Living with the Gods in Fables of the Early Roman Empire

Home , Aesop, Phaedrus (fabulist)

Delivered by Ingenta ? 141.211.4.224 Wed, 18 Jul 2018 13:25:51 Copyright Mohr Siebeck least fourth the centuryBCE, stantly retold and reinterpreted. under name the of Collected Aesop from at ifnot earlier,period, to end the of antiquity and beyond, were they con early principate. pursues asimilar theme inarelated corpus: fables told or retold under the resource for study the of Greco-Roman cognitive religiosity. human relations inAesopic fables, arguing that fables are an under-used In arecent article, Iexplored for evidence popular about thinking divine- 1 Introduction gotheon, monotheism Keywords: Aesop, Babrius, Phaedrus, Plutarch, fables, gods, cognitive religiosity, oli be embeddedinapparently naive stories. aboutrelations between individualsandgods,gious that particularly thinking, may some ways distinctive. Three fablesare read closelyto show thecomplexities ofreli despite theirdebtto Aesop, theirrepresentations relations are in ofdivine-human Aesopic corpus. Focusing onfablesdatable to principate, the early itargues that, This essay buildsonwork by theauthoronancient cognitive religiosity andthe Abstract of the Early Roman Empire Living with the Gods in Fables Teresa Morgan 4 3 2 1 form, single-authored the biblion ISSN 2199-4463 RRE 1(2015),378–402 10.1628/219944615X14448150487355

Fables hold adistinctive place inGreco-Roman culture. by contemporaries 1984,141n.a). (Perry is(though usually Phaedrus dated ageneration earlier), and has imitated already been Phaedr. 1pr. 3,Babr. 107.9–16; Babrius (107.9)says he was first to the ‘open door’ this West 1984. are by identified so authors. their all definitionOn the of fable Morgan see paper inthis fables 2007,57–60;the discussed Morgan 2013;cf. Morgan 2007, 5–8,Kurke 2011,2–16,chh. 2–4. © 2015 Mohr Siebeck © 2015Mohr DOI 10.1628/219944615X14448150487355 3 in the early inthe principate developed anew they or or libellus

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2 From archaic the 1 This essay - - - - Delivered by Ingenta ? 141.211.4.224 Wed, 18 Jul 2018 13:25:51 1 (2015) and encounters, and incorporate numerous references to informal or pri from tradition offer for food thought about early religious imperial thinking. Aesopic corpus, but conservatism and their both occasional departures their tice, fables of early the principate usually stay incontent close of to those the 10 9 8 7 6 5 their valuetheir for as evidence outside elites. thinking socio-literary more than doAesopica firmly to broad the category ‘literature’, limiting tively closely intime, place, and likely readership; on other, the belong they ent strengths and on weaknesses: one the hand, we can locate rela them date to later the Roman Empire. is collection slightly different,every and largest the collections surviving we cannot sureity: be most when of first came them into circulation; almost aboutthinking gods the more widely. surprising references ifthese bore no relation to Greek or Roman religious vate worship. Given fables’ popularity and moralising agenda, it would be dren, and uneducated. the tern groups and to to remain slaves, useful especially poor, the women, chil from society’s lowest strata: to have originated with slaves and other subal ences of were kinds. They all to widely have believed heights to these risen phers, moralists, orators and educationalists to inform and entertain audi divine-human relations. economic history, but scarcely at as asource all of ancient about thinking Copyright Mohr Siebeck place. myth, and are usually impossible to locate with any precision or intime few references cults or rituals, to specific are less intriguingly complex than

Aesopic fables present distinct challenges to historians of ancient religios Fables have by used scholars some been modern as asource for socio- between Aesopicbetween Zafiropoulos 2001, 36. see fables and Cynicism, but contra 1981, 80, 161;Jedrkiewicz 1989, 208–212; Adrados 1987–91, 1.604–635 on connections 2001. poulos Arist. adSynesus calv. Encom. Quint. 1.9.2.Proverbs, closely related to fables, are e. understood as popular: also E. 1893, cf. P. Bour. 1). Though Babrius appears after soon composition insub-elite schooltexts (Hesseling Morgan 2013,4–6. Nøjgaard 1964,2.525–528. Conversely, scholars of fables have little taken interest religious in their e. see aspects: Even e. E. Cross-cultural comparisons suggest is plausible: belief this Morgan see 2007,5–8. 1–2, 5–6;Ps.-Diog., pr.; Ath. 1988;Zafiropoulos 2001,36–41. Carnes 10.86457c;see Postgate 1919connects with Stoic Phaedrus about thinking gods; the cf. Karadagli g. Liv.g. 2.32.9,Phaedr. 3prol. 43–47,Quint. 11.19–21, Philostr. Im. g. la Penna la g. 1961,García 1978,Gual 1977,Cascajero 1991,Adrados 1987–91,Zafiro 7 Fables do, however, tell many stories of divine-human relationships g. Mikalsong. 1983,Veyne 1983 overlook as them, noted by Versnel 2011,327. Living with the Gods inFablesLiving withtheGods Empire Roman oftheEarly 6 This is understandable, since fables incorporate 5 22p. 9 De eloc. De 229; Dem. Fables of early the principate have differ 8 ep. 232,Quint.ep. 5.11.21; Sen. 1.3,VA 10 In prac 5.14–16, 379 94. g. g. g. g. ------Delivered by Ingenta ? 141.211.4.224 Wed, 18 Jul 2018 13:25:51 Copyright Mohr Siebeck the Latin west Latin is wellthe too known by to reiteration. period need this Phaedrus treat as them saying anything, specifically, about divine-human relations? and refers to afew contemporary Roman characters or events, his takes sto sayswho occasionally that he is adding stories new to Aesopic the corpus that and Latin he knew he is speculatively located same inthe circles literary Greek took name who the of an Italian patron; features of his verse indicate 13 12 11 fables as Aesopic. debttheir to Aesop, regularly introducing collections both and individual ulists themselves. fabulists All of early the principate, moreover, emphasise fablesimperial were composed and inter-cultural the connections of fab the examples underline dense inter-connectivity the of world the in earlywhich was a Greekperiod, with and close extensive connections at Rome. These tarch, source of largest the number of fables inother embedded texts inthis c. as Martial. His fables are dedicated to Alexander, client king of Rough Cilicia educated is unknown. by references events to specific that he lived in Rome, though where he was himself (3pr.)describes as aGreek-born freedman of Augustus and suggests under Flavians), the (writingPhaedrus under Augustus and Tiberius) and Babrius (writing of identifying patterns purpose the of thinking? considering here. Canwe treating justify early fables imperial as agroup for human to beings live. Two other preliminary questions, however, are worth ously as awisdom genre, asite of about thinking how it is appropriate for 16 15 14 works. at length elsewhere: that fables ingeneral have claim seri taken good to be 380

