STRENGTHENING UNIVERSITY-INDUSTRY LINKAGES IN AFRICA A Study on Institutional Capacities and Gaps
JOHN SSEBUWUFU, TERALYNN LUDWICK AND MARGAUX BÉLAND
Funded by the Canadian Government through CIDA Canadian International Agence canadienne de Development Agency développement international
STRENGTHENING UNIVERSITY-INDUSTRY LINKAGES IN AFRICA: A Study on Institutional Capacities and Gaps
Prof. John Ssebuwufu Director, Research & Programmes Association of African Universities (AAU)
Teralynn Ludwick Research Officer AAU Research and Programmes Department / AUCC Partnership Programmes
Margaux Béland Director, Partnership Programmes Association of Universities and Colleges of Canada (AUCC) Currently on secondment to the Canadian Bureau for International Education (CBIE)
Strengthening University-Industry Linkages in Africa: A Study of Institutional Capacities and Gaps
@ 2012 Association of African Universities (AAU)
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Web site: http://www.aau.org
This study was undertaken by the Association of African Universities (AAU) and the Association of Universities and Colleges of Canada (AUCC) as part of the project, Strengthening Higher Education Stakeholder Relations in Africa (SHESRA). The project is generously funded by Government of Canada through the Canadian International Development Agency (CIDA). The views and opinions expressed in this report are solely those of the authors and should not be attributed to CIDA, AAU or AUCC.
Strengthening University-Industry Linkages in Africa: A Study of Institutional Capacities and Gaps
ACRONYMS
AAU Association of African Universities AUCC Association of Universities and Colleges of Canada CIDA Canadian International Development Agency GDP Gross Domestic Product GERD Gross Expenditure on Research and Development HEIs Higher Education Institutions ICT Information and Communication Technologies IP Intellectual Property IPR Intellectual Property Rights NIS National Innovation Systems SADC Southern African Development Community SHESRA Strengthening Higher Education Stakeholder Relations in Africa SMEs Small and Medium-sized Enterprises U-I University-Industry VC Vice-Chancellor
Strengthening University-Industry Linkages in Africa: A Study of Institutional Capacities and Gaps
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
The authors of this paper would like to recognize the contributions of a number of staff of the AAU Secretariat who assisted in the development, delivery, and analysis of this report, particularly Mr. Ransford Bekoe, who provided substantive feedback from conception to analysis. Prof. Jonathan Chucks Mba and Mrs. Adeline A. Addy are also acknowledged for their contributions to the content of the survey. We also express gratitude to the members of the Communications Department, notably Dr. Pascal Hoba, Ms. Christiane Comoe Anaky, Ms. Akosua Agyeman, and Mr. Edward Ekow Turkson who provided translation, contact details of institutions, and technical assistance.
We would also like to thank Mr. Robert White, Mrs. Kethline Garoute and Ms. Taline Bedrossian from the Association of Universities and Colleges of Canada for their comments during the editing stage. Special gratitude also goes to Prof. Goolam Mohamedbhai, former Secretary- General of the AAU, through whose tenure this survey was conceived and who provided very constructive feedback on this report.
Finally, we would like to express our appreciation to all the institutions, including AAU Member Institutions, which took the time and effort to respond to this survey in the interest of strengthening the role of higher education in Africa’s socio-economic development.
Strengthening University-Industry Linkages in Africa: A Study of Institutional Capacities and Gaps
THE PROJECT PARTNERS The Association of African Universities The Association of African Universities (AAU) is an international non-governmental organization established by African universities to promote cooperation among themselves and with the international academic community. The AAU, whose headquarters is in Accra, Ghana, was established in November 1967 at a founding conference in Rabat, Morocco, attended by representatives of 34 universities who adopted the constitution of the Association. As of June 2012, the AAU had a membership of 270 African higher education institutions from 45 African countries.
The mission of the Association, which operates in three official languages namely, English, French and Arabic, is to enhance the quality and relevance of higher education in Africa and strengthen its contribution to African development by supporting the core functions of higher education institutions (HEIs), facilitating and fostering collaboration among African HEIs; and providing a platform for discussions on emerging issues.
AAU’s programmes are implemented, as much as possible, through the involvement of its member institutions as well as strategic partners so as to engender commitment and ownership, and also build capacity for project/programme delivery in member institutions.
For more information visit: http://www.aau.org/
The Association of Universities and Colleges of Canada The Association of Universities and Colleges of Canada (AUCC) is an organization that provides Canadian universities with a unified voice and a forum for collective action. The AUCC currently represents 95 public and private not-for-profit universities and university degree-level colleges across Canada.
The AUCC, located in Ottawa, Canada, was established in 1911 and marked its centennial celebrations in 2011. It was established by Canadian university presidents who recognized the need for a national organization of universities to exchange information and discuss common problems. Since its establishment, the AUCC has continued to provide leadership for higher education in Canada and abroad.
AUCC’s mission is to foster and promote the interests of higher education and university research. Its main activities include assisting in the development of public policy to find solutions to economic and social challenges; working closely with governments, the private and the public sectors to raise the profile of higher education; sharing information on postsecondary education; developing leadership seminars for university leaders; managing scholarships and international programmes; and publishing reports, publications and an award- winning magazine.
For more information visit: http://www.aucc.ca/
Strengthening University-Industry Linkages in Africa: A Study of Institutional Capacities and Gaps
FOREWORD
The Association of African Universities (AAU) is pleased to present this publication titled Strengthening University-Industry linkages in Africa: A Study on Institutional Capacities and Gaps. The study was conducted for the project Strengthening Higher Education Stakeholder Relations in Africa (SHESRA) jointly managed by the Association of African Universities and the Association of Universities and Colleges of Canada (AUCC) with funding from the Government of Canada through the Canadian International Development Agency (CIDA).
In 2009, AAU and its then 252 member institutions put forward a new Core Programme to guide the Association’s priorities and activities over the next 4 years. Strengthening industry linkages was highlighted as a new area of focus for the Association. This study and the SHESRA project represent one of many steps the AAU is taking to support its members and the higher education community across Africa to strengthen linkages with industry and the productive sector.
Higher education institutions are widely recognized as essential contributors to economic development through their role in producing the knowledge, skills, and innovations needed to drive their respective national economies. There is therefore a need to create a strong interface between this educational sub-sector and the productive sector that requires the skills and knowledge of graduates from universities and other higher education institutions in their enterprises to increase productivity. In addition to producing work-ready graduates for the job market, higher education institutions, particularly universities, also play a pivotal role in conducting research and incubating scientific and technological innovations that promote real and sustained economic growth and social development.
Sadly, the skills, knowledge and training that students receive at many African universities do not prepare them adequately to meet the requirements of industry and the job market. This mismatch between what students learn and what industry needs - coupled with under-training in the critical skills of problem-solving, analytical thinking and communication - is blamed, at least in part, for the emerging high graduate unemployment and under-employment many African countries are witnessing.
Most research in Africa is conducted at universities, placing these institutions at the centre of their national innovation systems. Through research and extension services, African universities can play a central role in producing technical solutions to local challenges. Yet, across much of Africa, universities have minimal linkages with the productive sector at every level, from big industry, to agricultural producers, to medium-and-small scale enterprises. Relatively few African universities manage technology incubators or science parks at their institutions.
While the results of this study demonstrate that many African universities are or have taken initial steps to strengthen linkages with industry and the productive sector, such efforts need to
Strengthening University-Industry Linkages in Africa: A Study of Institutional Capacities and Gaps be scaled-up. Through collaboration, the AAU with its development partners hope to play a key role in sustaining attention on the issue of university-industry linkages in higher education policy circles, building networks between university and industry leaders, and supporting innovative capacity-building programmes that respond to the specificities of African universities.
Prof. Olugbemiro Jegede AAU Secretary-General
Strengthening University-Industry Linkages in Africa: A Study of Institutional Capacities and Gaps
Contents
Contents ACRONYMS ...... 3 ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS ...... 4 THE PROJECT PARTNERS ...... 5 FOREWORD ...... 6 LIST OF TABLES AND FIGURES ...... 9 EXECUTIVE SUMMARY ...... 10 1. INTRODUCTION ...... 13 2. BACKGROUND: Study setting and population ...... 19 3. METHODOLOGY ...... 21 3.1 Survey Questionnaire ...... 21 3.2. Sample Population ...... 22 4. RESULTS ...... 24 4.1 Response Rate ...... 24 4.2 Limitations of the data ...... 26 4.3 Results by Sub-Section ...... 27 A. Demographic Profile ...... 29 B. Institutional Arrangements and Interface Structures ...... 31 C. Institutional Policies on External Engagement and Intellectual Property Rights . 33 D. Type of Engagement with the Productive Sector ...... 35 E. Academic Staff and Curriculum ...... 38 F. Funding ...... 40 G. Strengths, Challenges and Needs ...... 44 5. CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS ...... 49 Proposed Areas of Intervention ...... 51 REFERENCES ...... 53 APPENDIX A: List of African HEIs which responded to the survey questionnaire ...... 57
Strengthening University-Industry Linkages in Africa: A Study of Institutional Capacities and Gaps
LIST OF TABLES AND FIGURES A. List of Tables
Table 1: Summary of Distribution of Respondents by Region ...... 24 Table 2: Regional Distribution of Respondents ...... 25 Table 3: Summary of Results ...... 28 Table 4: Percentage of Faculty with Doctorate Degrees ...... 30 Table 5: Availability of Student Attachments by Faculty ...... 39
B. List of Figures
Figure 1: Sampling Methods ...... 23 Figure 2: Main Responsibilities of Office/Unit in Charge of Industry Linkages (n=95) ...... 31 Figure 3: Sectors of Collaboration with the Productive Sector ...... 35 Figure 4: Revenue Received from Activities Conducted with or for the Productive Sector ...... 40 Figure 5: Revenue Received from Activities Conducted with/for the Productive Sector by Region ...... 41 Figure 6: Funds Received From Productive Sector for Various Purposes ...... 42 Figure 7: Enabling Factors for Strengthening Linkages with the Productive Sector ...... 44 Figure 8: Inhibiting Factors to Building Linkages with the Productive Sector ...... 46 Figure 9: Support Services Needed for Strengthening Linkages with the Productive Sector ...... 47
Strengthening University-Industry Linkages in Africa: A Study of Institutional Capacities and Gaps
EXECUTIVE SUMMARY
Universities are recognized as sources of knowledge creation, innovation and technological advances. Across the globe, they are being positioned as strategic assets in innovation and economic competitiveness, and as problem-solvers for socio-economic issues affecting their countries. Synergies between higher education institutions (HEIs) and industry (and other players in the productive sector) can play a critical role in securing and leveraging additional resources for higher education, promoting innovation and technology transfer, and ensuring that graduates have the skills and knowledge required to effectively contribute to the workforce. African universities face considerable constraints that affect their economies, political environments, and institutional research capacity yet many o them are taking steps to initiate and accelerate measures to strengthen institutional capacity to support linkages with industry and the broader productive sector. There is, however, a lack of data to provide a comprehensive and informed picture of what steps African HEIs have already taken and what is needed to provide a strengthened, more comprehensive platform for promoting, building, and managing synergetic partnerships with the productive sector. This report presents the findings of a scoping study on university-industry linkages in Africa to determine what interface structures, policies, positions, incentives, and funding avenues are currently in place (or lacking) and what services or interventions African institutions themselves gauge to be most important for strengthening their efforts. This study was conducted by the Association of African Universities (AAU) in partnership with the Association of Universities and Colleges of Canada (AUCC). It was undertaken as part of a joint three-year project titled, Strengthening Higher Education Stakeholder Relations in Africa (SHESRA) launched in April 2010 with funding from the Government of Canada through the Canadian International Development Agency (CIDA). Based on responses from a total of 133 universities and other higher education institutions across Africa which participated in the study, the findings show that African universities are indeed taking initial steps to stimulate and deepen linkages with industry and the productive sector. The importance of leadership, both in terms of policy and personnel, was noted as an important enabling factor for promoting linkages. However, various capacity gaps in terms of requisite skills, research infrastructure, and funding represent significant challenges for many HEIs. The results demonstrate that many African universities have undertaken efforts to foster and institutionalize linkages with the productive sector via the incorporation of industry linkages into strategic plans and the creation of designated posts and offices. However, such offices operate on minimal budgets in many institutions, and are not always staffed with sufficient expertise in entrepreneurialism, intellectual property right management, and marketing strategies. Again, while most institutions have highlighted industry linkages in their strategic plans, many lack complementary and supportive policies and mechanisms for regulating interactions with the productive sector. Research output is also limited by the low percentage of academic staff who hold doctoral degrees.
