2. Visibility Graphs Analysis In space syntax theory, a convex space, a visibility graph and an axial map are three spatial segmentation methods available for human perceptual analysis. While the first two methods are mostly applied for studying indoor architectural space configuration, an axial map is more suitable for public spatial analysis on the urban or other settlement scale. Even though the convex space is a powerful approach to describe and represent spaces in a spatial layout, in practice, however, it is difficult to convert all spaces into convex spaces, especially for vernacular dwellings, which tend to adopt idiosyncratic forms to adapt to the special sites or uses [26]. Therefore, visibility graphs analysis (VGA) is a universally compactable tool that allows us to understand the configurational properties of a space. Contrary to the above numerical analysis, VGA results are obtained by a picturized representation in Depthmap. The generation process of visibility graphs also avoids the interference of researchers’ subjective perception and obtains the results through an algorithm. Based on the syntactic calculation software Depthmap, the building plan is imported and placed in a grid of a specific density, with each grid unit being the calculation object. The algorithm’s core logic is to select certain grid units, usually of strategic significance and calculate the visual connectivity of the remaining units to these units. The overlapping relationship between the visual areas is converted into the diagram shown in different shades of color, which represents the values of syntactic variables at each point. Figure5 shows the differences in VGA while the grid spacing properties settings are changed. Another difference between analyses of VGA and RA values is that the former provides a better reflection of figurative characteristics of the two-dimensional spatial form. Even though the generation of diagram is based on calculations, the results reveal a con- scious guidance and suggestion to the inhabitants and visitors by the space organization. Hence VGA is typically utilized for interpreting the relationship between social and mental process and external environment. Through these visual stimulation results, two types of spatial configurations of dwellings are compared and the corresponding imprinted conceptual differences are discovered, in addition to explaining the relationship between a space and socio-cultural information. Furthermore, based on local historical materials, the analysis enables an in-depth elaboration of the role of human factors in the evolution of architectural spatial forms. Sustainability 2021, 13, x FOR PEER REVIEW 9 of 20

visual areas is converted into the diagram shown in different shades of color, which rep- Sustainability 2021,resents13, 9004 the values of syntactic variables at each point. Figure 5 shows the differences in 9 of 20 VGA while the grid spacing properties settings are changed.

(a) (b) (c)

Figure 5. VisibilityFigure 5. graphs Visibility analysis graphs diagram. analysis From diagram. left to From right: left the to denser right: the the grid, denser the smootherthe grid, the the smoother image and the more accurate thethe results. image (a and) is thethe gridmore spacing accurate of the 400 results. units; ( b(a)) is is the the grid grid spacing spacing of of 250 400 units; units; ( c(b) is) is the the grid grid spacing spacing of 100 units. of 250 units; (c) is the grid spacing of 100 units.

Another difference4. Data Analysis between analyses of VGA and RA values is that the former provides a better reflection4.1. The RA of Valuefigurative Analysis characteristics of the two-dimensional spatial form. Even though the generationFirst, to showof diagram the genotype is based distinctions on calculations, under the the results phenotype reveal differences, a con- RA values scious guidanceof and principal suggestion rooms to on the the inhabitants ground ﬂoor, and suchvisitors as theby the courtyard, space organization. living room and bedroom Hence VGA is typically(toilet and utilized kitchen for are interpreti usuallyng located the relationship outside the between main building), social and aremen- calculated using tal process andDepthmap external environment. software. Through theseThe visual values stimulation for the 31 results, proxies aretwo given types in of Table spatial2. The configurations variation indicates of the degree dwellings are comparedto which aand particular the corresponding space is integrated imprinted into conceptual or segregated differences from the are spatial dis- pattern of the covered, in additionentire to complex; explaining the the higher relati theonship RA value,between the a lower space theand integration socio-cultural with in- the system [27]. formation. Furthermore,Second, as shownbased on in Figurelocal histor6, the straight-lineical materials, distances the analysis from eachenables sample an toin- the two reginal depth elaborationadministrative of the role andof human cultural factor centerss in (Jinhua the evolution and Quzhou) of architectural of the same spatial time (from the 1720s forms. to 1949, covering the middle Qing Dynasty to the foundation of Peoples’ Republic of China) are measured to imply the degree of cultural inﬂuence imposed on buildings (Table3). The 4. Data Analysiscalculation is based on the assumption that there is a positive correlation between cultural 4.1. The RA Valuediffusion Analysis and the geographic distance. First, to show the genotype distinctions under the phenotype differences, RA values Table 2. The RA value of different spaces in traditional dwellings. of principal rooms on the ground floor, such as the courtyard, living room and bedroom Number(toilet and kitchen are Courtyardusually located RA outside the main Bedroom building), RA are calculated Living using Room RA QuDepthmap 1-1 software. 0.194444 0.416667 0.194444 Qu 1-2The values for the 31 0.181818proxies are given in Table 2. The 0.454545 variation indicates the degree 0.287879 Quto 2-1 which a particular space 0.222222 is integrated into or segregated 0.355556 from the spatial pattern of 0.200000 the Quentire 2-2 complex; the higher 0.127273 the RA value, the lower the 0.381818integration with the system [27]. 0.309091 QuSecond, 2-3 as shown in Figure 0.177778 6, the straight-line distances 0.377778 from each sample to the two 0.266667 re- Qu 3-1 0.200000 0.600000 0.266667 ginal administrative and cultural centers (Jinhua and Quzhou) of the same time (from the Qu 3-2 0.168421 0.305263 0.305263 Qu1720s 3-3 to 1949, covering the 0.168831 middle Qing Dynasty to the 0.372294 foundation of Peoples’ Republic 0.281385 Quof 4-1 China) are measured to 0.222222 imply the degree of cultural 0.266667 influence imposed on buildings 0.066667 Qu(Table 4-2 3). The calculation 0.181818is based on the assumption that 0.424242 there is a positive correlation 0.242424 Qubetween 5-1 cultural diffusion 0.205128 and the geographic distance. 0.384615 0.230769 Qu 6-1 0.155556 0.355556 0.244444 QuTable 7-1 2. The RA value of different 0.152381 spaces in traditional dwellings. 0.380952 0.247619 Qu 8-1 0.194444 0.416667 0.194444 Qu 8-2Number 0.155556 Courtyard RA Bedroom 0.444444 RA Living Room RA 0.311111 Jin 1-1Qu 1-1 0.151515 0.194444 0.416667 0.378788 0.194444 0.318182 Jin 2-1Qu 1-2 0.104878 0.181818 0.454545 0.129268 0.287879 0.073171 Jin 3-1 0.069182 0.077269 0.077448 Jin 4-1 0.091593 0.129528 0.129528 Sustainability 2021, 13, x FOR PEER REVIEW 10 of 20