72–103 CE,aJudaeo-Armenian with connections close at Rome. Surviving fablesSurviving of early the principate include verse the collections of What follows assume, will for of sake the argument, what Ihave argued to be treatedto be as acorpus. Cf. e. 1984, lxvi–lxxi, xcvi–c). robust manuscript and papyrus traditions, to ongoing testifying their popularity (Perry or summarised inother texts, and on those papyrus. Babrius in and survive Phaedrus appendix to (paraphrased Phaedrus from a lost manuscript), Vita Aesopi, fables told I count 313fables from first-second surviving the centuries CE,including Perotti’s Morgan 1984,xlvii–xcvi; Perry 2007,326–330. E. Morgan 2007,App. 1. 3.10, 5.7. g. Babr.g. pr. 15,Phaedr. 1pr.155a, 806e, Lucian, Herm. 84. 1,2pr. 1,Plu., Mor. Teresa Morgan 13 g. Jedrkiewiczg. assumes 1989, 277–280, who are they diverse too and contradictory The penetration of Greek genres literary and ingeneral ideas into 16 Even only the Phaedrus, author Latin here, discussed 12 together with anumber of stories inother embedded 14 Babrius was probably either Italian ahellenised or a 11 And can we realistically 15 Plu RRE - - - - Delivered by Ingenta ? 141.211.4.224 Wed, 18 Jul 2018 13:25:51 1 (2015) 19 18 17 abouttalk human relationships, must they incidentally, still, tell us agood understood. Even if we assume that fables stories use about gods purely to The way fables present gods must therefore draw on way the gods are already gods that readers as their recognise representing also gods. the ing intra-human relations, for depend on drawing effect their apicture of the way, fables about gods and human are evenifthey beings, read as concern human-animal relationships, or metaphor the again lacks force. In same the where animals represent to people, needs represent story the something of to represent seem times of types people and sometimes themselves, but even standthey for, or metaphor the has no force. In second, the animals some or lions, must say something about animals those as well as human the types mals stand for of types people, but evenso, stories, for instance about dogs interact with humans and groups: actors the all inwhich are those animals, and animals inwhich those about to talk a device human behaviour? Fables about animals into fall two divine-human relations are they because not always consistent. that fables cannot illuminate patterns of early about thinking imperial plexities, trends and patterns of thought doemerge. arethey widely attested also as having currency, social and amid com their as users across place and grappletime with complexities the of existence, but of popular morality, moreover, are tolerant of adegree of internal conflict, pictureries’ of gods the is more than its striking inconsistencies. genres All generates tensions and paradoxes. If anything, coherence the of sto these ing about divine-human relations is achallenge inany tradition and always nor thatno relation bear they to way the contemporaries thought. Think ics). This, not though, need mean that we cannot analyse synoptically, them tinctively Roman characteristics. ofries gods from known Aesopic versions; nor dohis gods acquire any dis briefly asbriefly possible, relying on audiences’ existing understandings of them. Copyright Mohr Siebeck includethey some contradictory about ideas gods the (as about other top principate as sharing abroad context. socio-cultural any Like fable group,

Is it not possible, though, that animals, fables use gods, as the as they use Fables, moreover, short, introduce usually being very characters their as For reasons, these all we can plausibly treat fables surviving of early the that characters all stand for human e. beings: tion with subject) their rather than ciphers do (which not). Most commentators assume Cf. Tyler 2007on Aesopic characters in fables as indices have (which anatural connec 1972,cf.1934, 200,Barnsley Hägg 1997. On popular moral genres cross-culturally as generating systematic Benedict see ideas, E. g. 4pr.g. 11–13,4.4.22(adding to Aesop), 2.5,3pr. 41. Living with the Gods inFablesLiving withtheGods Empire Roman oftheEarly / or gods. In first, we the typically assume that ani 17 g. Nøjgaardg. 1964,2.284–319. 18 We not need assume 19 381 ------Delivered by Ingenta ? 141.211.4.224 Wed, 18 Jul 2018 13:25:51 Copyright Mohr Siebeck linked withlinked Olympians inmyth. Persephone, Tyche fable involving her priests. is represented by just one brief mention of and Cybele two versions of a syncretic deities worshipped Roman inthe empire by first centuryCE the 21 20 five. gods or heroes appearing, usually as principal actors, inaround one in story Divine-human relations form asignificant theme inearly fables: imperial principate early the of fabulists the and 2 Aesopica gion and divine-human relations early inthe principate. assumealso that fables offer asource of and ideas narratives about lived reli and encouraging readers to psychologise inhuman them terms. But we can pretation is suggestive initself, emphasising gods’ the anthropomorphism Hermes and a craftsman in human terms epimythion of Babrius 119explicitly allows readers to interpret that of story relations as stories about human relations (and, too for example, the why fables should less interested be than inthem other genres. tions are not represented are, than or if they discussed and there is no reason Greek and literature Latin we it find more surprising ifdivine-human rela human and beings, just as much represented and debated. in Elsewhere as central to Greeks’ and Romans’ of world view the as relations between to human speak also relations with gods. the Divine-human relations were alisations of human relations, social reason to there assume is every that they Ifsceptical. we accept that fables have something to tell us about conceptu about ofdeal gods. view the Idoubt, their however, that so we to need be 23 22 382

This does notoutThis does rule possibility the of reading fables of divine-human Heracles and Athena appear together inaBabrian paraphrase, Crusius 1897no. ring to a sacrifice to Mother the ring to asacrifice of Gods. the against 218, 252. Zeus Cronus and aids of birth the Athena: A.,Pr. Hercules arrives among Olympians: the Phaedr. 4.12. The Titan Prometheus fights with 33.16, Lucian., Herm. inotherembedded literature are often introduced as Aesopic (e. Many fables without Aesopic surviving parallels probably had Aesopic versions. Fables relations. reckoned50 (both 127,cf. 136)frame moral the as about apocryphal), divine-human BabrianCf. Other Fables epimythia three apocryphal. all (10, 1984thinks 34,59;Perry Cybele (as Cybebe): Phaedr. (as Cybebe): Cybele 3.17;her priests: Babr. 141,Phaedr. 4.1,cf. Babr. 97,refer Tyche as daughter of Pi., Zeus: Aesopic fables throughout are to Chambry 1927. 21 Teresa Morgan Most of gods belong these to Olympian the pantheon or (like Hades, / Fortuna, Prometheus or Heracles 84, Plu., Mor. 23 The divinities of fables tend and asmall to be O. O. 112a,155a,157b, 22 12.1–2; Heracles as son of Hes., Zeus: Strikingly, range wide the of ‘foreign’ or 20 ). The possibility of inter parallel 806e, Vit. Arat. / Hercules) are closely g. D.Chrg. . 30). References to 12.7–8, 32.66, Th. 943–4. RRE 145; - - - - - Delivered by Ingenta ? 141.211.4.224 Wed, 18 Jul 2018 13:25:51 1 (2015) stories. only hero with asignificant presence, appearing as a main character infour 29 28 27 26 25 24 once each (not always as principal characters). Demeter, Mars, Bacchus, Persephone, Pluto, Castor and Pollux, and Iris just Apollories, infour, Athena Zeus between pian creator of human as aHermes-like but beings otherwise intermediary / Zeus twenty fables), followed by Hermes fables, are which dominated above by all Zeus where inmyth, and art, cult. conservative group: Greek-identified, long-established, and prominent else interacting with relatively few. However many know gods they of, fables show human invoking beings and Copyright Mohr Siebeck sub-groupa select of divinities the most widely worshipped at time. the that portray less pantheon they the than what Ihave an oligotheon, called