Strengthening University-Industry Linkages in Africa: A Study of Institutional Capacities and Gaps
Science parks and technology incubators serve as formal structures to develop, mature, and showcase novel technology and solutions. Yet from this survey, only a small percentage of universities reported being involved in managing science parks and/or patenting and licensing.
Respondent institutions were most likely to be engaged in the following sectors: agriculture and agribusiness; ICTs; environmental management; computer engineering; and banking. In contrast, they less frequently reported collaboration with the manufacturing, pharmaceutical, mining and entertainment industries.
In terms of promoting entrepreneurialism and practical skills among staff and students, many of institutions reported employing industry professionals as adjunct faculty, engaging guest speakers to provide business and entrepreneurial advice, and offering student attachments/ co- op placements. Enhanced graduate employability as a result of improved curricula, skills development and internships as well as increased job satisfaction among academic staff were noted as positive externalities from promoting linkages with the productive sector. Many institutions, however, reportedly had no resources specifically dedicated to supporting entrepreneurial activities by staff.
There is a held perception that industry partnerships represent an important alternative funding avenue for universities. This study, to some extent, confirms this assertion, as respondent institutions indicated that they frequently benefitted from relations with industry through commissioned research, investments in laboratories and equipment, student scholarships and funding for graduate research. However, the results indicate that only a handful of institutions have been able to capture substantive financial gains through industry partnerships. As the mandate to establish industry partnerships is a relatively new function for many African universities, there is likely much scope to enhance the revenue-generating potential of future partnerships. This must, however, be placed against universities’ different research capacities, expertise, locations, and other distinguishing features that affect their ability to attract external research and consultancies.
Moving forward, respondent institutions prioritized the following areas where support from government and other external partners and stakeholders would be most valued: 1) assistance in training academic staff in entrepreneurship skills; 2) assistance in developing institutional strategic plans emphasizing engagement with the productive sector; 3) support for establishing technology incubators and/or science parks; and 4) providing opportunities for peer learning from other institutions having a history of successful engagement with the productive sector.
These priorities directly reflect the lack of entrepreneurial expertise noted in the survey and the low number of science parks and technology incubators currently in place in African HEIs. Such support from the productive sector would likely need to extend beyond setting up the physical infrastructure, into building intellectual property (IP) expertise, business and project management skills, and other types of capacity required for the effective governance of such structures. Though respondent institutions almost universally reported that they did have strategic plans in place that highlight industry linkages, the demand for assistance in strategic
Strengthening University-Industry Linkages in Africa: A Study of Institutional Capacities and Gaps planning perhaps reflects the need for on-going strengthening and development of implementation plans.
Based on the capacities and gaps reported by institutions, and their suggested priority areas of intervention, the study suggests that funding support, skills development (entrepreneurial, IP, marketing, and strategic planning skills) and support for establishing and managing technology incubators and business parks would help directly respond to the needs and priorities of African universities as they endeavour to build stronger linkages with the productive sector. Opportunities to learn from other institutions may present an effective way to build capacity in these priority areas.
As African universities continue to work towards building stronger linkages with the productive sector, it is hoped that governments, private sector actors, development partners and other relevant stakeholders will recognize the efforts demonstrated so far, and use the findings of this study to inform their actions to support the efforts undertaken to date.
Strengthening University-Industry Linkages in Africa: A Study of Institutional Capacities and Gaps
1. INTRODUCTION
i. Purpose of this study
Universities have long been recognized as sources of knowledge creation, innovation, and technological advances. Across the globe, from developed countries in the West to China, Brazil and other emerging economies, universities are being positioned as strategic assets in innovation and economic competitiveness, and as problem-solvers for socio-economic issues affecting their countries. In order to fully capitalize on the potential of universities in this aspect, governments and institutions are actively pursuing strategies to strengthen university linkages with industry (and for that matter the productive sector in general) through research and other forms of collaboration.
A report commissioned by the Association of African Universities in 1994 (Mwiria, 1994) identified the types of linkages that have the potential to enhance the collaboration between African universities and their respective national populations, the business community and government. At that time, nearly three decades ago, such linkages were still in their formative stages.
National interventions and pro-active engagement of universities and industries have, however, been less forthcoming in many African countries. African universities also face considerable constraints with regards to the structure of their economies, political environments, and institutional research capacity. Despite criticisms of the poor state of university-industry linkages in Africa, African universities are taking steps to initiate and accelerate measures to strengthen institutional capacity to support linkages with industry and the broader productive sector (Ginies and Mazurelle, 2010; Tiyambe, 2004).
Yet, overall there is a lack of data to provide a comprehensive and informed picture of what steps African higher education institutions have already taken and what is needed to provide a strengthened, more comprehensive platform for promoting, building, and managing synergetic partnerships with the productive sector (Munyoki et al, 2011). The objective of this study was therefore to undertake a scoping exercise to determine what interface structures, policies, positions, incentives, and funding avenues are currently in place (or lacking) and what services or interventions African institutions themselves gauge to be most important for strengthening their efforts.
The study was undertaken to help the AAU and other higher education stakeholders develop appropriate services, tools, and programmes that respond to the capacity gaps identified in the study while building on the current strengths and capabilities of African universities to link with the productive sector.
Strengthening University-Industry Linkages in Africa: A Study of Institutional Capacities and Gaps
The study forms part of a project titled “Strengthening Higher Education Stakeholder Relations in Africa” (SHESRA) jointly managed by the Association of African Universities (AAU) and the Association of Universities and Colleges of Canada (AUCC). The SHESRA project is an outcome of the AAU Core Programme (2009-2013) approved by AAU member universities at the Association’s 12th General Conference in Abuja, Nigeria in 2009 and the new AAU Strategic Plan (2011 – 2015). Both the Core Programme and Strategic Plan presented industry linkages as a new strategic area of engagement for the AAU. The SHESRA project and this study represent efforts by the AAU to support its members and the higher education community across Africa to strengthen linkages with industry and the productive sector.
Role of universities in economic development Universities hold three overlapping missions or mandates: teaching, research and outreach. The third mandate involves integrating or connecting university activities to society and the economy. However, many African universities have not actively or comprehensively pursued this third mission and consequently have been criticized as ivory towers (Fourie, 2003). Given the significant financing challenges facing many African universities, these institutions are under increasing pressure to demonstrate their social and economic relevance (Lundvall, 2009). Interacting more closely with industry and the productive sectors represents one avenue to enhance the relevance of universities to the economic development of their countries. Thus, the topic of university-industry linkages is increasingly coming to the fore in higher education policy dialogue in Africa.
In today’s knowledge-based economies, research and development (R&D) is seen as key to economic growth and competitiveness (Patel and Pavitt, 1994). Universities are increasingly recognized for their potential to contribute to R&D and innovation, and consequently governments around the world are taking action to foster an enabling environment for strengthened university-industry linkages. The 1980 Bayh-Dole Act passed by the United States to incentivise patenting, licensing, and technology transfer of university research is one of the earliest and clearest examples of efforts to foster entrepreneurialism and innovation at the university level. Since the 1980s, similar policies and strategies have spread to countries around the globe, including developing countries.
According to Goransson and Brundenius (2011), expenditures on university R&D as a percentage of Gross Expenditure on Research and Development (GERD) in several developing countries, including Latvia, Brazil, Cuba, and Uruguay, exceed that of developed countries They note that in Tanzania, for example, GERD as a percentage of GDP is significantly less than 1%; however, its universities account for about 60% of all R&D conducted in the country. Thus, despite the relatively small expenditures on R&D in some developing countries, including many African ones, universities are significant contributors to what research is being undertaken, thus providing justification for fortifying the role of these institutions. Universities themselves have highlighted the relevance of university research as one of the most pressing issues facing universities (Goransson and Brundenius, 2011).
Strengthening University-Industry Linkages in Africa: A Study of Institutional Capacities and Gaps ii. What are university-industry linkages?
The goal of supporting university-industry linkages is to promote the relevance and contribution of universities to socio-economic development. Although there is no step-by-step model describing how university-industry linkages are to be developed, the following three conceptual frameworks are often used to provide the theoretical underpinning for supporting these linkages. Within the National Systems of Innovation (NIS) framework, innovation is viewed as a collective process in which firms do not innovate in isolation but within a larger system involving firms, universities, research centres, government agencies and other actors (Goransson and Brundenius, 2011). The NIS model considers all aspects of the economic and institutional structure of a country that influence the development, diffusion and use of innovations (Edquist, 2004).
In the Triple Helix model developed by Etzkowtitz and Leydesdorff in 1997, innovation is seen as a product of interaction between three main actors: university, industry and government. In this model, universities focus on establishing institutional interface structures including industry liaison/technology transfer offices, business and technology incubators, and fostering entrepreneurialism through various policies and incentives (Etzkowtitz, 2008). Universities, for example, may even look to industry to recruit entrepreneurial researchers to work among their faculty and act as role models.
Finally, the model Mode 2 Knowledge Production centres around the “conditions for the organization and production of knowledge at the micro-level” and includes five features: transdisciplinarity, knowledge produced in the context of application, quality control, social accountability and reflexivity, and heterogeneity and organizational diversity (Goransson and Brundenius, 2011).
University-industry linkages can take various forms and involve different intensities of engagement. These include R&D, training and curriculum development, and consultancy (Martin, 2000). Enterprises and other actors may commission a specific research project, sponsor a university chair in an area of interest, or engage in joint R&D with universities. Through prototype development, technology incubation, the creation of spin-off companies for commercialization, licensing and royalty agreements and other related-activities, universities promote technology transfer to the productive sector. Other universities focus on providing consultancy and business services, such as testing and certification (Basant and Chandra, 2007).
In terms of teaching and training, university-industry activities include offering professional courses on a fee-basis to respond to the particular skill and training needs of industry. Universities may engage industry and other productive sector representatives in course curriculum development to ensure that degree programmes can produce graduates with the required knowledge and skills for the workforce. Creating opportunities for student attachments and co-op placements in the productive sector is another common way in which universities link up with industry (Homma and Attalage, 2008; Munyoki et al, 2011). Industries
Strengthening University-Industry Linkages in Africa: A Study of Institutional Capacities and Gaps may also play a role in defining student research projects that focus on issues and problems of direct interest to industry (Boersmaa and Gibbons, 2008).
