Cognition Revised Edition 2015

IIID Public Library Information Design 5 Cognition Revised edition 2015 Rune Pettersson Institute for infology IIID Public Library The “IIID Public Library” is a free resource for all who are interested in information design. This book was kindly donated by the author free of charge to visitors of the IIID Public Library / Website. International Institute for Information Design (IIID) designforum Wien, MQ/quartier 21 Museumsplatz 1, 1070 Wien, Austria www.iiid.net Information Design 5 Cognition Words Pictures Rune Pettersson * Institute for infology Information Design 5–Cognition Yin and yang, or yin-yang, is a concept used in Chinese philoso- phy to describe how seemingly opposite forces are intercon- nected and interdependent, and how they give rise to each other. Many natural dualities, such as life and death, light and dark, are thought of as physical manifestations of the concept. Yin and yang can also be thought of as complementary forces interacting to form a dynamic system in which the whole is greater than the parts. In information design, theory and prac- tice is an example where the whole is greater than the parts. In this book drawings and photos are my own, unless other information. ISBN 978-91-85334-30-8 © Rune Pettersson Tullinge 2015 2 Preface Information design is a multi-disciplinary, multi-dimensional, and worldwide consideration with influences from areas such as language, art and aesthetics, information, communication, be- haviour and cognition, business and law, as well as media pro- duction technologies. Since my retirement I have edited and revised sections of my earlier books, conference papers and reports about information design, message design, visual communication and visual literacy. The result is this series of six books: Information Design 1–Message Design Information Design 2–Text Design Information Design 3–Image Design Information Design 4–Graphic Design Information Design 5–Cognition Information Design 6–Predecessors & Pioneers These books include definitions, selected results from research, theoretical considerations, as well as practical guidelines for message design. The intended reader is especially interested in research and theory related to message design, and the design of information materials and information sets. Tullinge, Sweden Rune Pettersson, Ph.D. Retired Professor of Information Design 3 Contents Preface 3 Contents 4 Learning 9 Learning theories 10 Learning options 12 General prerequisites for learning 13 Motivation 13 Influences 15 Presentation of information 16 Performance and learning objectives 18 Learning outcomes 19 Different objectives 22 Combined learning 27 Attention 29 Our senses 29 Hearing 31 Vision 34 Sensory data and information 47 Attention qualities 50 Attention time span 50 Attention to colour 52 Attention to movement 53 Attention to novelty 54 Attention to information sets 55 Attention to oral communication 59 Attention theories 61 Capacity theories 61 Resource models 63 Attention and message design 65 Facilitating attention to colour 66 4 Facilitating attention to text 67 Facilitating attention to pictures 68 Facilitating attention to symbols 70 Facilitating attention to layout 71 Perception 73 Perception principles 74 Selection and order 74 Surfaces of shapes 75 Perception is subjective 76 Perception theories 77 Clarity theory 77 Figure and ground theory 79 Gestalt theories 81 Affordance theories 92 Perceptual qualities 95 Perception of change 97 Perception of straight lines 98 Perception of size 99 Perception of depth 101 Perception of colour 103 Differences in colour perception 114 Influence of context 127 Constancy 128 Picture perception experiments 130 Approaches to picture perception 147 Pictorial style preferences 152 Illusions 161 Perception and message design 167 Facilitating perception of text 168 Facilitating perception of pictures 169 Facilitating perception of layout 169 Facilitating perception of colour 170 Processing and application 171 5 The brain 171 Cognitive levels 173 Mental images 181 Memory models 202 Intellectual development 215 Increasing capacity 215 TV and movie comprehension 218 Understanding advertising 221 Basic geometric shapes 222 Details of a picture 223 Processing theories 224 Schema theory 224 Constructivist learning theory 227 Action theory 232 Dual coding theory 233 Practical application theories 235 Design of teaching aids 236 Cognitive theory of multimedia learning 237 Interpreting image content 241 Image associations 242 Image association study 244 Application of knowledge 245 Cognitive style 248 Learning style 250 Modalities 253 Improve your own learning 259 Facilitating theory for ID 264 Learning from representations 268 Learning from text 268 Reading 269 Listening 276 Learning from visuals 278 Program of Systematic Evaluation 281 Other visual learning experiments 286 6 Learning from text and visuals 292 Pictures in prose 294 Pre-understanding 297 Selection of information 299 Media influences on learning 302 Learning benefits? 