Equally strikingly,Equally few evenof Olympians the play significant roles in Early fables imperial therefore have in common with Aesopic the corpus Babr. 15,20,Phaedr. 4.12,Crusius 1897,no. cf. once same in the fable. each, all (Jupiter: Phaedr. 1.2, 1.6,3.17, 4.10, 4.12, 4.17, 4.19, Mercury appearsdrus, only twice,with Jupiter, and Venus, and Hercules Minerva only (Phaedr. 4.12),Nature (Perotti 3),and Grief (Plu., Mor. 70), Hybris (Babr. 70),Truth (Babr. 126,Perotti 5–6),Falsehood (Perotti 5–6),Wealth cult, including North the Wind (Babr. 18),Blame (Babr. 59,Aristid. 28.136),War (Babr. fablesimperial involve other divine personifications arewhich not usually ofobjects in passing. appears Theseus once (Babr. 15);Babr. 63features an unnamed hero. more mischievous and independent-minded than incompetent). metheus often bungles his mission: cf. Babr. 66,Vit. Aes. 94–95 (inmyth Prometheus is Aphrodite: 10;Athena and Poseidon: 59;Heracles: 15,20;Prometheus: 66).In Phae Jupiter Babr. (Zeus: 56,57,59,68,72,127,142, cf. 57;Hermes: 48,57,68,117, 119,127; pantheonPhaedrus’ is evennarrower and more dominated than Babrius’ by Zeus (Iris). Pluto), Perotti 10 (Mars), Phaedr. 4.16 (Bacchus), Phaedr. 4.26 (Castor and Pollux), 72 Phaedr. 2.18,Perotti 11(Juno), Babr. 59 (Poseidon), 34(Demeter), 76(Persephone and Babr. 66,Phaedr. 4.15,16,Perotti 5–6,Vit. Aes. Hermes, 94–95.Like infables, Pro making offerings,generic lighting (sacrificing, lamps etc.). distinctive to themselves where below), are rituals while (see they are usually described draw on in part common ideas to traditions both and draw in part a picture somewhat justice and judge is perhaps evenmore strongly Greek than Roman), but most fables aboutideas gods to dominate these (and emphasis the on Zeus Babr. 48and Perotti 381on ‘Phoebus’ of Delphi). We should therefore Greek expect where are these known, or refer explicitly to Greek forms of gods (e. Fables involve which of period this gods the usually stay to close Aesopic versions, Nymphs (Babr. 92), and (Plu., Selene 3 pr., 1.2,4.19;Prometheus: 4.11,4.21,5.8; Mercury: 4.16,Venus, Hercules: Minerva, Jupiter). 27 / 24 Jupiter and mortals. Prometheus makes five appearances: once as apre-Olym Living with the Gods inFablesLiving withtheGods Empire Roman oftheEarly / Minerva three. JunoMinerva appears Poseidon, twice; 29 No doubt explanation the literary is partly Mor. Mor. 25 Aphrodite 157a–b) each occur once.157a–b) each occur Aesopica, Like early / Mercury (ineight, often alongside 145; cf. Phaedr. 3.17,where he is mentioned 26 / 112a, see below,112a, see p. 397–398). Heracles / / Venus features infive sto Jupiter appears (who in / Jupiter as sponsor of Hercules is the the is Hercules g. the herm in herm the g. 383 28 - - - - - /

Delivered by Ingenta ? 141.211.4.224 Wed, 18 Jul 2018 13:25:51 Copyright Mohr Siebeck most interests fabulists about divine-human relations, and invites our inter 33 32 31 30 graphed of loci public, or even conventional private cults. est, is how people interact with gods the beyond controlled the and choreo ter at agod home, go as about they work, their or dreams. intheir citythe to consult inhis agod temple about loss the of afork. Two fables mention Delphic the oracle. make few references to formal, public, especially rituals or places of worship. are deal, they which ones the most which concern wisdom writers. fortune – is unlikely accidental. to be gods, and These areas the of life with les and Tyche love and wisdom, and for popular divinities lesser such as Heracles Jupiter and his intermediaries, with substantial roles for gods associated with notdoes explain Aesopic the oligotheon fablesconservatism: imperial tend to follow Aesopic models (though this 34 Characters up set statues to gods or heroes at home; pray they to or encoun divine-mortal interactions, however, inprivate occur or informal contexts. to Demeter, and that of Babrius 48at aroadside The herm. vast majority of Babrius place 34takes after agroup of people country have abull sacrificed can, however, note that its powerfully dominated overall shape – by Zeus can say, about especially its omissions, without becoming speculative. We represented is achoice by early writers, imperial there is alimit to what we 384

It unlikely is accidental also to that be early imperial, like Aesopic, fables Artemidorus shares interest this ininformal encounters, sleeping and with waking lionskin and club etc. thattoo, dreamers observing Aphroditeoften see naked to waist, the Heracles with his Woolf e. 2013,154): so sona gods (2.37),and, indreams, inencounters with gods instatue form and in propria per phi (Morgan 2013,10). 2010. 2010, Cerutti n. presences but most other Olympians represented once or twice,ifat (Morgan all 2013, erb collections, are which dominated by with Hermes Zeus, and Heracles substantial 2013, n. 6). Cynicism (Oltramare 1926,226–232,Adrados 1979–87,1.635–641,2.164–169, Morgan henatheistic3.17.) Phaedrus’ tendencies have with linked Stoicism been and perhaps 10–11. E. examiningseer aliver, but cultcontext the is not described. below,See p. show awareness of Olympic the games, Eleusinian Mysteries, Panathenaia, and of Del Vit. Aes. 126,Perotti 8.Imperial fables are evenmore restricted than Aesopica, which It suggests, however, that it is not an accident early Cf. also prov of imperial survival. g. Babr.g. 10,20,30,49,63, 117,119,126,Phaedr. 4.11,4.26,Perotti 4:Morgan 2013, 20). Onmonotheistic tendencies religion elsewhere inimperial e. see Teresa Morgan (2.35). Representations of gods in cult and myth naturally inform stories these (cf. / 392–396. ‘Altars appear of also gods’ the at Babr. 78.5.Babr. 54involves a Fortuna to whom commonly mortals pray for help or good g. inBabr.g. 69Apollo is an archer. 2.37acknowledges Artem. this 31 In Babrius’ Fable 2,afarmer to goes 30 ). Insofar as range the of deities 34 32 The action of g. Chaniotisg. / 33 Hercu What What RRE - - - - / - - - Delivered by Ingenta ? 141.211.4.224 Wed, 18 Jul 2018 13:25:51 come into conflict. Aesopic, fables –though it asimpler takes form stories inthese than else and punishes wrongdoers. gives distinctive their them gives characteristics,them, advice, them rules but relatively still restricted: he is above creates who god the all and mortals 1 (2015) 41 40 39 38 37 36 35 iar from other wisdom genres: life is hard; you must clever to be survive. punishes maintaining evil-doers, order and justice increation (Babr. 127). to human to beings prevent over taking their world the (Perotti also 3).Zeus to human (Babr. beings 58).Jupiter, inhis foresight, he limits gives gifts the strength, or flight speed, speech. sometimes aided by Hermes or Prometheus. where inmyth and literature. The creative power is almost always Zeus, as potential sources of help. love, Athena simple and monothematic. Aphrodite life. want lot:their frogsthey the when want they aking; dogswhen the abetter since they supplysince they for wood the axe handles. cut down, Babrius’ points Zeus out that have they only themselves to blame, When trees, for oak the example, complain that are they constantly being oak trees (Babr.oak 142) and gives animals and human powers their beings of story (Babr.story 119)of craftsman the offers who cultto adomestic image of responding (ifnot always inquite terms the suppliant the hoped for). The always show on calling mortals gods the with confidence and gods the as fables, shown he is also as accessible and responsive to prayers. Fables nearly Copyright Mohr Siebeck