University-industry linkages can either be formal or informal. As a means to support a more institutional approach to promoting linkages, many universities set up industry liaison offices, technology transfer offices, technology and business incubators, and in some cases establish science parks on or near campuses to facilitate such interaction (Lundvall, 2009). Leadership, dedicated posts, clear strategic direction, and policies for managing the effective governance of industry linkages are also important for promoting a more directed institutional approach to building industry linkages (Kruss, 2008). iii. Why are university-industry linkages important for Africa?
African universities have been criticized as ivory towers that churn out graduates and research that are irrelevant to the needs of employers and the social, economic, and technical challenges facing African economies. There is a growing perception that the knowledge and skills acquired by students at African universities do not meet the requirements of industry and the wider economy. This mismatch, coupled with under-training in the critical skills of problem-solving, analytical thinking and communication is blamed, at least in part, for the emerging high graduate unemployment and under-employment in many parts of Africa (Pauw et al, 2008). There is a need to bring together universities with productive sector representatives to update and upgrade curriculum to ensure that students graduate with relevant skills for the workforce. It is also increasingly recognized that universities should play a pivotal role in applying research and innovation to address socio-economic problems and promote innovation for economic growth by forging strategic partnerships with the productive sector of the economy and national innovation systems.
In the broader literature, perceived benefits from university-industry collaboration include: providing alternative funding channels in an era of constrained financing; access to/or acquisition of state-of-the-art equipment; improved curriculum and training in technology- oriented programmes and problem-solving; enhanced employment prospects for students; supplemental income for academic staff; and clearer contribution of universities to the economy, among others (World Economic Forum, 2011; Martin, 2000). In the context of fiscal constraints, graduate unemployment, and the need for universities to demonstrate greater accountability to society and respond to national development imperatives, the topic of university-industry linkages is becoming increasingly prominent in the discourse on higher education in Africa.
Although strengthening university-industry linkages offers many potential benefits, enthusiasm should be tampered with realism and recognition of the trade-offs inherent in promoting such linkages. While some universities have prospered significantly through large research contracts and the commercialization of marketable technology, many others have not necessarily accrued substantial revenue through activities directed towards the productive sector, though they have still benefitted in other ways (Goransson and Brundenius, 2011). Although working with
Strengthening University-Industry Linkages in Africa: A Study of Institutional Capacities and Gaps co-operatives, farmers, and micro-enterprises may not represent highly profitable activities, such engagement, nonetheless, plays an important social and economic function that should not be undervalued. Thus, the focus on commercialization needs to be balanced against the broader social mission of the university.
While promoting industry-relevant research and entrepreneurialism, universities must guard against a number of potential negative externalities. Universities must balance competing interests, such as: industry secrecy stipulations and profit-seeking against the traditional university practice of open communication and publication (Clark, 2011); support for basic versus applied, and scientific versus social research (Gulbrandsen and Smeby, 2005); providing industry-specific versus general training; monitoring academic staff time spent on research versus teaching (Kruss, 2008). They must also ensure that research is conducted in an ethical, interest-free way (Hernes and Martin, 2001). iv. The State of University-Industry Linkages in Africa
Many countries in Africa lack an enabling environment for reorienting and aligning universities and other higher education institutions (HEIs) towards a more entrepreneurial role. Apart from perhaps the Maghreb region and South Africa, most of sub-Saharan Africa lacks high-tech industries and a true technology culture (Barry and Sawyerr, 2008). Many of Africa’s industries are often small to medium-scale firms producing for local markets, while the relatively larger ones are subsidiaries of transnational companies which draw upon the in-house R&D capabilities of the parent company (Munyoki et al, 2011). Others note the lack of awareness of the existing research results and new technologies by industry; the absence of strong involvement of the users in defining the research agenda; and the irrelevance of some university research (Dhesi and Chadha, 1995).
Arguably, many African universities are not in a strong position to conduct research and technology development. Long years of neglect in financing higher education in Africa and university research have left many universities with weak research infrastructure (Atuahene, 2011) and reliant on donor funding for research (Mouton et al, 2008). Under the present massification of higher education in Africa, research activities among academic staff frequently take a back seat to fulfilling the ever-growing teaching demands (Mohamedbhai, 2008). Despite growing student numbers, enrolment in sciences and engineering in many countries is low (Boersmaa and Gibbons, 2008), with less than 10% of students enrolled in these disciplines in some universities (Goransson and Brundenius, 2011). Meanwhile, the migration of many talented academics to wealthier parts of the world, compounded by low salaries and moonlighting activities of some academic staff, have left many universities with few qualified researchers to conduct local research (Barry and Sawyerr, 2008). As a result, many African countries produce negligible research output (Mouton et al, 2008).
Low investment in science and technology and lack of national strategies in these areas further compound the difficulties (Mouton et al, 2008). Many African countries do not invest significantly in R&D with GERD falling well below the standard 1% of GDP set for developing
Strengthening University-Industry Linkages in Africa: A Study of Institutional Capacities and Gaps countries (Mouton et al, 2008). Similarly, many African countries lack relevant Science & Technology strategies, up-to-date policies on intellectual property rights (IPR) protection, and other such policies needed for direction and governance (Mouton et al, 2008). The lack of relevant strategies and policies is also evident at the university level. In Ethiopia, for example, not a single university had an IP policy in 2009 (Belete, 2009).
Despite the challenges inherent in establishing linkages with the productive sector in Africa, numerous African universities are responding to these new roles and expectations. While most of the literature highlights the weak state of current linkages across the continent and the lack of conducive conditions, these criticisms neglect to highlight the ongoing re-conceptualisation of the role of African universities and the corresponding measures being taken to strengthen institutional capacity to support such linkages with the productive sector. For example, the International Institute for Water and Environmental Engineering in Burkina Faso has 27 formal partnerships with companies, has established a technology incubator to help students launch their own innovative businesses, and over 90% of its graduates find employment within six months of completing their studies (www.2ie-edu.org).
Meanwhile, the Gatsby Fund at Makerere University in Uganda has established a business park and other services to help support small and medium-sized enterprises (SMEs) involved in manufacturing and industrial services in the small city of Mbarara (http://gatsbyuganda.com). These examples highlight the potential of university-industry linkages in Africa although, to date, many such engagements have been ad hoc, dependent on a few interested individuals at their particular institutions. It is now increasingly recognized that an institutional approach is crucial for the facilitation of university-industry linkages (Hernes and Martin, 2001).
The purpose of this paper is thus to gain a global picture of the capacity of African universities to support linkages with the productive sector and elicit areas where advocacy and support could help African universities overcome any capacity deficits and accelerate their progress. It does not endeavour to evaluate the outcomes or performance of university-firm linkages, but rather to provide a global, generalized picture of current capacity based on the self-assessment of universities.
Strengthening University-Industry Linkages in Africa: A Study of Institutional Capacities and Gaps
2. BACKGROUND: Study setting and population
According to the Fifth Edition of the Guide to Higher Education in Africa (2010)1, there are at least 1015 higher education institutions (HEIs) across Africa, consisting of universities, polytechnics, business schools, and other types of tertiary institutions. Across these institutions, there is considerable variety among programme type, length, specialisation and expertise. According to the Guide, the largest number of HEIs is based in North Africa (39%), followed by West Africa (20%), East Africa (18%), Central Africa (13%), and Southern Africa (11%). About 50% of these institutions are public. English is the most common language of instruction followed by French and Arabic2.
A sub-set of these 1015 HEIs are members of the AAU. The AAU currently serves 270 institutions, primarily public universities, from across the linguistic and geographical divides of Africa. Membership in the AAU is voluntary, but is restricted to degree-granting institutions which have obtained university status in their respective countries, award at minimum a Bachelor’s degree or its equivalent, and demonstrate sufficient staff and facilities, including library resources, to conduct university-level work.
The AAU runs a series of programmes and services funded through membership subscription fees and specific projects funded by development partners. This study forms part of the three- year project, Strengthening Higher Education Stakeholder Relations in Africa (SHESRA), developed in April 2010 in partnership with the AUCC, with funding from CIDA to strengthen African higher education links with the productive sector, with a particular emphasis on industry linkages.
The project consists of three components:
1. Strengthening African University Outreach – Supporting 15 African universities to work in collaboration with Canadian university partners to develop and/or strengthen strategic plans for improved outreach with external stakeholders, particularly industry;
2. University-Industry Linkages – Supporting 12 African universities to work in partnership with Canadian universities to produce a collection of case studies highlighting successful African university-industry linkages in order to share lessons learned with the broader higher education community in Africa; and,
3. Strengthening AAU Stakeholder Relations – Supporting the AAU to strengthen its own strategic plan and external stakeholder relations by working with the AUCC; and,
1 The Guide to Higher Education in Africa is published by the International Association of Universities (IAU) in partnership with the Association of African Universities (AAU) and the IAU/UNESCO Centre on Higher Education and is considered to be the most comprehensive listing of higher education institutions across Africa. 2 Private public data available for 824 institutions; language data available for 584 institutions
Strengthening University-Industry Linkages in Africa: A Study of Institutional Capacities and Gaps
conducting a scoping study to help the AAU better meet the needs of its member institutions.
This report describes the scoping study mentioned above.
Strengthening University-Industry Linkages in Africa: A Study of Institutional Capacities and Gaps
3. METHODOLOGY
3.1 Survey Questionnaire
A questionnaire was developed and piloted in 12 African universities three of which were 3 French institutions. The pilot institutions were selected based on their participation in other components of AAU’s SHESRA project. In light of the comments and recommendations received, changes were made to approximately 15% of the survey questions with the aim of condensing and simplifying the questionnaire. A consultant from a Canadian university was also engaged for feedback. It was subsequently administered to 437 institutions.
The questionnaire comprised of 42 questions, primarily close-ended, multiple-choice questions, though a small subset of open-ended questions was also included. Demographic information on public versus private status, country and regional location, language of instruction, and proportion of staff with doctorate degrees were requested in order to analyze trends among groups of institutions.
The questionnaire was shaped around six sub-sections:
1. Demographic Profile; 2. Institutional Arrangements and Interface Structures; 3. Institutional Policies on External Engagement and Intellectual Property Rights; 4. Type of Engagement with the Productive Sector; 5. Academic Staff and Curriculum; 6. Funding; and 7. Strengths, Challenges and Needs of Responding Institutions.
Although university-industry linkages are a two-way relationship, the scope of this study focuses exclusively on the university-side dynamics with a view to informing the development of capacity-building interventions and advocacy tools for the AAU and other development partners.
This survey was administered in conjunction with another project activity aiming to highlight successful examples of university-industry linkages in Africa through case studies. While the two sets of studies were designed to complement each other, the case studies have not at this stage sufficiently progressed to include them in this report.
It should be noted that in the context of this study, the term industry is used as a broad encompassing term which refers to all areas of the productive sector, including agriculture, banking and the informal sector, among others.
Strengthening University-Industry Linkages in Africa: A Study of Institutional Capacities and Gaps
3.2. Sample Population
The survey targeted higher education institutions across the continent from both AAU members and non-members using institutions listed in the 5th Edition of the Guide to Higher Education in Africa (2010). In order to distinguish between universities and other types of tertiary institutions, a query selected only those institutions with the word ‘university’ in the English translation of the institution’s name. Using the English names ensured that universities with names in Arabic, French, Portuguese, Afrikaans, and various other languages appeared in the sample. As some specialized institutes may also have the capacity to undertake research and forge productive linkages, the survey also included other higher education institutions in which the words “science,” “technology,” “communication,” or “engineering” appeared in the English title. Other types of higher education institutions were excluded as they were less likely to either have substantive research capacity or have research as part of their institutional mandate. Both private and public institutions were included. The query returned a sample of 514 institutions.