Qu 2-1 0.222222 0.355556 0.200000 Qu 2-2 0.127273 0.381818 0.309091 Qu 2-3 0.177778 0.377778 0.266667 Qu 3-1 0.200000 0.600000 0.266667 Qu 3-2 0.168421 0.305263 0.305263 Qu 3-3 0.168831 0.372294 0.281385 Qu 4-1 0.222222 0.266667 0.066667 Qu 4-2 0.181818 0.424242 0.242424 Qu 5-1 0.205128 0.384615 0.230769 Qu 6-1 0.155556 0.355556 0.244444 Qu 7-1 0.152381 0.380952 0.247619 Sustainability 2021, 13, 9004 10 of 20 Qu 8-1 0.194444 0.416667 0.194444 Qu 8-2 0.155556 0.444444 0.311111 Jin 1-1 0.151515 0.378788 0.318182 Jin 2-1 Table 2. 0.104878Cont. 0.129268 0.073171 Jin 3-1 0.069182 0.077269 0.077448 Number CourtyardJin 4-1 RA 0.091593 Bedroom RA 0.129528 Living Room 0.129528 RA Jin 5-1Jin 0.103896 5-1 0.103896 0.216450 0.216450 0.095238 0.095238 Jin 5-2Jin 0.111111 5-2 0.111111 0.222222 0.222222 0.181287 0.181287 Jin 6-1Jin 0.116959 6-1 0.116959 0.198830 0.198830 0.198830 0.198830 Jin 7-1Jin 0.119774 7-1 0.119774 0.203390 0.203390 0.151977 0.151977 Jin 8-1Jin 0.163636 8-1 0.163636 0.418182 0.418182 0.272727 0.272727 Jin 8-2Jin 0.133333 8-2 0.133333 0.391667 0.391667 0.283333 0.283333 Jin 9-1 0.120879 0.263736 0.263736 Jin 9-1 0.120879 0.263736 0.263736 Jin 10-1 0.099415 0.157895 0.157895 Jin 10-1 0.099415 0.157895 0.157895 Jin 11-1 0.084656 0.150794 0.150794 Jin 11-2Jin 0.11111111-1 0.084656 0.157895 0.150794 0.157895 0.150794 Jin 12-1Jin 0.07407411-2 0.111111 0.148148 0.157895 0.148148 0.157895 Jin 12-2Jin 0.11111112-1 0.074074 0.150327 0.148148 0.150327 0.148148 Jin 12-2 0.111111 0.150327 0.150327

FigureFigure 6. 6.The The location location of Quzhouof Quzhou and and Jinhua Jinhua from thefrom 1720s the to1720s 1949 to in the1949 Jinqu in the Basin. Jinqu Basin.

Table 3. The straight-line distanceTable between3. The straight-line each sample distance and the between reginal administrativeeach sample and and the cultural reginalcenters administrative in Jinqu and Basin. cultural centers in Jinqu Basin. Administrative Distance from Distance from Building Number AdministrativeVillage Name Di- Distance from Distance from BuildingDivision Number Village NameJinhua (km) Quzhou (km) vision Jinhua (km) Quzhou (km) Qu 1-1 Changshan, Quzhou Tungkungshan 121.45 43.85 Changshan, Qu 1-2 ChangshanQu Quzhou 1-1 TungkungshanTungkungshan 121.72 121.45 44.21 43.85 Qu 2-1 Kaihua, QuzhouQuzhou Xiashan 123.13 59.34 Changshan Qu 2-2 Kaihua, QuzhouQu 1-2 XiashanTungkungshan 123.37 121.72 59.68 44.21 Qu 2-3 Kaihua, QuzhouQuzhou Xiashan 123.14 59.30 Qu 3-1 Jiangshan,Qu Quzhou 2-1 Kaihua, Winghingwu Quzhou Xiashan 121.43 123.13 50.40 59.34 Qu 3-2 Jiangshan,Qu Quzhou 2-2 Kaihua, Winghingwu Quzhou Xiashan 121.42 123.37 50.41 59.68 Qu 3-3 Jiangshan,Qu Quzhou 2-3 Kaihua, Winghingwu Quzhou Xiashan 121.47 123.14 50.36 59.30 Qu 4-1 Kecheng,Qu Quzhou 3-1 Jiangshan, Tuntau Quzhou Winghingwu 89.02 121.43 11.40 50.40 Qu 4-2 Kecheng, Quzhou Tuntau 89.13 11.03 Qu 5-1 Qujiang t, Quzhou Poshi 87.66 29.13 Qu 6-1 Qujiang, Quzhou Poshi 81.05 33.91 Qu 7-1 Qujiang, Quzhou Wengyuan 76.02 30.22 Qu 8-1 Longyou, Quzhou Yangkeng 54.67 35.81 Qu 8-2 Longyou, Quzhou Sanmenyuan 54.70 35.82 Jin 1-1 Lanxi, Jinhua Sanmenyuan 38.81 53.02 Jin 2-1 Wucheng, Jinhua Xiapan 27.34 51.97 Jin 3-1 Wuyi Jinhua Yuyuan 34.76 81.65 Jin 4-1 Wuyi, Jinhua Shanxiabao 52.60 89.81 Jin 5-1 Jindong, Jinhua Suoyuan 16.88 94.51 Jin 5-2 Jindong, Jinhua Suoyuan 16.90 94.48 Jin 6-1 Wuyi, Jinhua Kwotung 34.91 97.38 Sustainability 2021, 13, 9004 11 of 20