The creation of world the is theme of arecurring early imperial, as of It is Zeus On the whole,On the however, Zeus The identities and roles of fabular gods inrelation to tend mortals to be cock hiscock voice. is only referred to, cf. Crusius 1897,152). prophesies, though at Babr. 68he is just a foil for and Zeus at Phaedr. 3pr. 57and 3.17.3 49, Phaedr. 1.7.4–5,Perotti 3(Tyche gods help help who those themselves. Babr. 142,cf. Babr. 20:Heracles appears to astranded ox driver only to tell himthat the Cf. Morgan 2007,43–47,70–73,102–105,147–148. often rather harsh: below, see p. 388–389 . Though less often than inimperial Aesopic fables, perhaps Zeus’s because advice is Phaedr. 1.2,4.19,cf. 1.6. Crusius 1897,155;cf. Phaedr. 4.21.11–12. E. E. 38 g. Babr.g. 57,Phaedr. 4.16,cf. 4.10.In Phaedr. 3.18.1–2,uniquely, Juno gives pea the Babr.g. 59,Phaedr. 3.17,Crusius 1897,145(Athena Zeus / / Jupiter receives also complaints and appeals his when creations / Jupiter to whom go mortals with requests for improvements in Minerva as of dispenser wisdom,Minerva Tyche 39 Living with the Gods inFablesLiving withtheGods Empire Roman oftheEarly On these occasionsOn these he sometimes gives advice famil 35 Zeus 37 / Zeus packs things’ ‘all inajar good to Zeus give Jupiter gods in figure. all Like is abenign / / Fortuna brings luck); good Perotti 8(Apollo Jupiter’s role is alittle more complex, / Venus always appears as patron the of 41 36 Zeus, for Zeus, instance, creates the / Minerva offers wisdom);Minerva Babr. / Fortuna and heroes 385 40 - - -

Delivered by Ingenta ? 141.211.4.224 Wed, 18 Jul 2018 13:25:51 Copyright Mohr Siebeck to happen, he should keep praying ifnot, and sacrificing; he should stop. that give things: heroes good give only bad. a dream to tell himthat he has misunderstood role the of heroes. It is gods scholarly interest in‘pagan monotheism’, cast inanumber of forms from retaining principle the of multiple gods. Recent years have increasing seen Greeks and Romans could on focus relationship their with one while god overseegods who it is or are ultimately just and benign. chaotic anddifficult, unfair, principle the preserving while that or god the areries perhaps to designed explain human the perception that life is often lives less predictable, less equitable, more or less pleasant. difficult Such sto arewho capable of mistakes both and malevolence, and make who human gods and high created these Between however, beings, come divinities, lesser gods are just, benign, and create they efficient; and maintain world the well. Greek and philosophical Latin and writings. theological detectable inAesopic fables greatly and occurs, also which elaborated, in and inwine’. ‘drenchingthem mous) hero inhis courtyard and offers cult to him,wreathing altars the Babrius 63tells of story the aman establishes who ashrine to an (anony Arabia and is plundered (Babr. 57). becoming world’s the greatest liars his when waggon of liesbreaks down in versa men by getting and attaching drunk genitalia male to some females and vice out intelligence). Prometheus accidentally creates and tribads effeminate hero to whom Zeus happenscally through agency of the Hermes develop characteristics or problems not intended by Zeus human communication imperfect, and be can sometimes also human beings never god the responds to suppliant’s the prayers or actions at all. didn’t understand kind of the cult Hermes wanted, unusual is highly inthat fit of temper only of toit find gold, full and comments sardonically that he Hermes hope inthe of making money, makes none, breaks statue the ina 44 43 42 386

The concept of a benign ‘high god’ is also one is also through of which several god’ The concept ‘high of abenign Sometimes a minor divinity is not merely incompetent, but malevolent. If gods the tend to respond readily to infables, mortals however, divine- Imperial fables show here traces of an Ihave which idea suggested is claims, substituting politicians for minor deities. 1924. Parker 1997notes that democratic Athenian oratory political often makes similar . Pl. E. g. Also the subject the ofAlso aproverb, 5.60. Zen. Cf. Aes. 121. (Phaedr. 4.16).Hermes is unintentionally responsible for Arabs’ the Teresa Morgan Tim., Plu. Plu. Mor. Mor. / Jupiter has entrusted some responsibility (like handing 409e–438e, UP Galen 42 Eventually, hero the appears to man the in 1.174.5–17 Helmreich; von Harnack 43 If man the wants things bad / Mercury, Prometheus, or a 44 The highest or god / Jupiter. This typi RRE - - - Delivered by Ingenta ? 141.211.4.224 Wed, 18 Jul 2018 13:25:51 1 (2015) we often suppose. practitioners of Greco-Roman than religions spectrum across social awider complexity of cognitive and affective religiosity may have available been to circulation,express stories these social inwider ideas suggest that agreater fables’ compressed and apparently simple narratives. Assuming that fables layers of religious imagination inplay than we might have from expected about how worshippers their and think feel, as well points as act, to more 50 49 48 47 46 45 contentmentpractise with one’s and gifts not aspire to others’ (10–15). ture given has adifferent been and, gift inorder to live happily, one should from appreciating one’s to correct the gifts performance of cult. why havetals they done something wrong, or offering advice on anything educate cultivate who show those Several them. divinities explaining to mor Belayche inconnection with heis theos inscriptions. characterised by Angelos Chaniotis as ‘megatheism’ and explored by Nicole just oligotheistic but monotheistic tendencies, insomething like sense the aboveples discussed suggest that about thinking infables Zeus has not or ‘highest’. tive devotion to one divinity to one’s calling city’s tutelary ‘greatest’ the god formal monotheism to about ideas unity the of divine, the and from elec imagine that them. gods the view of complexity not of only gods views the but inmortal inhow also mortals advising on how might or mortal the think behave better, imply adegree Stories involve which agod’s responding to error, mortal correcting it, or has hitherto been recognised. has hitherto been may have evenmore been widespread inGreek and Roman than thinking reachsocio-cultural of fables, towards atendency monotheistic thinking Copyright Mohr Siebeckbeauty is ifhe is insong bested (9). Juno patiently explains crea that every brilliance dissatisfied, of still demands his tail. The peacock, what his use voice (Phaedr. 3.18.1–2),Juno explains that his beauty sizeand liesinthe for example, complains peacock the to Juno that given he has an been ugly

Early fables imperial share also with Aesopica that gods the sometimes Cf. e. Charm. 318b;cf. e. Greek that idea the prudence consists inτὰἑαυτοῦ πράττειν goes back at least to Pl., An example of convergence the of fables with proverbs and other commonplaces: in below,See p. 391–392. Morgan 1.91,5.44(daimones benefactors). 2013,22–23,though can cf. Zen. be paganism. Chaniotis 2010,Belayche 2010on 2010;cf. Cerutti ‘hierarchical’ e. See g. Aes.g. 66,119,125. g. Athanassiadig. and Frede 1999;Mitchell and van Nuffelen 2010a,b. 45 Fables have not featured discussions, inthese but exam the g. Zen. 2.96,3.36. Zen. g. Living with the Gods inFablesLiving withtheGods Empire Roman oftheEarly 47 50 The idea, inparticular, The idea, that gods the care 46 If so, given then the 48 When, 387 49 - - - -

Delivered by Ingenta ? 141.211.4.224 Wed, 18 Jul 2018 13:25:51 Copyright Mohr Siebeck 52 51 creation as dyadic and animals as representative of human beings. are distinctorders of creation. prefer They relative the simplicity of treating include individual stories, at least, suggest which that humans and animals fablesist Surviving would of early expect. the principate, however, donot from animals both and gods and just them, located between as astructural oneall, confined to men and Humans gods: speech. here are distinguished plains replies that Zeus that gift. he has no he special has greatest the of gift createsZeus animals and human but beings, having created, been man com bycussed Jean-Pierre Vernant. and structure animals, of recalling triadic the and identified beings dis more likely than Aesop’s to moralise at mortals. or less inclined to anger than inAesopic versions. And gods their are even orders of creation. sometimes They present gods the as more playful and of Aesopic fables that involve gods, human and beings animals as separate it inthree to directions.ries, avoid is seem especially They complexity the across currency wide place and time, including early inthe principate. fables represent astrain of about thinking divine-human relations has which ing, that then explanation is over-simple. We should rather assume that these but ifpopular wisdom material is think seriously of taken as ethical alocus Roman religion. to close fables that is of very Aesopic the corpus. 54 53 of what we might of think as distinctive features of first-century Greek or divine-human relationships show few, ifany, marks of such preferences, or preferences, or of those patrons, their and Phaedrus’ Babrius’ stories about given sizeof the corpora, the that whatever own their religious practicesor few Aesopic fables, however, distinguish explicitly gods, humans between 388