Focal contacts and email addresses for each institution were obtained from the 5th Edition of the Guide to Higher Education in Africa (2010). Where multiple institutional contacts were listed, email addresses for up to 3 contacts were entered into an Excel database. In cases where no email address was listed in the Guide, the institution’s website was consulted for contact information. Despite these efforts, email addresses for 77 institutions out of a total 514 were not located, mainly from Algeria, Congo, Egypt, Morocco, and Sudan. Their removal from the list reduced the sample to 437 institutions. In total 806 email addresses were obtained for the 437 institutions.
To help reduce non-response caused by out-of-date and non-functional institutional email addresses, the email addresses of a second list of contacts were gathered from AAU membership lists, recent AAU conferences and workshop lists. This second list generated an additional 487 contacts, the caveat being that some were duplicates of those already listed in the Guide to Higher Education.
Across the two lists, the majority of contacts obtained referred to individuals in senior positions such as Vice Chancellors, Pro/Deputy Vice Chancellors, Directors, Deans or other management- level positions. Where individuals other than VCs were contacted, the survey requested that these persons work through the VC’s office to ensure an institutional rather than a personal response. For their part, those VCs contacted directly were asked to designate an appropriate individual to coordinate data collection from across the institution. These instructions were given to ensure that appropriate, well-informed individuals were charged with providing the data. Figure 1 summarises the sampling methods.
Strengthening University-Industry Linkages in Africa: A Study of Institutional Capacities and Gaps
Figure 1: Sampling Methods
Guide to Higher Education in Africa, 5th Edition (2010) n=1015 institutions
Sample (inclusion criteria: university, science, technology, engineering, communications) n=437 institutions
Higher Education Guide (806) 1293 Email addresses AAU Membership lists (221) AAU Workshop and Project Participants (266)
The software programme, Survey Monkey, was used to deliver the survey online. The programme offers several advantages including generating a unique link to the online questionnaire for each participant. The software is also able to generate descriptive statistics and basic cross-tabulations. In order to accommodate institutions with low bandwidth or connectivity problems, soft copies in ‘MS Word’ format were availed and upon request sent as email attachments. Telephone interviews were deemed too difficult to conduct given the telecommunication network infrastructure across Africa.
Institutions were originally given a total of six weeks to respond, plus an additional one week extension. In the final week, non-respondents were contacted by telephone, where available.
The Survey Monkey software was used to generate descriptive statistics and cross-tabulations for closed, multiple-choice questions. Open-ended answers were coded using SPSS Text Analytics software.
Strengthening University-Industry Linkages in Africa: A Study of Institutional Capacities and Gaps
4. RESULTS
4.1 Response Rate
One hundred and thirty-three (133)3 responses (see Appendix A) were received from the 437 institutions contacted, representing a response rate of 30%.
The majority of respondents who submitted a response on behalf of their institution hold positions at the senior management level. The title/position for a subset of respondents (n=58/133) was recorded. Nearly half (45%; n=26/58) of respondents with data were either VCs/Rectors/Presidents or Vice-Presidents/Deputy Rectors. Directors/Deans accounted for another 34% (n=20/58) and Professors 10% (n=6/58). Only 10% (n=6/58) of respondents hold titles such as Programme Officer, Coordinator, Registrar, or Planning Advisor.
Respondent institutions spanned 35 countries. Four countries (Ghana, Kenya, Nigeria, and South Africa) submitted more than 10 responses each, accounting for 50 (38%) of the total responses; however, no response was received from 18 countries, namely: Angola, Cape Verde, Central African Republic, Chad, Comoros, Congo, Djibouti, Equatorial Guinea, Eritrea, Gabon, Guinea-Bissau, Libya, Malawi, Mali, Mauritania, Sao Tome and Principe, Seychelles, and Togo.
The distributions of respondents from the various regions in Africa are detailed in Tables 1 and 2. Proportionally a greater number of responses were received from East, West and Southern African institutions than from Central and North African institutions relative to the general sample population listed in the 2010 Guide to Higher Education in Africa (see Table 1).
Table 1: Summary of Distribution of Respondents by Region
Respondent Institutions Sub-region Total Sample Population* (n=133) Central 5% 13% East 29% 20% North 12% 33% Southern 20% 11% West 34% 22% * Based on all institutions in the “5th Edition of the Guide to Higher Education in Africa” (2010) which met the original query criteria (“university,” “science,” “technology,” “communication,” or “engineering” in the title of the institution)
3 Respondents who only entered their profile information but did not reply to any substantive questions on university-industry linkages were removed. In cases where a single HEI submitted more than one response to the questionnaire, the response submitted by the individual holding a higher official position was retained, while the other was excluded.
Strengthening University-Industry Linkages in Africa: A Study of Institutional Capacities and Gaps
Table 2: Regional Distribution of Respondents (see Appendix A for the HEIs in each country)
SOUTHERN CENTRAL NORTH Angola 0 Burundi 1 Algeria 3 Botswana 2 Cameroon 4 Egypt 4 1 Central African 0 0 Lesotho Republic Libya Malawi 0 Chad 0 Mauritania 0 Mozambique 1 Congo Brazzaville 0 Morocco 2 1 Democratic Republic 2 7 Namibia of Congo Tunisia South Africa 12 Equatorial Guinea 0 Sub-Total 16 Swaziland 1 Gabon 0 3 Sao Tome and 0 Zambia Principe Zimbabwe 5 Sub-Total 7 Sub-Total 26 WEST EAST SUMMARY
Benin 1 Comoros 0 Central 5% Burkina Faso 3 Djibouti 0 East 29% Cape Verde 0 Eritrea 0 North 12% Côte d’Ivoire 3 Ethiopia 4 Southern 20% Gambia 1 Kenya 10 West 34% 11 4 Total: Ghana Madagascar 133 respondents 100% Guinea 1 Mauritius 1 Guinea Bissau 0 Rwanda 5 Liberia 1 Seychelles Islands 0 0 1 Mali Somalia *Countries were classified by Niger 1 Sudan 2 region according to the Nigeria 17 Tanzania 6 groupings set out in the Annex Senegal 5 Uganda 6 of the Association of African 1 39 Universities’ Bye-Laws Sierra Leone Sub-Total www.aau.org/?q=about/govndorgstruct Togo 0 Sub-Total 45
Strengthening University-Industry Linkages in Africa: A Study of Institutional Capacities and Gaps
Among the respondents, 75% (n=100/133) were AAU Member Institutions, perhaps due to the larger number of contact addresses from East, West and Southern Africa that were extracted from AAU contact lists, allowing institutions from these regions to be targeted more intensively.
Respondents were mainly public (77%; n=101/132) than private institutions, mostly located in an urban area (66%; n=86/131), and use English as the official language of instruction (67%; n=88/132). Francophone institutions comprised the second major language group (26%; n=34/132), with Arabic-speaking and Portuguese-speaking institutions representing only 4% (n=5/132) and 1% (n=1/132) of the respondents respectively.
4.2 Limitations of the data
It is important to note that this study does not endeavour to evaluate the outcomes or performance of university linkages with the productive sector, but rather to provide a global, generalised picture of current capacity based on the self-assessment of universities.
Given the challenges of obtaining up-to-date email contacts for institutions, poor internet connectivity issues, and time constraints of academic staff, the 30% response rate representing 133 institutions represents one of the largest studies on university-industry linkages in Africa. Though a higher response rate would have improved the representativeness of the data, information from over 130 institutions, nevertheless, provides a solid foundation to begin informing interventions for strengthening university-industry linkages in Africa.
Although the study is quite representative of AAU member institutions (37% response rate across its 270 members), a greater number of responses from non-AAU Members, institutions in North and Central Africa, and private universities would help enhance the representativeness of the data and diversity of institutions. Consequently, the data most clearly represents the status of public universities in Eastern, Southern, and Western Africa, particularly AAU members which tend to be public universities. Although, broadly speaking, private universities tend to be more business-oriented and place a greater focus on teaching rather than research, a number of private universities have and are building linkages with the productive sector and as such their situation should be more clearly represented in future studies to address the needs of a burgeoning population of private universities across Africa.
While 133 institutions participated in the survey, not all questions were answered by all institutions. The number of institutions which responded to a particular question is provided in parentheses next to each statistic. Given the resource constraints of this study, it was not possible to manually verify the accuracy of data provided through on-site visits.
As this study is designed to assist with building the institutional capacity of universities to interface with the productive sector, the survey focuses exclusively on university-side capacity factors and does not address demand-side factors relating to industry; though, future AAU studies may focus on these issues. Because the primary purpose of this study was to undertake
Strengthening University-Industry Linkages in Africa: A Study of Institutional Capacities and Gaps a scoping exercise to provide practical information to higher education decision-makers on potential areas for concrete capacity-building, the application of a theoretical framework was not applied to the presentation of the results.
4.3 Results by Sub-Section
Results from the survey are grouped according to the following 6 sub-sections:
A. Demographic Profile; B. Institutional Arrangements and Interface Structures; C. Institutional Policies on External Engagement and Intellectual Property Rights; D. Type of Engagement with the Productive Sector; E. Academic Staff and Curriculum; F. Funding; and G. Strengths, Challenges, and Needs of Responding Institutions.
A summary of results is presented in Table 3. As not all 133 respondent institutions replied to each question, the denominator varies for each finding and is indicated next to each item.