Table 3. Cont.

Administrative Distance from Distance from Building Number Village Name Division Jinhua (km) Quzhou (km) Jin 7-1 Yiwu, Jinhua Huangshanwu 39.20 110.24 Jin 8-1 Pujiang, Jinhua Songxi 61.65 127.76 Jin 8-2 Pujiang, Jinhua Songxi 61.70 128.12 Jin 9-1 Yongkang, Jinhua Houwu 52.02 120.11 Jin 10-1 Panan, Jinhua Damin 81.23 156.20 Jin 11-1 Dongyang, Jinhua Caizhai 86.23 162.55 Jin 11-2 Dongyang, Jinhua Caizhai 86.34 162.43 Jin 12-1 Panan, Jinhua Juxi 88.28 163.13 Jin 12-2 Panan, Jinhua Juxi 88.23 163.17

Generally, most of the samples share the same order of RA values—the space with the highest value is the bedroom, followed by the living room and the courtyard, indicating that the bedroom is the most segregated space among the system and the courtyard the most integrated. Conversely, although the RA value sequence has been characterized as an important criterion for the induction in genotypes by Bill Hillier, in the study of British homes [2] (p. 155), we insist that there are subtle but fundamental differences in the genotypes of the space inside traditional houses in Jinqu Basin. This is because the organization of space around courtyards of different scales can be considered the most pronounced feature of the traditional Chinese architecture, which largely determined the RA value ranking, and if we simply make the judgement accordingly, then this study leads to no way. To further visualize the calculation results, scatter plots with the distance from JH/QZ and the RA values are drawn, as shown in Figures7–14. The two plots show a clear Sustainability 2021, 13, x FOR PEER REVIEW 12 of 20 tendency that the RA values, collectively or separately, become more dispersed and larger with the increase of distance from Jinhua; conversely, the further away from Quzhou, the more concentrated and smaller the values. In Figure 15, the phenomenon is presented with greaterspaces clarityon the andground details. floor, Regarding the RA values family provides spaces in more traditional behavioral houses, and the social lowest infor- RA valuesmation, of implying bedrooms, that living there roomsare differences and courtyards between occur the concept most frequently of transpatial in the and western spatial endsolidarity. of the The basin, first and difference the highest lies in in the the form eastern of solidarity end. The realized split in through the domestic the control space of configurationscategories in isolation, reflected and by RAthe valuesother in corresponds the interpenetration the bifurcating of categories distribution by spatial of human conti- factorsguity and in the random Jinqu Basin. movement Surprisingly, [4] (p. 159). a transformed Therefore, interior the traditional seems to imposeQuzhou its interiors influences ar- beyondticulated the two two kinds sides of of solidarity, the basin, which which led spatially to the strong proves differentiation that the Jinqu of Basin space lies in atterms the junctionof RA; the of Jinhua two completely interior articulates different social only one and form cultural of solidarity—the regions. spatial form.

FigureFigure 7.7. DistanceDistance fromfrom JinhuaJinhua (km)—the(km)—the RARA valuevalue scatterscatter plot.plot.

Figure 8. Distance from Jinhua (km)—the Courtyard RA value scatter plot.

Figure 9. Distance from Jinhua (km)—the Bedroom RA value scatter plot. Sustainability 2021, 13, x FOR PEER REVIEW 12 of 20 Sustainability 2021, 13, x FOR PEER REVIEW 12 of 20

spaces on the ground floor, the RA values provides more behavioral and social infor- spaces on the ground floor, the RA values provides more behavioral and social information, implying that there are differences between the concept of transpatial and spatial mation, implying that there are differences between the concept of transpatial and spatial solidarity. The first difference lies in the form of solidarity realized through the control of solidarity. The first difference lies in the form of solidarity realized through the control of categories in isolation, and the other in the interpenetration of categories by spatial conti- categories in isolation, and the other in the interpenetration of categories by spatial contiguity and random movement [4] (p. 159). Therefore, the traditional Quzhou interiors ar- guity and random movement [4] (p. 159). Therefore, the traditional Quzhou interiors articulated two kinds of solidarity, which led to the strong differentiation of space in terms ticulated two kinds of solidarity, which led to the strong differentiation of space in terms of RA; the Jinhua interior articulates only one form of solidarity—the spatial form. of RA; the Jinhua interior articulates only one form of solidarity—the spatial form.

Sustainability 2021, 13, 9004 12 of 20

Figure 7. Distance from Jinhua (km)—the RA value scatter plot. Figure 7. Distance from Jinhua (km)—the RA value scatter plot.

FigureFigure 8.8. DistanceDistance fromfrom JinhuaJinhua (km)—the(km)—the CourtyardCourtyard RARA valuevalue scatterscatter plot.plot. Figure 8. Distance from Jinhua (km)—the Courtyard RA value scatter plot.