It is generally accepted that animals infables represent human A beings. Where early fables imperial from depart Aesopic versions of same the sto It is evident that inmany ways, religious the of thinking early imperial E. fables tend to avoid theme. this filment of avow) that one punished to see might (Morgan expect 2013, 23–24);imperial court under Augustus; cf. Phaedr. 2.9,4.7.21, 4.pr.10, ep.4–7, Babr. prr. to1and parts 2. concerns emperor the Tiberius; 3.pr. 41 refers to Sejanus, 3.10.34–50to centumviral the authors doaddcontemporary Roman (and historical Greek) elements: e. qualities, or popular newly elective cults.This is unlikely accidental, to be given that both P. Oxy. 1011.160–163;cf. 1984,App. Perry 444,429,433. corpus but share its preoccupations include Babr. 30,136,Phaedr. 3.18,4.15,4.16,4.17, 24, 59, 66, 72, Phaedr. 1.6, 4.10). Imperial fables do which not appear Aesopic in the When change they rarely details they alter divine-human the interaction (e. Even possibly atetradic one: Morgan 2013,7. In Aesopic several fables get mortals away with behaviour (such as cheating on ful the g. imperial cult, the worship cult,the imperial g. of gods favoured by emperors, worship of divine new Teresa Morgan 52 We might attribute or to this generic traditionalism, inertia 54 In Aesop’s fable 57(311),for example, 53 51 It notable, is particularly g. Phaedr.g. 2.5 g. Babr.g. 6, RRE - - - - - / - Delivered by Ingenta ? 141.211.4.224 Wed, 18 Jul 2018 13:25:51 1 (2015) 57 56 55 mousethe dining (in the room rather than bedchamber, the perhaps a nod back into aferret as apunishment. In Babrius’ version, appearance the of leaping up to chase it, Aphrodite (ἀγανάκτησα) is angry and changes her ducing amouse into her chamber. bridal When woman the cannot resist goddessthe deliberately tests how far ferret the has changed inside by intro dite changes, at her request, into awoman that her so master, she can marry to misbehaviour. mortal In Aesop’s fable of house the ferret whom Aphro face of misbehaviour. their (relatively punishment, mild) but Jupiter’s patience and moderation inthe parison with Aesopic stories of embassies is not to Zeus, dogs’ the eventual able to control bowels. their of The fable, most this aspect striking incom but decree that he does henceforth always and hungry dogswill never be be that insult this punished be (26).Jupiter (27–34)declines to punish them (22–25).The else other gods void and demandtoo everything perfume the ing rears their (18–19).In with Jupiter’s perfume presence, however, they anothersend embassy, to ingratiate members whose try themselves by stuff orders, are they not punished but simply sent away (12–13). The dogs then presence are awestruck so that void they bowels their (10–11).OnJupiter’s ondistracted way the by looking for and food, brought when into Jupiter’s to petition Jupiter for abetter lot inlife. The first ambassadors are send they Aesop’s with complaints deals Zeus is inFable dogsdecide the 4.19,inwhich with his creation. The nearest he comes way to summary the inwhich more courageous can afford they sex, not about to worry appearance. their lack,beards Jupiter they which reassures that, them as long are as they the goats male (4.17),when Phaedrus complain to Jupiter that wives their have but reassured that from his gift gods the is his beauty. according Also to complains peacock the when to Juno about his voice he is not punished fabulists’ tastes. foxthe not does behave appropriately, is apparently harsh too for imperial makes king himthe of animals, the only to reduce himto nonentity when of and fox Zeus the impressed Zeus, (119),inwhich by fox’s the intelligence, Copyright Mohr Siebeck appear nowhere literature. inimperial else making some complaint, are omitted by Babrius both and and Phaedrus give acomfortless them answer to aplea, or punish unmercifully them for

Phaedrus does evenmore does Phaedrus than Babrius to soften Jupiter’s interactions Even fables that stay to close Aesop often soften or lighten divine responses AesopicSeveral fables, gods inwhich are with people, saidangry to be Attributed by some to Stoic influence, but Morgan see 2007,337–339. areSo e. E. g. Aes.g. 66,119,125,146,234,262,291;cf. Morgan 2013a,8–9. g. Aes.g. 146,234,291. 56 Instead as we we inPhaedrus, find have (3.18),that seen Living with the Gods inFablesLiving withtheGods Empire Roman oftheEarly 57 55 The Aesopic story, for example, 389 - - - - Delivered by Ingenta ? 141.211.4.224 Wed, 18 Jul 2018 13:25:51 Copyright Mohr Siebeck softening harsh the chords of bitter iambics. (pr. 18–19,cf. 107.15–16) before set I will you adripping honeycomb, πικρῶνσκληρὰ κῶλαἰάμβων θηλύνας. μελισταγές σοι λωτοκηρίον θήσω, concludes,drus Juno laughs at joke the (ll. 13–14). joke made by Venus at of expense the Hera. than Rather angry, being Phae Perotti’s appendix to (11)offers Phaedrus asimilarly of lighthearted story a hybris and punishment, is turned into something to closer afamily game. παῖ …οὐκ ἔχω χώρην.) saysstride to Apollo, ‘Where I shoot, shall son? I have no room.’βάλω, (ποῦ us that joins Zeus contest inthe for (παίζων), fun and giant histaking after ground covered by Apollo’s arrow inasingle stride. Babrius, however, tells Apollo shot; demonstrated then Zeus his superiority by covering the all ple, tells how Apollo to challenged an Zeus archery contest. accepted; Zeus lightheartedly fables inimperial than inAesopica. Aesop 121,for exam and sharp point – of Aesopic the version are defused. deftly figure of Eros, treats who whole the incident as agame, and seriousness – the woman, but at end the Babrius substitutes less the formidable, more playful At of beginning the story, the it was Cypris turned ferret who the into a nicely, Eros nature left: had beaten him.(32.9–10) That was end the of wedding the feast, and having played δαιτὴ’ δὲ γάμου λέλυτο, καλῶς παίξας καὶ woman jumps up to chase it, Babrius says, to Babrius’ Roman context) is acoincidence rather than atest. When the 60 59 58 meanwhile, introduces his collection: should remember that Iwrite jokingly inmade-up stories’ (1pr. 7).Babrius, that ifanyone is offended by iocari fictis his book, nos meminerit fabulis, ‘he than wisdom. and at Phaedrus, least, intend stories their read to more be as entertainment 390 Ἐρως ἀπῆλθε· τῆι φύσει γὰρ ἡττήθη. ἀπῆλθε· τῆι Ἐρως