Strengthening University-Industry Linkages in Africa: A Study of Institutional Capacities and Gaps
Table 3: Summary of Results
% No. of SUMMARY OF RESULTS respondents respondents SECTION A: DEMOGRAPHIC PROFILE ● % of academic staff with a doctorate degree: Institutions with less than 25% of academic staff 37% 48/131 Institutions with 26-50% of academic staff 26% 34/131 SECTION B: INSTITUTIONAL ARRANGEMENTS & INTERFACE STRUCTURES ● Have a Deputy VC (or equivalent) in charge of industry linkages 52% 57/110 ● Productive sector representatives sit on governing board/council 74% 82/111 ● Have a dedicated unit/office responsible for promoting and facilitating 72% 94/130 linkages with the productive sector ● Most common responsibilities of the industry liaison unit: Networking and seeking out external partners 83% 79/95 Contract negotiation 60% 57/95 Managing cooperatives with local business entrepreneurs 47% 45/95 ● Least common responsibilities of the industry liaison unit: Managing science parks 19% 18/95 ● Liaison unit/office employs a contract/intellectual property (IP) expert 32% 29/91 ● Annual budget of liaison unit/office is US $10,000 or less 30% 26/88 ● Institution is part of national or regional innovation system 60% 76/126 SECTION C: INSTITUTIONAL POLICIES ON EXTERNAL ENGAGEMENT AND INTELLECTUAL PROPERTY RIGHTS ● Institutional strategic plan contains reference to building linkages with 91% 115/127 productive sector ● Do not have the following policies Do not have a policy on conflict of interest 35% 45/130 Do not have a policy on the sharing and ownership of intellectual 35% 44/126 property Do not have a framework for costing and pricing of contract research 43% 55/127 and consultancy services Do not have guidelines for sharing of royalties and profits from 43% 55/127 collaborations with external actors Do not have environmental policies governing activities undertaken 46% 58/126 with the productive sector SECTION D: TYPE OF ENGAGEMENT WITH THE PRODUCTIVE SECTOR ● Most commonly reported collaborations with the following sectors: Agriculture and agribusiness 65% 84/130 ICT 63% 82/130 Environmental management 62% 80/130 Computer engineering 55% 71/130 Banking 50% 65/130 ● Types of activities most commonly conducted: Organized seminars and workshops on industry-related issues 70% 86/123 Conducted short courses for industry personnel 69% 85/123 Provided consultancy services to enterprises 63% 77/123 ● Least common activity: Supported science parks 22% 27/123 SECTION E: ACADEMIC STAFF AND CURRICULUM
Strengthening University-Industry Linkages in Africa: A Study of Institutional Capacities and Gaps
● Have no resources specifically dedicated to supporting entrepreneurial 24% 31/128 activities by staff ● Engage industry professionals for curricula development 78% 89/114 ● Offer internships/student attachments 86% 114/133 SECTION F: FUNDING ● Income generated in the last 5 years from consultancy services, commercialization of research, joint research and other activities undertaken with the productive sector: Less than US $10,000 20% 24/120 More than US $500,000 15% 18/120 ● Funding from the productive sector most commonly received for the following purposes: Student scholarships 64% 80/125 Graduate student research 52% 65/125 Investments in university laboratories and equipment 48% 60/125 Industry-commissioned research and/or technology development 46% 58/125 ● Tangible benefits of productive sector-oriented research/collaboration: Most commonly cited: Networking and access to industry partners 73% 75/103 Access to industry laboratories and equipment 60% 62/103 Journal publications 46% 47/103 Least commonly cited: Creation of spin-off/start-up companies 18% 19/103 Ownership of licenses or patents 18% 18/103 G. STRENGTHS, CHALLENGES AND NEEDS ● 4 factors reported to have played the most significant role in fostering linkages with the productive sector: Expressed support by the board of governors/governing council 48% 56/117 Presence of academic and/or professional staff with entrepreneurial 42% 49/117 experience Explicit promotion of productive sector linkages in the strategic plan, 38% 44/117 annual plan or other institutional priorities Senior leadership positions devoted to promoting linkages 37% 43/117 ● 4 factors considered by respondents to be the most significant challenges to strengthening engagement with the productive sector: Lack of financial support for research and other activities relevant to 61% 74/121 the productive sector Inadequate research infrastructure 42% 51/121 Lack of established networks with the productive sector 36% 44/121 Lack of entrepreneurial skills/knowledge among academic staff 36% 43/121 ● 3 support services cited as most needed from government and other stakeholders to help enhance institutional capacity to link with the productive sector: Training for academic staff in entrepreneurship skills 46% 57/123 Development of an institutional strategic plan with a focus on 46% 56/123 engagement with the productive sector Support for establishing technology incubators/science parks 44% 54/123
A. Demographic Profile
Strengthening University-Industry Linkages in Africa: A Study of Institutional Capacities and Gaps
A.1 Results:
The most salient feature that emerged from the institutional profile information is the low proportion of doctorate degree holders among academic staff at respondent institutions. 63% of respondents (n=82/131) reported that among academic staff only 50% or less hold doctorate degrees. Thirty-one per cent (n=31/100) of all public universities in the survey indicated that less than 25% of their academic staff hold doctorate degrees while only 15% of all respondent institutions employ over 75% of staff with this level of qualification. The trend is similar in private HEIs where even fewer doctorate degree holders are employed (see Table 4).
Table 4: Percentage of Faculty with Doctorate Degrees
% of Faculty with Public Private Response Per cent Other Doctorate Degrees institution institution (n=130)
25% or less 31 15 1 36% 26-50% 27 6 1 26% 51-75% 23 5 0 22% More than 75% 18 1 0 15% Don’t know 1 1 0 2% Total: 100 28 2 100%
Looking at the results by region, at least 25% of respondents from West Africa (n=12/45) and North Africa (n=4/16) reported that more than 75% of their faculty hold a PhD, whereas only 3 institutions from Central, East, and Southern Africa combined reported this level (n=3/70). In terms of the overall size of the staff body, 43% (n=56/131) of institutions have a total of at least 500 academic staff at various levels of qualification.
A.2. Discussion
Doctorate degree holders, by virtue of their training and educational attainments, are typically responsible for initiating and undertaking research, graduate student supervision, and holding senior management positions. It is interesting to note, that even among HEIs in South Africa - which accounts for a large proportion of all research conducted by African universities across the continent – it is uncommon to have more than 75% of staff with doctorate degrees. In fact, lack of qualified personnel, even above lack of funds, was cited by firms in South Africa as the greatest obstacle to contracting or collaborating with universities (Kruss et al, 2009). Thus, the low percentage of doctorate degree holders in African HEIs cannot be overlooked and needs to underscore implementation of strategies and policies at the national and institutional level for promoting university linkages with the productive sector and networking universities into national innovation systems.
Strengthening University-Industry Linkages in Africa: A Study of Institutional Capacities and Gaps
While some institutions may not have the qualifications and expertise to work with high-tech firms on cutting-edge technology, there is still much space to conduct relevant research, especially in terms of upgrading or adapting existing technology to meet the needs of local firms and local producers. Universities will therefore need to appraise their own research capacity and fields of specialisation in order to market their expertise to the right constituents.
B. Institutional Arrangements and Interface Structures
B.1 Results:
The majority of the respondent institutions indicate that they have created designated positions and/or offices for fostering industry linkages.
Over half of the institutions have one or more positions dedicated to industry linkages:
52% (n=57/110) have a Deputy VC/Pro-VC/Vice-Rector/Vice-President in charge of industry linkages 58% (n=63/109) have a Provost/Dean/Director/Principal in charge of industry linkages 52% (n=52/100) have an Industry Liaison Officer
In addition, 74% (n=82/111) indicated that representatives from the productive sector sit on their institutions’ governing board or council.
In terms of key interface structures, nearly three-quarters (72%; n=94/130) reported having a dedicated unit or office responsible for promoting and facilitating linkages with the productive sector. The majority of such units (62%; n=58/94) are located in the Office of the Vice- Chancellor (or equivalent) or the Office of the Deputy Vice-Chancellor (or equivalent).
These offices primarily focus on networking and seeking out external partners (83%; n=79/95); contract negotiation (60%; n=57/95), and managing cooperatives with local business entrepreneurs (47%; n=45/95). Comparatively fewer respondent institutions undertake activities related to managing science parks (19%; n=18/95) or patenting and licensing (30%; n=28/95). The information is graphically presented in Figure 2. In the survey, South Africa alone accounts for 21% (n=6/28) institutions whose industry liaison units are involved with patenting and licensing and 28% (n=5/18) of units managing science parks.
Figure 2: Main Responsibilities of Office/Unit in Charge of Industry Linkages (n=95)
Strengthening University-Industry Linkages in Africa: A Study of Institutional Capacities and Gaps
Main Responsibilities of Office/Unit in Charge of Industry Linkages 90% 83% 80% 70% 60% 60% 47% 50% 35% 34% 40% 30% 33% 30% % Institutions % 19% 20% 10%
0%
…
…
off off
-
Contract
licensing
Managing Managing
incubators
technology
Managing Managing
negotiation
Managing Managing
Patenting & & Patenting
with local local with
managing managing
Seeking & & Seeking
spin
cooperatives
science parksscience
seekingout
venture capital venture
Networking & Networking&
Development & Development& management ofmanagement
external partnersexternal
Only 32% (n=29/91) indicated that their industry-linkages unit employs a contract/IP expert, and South Africa accounts for 24% (n=7/29) of these institutions. In an open-ended question, over 50% of respondents (n=34/63) mentioned that additional expertise in IP is needed at their institution. A need for additional expertise in marketing followed at 38% (n=24/63).
Reported annual operating budgets of these industry-linkages units vary significantly, with the least-funded 19% (17/88) running on less than US $5,000 and the best-funded 21% (n=18/88) having at least US $50,000 at their disposal. Again, the most resourced offices are disproportionately located in South Africa which accounts for 39% (n=7/18) of institutions with budgets greater than US $50,000.
B.2 Discussion
On a global level, the results demonstrate that the majority of African universities have made at least initial efforts to foster and institutionalize linkages with the productive sector via the creation of designated posts and offices. However, it is clear that the structures dedicated to such linkages are operating on minimal budgets in many institutions, with perhaps low expertise related to intellectual property rights management and marketing strategies.
Excluding South Africa, a small percentage of institutions (mainly in Kenya, Nigeria, Burkina Faso and Senegal) is managing science parks and/or involved with patenting and licensing. This may reflect the limited budget of the industry linkages offices, the low percentage of professors with the requisite experience and qualifications including doctorate degrees, lack of access to
Strengthening University-Industry Linkages in Africa: A Study of Institutional Capacities and Gaps research laboratories and up-to-date equipment4 as well as limited expertise in IP management. This finding on low capacity in IP management mirrors the finding of a study conducted by the Southern African Regional Universities Association (SARUA) in 2007 across Southern African Development Community (SADC) countries (Mouton et al, 2008).
Recognizing that patents and copyrights are often considered the de facto measure of innovation, strengthening IP management is an important dimension for recognizing and protecting the innovations developed at African HEIs. However, it must also be recognized that even in South Africa where university-industry linkages are arguably the most developed on the continent, few patents are held by universities – partly because the patents accruing from commissioned research are owned by industry and not the university, but also because of the considerable barriers and financial risks involved (Kruss, 2005). The cost of applying for and holding a patent until commercialisation can be prohibitive, forcing patent holders to sell their rights prematurely. Thus, efforts to strengthen IP management need to focus equally on making universities aware of the benefits and risks of patenting as well as the building of the technical/legal expertise in this area.
Considering that most African universities operate in a context of considerable fiscal constraints, it would be useful for future investigations to look into innovative ways of using the resources at hand and linking them with areas of the productive sector, such as the informal sector, which may not rely so heavily on patentable products and processes.
C. Institutional Policies on External Engagement and Intellectual Property Rights
C.1 Results
While the overwhelming majority of institutions (91%; n=115/127) report having a strategic plan that contains an explicit reference to building linkages with the productive sector, many lack the backing policies and mechanisms for regulating interactions with this sector. Data on this is detailed as follows:
i. Regulating time 15% (n=19/131) have no policies or mechanisms for regulating the time academic staff spend on academic duties versus private research and/or consultancy services. 45% (n=59/131) have policies, but no mechanisms for monitoring time spent on these competing activities.
ii. Intellectual Property Ownership 35% (n=44/126) have no official policy regarding sharing and ownership of intellectual property (IP) produced by academic staff.
4 More detail is provided in section G of the results.
Strengthening University-Industry Linkages in Africa: A Study of Institutional Capacities and Gaps
43% (n=55/127) have no guidelines outlining how royalties and profits generated from collaborations with external actors are shared among staff, the institution and third parties. 36% (n=45/126) stated that ownership is shared between the institution and academic staff, though in what proportions it is shared is not known.
iii. Other Policies 35% (n=45/130) have no policy regarding conflict of interest/pecuniary issues. 43% (n=55/127) have no framework to determine costing and pricing for contract research and consultancy services. 46% (n=58/126) have no environmental impact assessment policies governing activities undertaken with the productive sector.