Sustainability 2021, 13, x FOR PEER REVIEW 13 of 20 Sustainability 2021, 13, x FOR PEER REVIEWFigure 9. Distance from Jinhua (km)—the Bedroom RA value scatter plot. 13 of 20 FigureFigure 9.9. DistanceDistance fromfrom JinhuaJinhua (km)—the(km)—the BedroomBedroom RARA valuevalue scatterscatter plot.plot.

Figure 10. Distance from Jinhua (km)—the Living room RA value scatter plot. FigureFigure 10.10. DistanceDistance fromfrom JinhuaJinhua (km)—the(km)—the LivingLiving roomroom RARA valuevalue scatterscatter plot.plot.

Figure 11. Distance from Quzhou (km)—the RA value scatter plot. FigureFigure 11.11. DistanceDistance fromfrom QuzhouQuzhou (km)—the(km)—the RARA valuevalue scatterscatter plot.plot.

Figure 12. Distance from Quzhou (km)—the Courtyard RA value scatter plot. Figure 12. Distance from Quzhou (km)—the Courtyard RA value scatter plot.

Figure 13. Distance from Quzhou (km)—the Bedroom RA value scatter plot. Figure 13. Distance from Quzhou (km)—the Bedroom RA value scatter plot. Sustainability 2021, 13, x FOR PEER REVIEW 13 of 20 Sustainability 2021, 13, x FOR PEER REVIEW 13 of 20

Figure 10. Distance from Jinhua (km)—the Living room RA value scatter plot. Figure 10. Distance from Jinhua (km)—the Living room RA value scatter plot.

Sustainability 2021, 13, 9004 13 of 20

Figure 11. Distance from Quzhou (km)—the RA value scatter plot. Figure 11. Distance from Quzhou (km)—the RA value scatter plot.

Figure 12. Distance from Quzhou (km)—the Courtyard RA value scatter plot. FigureFigure 12.12. DistanceDistance fromfrom QuzhouQuzhou (km)—the(km)—the CourtyardCourtyard RARA valuevalue scatterscatter plot.plot.

Sustainability 2021, 13, x FOR PEER REVIEW 14 of 20 Figure 13. Distance from Quzhou (km)—the Bedroom RA value scatter plot. FigureFigure 13.13. DistanceDistance fromfrom QuzhouQuzhou (km)—the(km)—the BedroomBedroom RARA valuevalue scatterscatter plot.plot.

FigureFigure 14.14. DistanceDistance fromfrom QuzhouQuzhou (km)—the(km)—the LivingLiving roomroom RARA valuevalue scatterscatter plot.plot.

The duality of interior structuring of space was reflected in the overall RA values distribution and the relationships between the main values. Samples located in the east wing of the basin, or around Jinhua, shares very close RA values of different kinds of spaces. Conversely, there is a striking variation in RA values for different points in a building around Quzhou. In addition to the degree of integration and segregation of major spaces on the ground floor, the RA values provides more behavioral and social information, implying that there are differences between the concept of transpatial and spatial solidarity. The first difference lies in the form of solidarity realized through the control of categories in isolation, and the other in the interpenetration of categories by spatial contiguity and random movement [4] (p. 159). Therefore, the traditional Quzhou interiors articulated two kinds of solidarity, which led to the strong differentiation of space in terms of RA; the Jinhua interior articulates only one form of solidarity—the spatial form.

(a) (b) (c) Figure 15. The relation between the RA value and distance from Jinhua and Quzhou. (a) is relation between bedrooms’ RA values and distances; (b) is living rooms’ RA values and distances; (c) is courtyards’ RA values and distances.

Cases around Jinhua share much weaker categories of use than those around Quzhou, and this weakening of categoric distinctions is reflected in the considerable reduction of RA values. As the merging of use and reduction of the degree of segregation are parallel phenomena [2] (p. 160), the interior space emphasizes building complex patterns of relationships between spaces that only represent the weak categories of use. From the social perspective, the indoor space encourages the movement across partitions and links the members of the habitants by contiguity and encounter. The courtyard space, as seen in all the samples in this area, plays the role of a theatre of everyday life and interaction, with the lowest relative asymmetry of any ground-floor space; that is, this space has the highest integration with the rest of the household. Syntactically, it acts as a central area in the household. Its theoretical nature is the key position of spatial solidarity, contrary to transpatial solidarity. All members of the household have equal access to, and equal rights in, this space. Furthermore, local interaction in this space is dependent on spatial proxim- ity—relationship with neighbors and locally based kin. In its more developed forms, some neighbors will have the right to access this space [9] (p. 159). Figure 16 shows a typical architectural plan of a traditional residence owned by a big family around Jinhua. The RA values of various spaces around Quzhou show a completely different story. Bedrooms with RA values of almost two to three times the values of yards simply max- imize the relative asymmetry of all the spaces, achieving the maximum segregation effect. Traditional dwellings in the Quzhou area are residences with minimal internal functions. Bedrooms are usually located on both sides of the living room, with more private com- pound functional spaces than rooms for only resting. In the cases studied, the bedrooms are insulated from its immediate surroundings and everyday transactions. Contrary to spatial solidarity, based on analogy and difference, transpatial solidarity emphasizes the Sustainability 2021, 13, x FOR PEER REVIEW 14 of 20

Sustainability 2021, 13, 9004 14 of 20 Figure 14. Distance from Quzhou (km)—the Living room RA value scatter plot.

(a) (b) (c)

FigureFigure 15. The 15. The relation relation between between the theRA RA value value an andd distance distance from from Jinhua Jinhua and and Quzhou. Quzhou. (a ()a )is is relation relation between between bedrooms’ bedrooms’ RA RA values and distances; (b)) isis livingliving rooms’rooms’ RARA valuesvalues andand distances;distances; ((cc)) isis courtyards’courtyards’ RARA valuesvalues andand distances.distances.