Phaedrus mayPhaedrus to offer seem some support for view, this he when says It is tempting to assume that lightheartedness this that signals Babrius Relationships gods the themselves tend between presented also to be more metre; it could refer to both. Transl. Perry, 1984, 4–5argues Perry modified. that is this about content rather than Cf. Perotti 4,5–6. he tolerates him. Cf. Aes 124=Babr. Aesopic 59:inthe version with Momus; is angry Zeus inBabrius, Teresa Morgan 58 Aesop’s adversarial scenario, with its hints of 59 60 RRE - - Delivered by Ingenta ? 141.211.4.224 Wed, 18 Jul 2018 13:25:51 1 (2015) She to takes worshipping goddess the regularly, asking made tobeauti be girl, is who convinced that she has Aphrodite to thank for fortune. her good andgirl Aphrodite. Aman inlove falls with an ugly and ill-tempered slave to moralise at created beings. havepast they understood to be. been human relations as more reliable and more consistently than inthe benign some desire inwisdom literature of early the principate to present divine- 62 61 tion about ritual practice as well as correction the of amisunderstanding slavethe girl’s rituals, Aphrodite’s ‘Don’t read thank me’ can as be an instruc about divine-human the relationship. Given that Babrius has just described witty twist of is akind which common infables, but it makes apoint also In terms, literary Aphrodite’s response and gives an story the unexpected I’m with himto whom angry you beautiful.’ seem (10.11–12) ‘Don’t thank me as ifIwere making you beautiful; τούτωικεχόλωμαί φαίνηι.’ καλὴ … ὧι ‘μή μοι ποιούσηι· χάριν ὡς σχῆις σε καλήν little differently: with man the I am for angry you thinking are.’ Babrius’ Aphrodite puts it a Copyrightsion (Fable 18),Aphrodite says ‘I don’t want to make you beautiful because untilful, goddess the appears inadream to tell her to stop. In Aesop’s ver Mohr Siebeck kindly and reliable. gnomai, tend also to present gods the (above Zeus all, note that other forms of such popular as proverbs wisdom period, inthis and contemporary literature presents various ways. gods the invery We may also no obviousseems reason to it link to authors’ the pretensions, literary since about gods. the rare for either to soften endings the or morals of stories except sometimes by longer exchanges characters, between it extremely is, in fact, is oftenries mitigated authors inboth by more elaborate setting scene and 1 pr. 4,cf. Babr. pr. 14).Moreover, thoughpunchy the of Aesopic effect sto counsels’what ‘wise calls Phaedrus for guiding readers through life (Phaedr. Neither Babrius nor however, Phaedrus, gives up claim the writing to be

Several early fables imperial Several elaborate on of tendency the Aesopic deities The softening stories that inthese is occurs of adistinctive kind. There Cf. e. (Zeus gods as just, though cf. 4.21)), Max. Tyr. 41.4, Plu., as counsellors)), ps.-Diogenian. gods (2.84,3.15(the as helpful and generous) 3.20(the e. See g. Aes.g. 66=Phaedr. 1.2. g. Zenob.g. as as just), benefactor), 4.11 (Zeus (2.44, 3.41, 3.98 (Zeus gods 4.40(the / the gods as good or godsthe as good just), Morgan 2007,31–35,111–116,131–135,207–211. 61 Living with the Gods inFablesLiving withtheGods Empire Roman oftheEarly We must, seriously take possibility the Ithink, there is 62 Babrius’ Fable 10retells of story the slave the Mor. Mor. 68e, 153a, 473b, 550c, 551c / Jupiter) as relatively infables 391 - - - - Delivered by Ingenta ? 141.211.4.224 Wed, 18 Jul 2018 13:25:51 Copyright Mohr Siebeck 14) that pleasure take who those are inuglythings as though they beauti live within city are walls infallible [or ‘reliable’] and everything. see thatpeople think live gods who are countryside in the simple-minded, who those while πάντ’ ἐποπτεύειν. ἀληθεῖς καὶτὰ τ’ εἶναί ἀγροὺς κατοικεῖν,δ’τοὺς ἐσωτἐρωτείχους εὐήθεις μὲν τῶν τοὺς γὰρθεῶν δοκοῦσι Babrius‘because,’ says, He therefore into them takes polis local the fork. He blames his workers (ἀγροίκοι),all deny they but taken having it. human relationships. Babrius’ Fable of 2is story the a afarmer loses who sions but are interesting own intheir right for portrayal of their divine- fables toldSeveral by early authors imperial have Aesopic no surviving ver 3 Beyond corpus Aesopic the compromised. be will and appreciate properly, them not only but thinking, rituals their their also to want what have they to give and them, ifworshippers donot understand want understood toby worship be who those want they them, worshippers hinta further of astrain of early inthe thinking principate that gods the (Mor. referrectly misuse things the they to as well’ phers that donot who to those learn understand names the of things cor ity may characteristic particularly of be early the principate. human is beings prevalent inAesopic fables too, but with cultactiv link the is what wants. god the that The idea gods the want understood to by be that only right understanding prevent will girl’s the and cursed, being this conventional way, with prayers and offerings. Aphrodite’s response implies otherthe to want what want. they to Aphrodite persuade The tries girl ina inhow girl the instructing to avoid cursed. being are byful cursed gods the and mentally blind. Aphrodite is therefore also about what goddess the has or has not done. 64 63 about gods the vitiates one’s ritual practice: ‘[I]t well said by is very philoso throughtrace early that texts imperial idea wrong the the thinking things paper, Itook an by observation Plutarch as astarting point from to which 392

In story, this Aphrodite and want both girl the something, and each wants ing of lamps, and making of prayers. sacrifices, Cf. Babr. above. 63,discussed 6–8,though here,Ll. as elsewhere, rituals are including generically described, light the Teresa Morgan 63 Babrius adds moral the (13– to swear to innocence, their 379c). Babrius 10offers 64 In a recent RRE ------Delivered by Ingenta ? 141.211.4.224 Wed, 18 Jul 2018 13:25:51 1 (2015) 66 65 people worshipthe who or them, that people to gods choose worship them city assuming could be that nature the of gods the determines nature the of that think who simpleThose gods live and country inthe sharp ones inthe tions, but Babrius allows amore positive interpretation – or more than one. gods to worshippers their implies that conventional construc cultsare social Ethiopians and Thracians and gods. their tempting to Xenophanes’ recall observations about relationship the between ple and reliability the and far-sightedness of urban gods and people? It is inadequate to acrisis. its relationship with divine the as appropriate to its situation, everyday but mentalité that gods are those relatively simple-minded. The first indication of religious having or need, or that gods the they deserve, suit means evenifthis them, tive. It implies that different groups of people may understand themselves as ofobjects as aresult. fun This fable, countryman’s though, the takes perspec dwellers are notoriously less sophisticated than city-dwellers, and are often ple (not necessarily only country-dwellers) way. this think Human country- really is claiming (not simply saying that that farmer the thinks) some peo Babriusparts. expresses it, though, in propria persona, suggesting that he regarded as more generally reliable or far-sighted counter than rural their relative the taken roles of gods and human pursuit inthe beings of justice. he has mistaken proper the of scope gods’ the or activities, that he has mis has misunderstood relative the sophistication of town and gods, that country him as having gained understanding insome way. The point that could be he hope that some man knows. going to know stole who someone else’s. Worse, he is offering money inthe was pointless: not does god ifthe know stole who his own property, he is not stolen from temple. the Hearing farmer the this, concludes that his journey reward of 1000drachmas for information leading to recovery the of property When group the arrives at city, the however, it hears a announcingherald a Copyright Mohr Siebeck conclusionin the he comes to about god. the We are surely supposed to read therefore unlikely that farmer the is presented being here as simply wrong epimythia or insights the characters their come to at ends the of stories. It is