In another section of the survey, respondents were asked to elaborate on a positive and/or negative outcome of their institution’s engagement with the productive sector. Among the 30 institutions that highlighted a negative outcome, the most common issues revolved around intellectual property protection and patenting issues (n=6/30).
Only 35% (n=46/133) of respondents indicated that they have a mechanism to monitor or evaluate the effectiveness and/or profitability of collaborations with the productive sector. Among the 46 with review mechanisms, 13 (28%) use external evaluation.
C.2 Discussion
Strategic plans can provide an important overarching vision for shaping and directing research priorities (Parker, 1992). Strategic plans can thus help build institutional research capacity by ensuring that research projects are selected according to those that align best with university objectives, including niche areas of specialization, and promote involvement and capacity- building amongst graduate students. In directing priorities, strategic plans can help institutions shift away from the current system of disparate, fragmented, individualistic researcher collaborations aimed primarily at career advancement – a problem encountered in many African universities - towards building overall institutional research capacity (Kruss et al, 2009).
Developing strategic plans, however, needs to be more than just a paper exercise. Direct importation and simple imitation of strategic plans and policies from other countries, particularly the more developed economies, without a serious reflection of the institution’s actual capacity and a realistic vision of its future direction, risk putting in place irrelevant, vacuous policies. As a case in point, the Science & Technology (S&T) strategies found in some SADC countries present priority areas such as nanotechnology, which are largely inappropriate given the context in which the countries operate (Mouton et al. 2008, 2008).
Strengthening University-Industry Linkages in Africa: A Study of Institutional Capacities and Gaps
Based on the survey results, it is clear that policies governing time spent on external activities, costing of consultancy services, IP sharing, royalties, environmental concerns, and conflict of interests are lacking in a large proportion of institutions. Such policies are important for effective governance of university-industry linkages in order to minimize tensions that may likely arise over claims to royalties; ensure that budgets reflect the true cost of utilising university research facilities and personnel; and ensure that professors continue to meet their teaching obligations while being able to benefit from income-supplementing work, and that ethical and environmental considerations are taken into account. These considerations are important given the prominence of current practices in which many professors undertake individual consultancy work that utilizes university resources but which is undertaken for personal benefit (Hernes and Martin, 2001). Such policies would also help universities address ethical issues and potential domination of the research agenda that may arise from working with industry (Hernes and Martin, 2001).
Based on the findings, it is unclear whether institutions lack the capacity to formulate and enforce these policies or simply do not consider them a priority. Yet examples in the literature show that some African universities have successfully managed to balance consultancies at the institutional level with independent academic research projects (Price, 1995). Going forward, feedback and monitoring mechanisms may be useful for assessing the effectiveness, impact and profitability of such engagements.
D. Type of Engagement with the Productive Sector
D.1 Results
Among the 18 listed sectors, respondent institutions (n=130) were most active in: agriculture and agribusiness, ICTs, environmental management, computer engineering, and banking. In contrast, they had less collaboration with the manufacturing industry, pharmaceutical industry, mining industry and entertainment industry. The results are summarized in Figure 3 below which presents the sectors in which respondent institutions have been engaged during the last 5 years.
Figure 3: HEIs Collaboration with Various Sectors of the Productive Sector
Strengthening University-Industry Linkages in Africa: A Study of Institutional Capacities and Gaps
Sectors of collaboration with the productive sector (Last 5 years) 70% 65% 63% 62% 60% 55%
50% 50% 40% 30% 26% 25% 24% 23%
20% % Institutions % 10%
0%
Mining
Banking
Computer
software
industry
engineering
general
engineering
Agribusiness
ICT, including ICT,
Agriculture & & Agriculture
management
Entertainment
Environmental
Pharmaceuticals Manufacturing in in Manufacturing
In addition, at least 50% of the 110 institutions which responded to the particular question indicated that they have worked with each of the following partners: international organizations, science research councils, manufacturing/industry associations, chambers of commerce/banking institutions, state/crown corporations, transnational/large local corporations, and micro/small-medium-sized enterprises.
In terms of the types of activities undertaken, the most common activities included: Organizing seminars and workshops on industry-related issues (70%; n=86/123) Conducting short courses for industry personnel (69%; n=85/123) Providing consultancy services to enterprises (63%; n=77/123) Running short courses for small-scale local entrepreneurs (58%, n=72/123) Supporting development-oriented technology transfer for local communities (50%; n=61/123).
They were least engaged in supporting science parks (22%; n=27/123), surveying the skill needs of industry (29%), or supporting technology incubators (33%; n=41/123).
D.2 Discussion
The strength of university-industry linkages is typically gauged in terms of how closely institutions work with high-tech industries and other large players in the formal sector. However, African economies differ significantly from more industrialised economies. As noted across the literature, the continent is marked by a very small high-tech sector with low-level processing of natural resources (Barry and Sawyerr, 2008). This is confirmed by the survey
Strengthening University-Industry Linkages in Africa: A Study of Institutional Capacities and Gaps where comparatively few African HEIs actively collaborate with the manufacturing, pharmaceutical and mining sectors. In general, firms in Africa tend to make use of low technology products, operating at low technical efficiency with little interest in investing in R&D generally, including the adaptation of foreign technology for local contexts (Barry and Sawyerr, 2008). Yet, it is well-known that many foreign technologies are not ideally suited for African conditions – its climate, soil and other aspects of the operating environment. Because of small markets and low purchasing power in Africa, many global firms are unlikely to develop specialized products for Africa. In this context, universities may therefore be well-placed to fill this role – to be leaders in technology midwifery and solution providers for African firms and producers. Improvements in production processes and small technological adaptations could play an important role in increasing productivity for local firms, product quality control and value addition for local firms, particularly the small and medium size enterprises (Moshe et al, 2000).
Recognizing that agriculture and the informal sector comprise a large part of the productive sector in African countries, the focus on the agricultural sector, local entrepreneurs, and development-oriented technology transfer is significant as these sectors are major contributors to most African economies. Thus, as universities are promoted as an integral part of the national innovation system – including national agricultural research systems - their contribution should not be measured narrowly in terms of their contribution to industry and the formal sector, but equally for their role in promoting productivity gains throughout the larger productive sector, including agriculture and the informal economy.
That being said, oil and mineral extraction activities account for a large proportion of productive sector activities in a number of African economies, such as Angola, Libya, Nigeria and Sudan. Recognizing this, institutions such as the International Institute for Water and Environmental Engineering (2ie) in Burkina Faso have put in place innovative degree and professional course programmes geared towards geotechnics, energy, water, and environmental management in mines and quarries (Ginies and Mazurelle, 2010). Further investigation into the most productive forms of university engagement with these sectors could play an important role in these economies.
Science parks and technology incubators serve as formal structures to develop, mature, and showcase novel technology and solutions; they can help legitimize, formalize, and publicize the entrepreneurial role of universities. Yet from this survey, few universities appear to have established such structures. Next steps may look at what capacity (financial support, IP expertise, project management skills, etc.) is typically needed to set up and sustain such structures for African universities.
Successful uptake of university innovation, however, will also necessarily rely on stimulating response from firms and increasing the demand-side of the equation. From the findings of the study, African universities seem to be actively collaborating with emerging growth sectors, such as ICTs, computer engineering and banking. Initiatives that bring universities and industry to the
Strengthening University-Industry Linkages in Africa: A Study of Institutional Capacities and Gaps table are needed to market the potential of universities as industry problem-solvers and accelerate linkages across this and other key sectors.
E. Academic Staff and Curriculum
E.1 Results
While the majority of respondent institutions (63%; n=81/128) were at minimum engaging guest speakers to provide business and entrepreneurial advice, nearly a quarter (24%; n=31/128) had no resources specifically dedicated to supporting entrepreneurial activities by staff. Beyond the minimal engagement of guest speakers, a wide variety of other resources and incentives were also being employed though at a much lower frequency. Support for sabbatical arrangements/exchanges with the private sector; recognition awards for industry-related research and entrepreneurial activities; monetary bonuses; promotion based on industry- related research and entrepreneurial activities; monetary bonuses; access to special funds; and access to seed grants for commercializing outputs were each being employed by only about 25- 30% of the 128 institutions which responded to the corresponding questions.
With regards to improving the relevance of the curricula to the productive sector, 78% (n=89/114) engaged industry professionals for curricula development. Furthermore, 90% (n=102/114) reported employing industry professionals as part-time or full-time lecturers. Also 86% (n=114/133) of respondents indicated that they offer internships/student attachments at their institution, and of these 25% avail these opportunities across all or most Faculties. Student placements were most commonly arranged by Faculties of science (35%) and business (27%). Details are outlined in Table 5.
Strengthening University-Industry Linkages in Africa: A Study of Institutional Capacities and Gaps
Table 5: Availability of Student Attachments by Faculty
Number of Faculty Offering Student Responses Placements (n=114) Agriculture 13 (11%) Engineering 17 (15%) Health Sciences 19 (17%) Education 20 (18%) Social Sciences & Humanities 20 (18%) Technology 20 (18%) All Faculties 27 (24%) Business 36 (32%) Other 38 (33%) Science 40 (35%)
E.2 Discussion
Based on the survey results, it appears that while most HEIs are taking some precursory steps to incentivise and encourage entrepreneurial activities among their academic staff, the overall level of resources devoted to this end seems low. A shift away from promotion based exclusively on publications towards a promotion scale that includes recognition for contributions to industry and entrepreneurial activities could perhaps improve the participation of academic staff in these areas. Getting staff on board might also require addressing negative perceptions against the marketisation of higher education and the view that commissioned research is not ‘real’ science and applied research is inferior to blue sky research (Kruss et. al, 2009).
The survey findings suggest that the employment of industry professionals as adjunct faculty is widespread. While industry professionals can bring value-added knowledge and hands-on experience to the classroom, it is also important to ensure that such professionals are suitably qualified to teach at the university level and not just employed out of scarcity.
From the vast majority of respondent institutions offering student internships, it is clear that institutions value the practical experience obtained by their students, especially in the fields of business and science. However, more information on the quality of training and supervision would help ensure that students, host organizations, and universities gain maximum benefit from these placements.
Strengthening University-Industry Linkages in Africa: A Study of Institutional Capacities and Gaps
F. Funding
F.1 Results
The results of the survey show that institutions are receiving income for productive-sector linkages from several sources: internally-generated funding; private funds from firms and companies in the productive sector; and funds for capacity-building by donors and other external partners. i. Revenue
Figure 4 demonstrates that there is a wide disparity in income generated by higher education institutions from collaboration with the productive sector. While the bottom 20% (n=24/120) reported having generated less than US $10,000 in the last 5 years from consultancy services, commercialization of research, joint research and other activities undertaken with the productive sector, the upper 15% (n=18/120) generated at least half a million US dollars.
Figure 4: Revenue Received from Activities Conducted with or for the Productive Sector
Revenue received from consultancy services commercialization of research, joint research, and other activities undertaken with the productive sector (last 5 years, US dollars) None (11%) % of Institutions Don't know denoted in (24%) <$ 10,000 (9%) parentheses
$10,000-50,000 None >$500,000 (23%) < $10,000 (15%) $10,000-$50,000 $100,001- $50,001-$100,000 500,00 $100,001-$500,000 (11%) $50,001-100,00 > $500,000 (8%) Don’t know
Figure 5 shows that institutions from East Africa and Southern Africa were more likely to earn at least US $500,000 from collaboration with the productive sector. The high performance in the Southern African region, however, can be attributed almost entirely to a single country, South Africa, where 5 institutions reported income in the top range. In East Africa, the 7 responses were more evenly distributed across Kenya, Rwanda, Tanzania, and Uganda. Notably,
Strengthening University-Industry Linkages in Africa: A Study of Institutional Capacities and Gaps a large number of institutions, especially from West Africa, did not know how much income their institutions earned from relevant activities which may affect the distribution of income earned across the regions if this data was available.