CasesCases around around Jinhua Jinhua share share much much weakerweaker categoriescategories of of use use than than those those around around Quzhou, Quzhou,and this and weakening this weakening of categoric of categoric distinctions distinctions is reflected is reflected in the in considerablethe considerable reduction re- ductionof RA of values.RA values. As As the the merging merging of of use use and and reduction reduction of of the the degree degree of of segregationsegregation are are parallel phenomena [[2]2] (p.(p. 160),160), thethe interiorinterior spacespace emphasizesemphasizes buildingbuilding complexcomplex patternspat- ternsof of relationships relationships between between spaces spaces that that only only represent represent the the weak weak categories categoriesof of use.use. FromFrom the the socialsocial perspective,perspective, thethe indoorindoorspace space encourages encourages the the movement movement across across partitions partitions and and links linksthe the members members of of the the habitants habitants by by contiguity contiguity and and encounter. encounter. The The courtyard courtyard space, space, as as seen seenin in all all the the samples samples in in this this area, area, plays plays the the rolerole ofof aa theatretheatre ofof everydayeveryday lifelife andand interaction,interaction,with with the the lowest lowest relative relative asymmetry asymmetry of of any any ground-floor ground-floor space;space; thatthat is,is, thisthis spacespace hashas the the highest integration integration with with the the rest rest of of the the househ household.old. Syntactically, Syntactically, it acts it acts as a as central a central area area in thein household. the household. Its theoretical Its theoretical nature nature is the is key the position key position of spatial of spatial solidarity, solidarity, contrary contrary to transpatialto transpatial solidarity. solidarity. All members All members of the hous of theehold household have equal have access equal to, access and equal to, and rights equal in, thisrights space. in, thisFurthermore, space. Furthermore, local interaction local interactionin this space in is this dependent space is on dependent spatial proxim- on spatial ity—relationshipproximity—relationship with neighbors with neighborsand locally and based locally kin. basedIn its more kin. In developed its more developed forms, some forms, neighborssome neighbors will have willthe right have to the access right this to access space this[9] (p. space 159). [9 ]Figure (p. 159). 16 shows Figure a 16 typical shows a architecturaltypical architectural plan of a traditional plan of a traditionalresidence owned residence by a owned big family by a bigaround family Jinhua. around Jinhua. TheThe RA RAvalues values of various of various spaces spaces around around Quzhou Quzhou show show a completely a completely different different story. story. BedroomsBedrooms with with RA RAvalues values of almost of almost two two to th toree three times times the thevalues values of yards of yards simply simply max- maxi- imizemize the therelative relative asymmetry asymmetry of all of the all thespac spaces,es, achieving achieving the maximum the maximum segregation segregation effect. effect. TraditionalTraditional dwellings dwellings in the in theQuzhou Quzhou area area are areresidences residences with with minimal minimal internal internal functions. functions. BedroomsBedrooms are areusually usually located located on both on both sides sides of the of theliving living room, room, with with more more private private com- com- pound functional spaces than rooms for only resting. In the cases studied, the bedrooms pound functional spaces than rooms for only resting. In the cases studied, the bedrooms are insulated from its immediate surroundings and everyday transactions. Contrary to are insulated from its immediate surroundings and everyday transactions. Contrary to spatial solidarity, based on analogy and difference, transpatial solidarity emphasizes the spatial solidarity, based on analogy and difference, transpatial solidarity emphasizes the separateness of the interior. The bedroom is a transpatial space. Accordingly, its function is to articulate the relationships across greater distances, including spatial and social. To achieve this, it must be unlinked from the surrounding spatial system. The syntactic values of the space express this requirement. The courtyard space in this area is a typical instance of a ritualized space. The non-use of low asymmetric and most controlling spaces by persons perfectly illustrates the non-personal, but highly positional, nature of the system. The orientation of the domestic space and lifestyle toward the ritualization of everyday existence finds its perfect spatial expression in these subtly different spatial relations. Sustainability 2021, 13, x FOR PEER REVIEW 15 of 20

separateness of the interior. The bedroom is a transpatial space. Accordingly, its function is to articulate the relationships across greater distances, including spatial and social. To achieve this, it must be unlinked from the surrounding spatial system. The syntactic values of the space express this requirement. The courtyard space in this area is a typical instance of a ritualized space. The non-use of low asymmetric and most controlling spaces by persons perfectly illustrates the non-personal, but highly positional, nature of the system. The orientation of the domestic space and lifestyle toward the ritualization of everyday existence finds its perfect spatial expression in these subtly different spatial relations. As the courtyard space is a Chinese traditional residence, we try to account for the social significance of the above analysis. Generally, courtyard spaces of houses in the west of the basin or around Quzhou, which are usually of extremely limited size but the best position, reflect a spiritual and ritual symbol in the entire spatial system. However, the courtyard space in Jinhua area is a functional public space involved with daily group activities, similar to the square space in micro-community. Moreover, there are explicit causality between the results and local cultural environment—doctrine of ChenLiang school in Jinhua emphasizes utilitarianism’s merit ethics [21] (pp. 114–120). Nevertheless, the ZhuXi school of Quzhou regards motive ethics of personal virtue as decisive [21] (pp. 121– 128). The differences in ethical norms followed by the local elite class, who oversees the vernacular rural society and communities, are usually reflected in built environment [28]. In the traditional residential buildings of Jinqu Basin, the relationship is decoded as the corresponding dialogues between the spatial configuration, courtyard typology and collectivism or individualism biases in the sociocultural structure. The apparent contradiction between the two interior genotypes can be regarded as a precise representation of what Berstain has characterized as the difference between a personal and a positional sys- Sustainability 2021, 13, 9004 tem. A positional system deals with the control of categories, that is, of people considered15 of 20 as categories; a personal system considers the categories as persons. In line with the present model, positions are transpatial, while persons are spatial [2] (p. 161).