What is connection simplicity the the between gods and of rural peo I have not found another example of that idea the urban gods might be The wisdom of function fables encourages readers to seriously take their edgeability of gods. the Frr. B15,16. Versnel of as this an ambiguous exposé 2011,399describes about thinking knowl the in this fablein this therefore shows interpreting micro-society a rural Living with the Gods inFablesLiving withtheGods Empire Roman oftheEarly 65 66 For Xenophanes, likeness the of 393 ------Delivered by Ingenta ? 141.211.4.224 Wed, 18 Jul 2018 13:25:51 Copyright Mohr Siebeck offers a slightly different His perspective. farmer’s recourseinitial to city understand as this afairly routine and uncontroversial exercise, but Babrius oraclesexternal or introduce cultinto anew pantheon. their We usually The farmer is doing much what states for dowhen, example, consult they widely or develop arelationship god, with anew is familiar on alarger scale. relationship gods, might sometimes with local their want to consult more tions, as well as benefits. their actions, there is therefore ahint of risks inherent the indivine-human rela or them, choose who to negotiate other relationships as well. In farmer’s the to themselves. Human must beings by defined to gods the whether be choose worshipperstheir as well as other the way round, and appropriately choose divine between and human natures, capacities, and desires. The gods choose It implies not just but aparallel asymbiosis, dynamic and at fluid, times vision of divine-human relations is more than acalque of intra-human ones. of state, their and on. so ruler From an insider though, Babrius’ perspective, fore sometimes worship urban gods; no doubt worship also they gods the owntheir complex identities and activities. help situations, inparticular them and choices the inwhich that result reflect have godsthe who chosenwith them piety towards can gods who best those is and framed creatively constrained by to need balance piety the towards ture emerges of areligious human inwhich scene beings’ religious activity choice sometimes, by consulting other gods. In interpretation, this apic exercise too they of so them, beyondneeds choose those gods the who suit best who them natures, their but that communities those may have cation is that gods the are imagined as choosing communities to worship tosince consult hechoose can also an urban divinity. The likeliest impli suit they because time his situation, but, again, is not this whole the story, We might imagine that he has chosen to worship gods most of his local the he gods, because is capablelocal of choosing to consult gods the of city. the ments of third. the The nature of farmer the is not by determined fully his ing) gods to worship are who like themselves. arewho like or them, that human (as opposed to choose beings construct 67 worship gods, but country interact also with they townspeople and there that divine-human relations map onto intra-human people ones. Country 394

The idea thatThe idea a worshipping individual or group, in being a steady while ofThe logic fable this suggests second the alternative, with perhaps ele On one to an level (especially outsider is eye),this simply away of saying even if they haveeven ifthey cults, cannot rural have as simple-minded gods. seen been local access, as other also They fables show, major divinities and like Zeus Aphrodite who, Teresa Morgan 67 RRE ------Delivered by Ingenta ? 141.211.4.224 Wed, 18 Jul 2018 13:25:51 1 (2015) 68 aboutviews origin of the justice with gods,gods’ the role inexecuting ancient world, including early inthe principate, range we awide find of human collaborate beings administration inthe of justice. inthe Elsewhere about impotence the of gods, the it points to conclusion the that gods and people justice to secure on his If behalf. is this not simply remark acynical relationship not does work like that kindof inthis The case. relies god on about truth him the what happened. Now he that realises divine-human the workers, suggests that that think he would god did indeed the able be to tell tion he hears, not just about power the of fear the of to god his the affect about gods. the wouldthis imply more scepticism than hisexhibits collection ingeneral (Alternatively, Babrius indicating could be that city gods are useless, but thatcase gods are country less reliable or of than observant those city. the fablethe overall, it then suggests that whatever it people think, is not the rative, to dispute farmer’s the conclusion. If of is this part conclusion the of than cousins. his country all-seeing It is hard, of within logic the nar the misconceived: makes herald the that himrealise urban the is god no more imperfectly informed. andwilling able to dofor worshippers are which themselves provisional and a provisional and risky exercise, on hopes based of what gods the might be search of greater authority, far from aroutine being form of reassurance, is city.in the Babrius shows how going over heads ofthe one’s gods in local fables, we which have is itself already by undermined seen) his experience gods, (inawitty which subversion of of expectation akind, common in gods is presented as a vote of no-confidence (on occasion) this inhis rural fact thatfact farmer the draws aconclusion about god the ormake tell them truth, the that would god the was reveal lying. who The god,the presumably he because hoped either that fear of would god the had who his god the fork. He brought his workers to swear an oath before Copyrightwith gods the than he had before. farmer has come to amore sophisticated understanding of his relationship god’sthe finding activities: lost property is not of part With them. the this, MohrThis suggests that man the now he realises has misunderstood of scope the Siebeckgod, it, as farmer the is sees looking for aman than that. The fable ends with word the anthropon,

On this occasion, farmer’sOn this the desire to consult urban the proves god We should remember, though, that farmer the didnot plan simply to ask Morgan 2007,75–78. 68 ) There is, however, clearly more to man’s the conclusion Living with the Gods inFablesLiving withtheGods Empire Roman oftheEarly to help his property. himfind stressing that fact the the from the proclama the from 395 - - Delivered by Ingenta ? 141.211.4.224 Wed, 18 Jul 2018 13:25:51 Copyright Mohr Siebeck ties, andties, although thought gods the can be of human as instructing beings iour, fable inthis which of crime is sacrilegious the theft. there is apoint not beyond gods the will which tolerate human misbehav than human behaviour towards themselves. As inother fables, however, The gods, that is, operate with into amoral takes which code account more ings suggests that wickedness their not does consist inimpiety). particularly where (surely towards other people, that since have fact the they made offer on more than people’s offerings to it them: on depends behaviour their else implies that of gods’ the view people and perhaps treatment of depends them sometimesmortal dishonours without agod adverse consequences. behaviour appears also which Aesopic inthe corpus, where, for instance, a ing hateful. them theme the of This echoes divine tolerance of human mis somethingmortal about acceptfrom gods: the they gifts mali assumptions about divine-human relations. As often, so adivinity teaches a Most interesting, however, insome ways, are story’s the other embedded punished by Fates, the and men should good not share with wicked. the morals we may feed (ll. 14–21): those three further turn on us; are crimes always punished, toexpect be story, in the embedded being offers Phaedrus of any lit kindcan be from or asacred flame versa vice (12–13). cated to gods the is not for used crime, hereafter alaw be it that will no lamp it, and relationship the divine and between human justice. 71 70 69 speaks to Free thief. the speaks though Romans are with divinisation the of quali will be punished be forwill (5–11).Moreover, his sacrilege to ensure that fire dedi were offered by not wicked does god the care men, so about thief the them, to him,saying speaks that he has stolen eventhough gifts the religio sancta altarthe of Jupiter and robs then by god the his own light. As he is leaving, theme of bent 4.11.Athief, Phaedrus on robbing atemple, lights his lamp at whatthinks he says is widely applicable to divine-human relations. are involved fable. inthis Apparently it is not important, suggesting that he anfind unusual, but perhaps not frivolous contribution to such thinking. 396

The obvious conclusion, that temple one which is asacrilege can robbery Another notable of fable this aspect is that it is Religio, not Jupiter, who The connection human between and divine concepts of justice the is also butLast not least, we may note that Babrius never tells us gods which Versnel 2011,166–176,185–187. gods and human belong beings to asystem of justice accepted by cf. both: Babr. 117, Punishment for here sacrilege is fated rather by than decided Jupiter, suggesting that E. 162, 230–233. E. g. Aes.g. 260,Babr. by Morgan 48,discussed 2013,24–25. (ofg. many 1981,Lloyd-Jones possible) Segal 1983, Parker 1997,Versnel 2011,155– Teresa Morgan 71 69 In fable this we despite find 70 It also RRE ------Delivered by Ingenta ? 141.211.4.224 Wed, 18 Jul 2018 13:25:51 theories maytheories have more than philosophers currency widespread usu social Conversely, theories. political it possible seems that popular forms of these of develop which ideas into of schools’ akey part metaphysical these and 1 (2015) Plutarch Grief. says, If, does so therefore, we honour Grief with sorrow and tears dead: the and sorrow. Just as other gods love honour who those them, (Penthos) arrived late and only the to thing left give her was what belongs to different ways, human derive virtues from divine, the and virtuous human of major the philosophical schools. For Platonists, Epicureans and Stoics, in popular however, idea, is extensively by commentators discussed on most Apollonius Apollonius assume. ally or virtuous human it. enact beings with divine, the and on human the level justice is only possible wise when orvirtue of an is one good, the aspect expression of right human relations livebeings inaccordance with divine The good. practiceof justice, as a lematising divine justice. 76 75 74 73 72 representing gods the as and defining administering justice, on other Greek and authors, Latin almost who always authors see as either level. mortal the This possibility is largely unexplored by commentators co-ordinate,mortals even co-operate to ensure that justice ison enacted justice, gods the want which to mortals understand and in godswhich and read asbe implying that gods and share mortals aconcept and system of of divine-human relations ingeneral and on justice inparticular. can They and approve, on qualities based and share. values they which abilityhighlights the of human and to beings think do what gods the want depiction of ahuman quality, as divine, recognised passing sacred law, anew inherent insuch qualities is evenmore pronounced here than usual. The in cult,religio roots, Copyrightongoing interest inpopular wisdom and acknowledgement of shared their ofbeyond scope the study, this philosophy’s but we when remember ‘high’ Mohr Siebeck