303 Distance education 307 Collaborators in learning 309 Mental processing and message design 314 Facilitating processing of colour 315 Facilitating processing of text 315 Facilitating processing of pictures 316 Facilitating processing of layout 316 Memory and message design 316 Facilitating memory for text 317 Facilitating memory for pictures 317 Wayfinding and wayshowing 318 Traditional learning theories 320 Perceptual motor-skill learning 320 Associative learning 322 Habituation 323 Conditioning 323 Associative psychology 328 Cognitivism 329 Constructivism 331 Analysis and problem solving 334 Cognitive development 334 Cognitive learning 339 Perceptual learning 342 Aha! learning 343 The learning hierarchy 346 Social learning 348 Vicarious learning 350 Collective learning 352 7 Situated learning 360 Experiential learning 362 Cognitive apprenticeship 363 Knowledge 365 Approaches to knowledge 365 Theoretical knowledge traditions 367 Explicit knowledge 367 Traditional academic view 369 Pragmatic process-perspective 369 Situated knowledges 370 Worlds of knowledge 372 Practical knowledge traditions 372 Tacit knowledge 373 Implicit knowledge 375 Different interpretations 375 Long life experience 377 Organisational knowledge 378 References 380 8 Learning We can assume that there is more than one learning process involved while we are learning. There are probably no distinct borders between learning processes. They probably interact, and work in parallel. Learning is parallel and spontaneous. We select and perceive information that we process into knowledge. The many available learning theories only offer explan- ations of certain learning situations. “Combined learning” is a holistic view of learning. We are using different processes for learning in different situations. Different situations require ac- tivation of different learning processes, or maybe “use of different learning tools.” Obviously learning to walk is very different from learning to speak a foreign language. The sensory organs and the brain work even when we are sleeping. In a normal life situation it is not possible to avoid learning. Most people are curious by nature. However, we are not always aware that we are learning something. Many people have experienced that they have good skills and knowledge in various areas. They may not be able to explain when and why they actually learned these skills. When children are playing, it is easy to note their spontaneous learning. Children are active explorers of their envi- ronment. They may learn all the time. In fact, we may all learn as long as we live. In my view it is not possible to stop the sensory organs, nor the brain. We can assume that there is more than one cognitive process involved while we are learning. These processes may interact, and they may work in parallel, and they are influenced by our earlier experiences and mem- ories. We also learn without being aware that we do so (Sun, 2008). 9 Learning theories Every day, spontaneous learning is a natural part of our lives. Mellander (1993) explained spontaneous learning in the follow- ing steps: 1) attention, 2) information, 3) processing, 4) conclusions, and 5) application. Attention makes us receptive to information, which we process together with prior knowledge, un- til we arrive at conclusions and understanding, which we then apply and test for confirmation. This series of mental processes is also what film directors, authors, and politicians base their presentations on, in order to capture and hold our attention and to convey their messages to us. A learning theory or a model for learning may be seen as a codified set of hypothesis about how individuals learn. Some re- searchers are trying to develop a single comprehensive learning theory encompassing all the different kinds of learning. As far as I know no such attempt has yet been successful. Uljens (1992) noted that there is no theory of learning that is widely accepted. Thus we have to deal with a large number of theories and models of learning, and learning processes, each useful in its own context. Theorists do not all agree about what learning is and how it comes about. Over the years that scholars have been interested in the process of learning, many elaborated theories of learning have been developed and tested. Kearsley (1999) described fifty different learning theories with references to those who have developed them. • ACT* (J. Anderson) • Adult Learning Theory (P. Cross) • Algo-Heuristic Theory (L. Landa) • Andragogy (M. Knowles) • Anchored

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