Figure 16. Plan of a traditional residential building (Jin 3-1) inin JinhuaJinhua YuyuanYuyuan Village.Village.

4.2. VisibilityAs the courtyardGraphs Analysis space is a Chinese traditional residence, we try to account for the social significance of the above analysis. Generally, courtyard spaces of houses in the west of the basin or around Quzhou, which are usually of extremely limited size but the best position, reflect a spiritual and ritual symbol in the entire spatial system. However, the courtyard space in Jinhua area is a functional public space involved with daily group activities, similar to the square space in micro-community. Moreover, there are explicit causality between the results and local cultural environment—doctrine of ChenLiang school in Jinhua emphasizes utilitarianism’s merit ethics [21] (pp. 114–120). Nevertheless, the ZhuXi school of Quzhou regards motive ethics of personal virtue as decisive [21] (pp. 121–128). The differences in ethical norms followed by the local elite class, who oversees the vernacular rural society and communities, are usually reflected in built environment [28]. In the traditional residential buildings of Jinqu Basin, the relationship is decoded as the corresponding dialogues between the spatial configuration, courtyard typology and collectivism or individualism biases in the sociocultural structure. The apparent contradiction between the two interior genotypes can be regarded as a precise representation of what Berstain has characterized as the difference between a personal and a positional system. A positional system deals with the control of categories, that is, of people considered as categories; a personal system considers the categories as persons. In line with the present model, positions are transpatial, while persons are spatial [2] (p. 161).

4.2. Visibility Graphs Analysis Considering further interpretations of the two genotypes against the background of different social mechanisms underlying domestic space patterning, VGA of DepthMap is used for mapping the global conﬁgurations of the building, apart from the above abstract parameterization comparison. Taking a traditional residential building in Jinhua area as an example (Figure 17), its VGA diagram implies an apparent tree shape. The courtyard space constitutes the trunk of the system, and the surrounding space is the branch. However, this characteristic is not found in Quzhou region (Figure 18). By comparing more samples (Figures 19 and 20), it SustainabilitySustainability 20212021,, 1313,, xx FORFOR PEERPEER REVIEWREVIEW 1616 ofof 2020

ConsideringConsidering furtherfurther interpretationsinterpretations ofof thethe twotwo genotypesgenotypes againstagainst thethe backgroundbackground ofof differentdifferent socialsocial mechanismsmechanisms underlyingunderlying domestdomesticic spacespace patterning,patterning, VGAVGA ofof DepthMapDepthMap isis usedused forfor mappingmapping thethe globalglobal configurationsconfigurations ofof thethe building,building, apartapart fromfrom thethe aboveabove abstractabstract parameterizationparameterization comparison.comparison. TakingTaking aa traditionaltraditional residentialresidential buildingbuilding inin JinhuaJinhua areaarea asas anan exampleexample (Figure(Figure 17),17), itsits VGAVGA diagramdiagram impliesimplies anan apparentapparent treetree shape.shape. TheThe courtyardcourtyard spacespace constitutesconstitutes thethe trunktrunk ofof thethe system,system, andand thethe surroundingsurrounding spacespace isis thethe branch.branch. However,However, thisthis characteristiccharacteristic isis notnot foundfound inin QuzhouQuzhou regionregion (Figure(Figure 18).18). ByBy comparingcomparing moremore samplessamples (Figures(Figures 1919 andand 20),20), itit cancan bebe foundfound thatthat thisthis tree-liketree-like formform isis muchmuch moremore commoncommon inin buildingbuilding samplessamples inin thethe areaarea aroundaround Jinhua.Jinhua. TheThe symmetrysymmetry structurestructure inin VGAVGA reflectsreflects aa cecentralityntrality inin organization.organization. TheThe warmerwarmer thethe colorcolor ofof thethe area,area, thethe higherhigher thethe interactiveinteractive degdegreeree ofof itsits spacespace inin VGA;VGA; itsits gradientgradient repre-repre- sentssents thethe decreasedecrease ofof thethe value,value, implyingimplying ththee directiondirection ofof thethe spacespace guidance.guidance. ComparedCompared withwith thethe examplesexamples aroundaround Quzhou,Quzhou, thethe courcourtyardtyard spacespace ofof traditionaltraditional dwellingsdwellings nearnear JinhuaJinhua isis notnot onlyonly thethe geometricgeometric centercenter ofof planplan layoutlayout butbut alsoalso thethe centercenter ofof eacheach directiondirection in the AVGs. As shown in the graphs, an obvious linear transition exists between the Sustainability 2021, 13, 9004 in the AVGs. As shown in the graphs, an obvious linear transition exists between the16 of 20 courtyardcourtyard spacespace andand eacheach surroundingsurrounding space,space, implyingimplying thatthat thethe courtyardcourtyard hashas aa strongstrong guidingguiding forceforce overover thethe surroundingsurrounding spaces.spaces. Unexpectedly,Unexpectedly, thisthis featurefeature doesdoes notnot existexist inin thethe graphsgraphs ofof proxiesproxies aroundaround Quzhou,Quzhou, althoughalthough thethe courtyardcourtyard spacesspaces areare usuallyusually locatedlocated atat thethecan geometricgeometric be found centercenter that this ofof thethe tree-like plan.plan. TheThe form resuresu is muchltlt indicatesindicates more commonthethe deepdeep underlying inunderlying building samplesdifferencesdifferences in the inin area handlinghandlingaround ofof doorsdoors Jinhua. or,or, moremore specifically,specifically, thethe ththresholdsresholds inin thethe twotwo socialsocial groups.groups.