Finally, we turn to afable appears which first inPlutarch’s to Consolation These storiesThese sophisticated offer unexpectedly meditations on nature the And at Mor down’up’ than popular ‘trickle between morality and philosophy high period). inthis e. See Kechagia 2010(on Epicureans); 2004,247–269. cf. Cooper E. E. E. g. Annasg. 1995,ch. 1989(on 13,Cobb Plato), Schofield 2005,760–770(on Stoics), Poeg. 1974,Suter 2003,Papadopoulou 2004. Lloyd-Jonesg. 2010. 2002,Leigh 1983,Gibson 1999,Scullion 75 it may not much too be of astretch to hear infables popular forms g. forg. early the principate Morgan 2007,ch. 11(arguing that there is more ‘trickle 112a. . 609–610,where it is attributed it to Aesop. itself is not normally ambiguity the divinised, so of status 76 When was giving outZeus prerogatives to gods, the Grief Living with the Gods inFablesLiving withtheGods Empire Roman oftheEarly 73 What may amore be sophisticated relative of the 74 To modelsis indetail these discuss 72 or as prob as or 397 - - Delivered by Ingenta ? 141.211.4.224 Wed, 18 Jul 2018 13:25:51 Copyright Mohr Siebeck informal rather than to linked cults, festivals, or other forms of communal suchriences as dreams, but are they nearly always individual, private, and arethey typically mediated through prayers, ritual and acts, religious expe gods andbetween Their mortals. interactions are religious, that sense inthe Fables of early the principate portray dynamic and colourful relationships 4 with gods the means able being away to walk from them. something we can refuse to engage with. Sometimes, it of part seems, living bles us to distance ourselves from it, and ultimately, paradoxically, makes it moil. Fides and Iustitia inresponse earth the to human flee tur strife and social iar, though we might compare topos literary the that we actively discourage adivinity by declining to cultivate it, is less famil by cultivating it is ubiquitous inGreek and Roman The converse, thinking. in us. that The idea we encourage divine the to apositive take interest inus suggests, encouraged can be or discouraged from an close too interest taking control over not grief, as an emotion, but as adivine power. Divine powers, it waythe we often want to distance ourselves from of ourselves. aspects ers or capturing gifts, our ambiguous relationship with our own psychology: homoeroticism (Phaedr. 4.16),and deceitfulness (Babr. 57),as divine pow from blindness to one’s faults (Babr. 66,Phaedr. 4.10)to insolence (Babr. 87), control. some even as it is on some level an emotion within ourselves over wewhich have ture, is portrayed as aforce on descends which us from beyond ourselves, have reasons to grieve. If,grieve. however, we leave refuse to she grieve, will us to and cease we will lamentation, love she will us and stay with us, giving reasons us new to 80 79 78 77 rather than as adivinity evaded. to be philosopher, himto we treat might expect it as an emotion controlled to be comes as more of toPlutarch asurprise find as treating a way; inthis grief 398 Conclusion

Grief, here, like love, anger, and other emotions elsewhere inGreek litera The of most part Plutarch’s striking that is idea the story we have some g. Ov., E. g. Cf. Schorn 2009on Plut., Consolatio ad uxorem. 2006, pt. 2. Exploring of in othersimilar ideas literature bodies Padel especially 1992, see ch. 6, Gill (attributed 32,p. to Aesop). 434 (Dindorf) Cf. Them., Or. 80 Teresa Morgan By divinising however, grief, Plutarch acknowledges its power, ena Met. 1.128–150,Petr., 124,with Piccaluga 1981,723–732;cf. Babr.Met. Sat. 126. 77 Fables not infrequently treat troubling emotions or attitudes, 79 that divine qualities such as RRE 78 It It ------Delivered by Ingenta ? 141.211.4.224 Wed, 18 Jul 2018 13:25:51 1 (2015) the patiencethe and of benignity gods the and co-operation their with mortals. of early the principate there was room for some positive of strikingly views tural context. If so, we may note that within complex the religious landscape of current stories ideas these aspects immediate reflect intheir socio-cul sibility seriously too. By same the token, it is possible that distinctive the 81 principate formed (one apart often overlooked) of religious the landscape of early the persistedwhich over and which centuries, spectrum, across social awide durée to religious the longue of early the principate. Alternatively, we such might stories see as belonging as capable of shedding no direct light on religious the practicesor mentalité clues to setting and their time inpolitical place. We might therefore them see remarkable self-confidence. tionships, ifoften inignorance, tactically, hopefully and occasionally with tionship. Individual human forbeings, negotiate part, their divine their rela cate human symbiotic, inthe beings evencollaborative nature of rela their mild-tempered, moralistic, as highly and as persistently concerned to edu are they which distinctive. In particular, often they depict gods the as rather well of in line with those Aesopic the corpus, but we have ways seen in also herself, or of asub-elite human agent. sources, but from that an unusual of or god the perspective – hero him‑or approachedbe inagiven situation) we similar to encounter those inother ers show divine-human negotiations (for instance, about should god which are which tothinking access through sources. difficult other surviving Oth religion. Some fables thereby offer awindow into of ancient aspects religious aetiology of Prometheusaetiology for thought. In a longer essay one might want to explore, for example, the diachronic relationships gods and between early inthe mortals principate. fables about how Greeks and Romans possibilities the visualised of lived examples, however, to show begin how much there iselicited to be from image of traveller the encounters who Truth (Babr. desert in the 126). These of story serio-comic andthe herm the dog(Babr. the 48),or haunting the Copyrightexpress and teach wisdom, we must, at least, Isuggest, latter the take pos Mohr Siebeck

In many ways, divine-human relations infables of early the principate are The here fables discussed are by offer which no means those food all Most early fables imperial follow Aesopic their models ingiving few, ifany evidence ofevidence own intheir mentalité right. but Iresist making comparisons here on basis that the fables are worth discussing as in literatureElsewhere and in cult wedifferent parallels and could both find very views, inter alia inter Living with the Gods inFablesLiving withtheGods Empire Roman oftheEarly . If we seriously take widespread the claim of fables to / Jupiter and (Babr. wallets the 66,Phaedr. 4.10), : as expressing ways of about thinking gods the 399 81 ------Delivered by Ingenta ? 141.211.4.224 Wed, 18 Jul 2018 13:25:51 Copyright Mohr Siebeck Belayche, Nicole 2010.‘ Karadagli, Triantaphyllia 1981. Fabel und Ainos: Studien zur griechischen Fabel. König Jedrkiewicz, Stefano 1989.Sapere eParadosso Antichità: nell’ Esopo ela favola . 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