Figure 5: Revenue Received from Activities Conducted with/for the Productive Sector by Region
Revenue received from consultancy services, commercialization of research, joint research, and other activities undertaken with the productive sector (last 5 years; US dollars)
35
30 25 Central Africa East Africa 20 North Africa 15 Southern Africa 10 West Africa
5 Number ofInstitutions Number 0 None < $10,000 $10,000- $50,001- $100,001- > $500,000 Don’t $50,000 $100,000 $500,000 know
Generally speaking, HEIs in this study are applying profits generated from productive-sector related activities primarily towards institutional budget support (75%; n=93/124). Only 9% (n=11/124) of institutions are re-investing some of their profits to fund future activities related to industry linkages. ii. Funding from the productive sector
According to respondent institutions, funds from the productive sector are most commonly given for student scholarships (64%; n=80/125), academic excellence awards (55%; n=69/125), and graduate student research (52%; n=65/125). Industry-commissioned research and/or technology development and investments in university laboratories and equipment also rank among the top 5 at 46% (n=58/125) and 48% (60/125) respectively. Sponsorship of university chairs and seed grants were less common, cited by only 35% (n=44/125) and 18% (n=23/1235) of respondents respectively. However, the monetary amount received for each of these purposes is unknown (see Figure 6).
Strengthening University-Industry Linkages in Africa: A Study of Institutional Capacities and Gaps
Figure 6: Funds Received From Productive Sector for Various Purposes
Funds Received from the Productive Sector for Various Purposes
70% 64% 60% 55% 52% 48% 50% 46%
40% 35%
30% 22% 18% 20% 12% 10%
0%
-
Seed grantsSeed
research
Industry
equipment
research
% Institutions% receiving support foreach purpose
support
laboratories & laboratories&
Investments in
commissioned
Sponsorship of Sponsorship
Graduate studentGraduate
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Francophone universities in the survey were less likely than their English counterparts to report receiving funding for university chairs (20% vs. 43%), for scholarships (43% vs. 73%) and academic excellence awards (37% vs 62%). These data are based on responses from 86 Anglophone universities and 30 Francophone universities. iii. Capacity-building funds from donors and other external partners
African HEIs also receive other external sources of funding to enhance their capacity to engage with the productive sector. Although the survey did not collect information regarding the dollar amount of funding received from various sources, the three most cited sources of funds for capacity-building as reported by 106 respondents are the national government (70%), foreign or local development partners (65%), and private enterprises (58%). In this area, Francophone universities were more likely to report receiving capacity-building support from industry (76%) than Anglophone universities (49%).
In addition to monies generated, a number of other tangible and intangible benefits have been cited as outcomes of collaboration with the productive sector. These include networking and access to industry partners (73%; n=75/103); access to industry laboratories and equipment
Strengthening University-Industry Linkages in Africa: A Study of Institutional Capacities and Gaps
(60%; n=62/103); and journal publications (46%; n=47/103). However, Francophone institutions were much less likely to report publications as a tangible outcome (13%; n=3/24) compared to 58% (n=41/71) in Anglophone universities. The creation of spin-off/start-up companies (18%; n=19/103) and ownership of licenses or patents (18%; n=18/103) have also been cited, although to a lesser extent.
In an open-ended question, institutions were asked what intangible benefits were received. Of the 79 institutions that responded, 51 (65%) mentioned increased institutional prestige as a positive externality of engagement with the productive sector. They also stressed the benefit of enhanced graduate employability as a result of improved curricula, skill development and internships. Increased job satisfaction among academic staff was the third most cited benefit. Other spin-offs, including contribution to community development, increased publications, networking, and enhanced revenue for staff and the institution were all mentioned to a lesser extent.
F.2 Discussion
There is a growing assertion that industry partnerships represent an important alternative funding avenue for universities. From this study, respondent institutions indicated most frequently benefiting from relations with industry via commissioned research, investments in labs and equipment, student scholarships and funding for graduate research, though the monetary value of these contributions is unknown. In South Africa, 58% of higher education research funding is derived from private sector research contracts (NACI, 2002).
On the other hand, the lion’s share of research funding can be highly concentrated in a handful of institutions. In Canada, for example, a few top performing universities attract the bulk of research funding while the smaller undergraduate, teaching universities are much less likely to attract significant funding (RESEARCH Infosource Inc., 2010).
In assessing the survey results, it also appears that only a handful of institutions have been able to capture substantive financial gains through industry partnerships. In contrast to the successful upper tier, many institutions generate only marginal or no income from such activities.
As the mandate to establish industry partnerships is a relatively new function for many African universities, there is much scope to enhance the revenue-generating potential of future partnerships. Consideration should, however, be given to the fact that universities have differential research capacities, expertise, locations, and other distinguishing features that will affect their ability to attract external research or problem-solving contracts. Furthermore, commercialization entails a certain level of risk and may or may not generate profits. Consequently, university partnerships with the productive sector should be assessed not only through a financial lens, but also in terms of their broader contributions to national economic development. Universities also have to accept that while partnerships with industry produce
Strengthening University-Industry Linkages in Africa: A Study of Institutional Capacities and Gaps mutual benefits, economic benefits often accrue disproportionately to industry (Kruss, 2005). Further investigation into what factors and institutional characteristics have enabled some African institutions to establish financially-productive relationships with industry would provide useful insight for assisting institutions which have seen less financial benefit. This aspect is being examined in depth in another component of the AAU SHESRA Project.
Above and beyond the tangible benefits, increased morale and job satisfaction among staff are unquantifiable spin-offs attributed by respondent institutions to various forms of linkages with the productive sector and reinforce other findings from the literature (Michelsen et al. 2003). Furthermore, developing a stronger research base can help attract quality staff (Kruss, 2005). Thus promoting research opportunities may help play a small, but positive role in reducing staff attrition and brain drain.
G. Strengths, Challenges and Needs
G.1. Results
Respondents were asked to select the 4 factors, among a list of 16, that have played the most significant role in fostering linkages with the productive sector. The most frequently cited, hierarchically, were:
Expressed support by the board of governors/governing council (48%; n=56/117) Presence of academic and/or professional staff with entrepreneurial experience (42%; n=49/117) Explicit promotion of productive sector linkages in the strategic plan, annual plan or other institutional priorities (38%; n=44/117) Senior leadership positions devoted to promoting productive sector linkages (37%; n=43/117)
Supplementary revenue from non-traditional sources such as licensing and commercialising (9%; n=10/117) and government policies promoting linkages with the productive sector (15%; n=17/117) were cited as the least enabling factors, as graphically represented in Figure 7.
Figure 7: Enabling Factors for Strengthening Linkages with the Productive Sector
Strengthening University-Industry Linkages in Africa: A Study of Institutional Capacities and Gaps
Enabling factors cited by respondents for strengthening linkages with the productive sector (n=117)
60% 48% 50%
42% 38% 40% 37% 30% 29% 28% 27% 30% 25% 21% 17% 20% 16% 15% 15% % Institutions% 9% 10%
0%
-
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-
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-
agencies
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promoting linkages promoting
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Similarly, among a list of 12, respondents were asked to select the 3 factors that represent the most significant challenges to strengthening linkages with the productive sector. Those cited most often were: Lack of financial support for research and other activities relevant to the productive sector (61%; n=74/121) Inadequate research infrastructure (e.g. laboratories and equipment) (42%; n=51/121) Lack of entrepreneurial skills and knowledge among academic staff (36%; n=43/121) Lack of established networks with the productive sector (36%; n=44/121)
Industry secrecy stipulations which prevent or limit the sharing of intellectual property through publication in scientific journals (9%; n=11/121); absence of national policies and laws on intellectual property right protection (11%; 13/121); and lack of commercialisable products (12%; n=14/121) were cited least frequently (see Figure 8). While Anglophone institutions did not consider the absence of national policies and laws on intellectual property right protection to be a significant barrier to strengthening linkages with the productive sector (only 4%;
Strengthening University-Industry Linkages in Africa: A Study of Institutional Capacities and Gaps n=3/79), nearly a quarter (22%; n=7/32) of Francophone institutions noted this issue among the top three inhibitors.
Figure 8: Inhibiting Factors to Building Linkages with the Productive Sector
Inhibiting factors cited by respondents to strengthening linkages with the productive sector (n=121)
70% 61%
60%
50% 42% 40% 36% 36%
30% 22% 22% 22%
% Institutions% 20% 15% 14% 12% 11% 9% 10%
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Lackof established networks Industry secrecyIndustrystipulations Apathy amongApathyacademic staff
Finally, respondents were asked which 3 support services are most needed from government and other stakeholders to help enhance institutional capacity to link with the productive sector. Factors cited most frequently among respondents were: Training for academic staff in entrepreneurship skills (46%; n=57/123) Development of an institutional strategic plan with a focus on engagement with the productive sector (46%; 56/123) Support for establishing technology incubators and/or science parks (44%; 54/123)
Strengthening University-Industry Linkages in Africa: A Study of Institutional Capacities and Gaps
Support for science parks was particularly strong among Francophone institutions: 55% (n=17/31) compared to 39% (n=32/82) from Anglophone universities. Opportunities to learn from institutions with a history of successful engagement with the productive sector was also strongly cited (43%; n=52/123). Factors cited the least often were:
Development of curricula that promotes entrepreneurial skills (22%; n=27/123) Development of institutional policies for governing ownership of intellectual property rights (16%; n=20/123)
Figure 9: Support Services Needed for Strengthening Linkages with the Productive Sector
Key Support Services Requested
50% 46% 46% 44% 45% 42% 40% 36% 35%
35% 32% 30% 25% 22% 20% 16%
% Institutions% 15% 10% 5%
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Strengthening University-Industry Linkages in Africa: A Study of Institutional Capacities and Gaps
G.2. Discussion i. Enabling and Inhibiting Factors
A cross-cutting theme from this section appears to be the importance of leadership both at the policy and personnel levels. Expressed support by the governing board, promotion of productive sector linkages in the strategic plan, senior leadership positions, and presence of entrepreneurial staff all ranked among the top enabling factors.
Lack of financial support for research and inadequate research infrastructure needed to undertake research activities represent considerable constraints to the respondents. While advocacy to increase public funding for research should be undertaken, public-private collaborations, partnerships, and contracted research can help bring much needed resources for research into African universities, although universities need to be realistic about the amount that can be expected.
Although university-industry linkages require pro-activity on the part of both sides, the emphasis on the need for internal capacity-building (skill development, strategic planning, leadership etc.) rather than on non-conducive external conditions (lack of national policies, industry weaknesses, etc.) suggests a strong recognition by respondent universities for universities to take responsibility and action for strengthening their own internal capacity to work with the productive sector. ii. Support services
From the survey, the presence or conversely absence of academic staff or professionals with relevant entrepreneurial experience emerged as a key factor in enabling and hindering HEI linkages with the productive sector. Thus, the demand for training in entrepreneurial skills directly responds to the constraints identified by respondents and represents an important avenue for strengthening linkages. Opportunities to learn from institutions with a strong record of engagement may play a similar role in providing opportunities for peer learning.