((aa)) ((bb)) FigureFigureFigure 17.17. VisibilityVisibility 17. Visibility graphsgraphs graphs analysisanalysis analysis ofof traditionaltraditional of traditional dwellingsdwellings dwellings inin CaizhaiCaizhai in Caizhai village.village. village. ((aa)) isis (thethea) is originaloriginal the original

architecturalarchitecturalarchitectural planplan ofof plan thethe of building;building; the building; ((bb)) isis (itsitsb) VGAVGA is its VGAdiagram.diagram. diagram.

((aa)) ((bb)) Figure 18. Visibility graphs analysis of traditional dwellings in Wengyuan village. (a) is the original Sustainability 2021, 13, x FOR PEERFigure REVIEWFigure 18. Visibility 18. Visibility graphs graphs analysis analysis of traditio of traditionalnal dwellings dwellings in Wengyuan in Wengyuan village. village. (a) is (thea) isoriginal the17 original of 20 architectural plan of the building; (b) is its VGA diagram. architecturalarchitectural plan of plan the of building; the building; (b) is (itsb) VGA is its VGAdiagram diagram..

(a) (b)

FigureFigure 19. 19. VisibilityVisibility graphs graphs analysis of Jinhua traditional dwellings.dwellings. ((aa)) isis thethe VGA VGA diagram diagram of of Jin1-1; Jin1-1;(b) is the(b) is VGA the VGA diagram diagram of Jin2-1; of Jin2-1; (c) is (c the) is VGAthe VGA diagram diagram of Jin4-1; of Jin4-1; and and (d) ( isd) theis the VGA VGA diagram dia- gramof Jin7-1. of Jin7-1.

(a) (b)

(c) (d) Figure 20. Visibility graphs analysis of Quzhou traditional dwellings. (a) is the VGA diagram of Qu1-1; (b) is the VGA diagram of Qu2-1; (c) is the VGA diagram of Qu6-1; (d) is the VGA diagram of Qu8-1.

As human behavior is interlinked with space, the architectural space shares the framework for everyday life, and similar to other vernacular architecture worldwide, the traditional houses embody social and symbolic information into a meaningful spatial form [29]. In the traditional Chinese residential buildings, due to the intimate relationship between lifestyle, behavior and secular etiquette and conventions in eastern Asian culture, domestic space has become an important manifestation of the sociocultural environment. Various representations and measures developed from the space syntax theory present more explicit and scientific descriptions of space from the sociocultural viewpoint [30]. Notably, references of historical materials are indispensable for interpreting the interaction between the space form and social variables [31]. This necessity indicates that images’ Sustainability 2021, 13, x FOR PEER REVIEW 17 of 20

(a) (b)

Sustainability 2021, 13, 9004 Figure 19. Visibility graphs analysis of Jinhua traditional dwellings. (a) is the VGA diagram of17 of 20 Jin1-1; (b) is the VGA diagram of Jin2-1; (c) is the VGA diagram of Jin4-1; and (d) is the VGA diagram of Jin7-1.

(a) (b)

FigureFigure 20. 20. VisibilityVisibility graphs graphs analysis analysis of ofQuzhou Quzhou traditional traditional dwellings. dwellings. (a) is (a )the is theVGA VGA diagram diagram of of Qu1-1;Qu1-1; (b (b) )is is the the VGA VGA diagram diagram of of Qu2-1; Qu2-1; (c ()c is) is the the VGA VGA diagram diagram of of Qu6-1; Qu6-1; (d ()d is) isthe the VGA VGA diagram diagram ofof Qu8-1. Qu8-1.

AsThe human symmetry behavior structure is interlinked in VGA reflects with aspace, centrality the inarchitectural organization. space The warmershares the the frameworkcolor of the for area, everyday the higher life, the and interactive similar to degree other ofvernacular its space in architecture VGA; its gradient worldwide, represents the traditionalthe decrease houses of the embody value, implying social and the directionsymbolic of information the space guidance. into a meaningful Compared withspatial the formexamples [29]. In around the traditional Quzhou, Chinese the courtyard residential space buildings, of traditional due dwellingsto the intimate near relationship Jinhua is not betweenonly the lifestyle, geometric behavior center ofand plan secular layout etique buttte also and the conventions center of each in eastern direction Asian in the culture, AVGs. domesticAs shown space in the has graphs, become an an obvious important linear mani transitionfestation exists of the between sociocultural the courtyard environment. space Variousand each representations surrounding space, and measures implying develop that theed courtyard from the has space a strong syntax guiding theory force present over morethe surrounding explicit and spaces.scientific Unexpectedly, descriptions thisof space feature from does the not sociocultural exist in the graphs viewpoint of proxies [30]. Notably,around Quzhou,references although of historical the courtyard materials spaces are indispensable are usually located for interpreting at the geometric the interac- center tionof the between plan. Thethe space result form indicates and social the deep variables underlying [31]. This differences necessity in indicates handling that of doorsimages’ or, more specifically, the thresholds in the two social groups. As human behavior is interlinked with space, the architectural space shares the framework for everyday life, and similar to other vernacular architecture worldwide, the traditional houses embody social and symbolic information into a meaningful spatial form [29]. In the traditional Chinese residential buildings, due to the intimate relationship between lifestyle, behavior and secular etiquette and conventions in eastern Asian culture, domestic space has become an important manifestation of the sociocultural environment. Various representations and measures developed from the space syntax theory present more explicit and scientific descriptions of space from the sociocultural viewpoint [30]. Notably, references of historical materials are indispensable for interpreting the interaction between the space form and social variables [31]. This necessity indicates that images’ morphological rules cannot be explained by a pure graph theory without including sociocultural perspectives. The internal mechanism is usually derived from profound human activities than the spatial morphological evolution. Referring to the relevant perspectives of the cultural landscape, graphic logic of artifi- cial space is the accumulation of human consciousness over time [32]. On the sociological level, ethical relationships and community activities of human communities are time- dependent behavioral organizations. Accordingly, spatial structure characteristics can be comprehended as a mechanism for operating this long-term collective behavior. The phenomenon of Jinhua’s courtyard space in visibility graphs is the expression of its special regional culture at the spatial level, which is lacking in the neighboring Quzhou area. This Sustainability 2021, 13, 9004 18 of 20

also proves the sharp alternation in human factors between Jinhua and Quzhou. Consid- ering the history of Jinhua and Quzhou, this fluctuation may be due to Jinhua’s unique community culture, which promotes social utilitarianism. The courtyard space of traditional residential houses is considered as a specific place presenting this regional culture. In conclusion, VGA shows more details in the logical characteristics of spatial orientation and linkage between spaces, and the analyses expound the nuances in human physical and mental perception in residential spaces of similar configuration but different genotypes. The evolution of traditional dwellings shows impressive finesse in its embodiment of the socio-cultural principles of the inhabitants. A traditional architectural space is not only the container of human lives but also the accumulation results of these activities over time; in other words, architecture is the static mapping of this mechanism.

5. Conclusions and Discussion With two syntactic analyses, including quantitative and graphic, conducted by Depthmap, this study articulates the differences among the genotypes of the residential buildings in Jinqu Basin. Moreover, the elimination of climatic and topographic interference by various natural factors in the research area allowed the hypothesis to be tested and proved, which presents the correspondent relation between the division in local human factors and the duality in spatial configuration and solidarity of form. Based on the above, combined with historical material, the research indicates that the regional and sociocultural forces shapes and differs the space ordering in settlements and explains the potential projection mechanism. In Jinhua, socioculture focusses on the community, creating the high degree of integration of its domestic spatial structure, while in Quzhou, personal virtue is highly valued and the interior space is relatively close to a modern residence, emphasizing individuality and a spiritual space. Conversely, the architectural space reflected the two regimes of daily behavior, which are governed by and oriented from an earthly morality and inner restraint, respectively. Second, the study also revealed that a courtyard space is a significant space category that is worth being the focus of spatial topology and visibility analysis. This space is also crucial for addressing the subtle differences between genotypes. Space-embodied social purposes are easier to be comprehended than analyzed, but with the help of the calculation and stimulation by the software based on space syntax theory, clarifying the tacit sociocultural meanings embedded in the spatial configuration was possible. A thorough understanding of this conclusion will enable much more efficient and enduring measures in the preservation and restoration of vernacular dwellings as part of the local cultural heritage. Another less direct but more fundamental contribution of the study is that it offers a starting point for the development of academic framework and planning strategies coherent with local sociocultural aspects, which is of great significance for Social Sustainability— one of the three core values of Sustainable Development established by the UN in the 1980s. Specifically, the research and its follow-up study may bring changes on three levels, as given below: 1. A more comprehensive academic framework on the vernacular architecture: Instead of focusing on several representative works, the study attempted a panoramic analysis within a sociocultural context and emphasized the narration and interpretation of spatial traits of various kinds of dwellings, which provides the setting for human habitation. We want to sustain an authentic human experience-oriented heritage preservation methodology, and this contention will facilitate our team’s efforts toward the study’s next phase. 2. More place-based designing and planning strategies: Being different from the modern urban residences, the rural dwellings have been functioning as an integral of primary metaphor and a sign of local social advancements. We aimed to encouraged anyone with a voice in the decision-making process to respect and prioritize the demands of local history, cultural believes and events, social organization and everyday occur- Sustainability 2021, 13, 9004 19 of 20

rences. This will allow the beauty in the indigenous style architecture to be inherited in future construction practice. 3. More dialogue-based policies: The approach foregrounds the ethical dimension of sustainability, is concerned with the question of authenticity, and promotes, if possible, a dialogue-based approach to decision-making, including deliberative democratic and policy-making practices in the rural, social reconstruction wave in China. In the last four decades, the Chinese government has endeavored to meet the gap between rural and urban areas by reducing the disparity in physical living environment of local communities, which results in negative repercussions in a top-down administrative system. Thus, this study’s attempt at understanding the rural traditional dwellings will improve the stability and resiliency of the settlements in the future, while respecting the local diversity in a sociocultural structure, which is the foundation of a cooperative, cohesive and reciprocal relationship in the urban-rural development context.

Author Contributions: Conceptualization, Y.C., K.X. and K.D.; methodology, Y.C.; software, K.X.; validation, P.L., R.J. and J.Q.; formal analysis, Y.C.; investigation, Y.C. and K.X.; resources, Y.C.; data curation, R.J.; writing—original draft preparation, Y.C.; writing—review and editing, Y.C. and K.D.; visualization, P.L., R.J. and J.Q.; supervision, H.F.; project administration, Y.C.; funding acquisition, Y.C. and K.D. All authors have read and agreed to the published version of the manuscript. Funding: This research was funded General Scientific Research Project of Education Department of Zhejiang Province in 2019 (Grant No. Y201942087), Hangzhou Planning Program of Philosophy and Social Science (Grant No. M19JC052). Institutional Review Board Statement: Not applicable. Informed Consent Statement: Not applicable. Data Availability Statement: The data presented in this study are available on request from the corresponding author, K.D. The data are not publicly available due to the architectural information of residences could compromise the privacy of research participants. Conflicts of Interest: The authors declare no conflict of interest.

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