The development of strategic plans with strong emphasis on productive sector linkages also emerged as one of the three most important support services requested. The emphasis on strategic plans, however, seems somewhat paradoxical given the fact that 92% of respondent institutions indicated that they already had a strategic plan with an explicit mention of productive sector linkages in place. This incongruence may indicate that although strategic plans have been developed, they require strengthening or perhaps the development of concrete action plans for effective implementation. As mentioned previously, strategic plans can serve to play an important function in focusing priorities, yet these documents need to be developed with conscientious introspection if they are to become effective guiding documents.
Finally, support for establishing science parks and technology incubators was the third most commonly requested support service. Such support would likely need to extend beyond setting
Strengthening University-Industry Linkages in Africa: A Study of Institutional Capacities and Gaps up the physical infrastructure, but also in building IP expertise, business and project management skills, etc. required for the effective governance of such structures. For such ventures to succeed and yield benefits to both universities and industry, high calibre faculty with the appropriate qualifications and skills are also critically important.
Though the development of appropriate IP policies did not appear among the immediate priorities of respondent institutions, such policies are definitely needed for effective governance of techno parks and incubators, and should accompany efforts to train specialists in IP issues as requested by respondent institutions in earlier parts of the survey. Institutional IP policies may be especially important in the absence of national policy frameworks. As conflicts and issues concerning IP have already occurred in some respondent institutions, the development of appropriate IP policies and expertise may be helpful in mitigating future conflicts as institutions deepen and broaden their engagement with the productive sector.
Curiously, support for the development of curricula that promotes entrepreneurial skills ranked among the least requested support services. Given that respondents identified training in entrepreneurial skills for staff as the most commonly requested support service, it is slightly incongruous that support for incorporating entrepreneurial skill development in the academic curriculum was not identified as a core need. More investigation is needed to understand what accounts for this discrepancy.
5. CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS
This study has sought to contribute to a deeper understanding of university linkages in Africa by helping to establish some basic markers to determine where African universities are in terms of their capacity to establish, manage, and govern collaborations with the productive sector. It is hoped that the findings will help inform evidence-based approaches to institutional capacity building in this area. The conclusions drawn from the study are as follows:
Recognising the economic realities of the countries in which African HEIs operate, it may be more appropriate to apply a more encompassing definition of industry - one that includes all aspects of the productive sector, including agriculture and the informal sector - when developing strategies and interventions to strengthen university-industry linkages.
The literature demonstrates that strengthening university linkages with the productive sector in Africa is constrained by, inter alia: low numbers of qualified faculty, including doctorate degree holders; brain drain, ageing faculty, and other issues associated with staff retention; low enrolment in maths, engineering, and other science-related disciplines against large enrolments in social sciences and humanities; inadequate research infrastructure at many universities and lack of access to up-to-date publications; funding constraints; and teaching rather than research-focused mandates. These constraints, however, should not be
Strengthening University-Industry Linkages in Africa: A Study of Institutional Capacities and Gaps
considered as a deterrent to strengthening working relationship with the productive sector, but should be taken into account in devising the best way forward.
Overall, the study results indicate that HEIs in Africa are taking steps to link with the productive sector. It also shows that strong foundations are already in place at some institutions; for other institutions, however, this type of engagement represents an emerging role and thus, they may have limited experience, expertise and resources to strongly drive forward and entrench engagement with the productive sector.
This study demonstrates that there is a demand by African HEIs to partner with other universities to support peer learning and exchange of good practices and lessons learned regarding university-industry relations. While there is much to learn from HEIs in emerging and developed economies and their synergies with the productive sector, attempts to import and emulate their practices may not always be suitable. Simple imitation without reflexion on the specific economic realities and contexts in which African HEIs operate may simply lead to the development of vacuous policies and strategies which would create a hollow platform for moving forward. Universities, therefore, need to tailor their own goals and activities in a pragmatic way according to a realistic appraisal of the current and future research capacity of their institutions in order to effectively respond to the needs of the African productive sector.
While working on cutting-edge research and high-tech innovations at the frontiers of science and technology is often deemed the most exciting and prestigious, there is an equal need to work on lower-tech solutions, to adapt existing technologies, and to upgrade processes to appropriately respond to local problems which do not necessarily demand the most complex technological solution. Practical, solution-oriented research needs to be equally recognized as legitimate research.
While this study has focused on the role of the HEIs in promoting synergies with the productive sector, it needs to be recognized that such synergies cannot be unidirectional. As noted in the findings, universities lack networks with the productive sector. Creating opportunities to bring together university and private sector representatives to the same table could help foster and forge stronger linkages, promote clearer understanding of mutual needs and constraints in meeting those needs, and stimulate greater demand on the part of industry. The private sector must also reach out. A strong productive sector requires robust input from universities and other higher education institutions for knowledge generation and skills development of the workforce.
Strengthening University-Industry Linkages in Africa: A Study of Institutional Capacities and Gaps
Governments also play an important role in creating a conducive, incentivised environment for strengthening such linkages by putting in place policy frameworks for Science &Technology strategies, appropriate legislation for the protection of intellectual property rights, and funding R&D, among others. However, many governments in Africa have not yet turned their pledges into concrete actions.
It is hoped that African universities will continue to build a stronger linkage framework and that governments, private sector actors, and development partners will recognise the efforts demonstrated so far and support universities to broaden and deepen their capacity to carry out teaching and research that responds to the needs of the continent.
Proposed Areas of Intervention
The recommendations of this report are based on the self-identified needs of respondents of this study. The study suggests that a combination of interventions aimed at the three following areas would help respond directly to the common needs identified by over one hundred African higher education institutions. These recommendations by no means cover the entire range of interventions and actions needed, but simply present three areas that need immediate call for action.
1. FUNDING Advocacy for increased funding and support for strengthening the capacity of African higher education institutions to develop partnerships and linkages with industry and the broader productive Targeting multiple stakeholders, particularly national governments, private sector entities, and local and international development partners for these funds
2. CAPACITY-BUIDLING IN RELEVANT SKILLS AND POLICY DEVELOPMENT Support for training, entrepreneur-in-residence programmes, exchanges, and other means to develop entrepreneurial skills among academic staff Building of institutional expertise in intellectual property management Supporting institutions to develop and/or strengthen existing strategic plans and develop realistic and implementable action plans for meeting stated goals Promoting opportunities to learn from African and international HEIs with strong histories of engagement with the productive sector
3. SCIENCE PARKS AND TECHNOLOGY INCUBATORS Supporting the establishment and management of science parks and technology incubators for the purposes of technology transfer
Strengthening University-Industry Linkages in Africa: A Study of Institutional Capacities and Gaps
Supporting the training of faculty in requisite business and management skills to run the science parks and technology incubators
In conclusion, creating a conducive, enabling environment for supporting linkages between HEIs and the productive sector requires a multidimensional approach that supports interventions beyond those listed in this report. The efforts should go hand in hand with parallel efforts at strengthening university research governance and management, science and mathematics education, and graduate training at doctoral degree level. Industries need to be brought on board at the inception stage as active partners, while governments need to take responsibility for architecting a national innovation system with appropriate frameworks and policies that govern and incentivise university-industry interactions.
Strengthening University-Industry Linkages in Africa: A Study of Institutional Capacities and Gaps
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Strengthening University-Industry Linkages in Africa: A Study of Institutional Capacities and Gaps
APPENDIX A: List of African HEIs which responded to the survey questionnaire
Country Name of Institution Ecole Nationale Polytechnique Algeria Université Saad Dahlab of Blida Université 8 Mai 1945 - Guelma Benin Université des Sciences et Technologies du Bénin Botswana College of Agriculture Botswana University of Botswana Institut International d'Ingénierie de l'Eau et de l'Environnement Burkina Faso Université de Ouagadougou Université Polytechnique de Bobo-Dioulasso Burundi Ecole Normale Supérieure University of Buea Université de Douala Cameroon Université de Ngaoundéré Université de Maroua Institut National Félix Houphouet Boigny de Yamoussoukro Ivory Coast Université d'Abobo-Adjamé Université de Cocody-Abidjan Democratic Université de l'Uélé Republic of Congo Université de Lubumbashi Assiut University Menoufiya University Egypt October 6 University The American University in Cairo Addis Ababa University Hawassa University Ethiopia Jimma University St. Mary's University College African University College of Communications All Nations University College Central University College Ghana Institute of Management and Public Administration Institute of Professional Studies Ghana Kwame Nkrumah University of Science and Technology Regional Maritime University University of Cape Coast University of Education, Winneba University of Ghana
Strengthening University-Industry Linkages in Africa: A Study of Institutional Capacities and Gaps
University of Mines and Technology, Tarkwa Jomo Kenyatta University of Agriculture and Technology Kenyatta University Maseno University Masinde Muliro University of Science and Technology Moi University Kenya Strathmore University The Catholic University of Eastern Africa United States International University University of Eastern Africa University of Nairobi Lesotho National University of Lesotho Liberia United Methodist University Institut Supérieur de la Communication des Affaires et du Management Université d'Antsiranana Madagascar Université de Toamasina Université d'Antananarivo Université Abdlemalek Essaâdi Morocco Université Mohammed V-Agdal Mauritius University of Mauritius Mozambique Universidade Pedagógica Namibia University of Namibia Niger Université Abdou Moumouni Adamawa State University, Mubi Adekunle Ajasin University Anambra State University, Uli Babcock University Federal College of Agriculture, Akure Federal University of Technology, Minna National Open University of Nigeria Nnamdi Azikiwe University, Awka Nigeria Obafemi Awolowo University Olabisi Onabanjo University Osun State University, Osogbo University of Agriculture, Abeokuta University of Calabar University of Ibadan University of Ilorin University of Port Harcourt University of Uyo
Strengthening University-Industry Linkages in Africa: A Study of Institutional Capacities and Gaps
Somalia East Africa University Republic of Guinea Centre Universitaire de Labé Independent Institute of Lay Adventists of Kigali Institute of Agriculture, Technology and Education of Kibungo Rwanda Kigali Health Institute Kigali Institute of Science and Technology National University of Rwanda Université Cheikh Anta Diop de Dakar Université Alioune Diop de Bambey Senegal Université de Thiès Université du Sahel Université Gaston Berger de Saint-Louis Sierra Leone Njala University Nelson Mandela Metropolitan University North-West University Rhodes University University of Cape Town University of Johannesburg University of Stellenbosch South Africa University of the Free State University of the Western Cape University of Venda Vaal University of Technology Walter Sisulu University University of Pretoria Ahfad University for Women Sudan The Future University Swaziland University of Swaziland Arhdi University Dar es Salaam University College of Education Mzumbe University Tanzania The Open University of Tanzania University of Dar es Salaam Zanzibar University The Gambia American International University West Africa Ecole Supérieure Privée d'Audiovisuel et de Design Université de Gabès Université de Sfax Tunisia Université de Jendouba Ecole Supérieure Privée d'Ingénierie et de Technologies Université Time Université Virtuelle de Tunis
Strengthening University-Industry Linkages in Africa: A Study of Institutional Capacities and Gaps
Gulu University Islamic University in Uganda Makerere University Uganda Mbarara University of Science & Technology Uganda Christian University Uganda Martyrs University Mulungushi University Zambia Copperbelt University Zambian Open University Africa University Bindura University Zimbabwe Midlands State University National University of Science and Technology Zimbabwe Open University
Strengthening University-Industry Linkages in Africa: A Study of Institutional Capacities and Gaps